CHAPTER 1

RATIO, PROPORTION, INDICES AND

LOGARITHM
RATIO
A ratio is a comparison of the sizes of two or more quantities of the same
kind (same units).
DENOTED BY: - a : b or a/b or a to b
Where, a = 1st term (antecedent) and b = 2nd term (consequent)
Eg. In the ratio 5:6, 5 is a antecedent and 6 is a consequent.
PROPERTIES:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Quantities must be of same kind.

Quantities to be compared must be in same units.
The order of the terms in a ratio is important.
Both terms of a ratio can be multiplied or divided by the same number
to express the ratio in a lowest terms.
5) To compare two ratios, convert them into equivalent like fractions.
6) If a quantity increases or decreases in a ratio a : b, then new quantity
= b/a * original quantity.
TYPES OF RATIO
1) INVERSE RATIO: - If a : b is the ratio, then b : a is the inverse ratio and
vice- versa.
2) COMPOUND RATIO: - The compound ratio of a : b, c : d and e : f is ace :
bdf.
3) DUPLICATE RATIO: - It means compounded itself. The duplicate ratio of
a : b is a2 : b2.
4) SUB- DUPLICATE RATIO: - The sub- duplicate ratio of a : b is a : b.
5) TRIPLICATE RATIO: - The triplicate ratio of a : b is a3 : b3.
6) SUB- TRIPLICATE RATIO: - The sub- triplicate ratio of a : b is a : b.
7) COMMENSURABLE QUANTITIES: - The quantities which is converted into
integers.
8) INCOMMENSURABLE QUANTITIES: - The quantities which is not
converted into integers.

PROPORTION

An equality of two ratios is called proportion.

DENOTED BY: - a : b = c : d or a : b :: c : d
Where, a = 1st term, b = 2nd term, c = 3rd term and d = 4th term
Also known as, a & d is called extremes and b & c is called means.
Therefore, we say, when PRODUCT OF EXTREMES = PRODUCT OF
MEANS is known as proportion, also called cross product rule.
When three quantities a,b,c of the same kind are said to be in continuous
proportion,
if a : b =b : c i.e. a/b = b/c i.e. b2 = ac or b = ac
Here middle term b is called the MEAN PROPORTIONAL between a & c, a is
the first proportional and c is the third proportional.
PROPERTIES OF PROPORTION :
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Cross- multiplication:- If a : b = c : d, then ad = bc

Invertendo:- if a : b = c : d, then b : a = d : c
Alternendo:- If a : b = c : d, then a : c = b : d
Componendo:- if a : b = c : d, then a + b : b = c + d : d
Dividendo:- If a : b = c : d, then a-b : b = c-d : d
Componendo & Dividendo:- If a : b = c : d, then a + b : a-b = c + d : cd
7) Addendo:- If a : b = c : d = e : f, then a + c + e : b + d + f
8) Subtrahendo:- If a : b = c : d = e : f, then a-c-e : b-d-f

INDICES
The no. of times factors are multiplied is called power or index.
PROPERTIES OF INDICES:
1) am x an = am+n
2) am /an = am-n
3) (am)n = amn
4) a0 = 1
5) a = a1/m , a = a1/2, a = a1/3
6) a-m = 1/am
7) If ax = ay then x = y
8) If ax = bx then a = b
9) (ab)n = an bn
10)
(a/b)n = an/bn

Formulas:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

(a+b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab
(a-b)2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab
(a+b) (a-b) = a2 b2
(a+b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a+b)
(a-b)3 = a3 - b3 - 3ab(a-b)
a3 b3 = (a-b)( a2 + b2 + ab)
a3 + b3 = (a+b)( a2 + b2 - ab)

LOGARITHM
The logarithm of a number to a given base is the index or the power to which
the base must be raised to produce the number, i.e. to make it equal to the
given number.
If ax = n, then x is said to be the logarithm of the number n to the
base a symbolically it can be expressed as : log an = x
Example : 24 = 16 log216 = 4
PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHM:

1)

m+ log a n
mn= log a
log a

2)

m log a n
m
= log a
n
log a

3)

log a mn=n log a m

4)

log a a=1

5)

log a 1=0

6)

log a b log b a=1

7)

c= log a c
log a b log b

8)

b/ log a
b= log
loga

NOTE:
A) If base is understood, base is taken as 10.
B) Thus log 10 = 1, log 1 = 0
C) Logarithm using base 10 is called Common Logarithm and logarithm
using base e is called Natural Logarithm.
D) The logarithm of a number consists of two parts, the whole part or the
integeral part is called characteristics and the decimal part is called
the mantissa. Eg: log2 = 0.3010, where 0 is characteristics and 3010
is mantissa.

CHAPTER- 4
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND INTEREST INCLUDING
ANNUITY- APPLICATIONS
SIMPLE INTEREST
S . I .=Pit
Where, P= Principal/Sum, R= Rate of interest per annum or i= r/100, T=
Time
A=P ( 1+it )P+ I
Where, A= Amount/Final value

COMPOUND INTEREST
C . I .=P [ ( 1+i )n1 ]
A=P ( 1+i )nP+ I
CONDITIONS OF CONVERSION PERIOD
IN CASE OF

CONDITIONS FOR RATE

CONDITIONS FOR
TIME

Half- yearly/ Semiannually

Quarterly

R 2

T 2

R4

T 4

Monthly

R 12

T 12

Days

R 365

T 365

ANNUITY
To be called annuity a series of payments (or receipts) must have following
features:
a) Amount paid (or received) must be constant over the period of annuity
and
b) Time interval between two consecutive payments (or receipts) must be
the same.
Annuity may be of two types:
A
IN
ETN
TRU
BGI
GLT
RY
T
T
E
E
D

N
M

N
U

Y/
H E
E U
A
/
/

U
I

I
/

A
I

T
N

E
G

N
D

I
A

H
N

FUTURE VALUE/AMOUNT ( Use in case of sinking fund/bonds)

1) WHEN ANNUITY WORD IS NOT GIVEN
n
F=C . F . (1+i )
Where, F= Future value, C.F. = Cash flow, i= r/100 and n= no. of years
2) WHEN ANNUITY WORD IS GIVEN
a) Annuity Regular/at the end
(1+i)n1
A (n , i) /F . V .= A
i

b) Annuity Immediate/due/in the beginning/today

A (n , i) /F . V .= A

(1+i)n1
i
1+ i

Where, A= Annual Installment/Annuity

PRESENT VALUE ( Use in case of purchase/sale/loan)
1) WHEN ANNUITY WORD IS NOT GIVEN
A
V=
(1+i )n
Where, A= Amount, V= Present value, i= r/100 and n= no. of years
2) WHEN ANNUITY WORD IS GIVEN
c) Annuity Regular/at the end
1(1+i)n
P(n , i)/ P .V .= A
i

d) Annuity Immediate/due/in the beginning/today

1(1+i)n
P(n , i)/ P .V .= A
i
1+i

Where, A= Amount

CHAPTER- 6
SEQUENCE AND SERIES- ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETERIC
PROGRESSION
SEQUENCE: - An ordered collection of number is a sequence.
Denoted by:

{a n }

n=1

where an is the nth element of the sequence.

Example: - The Sequence of

{1n }

is 1, , 1/3,

SERIES: - The sum of the elements of the sequence

Denoted by:
n

S n= u i
i=1

Where

Sn

is the sum to n terms.

Example: - 1+ 3+ 5+ 7+

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
A.P is the sequence in which terms is obtained by adding a constant d to
the preceeding term. This constant d is called the common difference of the
A.P.
The sequence is

a1 , a2 , a3 ,a 4 , .., a n

Where, a1= 1st term, d= common difference (a2 a1=a3a 2) , and

an

= last

term
General A.P Series: -

a , a+d , a+2 d , a+3 d , .

How to calculate last term (

an

) and sum to n terms )?

an =a+ ( n1 ) d
Where,

an

= last term, a = 1st term, d= common difference (a2 a1=a3a 2) ,

and n= no. of the terms

S n=

n
[2 a+ ( n1 ) d ]
2

POINTS TO REMEMBER
1) Sum of 1st n natural numbers
n ( n+1 )
S n=
2
2) Sum of 1st n odd numbers
S n=n2
3) Sum of squares of 1st n natural numbers
n ( n+1 ) (2 n+1)
S n=
6
4) Sum of cubes of 1st n natural numbers
2
n ( n+1 )
S n=
2

GEOMETERIC PROGRESSION
G.P is the sequence of terms each term is constant multiple of the
preceeding term. The constant multiplier is called constant ratio r.
General G.P Series: -

a , ar , ar 2 ,a r 3 , .

How to calculate last term (

an

) and sum to n terms )?

an =a r n1
Where,

an

= last term, a = 1st term, d= common ratio (a2 /a 1=a3 /a 2) , and n=

no. of the terms

Sum of the G.P series when
S n=

a( r n1)
r 1

r >1

When

r <1
n

S n=

a(1r )
1r

Sum to infinity
S =

a
1r