Life Cycle Assessment of Hand Drying Systems

LifeCycleAssessmentofHandDryingSystems
September19,2011
Commissionedby
Dyson,Inc.
Preparedby
MaterialsSystemsLaboratory
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology
TrishaMontalbo
JeremyGregory
RandolphKirchain
Contents
1
Introduction..........................................................................................................................................5
Goalandscope......................................................................................................................................6
2.1
Goals.............................................................................................................................................6
2.2
Scope.............................................................................................................................................6
2.2.1
Functionalunit......................................................................................................................7
2.2.2
Systemboundary..................................................................................................................8
2.2.3
Cutoffcriteria.....................................................................................................................11
Lifecycleinventoryanalysis................................................................................................................11
3.1
Billofactivities............................................................................................................................12
3.1.1
Production:materialsandmanufacturing..........................................................................14
3.1.2
Use......................................................................................................................................16
3.1.3
Endoflife............................................................................................................................18
3.1.4
Transportation....................................................................................................................19
3.1.5
Dataquality:sensitivityanalysis.........................................................................................19
3.2
Unitprocessinventorydata........................................................................................................20
3.3
Uncertaintyanalyses...................................................................................................................21
Lifecycleimpactassessment..............................................................................................................22
4.1
Lifecycleimpactassessmentmethodologies.............................................................................22
4.1.1
Globalwarmingpotential...................................................................................................23
4.1.2
IMPACT2002+.....................................................................................................................23
4.1.3
Cumulativeenergydemand................................................................................................24
4.1.4
Waterconsumptionandlandoccupation..........................................................................25
4.2
Baselineanalysis.........................................................................................................................25
4.2.1
Resultsbyimpactassessmentmethodology......................................................................25
4.2.2
Endpointcategorynormalization........................................................................................32
4.2.3
Rankordercomparison.......................................................................................................33
4.3
Additionalproductlifecycles......................................................................................................33
4.4
Contributionanalysisforindividualproducts.............................................................................34
4.4.1
Dryers..................................................................................................................................34
4.4.2
Cottonrolltowels................................................................................................................37
2
4.4.3
5
Lifecycleinterpretation......................................................................................................................40
5.1
Sensitivityanalysis......................................................................................................................41
5.1.1
Lifetimeusage.....................................................................................................................41
5.1.2
Manufacturingstageelectricgridmix................................................................................42
5.1.3
Usephaseelectricgridmix.................................................................................................43
5.1.4
Useintensity.......................................................................................................................44
5.1.5
Endoflifescenario.............................................................................................................45
5.1.6
Dryerelectronicsunitprocess............................................................................................46
5.1.7
Cottonrolltowelreuses......................................................................................................48
5.1.8
Pulpmanufacturingprocess...............................................................................................48
5.1.9
Papertowelmass................................................................................................................49
5.1.10
Allocationofrecycledcontent............................................................................................50
5.1.11
Manufacturinglocation.......................................................................................................51
5.1.12
Uselocation(regionalvariation).........................................................................................52
5.2
Papertowels.......................................................................................................................39
Uncertaintyanalyses...................................................................................................................54
5.2.1
Scenariouncertainty...........................................................................................................54
5.2.2
Billofactivitiesuncertaintyanalysis...................................................................................61
Conclusions.........................................................................................................................................65
6.1
Keydriversofenvironmentalimpact..........................................................................................65
6.1.1
Handdryers.........................................................................................................................65
6.1.2
6.1.3
Papertowels.......................................................................................................................66
6.2
Sensitivityofresultstoscenariosanddataquality....................................................................66
6.3
Comparativeassessmentofproductenvironmentalimpact.....................................................67
6.4
Recommendationsforreducingdryingsystemenvironmentalimpact.....................................68
6.5
Studylimitations.........................................................................................................................69
References..........................................................................................................................................70
Criticalreview.....................................................................................................................................73
Appendices..........................................................................................................................................73
A.1
Handdryingsystembillsofactivities.........................................................................................73
A.1.1
Energyconsumptioncalculationsfordryerusestage........................................................78
3
A.2
Modifiedunitprocessdata.........................................................................................................78
A.3
Unitprocessimpactandquality.................................................................................................85
A.3.1
Statisticaltests....................................................................................................................85
A.4
Allocationofrecycledcontent....................................................................................................95
A.5
NSFP335Protocol.......................................................................................................................96
A.6
Comparisonwithexistingstudies...............................................................................................96
A.6.1
Dryers..................................................................................................................................96
A.6.2
A.6.3
Papertowels.......................................................................................................................98
A.7
Supplementalanalyses.............................................................................................................102
A.7.1
Warehousing.....................................................................................................................102
A.7.2
Regionalvariation:secondarylocations...........................................................................102
A.8
Evaluation.................................................................................................................................107
A.8.1
Completenesscheck.........................................................................................................107
A.8.2
Sensitivitycheck................................................................................................................108
A.8.3
Consistencycheck.............................................................................................................112
1 Introduction
Thequestionoftheenvironmentalimplicationsofthehanddryerversuspapertowelisfacedbymany
people,asevidencedbyitscoverageinthemedia[15].Assuch,thereareanumberofstudiesthat
targetthisparticularquestion,includingastreamlinedlifecycleassessmentconductedforAirdriLtd.
andBobrickWashroomEquipmentthatcomparesastandardwarmairdryertopapertowels[6],ahand
dryertowelcomparisonproducedbyMyClimateandcommissionedbyDysoninSwitzerland[7],a
comparisonbetweencottonrolltowelsandpapertowelscommissionedbyVendor[8],andsome
calculationsmadebytheClimateConservancyforSalon[9].Morecomprehensivelifecycleassessments
thatcomplywiththeISO14040and14044lifecycleassessmentstandards[10,11]arealsoavailable.
TheseincludeastudyfortheEuropeanTextileServicesAssociation(ETSA)thatalsocomparescottonroll
towelstopapertowels[12],anotherinvestigatingmultipletypesoftissueproductsforKimberlyClark
[13],andathirdforExcelDryerthatcomparesitsXLERATORhanddryertoastandardwarmairdryer
andpapertowels[14].DysonhasalsoconductedalifecycleassessmentofitsDysonAirbladehand
dryerinaccordancewiththePAS2050standard[15]inordertoobtainaCarbonReductionLabelfrom
theCarbonTrust[16].
Amongallthesestudies,onlytheonebyMyClimate[7]comparesalltypesofdryingsystemsahigh
speedhandsindryerrepresentedbytheDysonAirbladehanddryer,astandardwarmairdryer,cotton
rolltowels,andpapertowels(seeFigure1forimagesofthesedifferentdryingsystems).Itdoesnot
includethehandsundervariantofhighspeeddryers,however.Bycontrast,thereportconductedfor
ExcelDryer[14]includesahighspeedhandsunderdryertheXLERATORhanddryerbutthendoes
notconsiderahighspeedhandsindryerorcottonrolltowels.Andbecauseofthestudiesdiffering
functionalunits,assumptions,anddata,lifecycleassessmentoutcomescannotbeeasilycompared.
Dysoncommissionedthisstudyasameansofaddressingthisgap.Thegoalofthisanalysisisto
evaluateandcomparethevarioushanddryingsystemsincludingbothvariantsofhighspeedhand
dryersfromthedifferentstudiesbyplacingthesystemsonaconsistentbasis.
Lifecycleassessment(LCA)[17,18]isusedtoconductthisstudy.LCAisacomprehensiveframework
withalevelofdetailthatrequiresastrictadherencetoaconsistentmethodology.Thismethodologyis
articulatedintheInternationalOrganizationforStandardizationssetofLCAstandardsthatarepartof
itsISO14000environmentalmanagementseries.AlifecycleassessmentthatfollowstheLCAstandards
ISO14040and14044[10,11]containsfourmainsteps:
Goalandscopedefinitionarticulatestheobjectives,functionalunitunderconsideration,and
regionalandtemporalboundariesoftheassessment.
Inventoryanalysisentailsthequantificationofenergy,water,andmaterialresource
requirements,andemissionstoair,land,andwaterforallunitprocesseswithinthelifecycle.
Impactassessmentevaluatesthehumanandecologicaleffectsoftheresourceconsumptionand
emissionstotheenvironmentassociatedwiththelifecycle.
Interpretationofresultsincludesanevaluationoftheimpactassessmentresultswithinthe
contextofthelimitations,uncertainty,andassumptionsintheinventorydataandscope.
Acriticalreviewbyapanelofexpertsisalsorequiredforstudieswheretheresultsareintendedto
supportcomparativeassertionsthatwillbedisclosedtothepublic.
ThisstudyhasbeenconductedinaccordancewiththerequirementsoftheISOstandards14040and
14044,includingthecriticalreview.Thecontentinthisreportisgroupedintothesamefourareas
outlinedinthestandards,followedbyconclusions,asummaryofthecriticalreview,andappendices.
2 Goalandscope
2.1 Goals
Theoverallgoalofthisstudyistocomparethelifecycleenvironmentalimpactofseveralhanddrying
systemsusingaconsistentbasis.Specificgoalsareto:
1) Evaluatehowhanddryingsystemsimpacttheenvironmentunderdifferentmanufacturingand
usescenarios.
2) Identifyimpactdriversandwaystotargetthosefactors.
3) Informproductdesigndecisions.
ThisstudywascommissionedbyDysonanditisexpectedthattheresultswillbeusedtosupport
comparativeassertionsthataredisclosedtothepublic.Thereporthastwoaudiences.Thefirst
audienceisanyinterestedpartywhowishestounderstandthedata,assumptions,andmethodologies
usedtocalculatelifecycleenvironmentalimpactforthehanddryingsystems.Thesecondaudienceis
theDysonengineerswhoareinterestedinunderstandingthedriversofenvironmentalimpactforthe
handdryingsystems.
2.2 Scope
Thesevensystemsfordryinghandsevaluatedinthisreportinclude:
1) ADysonAirbladehanddryerwithanaluminumcover(ahighspeedhandsindryer)
2) ADysonAirbladehanddryerwithaplasticcover(ahighspeedhandsindryer)
3) AnExcelXLERATORhanddryer(ahighspeedhandsunderdryer)
4) Agenericstandardwarmairhanddryer(ahandsunderdryer)
5) Genericcottonrolltowels
6) Genericpapertowelsmanufacturedfromvirgincontent
7) Genericpapertowelsmanufacturedfrom100%recycledcontent
6
Inadditiontothedryersandtowels,packagingisconsideredinallcases,aswellasdispensersinthe
caseofthetowelsystemsandawastebinandbinlinersforthepapertowelsystems(Table1).
Figure1Dryingsystemsincludedinthisstudy(lefttoright):DysonAirbladehanddryerwithaplastic
cover,ExcelXLERATORhanddryer,genericstandardwarmairhanddryer,genericcottonrolltowelsand
dispenser,andpapertowelsanddispenser.Note:picturesarenotshownwithaconsistentrelativescale.
Table1Additionalproductlifecyclesincludedinhanddryerortowelsystems.
Dryingsystem
Packaging
Dispenser
Wastebin
Binliners
Airbladedryer,aluminum
Airbladedryer,plastic
XLERATORdryer
Standarddryer
Cottonrolltowels
Papertowels,virgin
Papertowels,100%recycled
2.2.1 Functionalunit
Asinglepairofdryhandsrepresentsthefunctionalunit.Thecorrespondingreferenceflowstherefore
includetheallocatedfractionofahanddryerorthenumberofcottonorpapertowelsassociatedwith
dryingthatpairofhands(Table2).Forthehanddryers,dryisdefinedbytheNSFProtocolP335[19],
whichsetsforthastandardfordryeroperationandhygiene,therebyprovidingaconsistentbasisfor
determiningusetimes.Althoughhygieneispartoftheprotocolandisanotherpurposeofthesystems
thatisofinteresttothescientificcommunity(e.g.[2024]),itisnotconsideredinthisanalysis.
Sincehanddryersclearlydrymorethanonepairofhandsovertheirlifetime,theirimpacthastobe
allocatedacrossallthesepairsofhands.Thesameholdstrueforthecottonrolltowels,towel
dispensers,wastebin,binliners,andpackagingusedbytheseproducts.Allocationisaccomplishedby
assumingdryershavea5yearlifespan(giventhe5yearwarrantiesonthehighspeeddryers[25,26]),
overwhichtheydry350,000pairsofhands[27]equaltoapproximately1,350pairsofhandsaweek.
Therefore,1/350,000or2.86106oftheimpactofadryerisallocatedtothefunctionalunit.Thesame
7
assumptionsareusedforthetoweldispensers,wastebin,andpackaging.Theeffectofdryerlifetime
usageonenvironmentalimpactisinvestigatedinthesensitivityanalysis.
Binlinersandcottonrolltowelsarealsousedformultiplepairsofdryhandsbutdonotlastthefull
350,000uses.Thereforetheyrequiretheirownallocationstrategies.Iffivebinlinersareconsumed
eachweekoneforeachworkday[6]eachlinerwillcorrespondto,onaverage,270pairsofdry
hands.Consequently,1/270or0.0037binlinersareallocatedtothefunctionalunit.Althoughwaste
binsandbinlinerscanalsobeusedforthedisposalofotherobjects,theirimpactsarefullyallocatedto
papertowels,whichrepresentsaworstcasescenarioforthepapertowels.Additionally,thepresence
ofpapertowelswillincreasetheneedtochangetheliners.Likewise,thefactthatcottontowelscanbe
launderedandreusedanaverageof103times[12]beforetheyaredisposedhastobetakeninto
accountwhencalculatingthefractionofatowelrequiredtofulfillthefunctionalunit.Noallocationis
necessaryforpapertowels.
Table2Correspondingdryingsystemreferenceflowgivenafunctionalunitofdryingonepairofhands.
Dryingsystem
Referenceflow
6
Handdryers
2.8610 dryerandpackaging
Electricitytodryonepairofhands
Cottonrolltowels
9.71103cottontowelandpackaginga
2.86106cottontoweldispenser
Laundrytowashatowel
Papertowels
2towelsandpackagingb
2.86106papertoweldispenser
2.86106wastebin
3.7102binliner
(a)Assumingonecottonrolltowelpullperdry
(b)Assumingtwopapertowelsperdry.
2.2.2 Systemboundary
Theanalysisincludesalllifecyclestages,fromcradletograve,alongwithtransportationbetweeneach
stage.ThesestagesandtheircorrespondinglocationsareshowninFigure2forthehanddryer,cotton
rolltowel,andpapertowelsystems.TheUnitedStatesistheprimaryregionoffocusfortheuseofthe
productsinthisstudy,althoughscenariosinvolvingseveralotherregionsthroughouttheworldhave
beenevaluatedinthesensitivityanalyses.Inordertoputthehanddryingsystemsonequalfooting
fromasupplychainstandpointandtomaketheanalysisstrictlyacomparisonbetweentheperformance
oftheproductsystemsratherthanbetweenspecificsupplychainscenarios,allsystems,withthe
exceptionofpapertowels,areassumedtobemanufacturedinChinaandusedintheUnitedStates.
Chinaisacommonlocationforthemanufacturingoftechnologyproducts;itisalsoareasonable
assumptionforthemanufactureofcottonrolltowels(see[12]).Papertowels,ontheotherhand,are
assumedtobebothmanufacturedandusedintheUnitedStatesbecausethisrepresentstheindustry
standardforaproductthatisusedinalocationwheretherawmaterialsareplentifulatacompetitive
priceandtheproductionisnotlaborintensive.
8
Dryerlifecyclestages
Materials
Manufacturing
Use
Endoflife
Material1
Material2
MaterialN
Transport
(road)
Baselinelocation
250kmfrom
manufacturingfacility
Transport
(ship,rail)
Transport
(road)
Transport
(road)
Manufacturing
facility
Distribution
center
Washrooms
Wastefacility
Shanghai,China
KansasCity,KS,
UnitedStates
Variouslocations,
UnitedStates
100kmfrom
washrooms
Cottonrolltowellifecyclestages
Materials
Manufacturing
Use
Endoflife
Material1
Material2
MaterialN
Transport
(road)
Baselinelocation
250kmfrom
Transport
(ship,rail)
Transport
(road)
Manufacturing
facility
Distribution
center
Shanghai,China
KansasCity,KS,
UnitedStates
Transport
(road)
Washrooms
Transport
(road)
Laundry
Wastefacility
Variouslocations, 100kmfrom
UnitedStates washrooms
100kmfrom
washrooms
Use
Endoflife
Papertowellifecyclestages
Materials
Manufacturing
Material1
Material2
MaterialN
Transport
(road)
Baselinelocation
250kmfrom
Transport
(road)
Transport
(road)
Manufacturing
facility
Distribution
center
Washrooms
Wastefacility
KansasCity,KS,
UnitedStates
KansasCity,KS,
UnitedStates
Variouslocations,
UnitedStates
100kmfrom
washrooms
Figure2Handdryer,cottonrolltowel,andpapertowellifecyclestagesandcorrespondinglocations
assumptionsforthebaselinescenario.
2.2.2.1 Lifecyclestages
Upstreamprocessessuchastheminingoforeortheextractionandrefiningofpetroleumforvehicle
fuelareincludedwithinsystemboundaries.Oncetheoreisextractedandrefinedintorawmaterials
(thematerialsstageinFigure2),thematerialsaretransportedtoamanufacturingfacilitywherethey
areprocessedandassembledintofinishedproducts(themanufacturingstage).Onlytheenergy
requiredtomanufacturedryersortowelsisaccountedforinthecalculationofmanufacturingstage
impact.Capitalequipment(e.g.buildings,machines,etc.)usedbyDysonoranyoftheotherhanddryer
ortowelmanufacturingfirmsisnotincludedinthemanufacturingphaseoftheanalysisbecausethe
publishedreportsondryerandtowelproductionthatservedassourcesofinventorydataforthisreport
likewisedonotincludecapitalequipmentintheprimaryproductionphase.Thisassumptionis
reasonablegiventheexpectedsmallcontributionofauxiliaryelectricityandcapitalequipmenttothe
overalllifecycleburdenofthehanddryingsystems.Dataforcapitalequipmentupstreamofdrying
systemproduction,however,isincludedthroughuseoftheecoinventdatabaseforunitprocess
inventorydata.
Afterproduction,thedryersandcottonrolltowelsaretransportedfromChinatoadistributioncenterin
theUS.Thepapertowelfacility,bycontrast,islocatedintheUSandisthereforeassumedtobeco
locatedwithadistributioncenter,whicheliminatestheneedforacorrespondingtransportationstep.
Althoughtransportationtoandfromthedistributioncenterisaccountedfor,theimpactduetothe
centeritselfisnotincludedinthesystembecausetheburdensassociatedwithoperatingwarehouses
aresmallincomparisonwiththeburdenofmanufacturing.Thisisbasedonroughcalculationsusing
datafromacasestudybyCarnegieMellonUniversity[28]thatindicatethatwarehousingwouldbe
approximately0.05%ofthetotalGWPfordryers,0.5%forcottonrolltowels,and3%forpapertowels
(seeAppendixA.7.1).
Theproductsarenexttransportedfromthedistributioncentertoawashroom,wheretheusestage
takesplace.Fordryers,theusestageimpactissolelyduetotheelectricityrequiredforoperation.
Whilethestandarddryer,whichheatstheair,canpotentiallyaffectwashroomHVACperformance,this
effectisnotconsideredintheanalysisduetothedifficultyofquantifyingsuchaneffect.Maintenance
ofthedryersisalsoassumedtobebeyondthescopeofthisanalysisbecausemaintenanceistypicallya
labordrivenactivity,whichisnotincludedinthescopeofenvironmentalimpactassessment.Theuse
stageforthecottonrolltowelsencompassesnotonlytheuseofthetowelinsideawashroom,butalsoa
cleaningstepwhichtakesplaceatalaundryfacility.Consequently,cottonrolltowelshaveanadditional
transportationsteptodeliverthemtoandfromthelaundry.
Finally,attheendoflife,allproducttypesaretransportedtoanearbywastefacilitywheretheyare
incineratedorsenttoalandfill.Withtheexceptionofthecardboardpackaging,thereisnoclear
evidencethattheseproductsarecommonlyrecycledorinthecaseofcottonandpapertowels,
compostedintheUS.
2.2.2.2 Allocationofrecycledcontent
Systemboundariesalsohavetobedefinedwhenaproductlifecycleispartofanopenlooprecycling
system,asisthecaseforthepapertowelsmanufacturedfromrecycledcontent.Insuchcases,
10
allocationdecisionsfortherawmaterialproduction,recycling,andendoflifeburdensarenecessary
becausethepapertowelsystemcannotbeexpandedtoencompassallproductlifecyclesduetolackof
knowledgeabouttheadditionalproducts.VariousallocationstrategiesaredescribedinAppendixA.4.
Thecutoffmethod,whichassignstheburdenofrecyclingtotheproductlifecyclesthatuserecycled
content(Figure36),ischosenforthebaseline.Sincepapertowelscanuserecycledcontentbutare
rarelyrecycledthemselves(sameassumptionasintheKimberlyClarkstudy[13]),theyrepresentthe
finalproductofanopenlooprecyclingsystemandareallocatedtheburdensfromrecyclingwastepaper
andendoflifeinaccordancewiththeselectedstrategy.
2.2.3 Cutoffcriteria
Inadditiontohanddryingsystemboundaries,thecutoffcriteria,orthepointatwhichinputoroutput
flowsareexcludedfromtheanalysis,havetobedefinedforeachsystem.Thesecriteriacanbebased
onthemass,energy,orenvironmentalsignificanceoftheflows.InthecaseoftheDysonAirblade
handdryer,allpartsareaccountedfor,withthesmallerpartssuchasscrewsorfastenersaggregated
intoasinglepart[27].Thedataonwhichthisanalysisisbasedalsoincludedabreakdownofthe
resistorsandothercomponentsontheDysonAirbladehanddryersprintedcircuitboard;thislevelof
detail,however,wasdeemedunnecessaryandthedatareaggregatedtocircuitboardlevel.
TheXLERATORdryer,standarddryer,andpapertowellifecycleinventorieswereallbasedonthestudy
forExcelDryer[14].Thisstudyincludedasmanycomponentsaspossiblegivenavailableinformation,
andpredictedthatomittedpartswouldaccountforless1%oftotalimpact.Lastly,thecottonroll
towelswerebasedontheETSAstudy[12],whichexcludedprocessesthatconsistedoflessthan1%of
totalmassandenergybalance.Thenumberofprocessesexcluded,however,waslimitedsothatthey
accountedfornomorethan5%ofthetotalbalance.
3 Lifecycleinventoryanalysis
Thissectiondetailsthedataandassumptionsusedtoconductalifecycleinventoryanalysisforeach
handdryingsystem.Thecompleteinventoryisgeneratedbycombiningbillofactivities1dataforeach
systemwithlifecycleinventorydataofrequiredunitprocessesfromexistingdatabases(Figure3).
Wheneverpossible,datausedinthisstudywereobtainedfromexistingsources.
Billofactivitiesdatasourcesandassumptionsforallhanddryingsystemsaredetailedbylifecyclestage.
Someoftheassumptionsarelaterevaluatedinthesensitivityanduncertaintyanalysestoassesstheir
effectontheLCAresultsanddryingsystemcomparison.Thebillofactivitiesdatainformationis
followedbyadescriptionofthelifecycleinventorydatausedbytheunitprocesses.
Table3summarizestheassumptionsmadeforthebaselinescenario;detaileddataforeachhanddrying
systemcanbefoundinAppendixA.1.Muchofthedataforproductcompositionsandmanufacturing
processesarederivedfromotherLCAstudiesonthesystems;whennecessary,assumptionsaremadein
ordertoinsurethattheanalysesareconductedonaconsistentbasis(e.g.,productionoruselocation).
Billofactivitiesisdefinedtoincludematerialcomposition,productionrequirements,userequirements,andtransportation
distancesforaproductsystem.
11
Inparticular,allproducts,withtheexceptionofpapertowels,areassumedtobemanufacturedinChina
(seeFigure2),eventhoughthisisnotnecessarilythecaseforthedryersinreality(e.g.,theXLERATOR
dryerisproducedintheUS[14]andtheDysonAirbladehanddryerisproducedinMalaysia[27]).The
useofaconsistentbasisformanufacturinglocationandtransportationdistancesismotivatedbyan
objectiveofthestudytocomparetheinfluenceofdifferentmanufacturingandusescenariosofthe
differenthanddryingsystems.Thisisonlymeaningfulifthesupplychainscenariosarethesameand
plausibleforsimilarproducts.Chinaisahighlyplausiblelocationfortheproductionofhanddryers
becauseitisacommonlocationforthemanufacturingoftechnologicalproducts.Usingaconsistent
basisenablesacomparisonamongproductsthatisfocusedonproductattributesincludingmaterial
composition,manufacturingprocess,andenergyconsumption,andnotonsupplychainconfiguration
(whichisnotknownforallproducts).However,asensitivityanalysisonmanufacturinglocationis
includedtoexploretheimpactofthisassumption.Papertowelsaretheexceptiontothispractice:this
studyassumesthatthepapertowelsareproducedandusedintheUSbecausethisistheindustry
standardforaproductthatisusedinalocationwheretherawmaterialsareplentifulatacompetitive
priceandtheproductionisnotlaborintensive.
Billof
activitiesdata
Lifecycle
inventoryanalysis
Lifecycle
inventory
Unitprocess
inventorydata
Lifecycleimpact
assessment
Impact
assessment
methodology
Environmental
impact
Figure3Stepstoconvertbillofactivitiesdatatoenvironmentalimpact.
3.1 Billofactivities
ThebillsofactivitiesforeachproductsystemaredetailedinAppendixA.1.Theyarecombinedwithunit
processinventorydatatoconstructdryingsystemlifecycleinventories.Mostofthesedatawere
obtainedfromcriticallyreviewedLCAsdatingfrom2006andlater.Withtheexceptionofthecottonroll
towelbillofactivities,dataareatmost10yearsold.DysonsupplieddataforitsDysonAirbladehand
dryers[27].DatafortheXLERATORandstandarddryersweretakenfromtheExcelstudy[14],which
obtaineditsdatadirectlyfromExcelDryer,IncandinthecaseofthestandarddryerfromtheAirdri
streamlinedLCA[6].CottonrolltoweldatawereobtainedfromtheETSAreport[12];thisstudyused
existingliteraturefromthe1990sand2000sforcottonrolltowelproduction,butconducteditsown
surveyoflaundriestodevelopalaunderingprocessinventory.Finally,papertoweldatawerebasedon
acombinationoftheExcel[14],KimberlyClark[13],andETSA[12]studies.TheExcelstudyalsorelied
ontheKimberlyClarkreportforpapertoweldata,whereastheETSAstudyreliedona2001reporton
thebestavailabletechniquesreportinthepulpandpaperindustry[29].
12

Table3Assumptionsusedtogeneratehanddryingsystemlifecycleinventoriesforthebaselineanalysis.
Dryingsystem
Functionalunit
Airblade
(highspeed
handsindryer)
XLERATOR
(highspeed
handsunderdryer)
Standard
warmairdryer
Cottonrolltowels
Papertowels
1pairofdryhands
350,000pairsofdryhandsover5years[26,27]
Mass(+manufacturingscrap)
perdryerortowel
Al:14.8kg(1.43kg)
Pl:9.9kg(2.16kg)
[27]
9.4kg(1.12kg)[14]
6.4kg(0.9kg)[14]
16.2g(2.2g)[12]
1.98g(0.08g)[14]
Manufacturinglocation
China
China
China
China
US
Manufacturingenergy
perdryerortowel
146MJelectricity
[27]
156MJelectricity
[14]
156MJelectricity
[14]
431kJelectricity
507kJgas[12]
14.7kJelectricity
24.4kJgas[14]
Uselocation
US
Useintensity
12sec@1,400W
+0sec@0W
+439sec@1W
20sec@1,500W
+1.5sec@750W
+429sec@1W
31sec@2,300W
+1.5sec@1,150W
+406sec@0.4W
1towel(pull)
+laundry
2towels
Endoflifescenario
76.7%ofcardboardrecycled
19%ofremainingwasteincineratedwithenergyrecovery
81%ofremainingwastelandfilledwithmethanecaptureandconversiontoelectricity[30,31]
Transportation
Rawmaterialtoplant
Planttowarehouse
Warehousetowashroom
Washroomtolaundryandback
Washroomtowastefacility
250kmviatruck
10,500kmviaoceanfreighter+2,600kmviafreighttrain+24kmviatruck(excl.papertowels)
1,760kmviatruck
100kmviatruck(cottontowelsonly)
100kmviatruck
Additionallifecycles
Packaging
Packaging
Packaging
Packaging,dispenser
Packaging,dispenser,
wastebin,binliners
Packagingperdryerortowel
2.94kgcardboard
[27]
0.27kgcardboard
[14]
0.45kgcardboard
[14]
0.08gpolyethylene
0.18gcardboard[14]
13
Lifetimeusage

3.1.1 Production:materialsandmanufacturing
Thisanalysisaccountsfortheimpactofmaterialproduction,includingupstreamimpactstartingfrom
oreextraction.Dryermaterialsareconservativelyassumedtobemanufacturedfromvirgincontent.
Theyarethentransported250kmfromtheirrespectiveproductionorstoragefacilitytothe
manufacturingplantwheredryerortowelmanufacturingtakesplace.Twohundredfiftykilometerswas
chosenasanintermediatedistancebetweenthe750kmbyroadassumedinAirdriandExcelstudies[6,
14],andthe30kmusedinthereportforCarbonTrust[27].Withtheexceptionofthepapertowel
systems,allmaterialsproductionandmanufacturingtakesplaceinChina(seediscussionatthe
beginningofSection3abouttheuseofaconsistentbasis);consequently,theChineseaveragegridmix,
alongwithChineseemissionfactorswhenavailable,isassumedfortheproductionofelectricity.Paper
towels,bycontrast,areassumedtobemanufacturedintheUSandthusrelyontheUSgrid(see
discussioninSection3).Oncetheproductsarefinished,theyarethenshippedtoadistributioncenter
intheUSandfromtheretoawashroom.Alltransportationstepsinthisanalysisareconsolidatedintoa
separatelifecyclestageandsummarizedinSection3.1.4.
MaterialsandmanufacturingdataforthealuminumandtheplasticDysonAirbladehanddryerswere
providedbyDysonandarebasedonthefirmsanalysisforitsCarbonReductionLabelthroughthe
CarbonTrust[27].Melamineisassumedforthebulkmoldingcompound.Materialsdataforthedryers
accountfora9.7%anda22%scraprateforthealuminumandplasticdryers,respectively,which
representstheworstcasescenarioformaterialloss.Capitalequipmentusedindryermanufactureis
notincluded(inaccordancewiththesystemboundaries,detailedinSection2.2.2.1).
CorrespondingdatafortheXLERATOR,thehighspeedhandsunderdryer,werebasedonthestudy
preparedforExcelDryer[14].TheExcelstudyusesagenericbillofactivitiesthatdoesnotrepresent
anyoneXLERATORinExcelDryersproductline.Specifically,thereportassumesthattheXLERATORs
coverisacombinationofthedryersthreeavailablecovers:stainlesssteel,plastic,andchromefinish.
Thisassumptioniscarriedoverintothisstudybecausenoalternativedatawereavailableforthe
individualcovers.Thesamestudyisusedtoobtainproductiondataforastandardwarmairdryer
(whichis,inturn,basedontheAirdriB709modelfromtheEnvironmentalResourcesManagement
studyconductedforAirdriLtd.andBobrickWashroomEquipment[6]).Forbothdryers,polypropylene
isassumedforunknownplastictypes,suchasthePlasticmixturelistedintheproductsbillsof
materialsforthehousingretainerandmotorplastics.Thedryersalsocontainunspecifiedmass.This
massisaccountedforwhencalculatingtransportationstageimpact,butisassumedtohavenoinfluence
onproductionstageimpact.Finally,a15%scrapratearoundtheaveragerateofthetwoDyson
Airbladehanddryersisaddedtothematerialinputflowsofbothdryersinordertoensurean
accuratecomparison.ScrapvaluesinTable3,however,areslightlylessthan15%becausethescrap
ratewasnotappliedtoelectroniccomponentsorunspecifiedmass.
ProductiondataforthecottonrolltowelswereobtainedfromtheOkInstitutreportfortheEuropean
TextileServicesAssociation[12].Theproductionofthesetowelsincludesproductionofcottonfibers,
spinningandsizingoftheyarn,andweaving,desizing,andbleachingofthefabric.A10%weightlossis
assumedinthespinningprocess[12],plusa2%lossinweaving[32].Thus,ittakes18.4gramsofcotton
fiberstoproducethe16.2gramsofcottontowelthatrepresentonepulloftheroll[12].Thedispenser
14

usedforthecottontowelsisbasedonthepapertoweldispenserintheExcelstudy,althoughno
batteriesorcircuitryassociatedwithautomaticpapertoweldispensersareincludedsincethetowelsare
presumablypulledbyhandfromtheroll.
Papertowelsmanufacturedfrom100%virginandfrom100%recycledcontentareexaminedinthis
analysis.Theformerisassumedtousepulpmanufacturedviathesulfateorkraftpulpingprocess,the
dominantpulpingprocessthataccountsfor80%oftheworldspulpproduction[33],andbleachedusing
elementalchlorinefree(ECF)technology,themostcommonbleachingprocessforsulfatepulpintheUS
asof2002[34].Thispulpisthentransported250km(adistanceconsistentwithrawmaterial
transportationdistancesforthehanddryers)fromitsrespectivefacilitytoanonintegrated
manufacturingplantwherethepapertowelsareproduced.Virginpapertowelmanufacturingdata
werebasedontheExcelDryer[14],KimberlyClark[13],andETSA[12]studies.
Papertowelsmanufacturedfromrecycledcontentwerealsoassumedtobeproducedinanon
integratedplant.Insuchcases,marketdeinkedpulpwouldbetransportedtothisplantfromits
respectivemanufacturingfacilityandusedasarawmaterialinpapertowelproduction.Billofactivities
andinventorydatafordeinkedpulpmanufacturedfrom100%recycledcontent,however,were
unavailableevenamongthecriticallyreviewedLCAstudies.TheKimberlyClark[13]reportprovidesan
incompleteinventory,whilethestudybyExcel[14]doesnotevenaccountfortheenvironmentalimpact
frompulpmanufacturing(thisisacknowledgedinthereport).AlthoughtheETSA[12]studyprovidesan
inventoryfortissuemanufacturing,thisinventoryisforanintegratedplant(wherepulpandtissueare
manufacturedinacontinuousprocess)andassumesonly50%recycledcontent
Giventhelackofavailabledata,thisstudymadesimplifyingassumptionsforthedeinkedpulp
manufacturingprocess.Specifically,theimpactassociatedwithmanufacturingdeinkedpulpwas
assumedequaltothatassociatedwithmanufacturingECFbleachedsulfatepulp.Woodinthesulfate
pulpprocess,however,wasreplacedwith1.5kgofwastepaper[12].Thissubstitutionaddresseskey
differencesinrawmaterialacquisition,butitmayleavesomeprocessesinthepulpingstepthatare
requiredonlyforvirginmaterialproduction(suchaswoodchipping).Whiletheseassumptionsintroduce
uncertaintytotheresults(moresothantheresultsofpapertowelsmanufacturedfromvirgincontent),
theuncertaintycannotbequantifiedduetolackofactualinventorydataforpapertowels.Amore
detailedstudyonrecycledpapertowelsisrecommended;sincenosuchstudycurrentlyexists,paper
towelresultsfromthisstudywerecomparedwithresultsfromtheotherLCAsinAppendixA.6.3to
ensurethisstudysassumptionswerereasonable
Inbothcases,pulpandtissueweremanufacturedinthesamecountrywheretheusestagetakesplace
(seediscussioninSection3).Additionally,thisassumptionisconsistentwiththeKimberlyClarkstudy.
Papertowelshaveafinalproductmassof1.98g;a3.85%manufacturinglossisaccountedforinraw
materialrequirements[13,14].Themanufacturingplantisalsoassumedtobeiscolocatedwitha
distributioncenter,thuseliminatingtheneedfortransportationbetweenmanufacturingplantand
warehouse.Thisisareasonableassumptionbecausetheimpactofanytransportbetweentheplantand
thedistributioncenterwouldbeminisculeincomparisonwiththeimpactoftransportingthehand
dryersandcottonrolltowelsover13,000kmfromChinatotheirrespectivedistributioncenters.
15

Theresultsforthepapertowelscontainingrecycledcontentarepresentedusingthecutoffallocation
approach,whichisdetailedinAppendixA.4.Thisallocationschemewasselectedforthebaseline
analysisbecauseitonlyaccountsfortheburdensdirectlyassociatedwiththeproductionanddisposalof
therecycledcontenttowels.Papertowelsarenotrecycled(sameassumptionastheKimberlyClark
study[13])andthereforerepresentthefinalproductlifecycleinanopenlooprecyclingsystem.Thus,
followingthecutoffallocationscheme,papertowelsmanufacturedfrom100%recycledcontentare
assignedthefullburdenfromrecyclingwastepaperbackintopulp,andthefullburdenfromendoflife.
Inadditiontothetowellifecycle,lifecyclesforadispenser,wastebin,andbinlinersareincludedinthe
assessmentofpapertowelhanddryingsystems.Thedispenseristhesameasthatusedforthecotton
towels;thewastebinisassumedtobeentirelycomposedofsteel,andthebinlinersfrompolyethylene.
3.1.2 Use
Ideally,billofactivitiesdatafortheusephasewouldincludedetailsofwashroomvisitorusagepatterns
foreachhanddryingsystemhowlongtheyspentoperatingeachdryerorhowmanytowelstheyused
afterwashinghands.Suchdatawouldalsocoverthesignificantvariationinthewaypeopledrytheir
handsduetodifferencesinhandsizes,inpreferencesaboutacceptabledryness,andinwillingnessto
spendtimedryinghands.However,therealityisthattherearenoexistingdatasourcescapturingthis
widevariation,noristhereacommonmethodfordetermininghanddrynessacrossallthedifferent
dryingsystems.Whilethisstudyhasnotattemptedtoaddressthisgap,theauthorshavenonetheless
madeeveryefforttocharacterizedryingsystemuseintensityusingthebestavailabledataanda
consistentbasisforcomparison.
Useintensityrepresentstheamountofresourceseachhanddryingsystemrequirestodryapairof
hands.Forhanddryers,thisisrelatedtothetimeusersspendoperatingthedryers.Handdryerdry
timeshavebeenincorporatedintothestudyintwoways:(1)measuredaccordingtoastandardthat
defineswhenhandsaredryand(2)reportedbydryermanufacturers(Table4).Toensureaconsistent,
scientificbasiswhencomparinghanddryers,thisstudyadoptsmeasureddrytimesasitsprimary
baseline.ThesetimesweremeasuredaccordingtotheNSFProtocolP335[19](seeAppendixA.5),
whichdefineshygienicallydryhandshashavinglessthan0.1gramsofmoistureremainingafterdrying.
NSFprotocolmeasurementswereperformedbyDyson.Manufacturerreporteddrytimesareusedasa
secondarybaselineforsomeanalysesinSection4.1.Thesereporteddrytimeswereobtainedfrom
dryerspecificationstakenfrommanufacturerswebsites.NeitherExcelDryernorthestandarddryer
manufacturers,however,providedocumentationonhowtheyarrivedattheirdryersrespectivedry
timesorwhattheirbasiswasfordryness.
Variationinuseintensityisalsoevaluatedinordertoassesstheconsequencesofdifferinguser
preferencesandthus,differingusagepatterns.Forinstance,usersmayprefertoholdtheirhandsinthe
airstreamuntiladesireddrynessisachievedreferredtoasdryingdrivenusageinthisreport.Thedry
timesfordryingdrivenusagearedefinedas50%belowto25%abovethemeasuredbaselinedrytimes
(asdefinedbytheNSFProtocolP335).Alternatively,usersmayprefertowaitthesamelengthoftime
fortheirhandstodry,regardlessofdryertype,beforeleavingreferredtoastimedrivenusage.
16

Dryingdrivenusageisassessedinasensitivityanalysis(seeSection5.1.4)andbothdryingandtime
drivenusagepatternsareassessedintheuncertaintyanalysis(seeSection0).
Table4Measuredandreporteddrytimesforhanddryers.
Measured
NSFP335forUS
Reported
Airblade
12sec[27]
12sec[35]
XLERATOR
20sec[27]
12sec[14]
Standarddryer
31sec[27]
30sec[6]
Dryer
Oncedrytimeisdetermined,itisthenmultipliedbythedryersinuseratedpowertoarriveatthe
energyconsumedduringoperation.Inuseenergyconsumption,though,isonlypartofadryerstotal
energyrequirementasdryersalsoconsumeenergyevenwhennotactivelydryinghands.Inadditionto
drytime,boththeXLERATORandthestandarddryersareassumedtohavea1.5secondspindown
timeathalfpower[14];theDysonAirbladehanddryer,bycontrast,usesadigitalmotoranddoesnot
consumepowerduringspindown[27].Alldryersarealsoassumedtohavesensorsthatrequireenergy
wheninstandbymode.TheXLERATORisassumedtohavethesame1Wstandbypowerconsumption
astheDysonAirbladehanddryer[35],whereasthestandarddryerislowerat0.4W[36].Timespent
onstandbyiscalculatedbysubtractingthetotaluseandspindowntimefor350,000pairsofhandsfrom
thetotaltimeinthe5yeardryerlifespan.Thistotalstandbytimeisthennormalizedbythe350,000
usesandmultipliedbystandbypowerrating.Fromhere,spindownandstandbyenergyconsumptions
areaddedtoadryersinuseenergyconsumptiontoarriveatthetotalenergyallocatedtodryingapair
ofhands.TheUSaverageelectricgridmixisusedwhenassessingtheenvironmentalimpactofthis
energy.Table5summarizesdryerpowerconsumption,alongwithspindownandstandbytimes;
additionaldetailsforcalculatingdryerenergyconsumptioncanbefoundinAppendixA.1.1.
Table5Dryerpowerconsumptionduringuse,spindown,andstandby.
Inuse
Power
Time
Power
Power
Time
Airblade
1,400W[35]
0sec
0W[27]
1W[35]
439sec
XLERATOR
1,500W[25]
1.5sec[14]
750W[14]
1W
429sec
Standarddryer
2,300W[27]
1.5sec[14]
1,150W
0.4W[36]
418sec
Spindown
Standby
Theuseintensityofthecottonrolltoweldryingsystemisrepresentedbyonepullonacottontowelroll
perfunctionalunit,equaltotheETSAstudysassumption[12].Whiletheinwashroomuseofcottonroll
towelsdoesnothaveanimpact,launderingthetowelsdoes.Thelaunderingprocessisalsobasedon
theETSAstudy[12].Usedtowelsaretransported50kmfromthewashroomtothelaundry,wherethey
17

arewashedandthermallydisinfectedbeforebeingpackagedinplasticfilmandreturnedtothe
washroom.
Unlikethehanddryers,thereisnoequivalentprotocolfordeterminingthenumberofpapertowels
requiredtoachieveaspecificlevelofdryness.Thus,thepapertowelbaselineassumesauseintensityof
twotowelsperfunctionalunitbasedonobservationaldatafromaUniversityofFloridastudy[37].As
partoftheUFstudy,researchersobservedthelengthoftimepublicwashroomuserswashedtheir
handsandthenumberofpapertowelstheytooktodrytheirhands.Papertowelusagevariedbetween
oneandseventowels,withanaverageof2.1towelsperuser.Itshouldbenotedthatthetwopaper
toweluseintensityassumptionisconsistentwithseveralotherLCAstudies(seeTable40),anoteworthy
exceptionbeingtheKimberlyClarkStudy,whichassumes1.5papertowels.However,noneofthe
studiesprovidesanyrigorousjustificationforthenumberofpapertowelsused,includingKimberly
Clark.Thus,thedatafromtheUFstudyisusedasthebasisforthenumberofpapertowelsinthisstudy.
Anotherconsiderationisthattheexactnumberofpapertowelswilllikelydependontowelmass,which
variesamongthedifferentstudiessurveyed.Bothuseintensityandtowelmassarelaterexploredina
sensitivityanalysis(seeSections5.1.4and5.1.9).Sincepapertowels,packaging,dispensers,thewaste
bin,andbinlinersdonotrequireanyenergyduringuse,theythereforehavetoimpactinthisstage.
3.1.3 Endoflife
Oncethehanddryersortowelsarenolongerinuse,theproductsaretransported100kmtoawaste
facility,consistentwith[27],anddisposedaccordingtoUSaveragewasteandrecyclingfractionsfrom
2008[30].Thus,76.7%ofcardboardpackagingisrecoveredforrecycling;eachkilogramofcardboardis
assumedtodisplace0.78kgofnewcardboard(estimatedbasedon[12]).Nineteenpercentofthe
remainingcardboardandallotherwasteisincinerated,withtheremaining81%senttothelandfill.
Bothenergyrecoveryfromincinerationandmethanecapturefromlandfillemissionsareconsideredin
thebaselinescenario.Incinerationenergyrecoveryisassumedtoproduce0.65kWhofelectricityper
kilogramofwasteincinerated[38].Sincethis0.65kWhrepresentstheavoidedproductionofelectricity,
eachdryingsystemiscreditedwith0.632gCO2eqperkilogramofwasteincineratedtheemissions
associatedwithproducing0.65kWhofelectricitygiventheUSaveragegridmix.Methanecaptured
fromlandfillemissionsisalsoassumedtobeburnedwithenergyrecoverytoproduceelectricity.
AdditionaldetailsandreferencesforthisprocesscanbefoundinAppendixA.2
Asidefromtherecyclingofcardboardpackaging,nootherrecyclingisassumedtotakeplace.While
handdryerscanberecycled(andindeedarerequiredtoberecycledinEuropeperthewasteelectrical
andelectronicequipmentdirective[39]),thereisnoclearevidencethatthisiscommonpracticeinthe
US.PapertowelrecyclingisalsopossibleasnotedbyKimberlyClark[40],althoughtheirLCAstudy[13]
assumesthatthepapertowelsarenotrecoveredafterdisposal.Likethehanddryers,thereisnostrong
evidencethatrecyclingpapertowelsiscommonpracticeintheUS;composting,however,isgaining
ground(e.g.[41,42])andisthusaddressedinthesensitivityanalysis(seeSection5.1.5).Cottontowels
arenotrecycled,butcanpotentiallybereusedasindustrialcleaningcloths[12](althoughthisscenariois
notconsideredinthisanalysis).
18

3.1.4 Transportation
Transportationtakesplacebetweeneachofthelifecyclestages.Distancesareeithertakenfrom
literature,orestimatedaccordingtoproduction,use,andendoflifelocations.Table6liststhedistance
andvehicletypeforeachtransportationstep.Vehicletypesarechosentomatchascloselyaspossible
tothoseusedin[12,27].Somestepsarenotincludedinthepapertowellifecyclebecausethetowels
areassumedtobemanufacturedinthesamecountrywheretheyareusedandhaveamanufacturing
facilitycolocatedwiththeirwarehouse.Cottonrolltowelshavetheadditionalstepofbeing
transportedtoandfromthelaundry.
Table6Transportationvehiclesanddistancesforallproducts(unlessnotedotherwise).
What
Towhere
Distance
Vehicle
Notes
Rawmaterials
Manufacturing
plant
250km
>16ttruck
Finishedproduct
LongBeachport
10,500km[43]
Oceanfreighter
Finishedproduct
Warehouse
2,600km
24kma
Freighttrain
>32ttruck
Excludingpaper
towels
Excludingpaper
towels
Finishedproduct
Washroom
1,760kmb
>32ttruck
Dirty/cleantowels
Laundry&back
100km[12]
3.57.5ttruck
Cottontowels
only
Usedproduct
Wastefacility
100km[27]
7.516ttruck
(a)Estimatedusing[27,44]
(b)EstimatedbyaveragingdrivingdistancesfromKansasCity,KStoNewYork,NY;LosAngeles,CA;andChicago,ILusing[44].
3.1.5 Dataquality:sensitivityanalysis
Numerousassumptionsaremadeinthedefinitionofbillsofactivities.Asensitivityanalysisisusedto
exploretheextenttowhichvariabilityinthebaselinescenarioassumptions(detailedinSections3.1.1
through3.1.4)affectstheenvironmentalimpactsofthehanddryingsystems.Theresultsofthe
sensitivityanalysisarepresentedinSection5.1.Theanalysisevaluatesarangeofscenariosthatdeviate
fromthebaseline.Thebaselineassumptionsaddressedinclude(withbaselinevaluesshownin
parentheses):
Lifetimeusage(350,000)numberofpairsofhandsdriedoverthe5yearproductlifespan.
Manufacturingphaseelectricgridmix(ChinaorUSaveragemix)technologyportfoliothat
supplieselectricpowerfordryerandtowelproduction.
Usephaseelectricgridmix(USaveragemix)technologyportfoliothatsupplieselectricpower
fordryerandtoweluse.
19
Useintensity(variesbyproduct)lengthofdrytimefordryers,ornumberofpapertowelsor
cottonrolltowelpullsrequiredtodryhands.
Endoflifescenario(19%incinerated,81%landfilledwithenergyrecovery)fractionofwaste
incinerated,landfilled,recycled,orcomposted;energyrecoveryassumptionismaintained
throughout.
Dryerelectronicsunitprocess(Electroniccomponent,active,unspecified)unitprocess
inventorychosentorepresentthecontrolandopticsassembliesintheXLERATORandstandard
dryers.
Cottonrolltowelreuses(103cycles)numberoftimescottonrolltowelscanbelaunderedand
reusedbeforedisposal.
Papertowelmass(1.98g)massofvirginandrecycledcontentpapertowels.
Pulpmanufacturingprocess(ECFbleachedsulfate)manufacturingprocessofpulpusedby
virginpapertowels.
Endoflifeallocationmethodologyforrecycledcontentinpapertowels(cutoff)allocationof
theburdenofprimarymaterialproduction,recycling,andendoflifeprocesses.
Manufacturinglocation(ChinaorUS)wheretheproductsaremanufactured;affects
productionelectricgridmixandtransportationdistances.
Uselocation(US)wheretheproductsareused;affectstransportationdistances,electricgrid
mix,andendoflifescenario.
3.2 Unitprocessinventorydata
Inadditiontothebillofactivitiesdata,unitprocessinventorydataarealsonecessarytogeneratealife
cycleinventory.Aunitprocessisthesmallestelementconsideredinthelifecycleinventoryanalysisfor
whichinputandoutputdataarequantified[11].Theinputsandoutputscanbeintermsofotherunit
processes(e.g.,electricityorsteelproduction)orbasicsubstances(e.g.,mineralsorgaseousemissions).
Theseunitinventoriesaretypicallyobtainedfromdatabasessuchasecoinvent[32]andUSLCI[45].
Wheneverpossible,theunitprocessinventorydataforthelifecycleinventoriesaretakenfromthe
ecoinventDatabasev2.1[32].Themajorityofecoinventunitprocessesareusedwithoutmodification.
Consequently,theyrepresentthedatabasesdefaultassumptionssuchastheinclusionofcapital
equipmentforrawmaterialsproduction,amixtureofcountryspecificemissionsfactorsforasingle
countryselectricityproductionowingtodataavailabilitylimitations,andtheuseofEuropeanfuelsand
emissionsfactorsforroadtransportation.Inafewcases,though,ecoinventprocessdataismodifiedor
dataisadoptedfromexternalsourcesbecauseofalackofexistinginventorydata:
Galvanizedsteelcreatedusingecoinventdataforsteelandzinccoating
20
Sheetsteelsheetcreatedusingecoinventdataforsteelandrolling
Plasticmixturewithextrusioncreatedusingecoinventdataforpolypropyleneandextrusion
Glassfiberreinforcedpolypropylenecreatedusingecoinventdataforglassfibersand
polypropylene
Polycarbonate/acrylonitrilebutadienestyrenemixtureofthetwopolymers,basedon[27]
CottonrolltowelmanufacturingadoptedfromtheETSAstudy[12];theseprocessesinclude
spinningthecottonfibersintoyarn,sizingtheyarn,weavingthetowels,anddesizing,scouring,
andbleaching
CottontowellaunderingadoptedfromtheETSAstudy,whichliststhedetergent,energy,and
waterrequiredtowashthetowels
Pulpfromwastepaperamodifiedecoinventsulfatepulpingprocess(ECFbleached)inwhich
woodisreplacedwith1.5kgwastepaper(basedon[12])
Cardboardrecyclingcreatedusingecoinventdatawithanestimatedrecyclingratefrom[12]
Incinerationwithenergyrecoverybasedonecoinventdatawithanestimatedelectricity
generationratefrom[38]
Landfillwithmethanecapturebasedonecoinventdatawithestimatedmethanecaptureand
electricitygenerationratesfrom[46]
CompostingbasedondatafromaEuropeanCommissionstudyonbiodegradableMSW[47]
BillsofactivitiesforthesemodifiedunitprocessesareincludedinAppendixA.2.Also,ageneric
ecoinventunitprocess,Electroniccomponent,active,unspecified,thesameunitprocessasinthe
Excelstudy[14],isusedfortheXLERATORandstandarddryerelectroniccomponentsbecausespecific
informationisnotavailableforthesecomponents.
3.3 Uncertaintyanalyses
Uncertaintyanalysesareusedtoassesstheconsequencesofvariabilityoruncertaintyintheinputson
environmentalimpactresultsofthehanddryingsystems.Twotypesofuncertaintyanalysesare
conductedinthisstudy.Thefirstaddressesvariabilityinthebaselinescenarioassumptions.
Distributionsareassignedtoparameterssuchaslifetimeusage,electricgridmix,anduseintensity.A
MonteCarlosimulationisthenemployedtogeneratescenariosgiventheparameterdistributionsand
calculatetheresultingenvironmentalimpactdistribution.
Thesecondanalysisinvestigatesuncertaintyandvariabilityinthebillofactivitiesdata.Incomparisonto
thefirstanalysis,whichaddressesscenariolevelvariables(e.g.useintensity),thisanalysisfocuseson
thequantityofeachunitprocessrequiredbyahanddryingsystem.Thisquantityisrelatedto,butnot
thesameas,thescenariolevelvariables:forinstance,thebillofactivitiesdataincludehanddryeruse
21

phaseelectricityconsumption,whichnotonlydependsonuseintensity,butalsoonthedryerspower
rating.Often,however,uncertaintydataisnotavailableorcannotbederivedfortheunitprocess
quantitiesincludedinthebillofactivities.
Apedigreematrixapproach[32]isthereforeemployedtotranslatequalitativeassessmentsofthedata
sourcesintoquantifiableuncertaintycalculations.Aspartofthismethod,thebillofactivitiesdata
sourcesarefirstevaluatedbasedonsixcharacteristics:reliability,completeness,temporalcorrelation,
geographiccorrelation,furthertechnologicalcorrelation,andsamplesize.Oneoffivequalitylevelsthat
describethedegreeofuncertaintyischosenforeachofthecharacteristicsbasedondescriptionsfound
in[32].Thesequalitylevelsare,inturn,eachassociatedwithanuncertaintyfactorthatquantifiestheir
uncertainty(Table7).Lowerqualitylevelvaluesrepresenthigherconfidenceinthedataandthus
translatetosmalleruncertaintyfactors.Aseventhbasicuncertaintyfactorisalsoaddedaccordingto
whethertheprocessrepresentsaninputoroutputtothetechnosphereoremissions.Finally,
uncertaintyfactorsareusedtocalculatethegeometricstandarddeviation(SDg)ofthebillofactivities
datausingthefollowingequation:
SD g e
ln U1 2 ln U 2 2 ln U 3 2 ln U 4 2 ln U 5 2 ln U 6 2 ln U 7 2
Uxrepresenttheuncertaintyfactorsofthesixcharacteristicsplusthebasicuncertaintyfactor.
Thepedigreematrixapproachisappliedtoeachelementinthebillofactivitiesandtheresulting
geometricstandarddeviationsenteredintoSimaPro,wheretheyareusedtoscalethedistribution
means(representedbythebaselineunitprocessquantities).AMonteCarlosimulationisthenrunto
assesstheconsequencesofdatasourcequalityonenvironmentalimpact.Theresultsarepresentedin
Section5.2.2andqualitylevelsassignedtoeachprocessarelistedinAppendixA.3.
Table7Pedigreematrixuncertaintyfactors[32].
QualityLevel
Reliability
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.20
1.50
Completeness
1.00
1.02
1.05
1.10
1.20
Temporalcorrelation
1.00
1.03
1.10
1.20
1.50
Geographicalcorrelation
1.00
1.01
1.02
1.10
Furthertechnologicalcorrelation
1.00
1.20
1.50
2.00
Samplesize
1.00
1.02
1.05
1.10
1.20
4 Lifecycleimpactassessment
4.1 Lifecycleimpactassessmentmethodologies
Theenvironmentalimpactsassociatedwithalifecycleinventorycanbecalculatedusingalifecycle
impactassessment(LCIA)methodology.LCIAcalculationsinthisstudyhavebeenperformedusingthe
22

SimaPro7softwarepackagefortheglobalwarmingpotential(GWP),IMPACT2002+,andcumulative
energydemand(CED)methodologies.Resultsarealsopresentedforwateruse(anelementaryflow)
andlandoccupation(amidpointcategoryintheIMPACT2002+methodology).Novaluechoicesor
weightingareusedintheapplicationoftheseimpactassessmentmethodologies.Eachmethodologyis
describedbelowalongwithajustificationforitsuse.
4.1.1 Globalwarmingpotential
Globalwarmingpotential(GWP)[48]incorporatestheimpactofgaseousemissionsaccordingtotheir
potentialtocontributetoglobalwarmingbasedonthevaluespublishedin2007bythe
IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC).Theimpactsforallgaseousemissionsareevaluated
relativetocarbondioxideusingcharacterizationfactorsthattranslatethemassofeachgasintoan
equivalentmassofcarbondioxide(e.g.1kgCH4emittedintotheatmosphereisequivalentto25kgCO2
[49]).Thesefactorsareinternationallyacceptedasameansofcharacterizinggreenhousegasemissions.
ResourceconsumptionandliquidandsolidemissionsarenotincludedintheGWPmethodology
becausetheydonotdirectlycontributetoglobalwarming.Biogeniccarbondioxideandcarbon
monoxideflowsarealsonotincludedintheaccounting(unlesstheanalysisinvolvescarbon
sequestration);biogenicmethane,however,isincluded2.Inthisreport,characterizationfactorsare
basedona100yeartimeframebecausetheyarethemostcommonlyusedfactorsinLCAstudies.
GWPwasselectedasanLCIAmetricbecauseofitshighprofileintheassessmentofproduct
environmentalperformancefornumerousproducttypesacrosstheworldandparticularlyforenergy
intensiveproducts.Furthermore,themetricisusedinvirtuallyallofthestudiesusedasreferencesfor
thisstudy.ForthesereasonsGWPisusedastheprimarymeansforcomparisonofenvironmental
impact.
4.1.2 IMPACT2002+
IMPACT2002+[50]isadamageorientedmethodthatevaluatesenvironmentalimpactinfourendpoint
categories:humanhealth,ecosystemquality,climatechange,andresources.Thesecategoriesare
calculatedfrom15midpointcategories(showninFigure4)which,inturn,havebeenadaptedfrom
IMPACT2002,Ecoindicator99,CML(CenterofEnvironmentalScience),andIPCC.DamagetoHuman
Healthisinunitsofdisabilityadjustedlifeyears(DALY),implyingthatdifferentdisabilitiescausedby
diseasesareweighted.EcosystemQualityisreportedinunitsofpotentiallydisappearedfractionof
plantspecies(PDFm2yr).ClimateChangeissimilartoGWPfromabove,butusescharacterization
factorsbasedona500yeartimeframe.Finally,Resourcesincludesassessmentofmineralsandfossil
fuelsinunitsofMJ.EachdamagecategorycanthenbenormalizedbyaverageEuropeanimpactsand
weightedinordertoaggregateallimpactsintoasinglevaluewhichhastheunitsofpoints,where
1000pointsrepresentstheaverageenvironmentalimpactofaEuropeaninoneyear.Weightingisnot
usedinthisstudy.
AconsequenceofbiogeniccarbonnotbeingincludedintheIPCCstandardforthisstudyisthatitmayobscuretheimpactof
severalcriticalassumptionsregardingcarbonneutralityofpulpingliquorcombustionduringproductionofsulfatepulpfor
virgincontentpapertowels.Italsoneglectstheforestryimpactsforpapertowels.However,thisstudyfollowstheIPCC
method,whichdoesnotincludebiogeniccarbonasitrepresentsthescientificconsensusoncarbonaccounting.
23

Amultiindicatorimpactassessmentmethodwassoughtthatcouldcalculateotherimportantimpacts
beyondglobalwarmingsuchashumanhealthandecosystemquality.IMPACT2002+wasselected
becauseitisaninternationallyacceptedmethodforLCIAthatincludescharacterizationmodelsfrom
severalwellrespectedLCIAmethodologies.Furthermore,ithasbeenusedinanotherkeyhanddrying
study(theExcelstudy[14]).
ThisstudyincludesresultsfromIMPACT2002+midpointcategoriesintabularformat,butmostofthe
graphicalresultsarepresentedforthehumanhealthandecosystemqualityendpointcategoriesto
facilitateaclearandsimplecomparisonofenvironmentalimpactwithinthesecategories.Theothertwo
endpointcategories,climatechangeandresources,arenotincludedinthisstudybecausetheyarevery
similar(althoughnotidentical)toGWPandcumulativeenergydemand(describedbelow),andtherefore
areconsideredredundant.
MidpointCategories
Lifecycle
inventoryresults
Carcinogens
Noncarcinogens
Respiratoryinorganics
Ionizingradiation
Ozonelayerdepletion
Respiratoryorganics
Aquaticecotoxicity
Terrestrialecotoxicity
Terrestrialacid/nutri
Landoccupation
Aquaticacidification
Aquaticeutrophication
Globalwarming
Nonrenewableenergy
Mineralextraction
EndpointCategories
Humanhealth
EcosystemQuality
ClimateChange
Resources
Figure4The15midpointcategoriesandfourendpointcategoriesofIMPACT2002+.
AlimitationofapplyingtheIMPACT2002+methodologyisthatitisfocusedonaEuropeancontext,
whereasthefocusofthisstudyistheUnitedStates.However,thisassumptionisacceptablegiventhat
multipleregionsoutsidetheUSwillbeevaluatedinsensitivityanalysesanditisnotconstructivetouse
differentLCIAmethodsforeachregion(particularlywhentheymaynotbeavailableforallregions).
Furthermore,IMPACT2002+hasbeendeemedtobecurrentlymoreinternationallyacceptedthanUS
specificmethodssuchasTRACI.
4.1.3 Cumulativeenergydemand
Cumulativeenergydemand(CED)[48]includesalldirectandindirectenergyconsumptionassociated
withadefinedsetofunitprocesses.Itdoesnotdirectlyaccountfortheimpactofrawmaterial
consumptionoremissionstotheenvironment.ValuesforCEDaremeasuredintermsofenergy(e.g.
24

joules).ItisimportanttonotethatCEDisaproxymetricforenvironmentalimpactandthus,itisnota
formalimpactassessmentmethod,althoughitiscommonlyreferredtoassuchandwillbeinthis
report.LikeGWPandIMPACT2002+,CEDisawidelyacceptedmethodology.
CEDwasselectedasanLCIAmethodologyforthisstudybecauseenergyconsumptionisoftenthe
primarydriverofenvironmentalimpactforelectricityintensiveproductssuchashanddryers.
Furthermore,thepublicisfamiliarwithenergyasaproxymetricofenvironmentalimpactbecauseof
theextensivemarketingaroundenergyconsumptionofconsumerproducts.Cumulativeenergy
demandisanextensionofthistypeofthinkingtotheentireproductlifecycleandthus,isanatural
metricforuseinthisstudy.
4.1.4 Waterconsumptionandlandoccupation
Waterconsumptioniscalculatedasanelementaryflowinthelifecycleinventoryandlandoccupationis
amidpointcategoryintheIMPACT2002+methodology.Theyareincludedasimpactassessment
metricsbecausetheyareparticularlyrelevanttoassessmentsofproductsmadefromnaturalresources
(suchaspaper).Asidefrompresentationofresults,however,theyarenotfurtherassessed.Water
consumption,inparticular,isnotaLCIAmethodology,butratherasummationofwateruse(including
turbineflows)thatiscalculateddirectlyfromdryingsystemlifecycleinventories.
4.2 Baselineanalysis
4.2.1 Resultsbyimpactassessmentmethodology
Figure5showstheresultingGWP,brokendownbylifecyclestage,associatedwithdryingonepairof
hands.BothmeasuredandreporteddrytimesareincludedinFigure5aandb,respectively.Inboth
cases,thetwoDysonAirbladehanddryersystemsareassociatedwiththelowestGWPsofallthe
handdryingsystems,followedbytheXLERATORsystem.Thestandarddryersystem,ontheother
hand,isassociatedwiththehighest.Sinceeachdryerdriesupto350,000pairsofhandsoveritslife
span,theimpactfromtheproductionandendoflifestagesallocatedtoeachpairofdryhandsisvery
small;consequently,dryerimpactisdominatedbyuseanddryerswithsimilardrytimes(andpower
ratings)willhavesimilarimpacts.Cottonrolltowelsystemimpactisalsodominatedbyuse,whichis
drivenbythewashingofthetowels.Bycontrast,materialsandmanufacturinghavethelargestimpact
forpapertowels.Despitethedifferentmanufacturingprocesses,thereisminimaldifferencebetween
thevirginandtherecycledpapertowelsbecausetheythisstudyassumestheyusethesametissue
manufacturingprocess,andpulpproducedfromwastepaperhasnearlythesameGWPaspulp
producedwithvirginwood.Itisdifficulttoassessexactlyhowthisassumptionimpactstheresults
becausetheKimberlyClarkstudycalculatesat30%increaseinGWPimpactforrecycledpapertowels
overvirginpapertowels[13],whereasthePaperTaskForce[58]notedina1995reportonprinting
paperthatdeinkedpulpproductionconsumeslessenergyandmorebleachingchemicalsthanbleached
kraftpulpproduction.AconsistencycheckisperformedinAppendix8A.6A.6,whichcomparestheGWP
resultsinFigure5withresultsfromliterature.Thecheckindicatesthatthereisvariationinother
publishedresultsofpapertowelimpacts,buttheoutcomesinthisstudyaresimilartothosecalculated
intheKimberlyClarkstudy.Improvedinventorydataonrecycledpapertowelswouldhelptoclarify
thesediscrepanciesamongstudies.
25

IMPACT2002+results,calculatedusingmeasuredandreporteddrytimes,arepresentedinFigure6.
Onlyhumanhealthandecosystemqualityareincludedbecausetheothertwoendpointcategories,
climatechangeandresources,aremaderedundantbythisreportsuseofGWPandCED.Additionally,
midpointcategoryoutputs,usedinthecalculationoftheendpoints,areincludedinTable8.Inthese
results,theimpactsoftheDysonAirbladehanddryersaregenerallylowerthanthoseoftheother
dryingsystems:onlythecottonrolltowelsareassociatedwithlowerimpactsinthecarcinogen,ionizing
radiation,andmineralextractionmidpointcategories.Roughlyspeaking,DysonAirbladehanddryer
impactsarefollowedbytheXLERATORandcottonrolltowelimpacts,andthenbythestandarddryer
andpapertowelimpacts;theexactorderofthesystemswillultimatelydependonthemidpoint
category.
26
Globalwarmingpotential[gCO2 eq]
20
18
EndofLife
16
Use
14
Transportation
12
Manufacturing
10
Materials
8
6
4
2
0
Airblade, Airblade, XLERATOR
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
(a)Measureddrytimes
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
20
18
EndofLife
16
Use
14
Transportation
12
Manufacturing
10
Materials
8
6
4
2
0
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
(b)Reporteddrytimes
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure5Globalwarmingpotentialassociatedwithdryingasinglepairofhands.
27
16
16
EndofLife
Use
12
Transportation
10
Manufacturing
Materials
6
4
2
0
Use
12
Transportation
10
Manufacturing
Materials
6
4
2
0
2
Airblade, Airblade, XLERATOR Standard Cottonroll
aluminum
plastic
dryer
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
(a)Measureddrytimes
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled

aluminum
plastic
dryer
towels
80
70
60
50
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Use
Transportation
Manufacturing
Materials
40
30
20
10
0
10
90
80
70
60
50
EndofLife
Use
Transportation
Manufacturing
Materials
40
30
20
10
0
10

aluminum
plastic
dryer
towels
(c)Measureddrytimes
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled

aluminum
plastic
dryer
towels
(d)Reporteddrytimes
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure6Impactassociatedwithdryingasinglepairofhandsbasedonimpact2002+endpointshumanhealthandecosystemquality.(a)and(c)are
calculatedusingmeasureddrytimes(inaccordancewiththeNSFProtocol)and(b)and(d)arecalculatedusingmanufacturerreporteddrytimes.
100
EndofLife
Ecosystemquality[PDF.cm2.yr]
28
90
Paper
towels,
virgin
(b)Reporteddrytimes
100
Ecosystemquality[PDF.cm2.yr]
EndofLife
14
Humanhealth[109 DALY]
Humanhealth[109 DALY]
14

Table8Impact2002+midpointcategoryresultsforeachdryingsystem(givenmeasureddrytimes).
IMPACT2002+
midpointcategories
Units
Airblade,
aluminum
Airblade,
plastic
XLERATOR
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%recy.
Endpt.
Category
29
Carcinogens
gC2H3Cleq
0.277
0.272
0.486
1.111
0.205
0.525
0.525
HH
Noncarcinogens
gC2H3Cleq
0.102
0.090
0.189
0.386
0.145
0.454
0.457
HH
Respiratoryinorganics
gPM2.5eq
3.63103
3.45103
6.33103
0.0135
8.16103
0.0126
0.0128
HH
Ionizingradiation
BqC14eq
0.127
0.119
0.239
0.521
0.104
0.291
0.290
HH
Ozonelayerdepletion
gCFC11eq
1.43107
1.24107
2.68107
5.38107
1.03106
1.18106
1.21106
HH
Respiratoryorganics
gC2H4eq
6.02104
5.81104
1.11103
2.27103
3.31103
4.38103
4.09103
HH
Aquaticecotoxicity
gTEGwater
486
462
1135
2197
935
1619
1628
EQ
Terrestrialecotoxicity
gTEGsoil
118
113
243
484
290
410
417
EQ
Terrestrialacid/nutri
gSO2eq
0.0757
0.0725
0.136
0.293
0.221
0.291
0.298
EQ
Landoccupation
cm2org.arable
0.102
0.094
0.227
0.478
22.1
45.0
21.1
EQ
Aquaticacidification
gSO2eq
0.0308
0.0297
0.0551
0.1210
0.0499
0.0812
0.0822
2.66104
2.45104
2.28103
2.80103
2.03103
4.05103
4.06103
Aquaticeutrophication gPO4Plim
Globalwarming
gCO2eq
4.44
4.19
7.85
17.2
10.2
14.6
14.8
CC
Nonrenewableenergy
kJprimary
72.1
69.2
130
285
171
245
247
RE
Mineralextraction
kJsurplus
0.162
0.137
0.170
0.216
0.062
0.280
0.277
RE
Endpointcategories:HHhumanhealth;EQecosystemquality;CCclimatechange;REresources.
Cumulativeenergydemand[kJeq]
500
EndofLife
400
300
200
Use
Transportation
Manufacturing
Materials
100
0
100
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
(a)Measureddrytimes
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Cumulativeenergydemand[kJeq]
500
EndofLife
400
300
Use
Transportation
Manufacturing
200
Materials
100
0
100
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
(b)Reporteddrytimes
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure7Cumulativeenergydemandassociatedwithdryingasinglepairofhands,assuming(a)measured
drytimesand(b)reporteddrytimes.
30
Waterconsumption(incl.turbine)[L]
80
70
60
50
40
EndofLife
Use
Transportation
Manufacturing
Materials
30
20
10
0
10
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure8Waterconsumptionassociatedwithdryingasinglepairofhands(calculatedfromlifecycle
inventoriesbasedonmeasureddrytimes).
50
Landoccupation(cm2org.arable)
EndofLife
40
30
Use
Transportation
Manufacturing
20
Materials
10
0
10
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure9Landoccupation(IMPACT2002+midpoint)associatedwithdryingasinglepairofhands
(calculatedbasedonmeasureddrytimes).
31

CEDresults,alsocalculatedusingmeasuredandreporteddrytimes,arepresentedinFigure7.Again,
thehighspeeddryersystemsareshowntohavethelowestimpacts,andthepapertowelandthe
standarddryersystemsthehighest,withthecottonrolltowelsystemfallingsomewhereinbetween.In
thecaseofCED,virginpapertowelshavethehigherimpactbecausethemethodologyaccountsforthe
energyembodiedinvirginwood.
ResultsfromwaterconsumptionandlandoccupationareshowninFigures8and9,respectively,for
measureddrytimesonly.Waterconsumptioniscalculateddirectlyfromthelifecycleinventories,and
landoccupationisamidpointcategorywithinIMPACT2002+andcontributestotheecosystemquality
endpointcategory.
4.2.2 Endpointcategorynormalization
SomeLCIAmethodologies,inparticularthoseconcerningmultipleissuessuchasIMPACT2002+,havean
additionalnormalizationstepinwhichtheresultsofendpointcategoriesaredividedbyafactorbefore
beingweightedandcombinedintoasinglescore.InthecaseofIMPACT2002+,thedamage
assessmentsarenormalizedbydividingtheimpactbythetotalimpactofallsubstanceswithinaspecific
categorythatapersonlivinginEuropeisexposedtooveroneyear[50].Thisnormalizationenablesa
comparisonofthefourendpointcategoriessoonecanseewhichhavethegreatesteffectonanaverage
European.Figure10showstheresultsofthisnormalizationforthetwoendpointcategoriesinFigure6
aswellasfortheotherendpointcategories,climatechangeandresources.Theresultsindicatethat
humanhealth,climatechange,andresourceshaveapproximatelythesamerelativeimpactwhilethe
impactofecosystemqualityismuchless.
2.5
NormalizedIMPACT2002+
endpointcategories[106 pts]
HumanHealth
2.0
EcosystemQuality
ClimateChange
1.5
Resources
1.0
0.5
0.0
aluminum
plastic
dryer
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure10IMPACT2002+endpointcategoriesafternormalizationofresultsgivenmeasureddrytimes.
32

4.2.3 Rankordercomparison
DryingsystembaselineresultsformeasureddrytimesarecomparedinTable9byrankorderingthe
systems.(Rankorderformeasureddrytimesisslightlydifferentforthehumanhealthandwater
consumptionimpactcategories.)Systemsareassignedthesamerankifthedifferencebetweentheir
impactsiswithin10%ofthesmallerofthetwonumbers.TheplasticDysonAirbladehanddryerhas
thelowestimpactforallofthemetrics,followedbythealuminumDysonAirbladehanddryerandthe
XLERATORdryerforallmetricsexceptwaterconsumption,wheretheimpactofthecottonrolltowels
isessentiallyequivalenttothatoftheplasticDysonAirblade.Thus,therankorderofthetopthree
productsisnearlyindependentofthemethodusedtocalculateimpact.Therankorderofthestandard
dryerandthetowels,however,ismorestronglydependentontheimpactassessmentmethod,although
afewgeneralizationscanbemade:thestandarddryerandvirginpapertowelsystemsarealmost
consistentlyassociatedwiththehighestimpact,regardlessofimpactassessmentmethod;assuch,
cottonrolltowelimpactisalwayslessthanvirginpapertowelimpact,asisthatoftherecycledpaper
towels.Thesignificanceofthedifferencebetweendryingsystemenvironmentalimpactvaluesislater
evaluatedinthescenariouncertaintyanalysis(Section5.2.1)andthebillofactivitiesuncertainty
analysis(Section5.2.2)
Table9Rankorderofenvironmentalimpactoftheproductsusingthebaselinescenarioandmeasured
drytimesforalloftheimpactassessmentmetrics(1=lowestimpact,7=highestimpact).
Global
warming
potential
Human
health
Ecosystem
quality
Cumulative
energy
demand
Water
consumption
Land
occupation
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
Product
system
Airblade,
aluminum
Airblade,
plastic
Cottonroll
towels
Papertowels,
virgin
Papertowels,
100%recy.
4.3 Additionalproductlifecycles
Eachdryingsystemiscomprisedofmultipleproductsthatarerequiredtofulfillafunctionalunit(see
Table1).Globalwarmingpotentialandotherimpactresultscanthereforebebrokendownnotonlyby
lifecyclestage,butalsobythesedifferentproducts.Figure11showstheportionofeachdrying
systemsGWPattributedtoeachoftheseproducts.Fordryers,theonlyotherproductispackaging,
33

whichaccountsforaverysmallfractionoftotalimpact.SlightlymoreoftowelGWPsareassociated
withpackaging,dispensers,wastebins,andbinliners,butthemajorityoftheimpactisstillduetothe
towelsthemselves.
20
18
Binliners
16
Wastebin
14
Dispenser
12
Packaging
10
Towel
Dryer
6
4
2
0
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure11GWPofhanddryingsystems,brokendownbyproduct.
4.4 Contributionanalysisforindividualproducts
Thissectionincludesacloserlookattheenvironmentalimpactofthedifferenthanddryingsystems,
specificallythecontributionstoanddriversofthatimpact.
4.4.1 Dryers
AscanbeseenfromFigure5,thematerials,manufacturing,transportation,andendoflifestagesof
handdryerscompriseasmallfractionofthetotalimpactassociatedwithdryingonepairofhands
around4%to13%ofGWPwhencalculatedusingmeasureddrytimes.Consequently,alteringthe
assumptionsrelatedtotheselifecyclestages,suchasaccountingforscraplossinXLERATORand
standarddryerproductionorlocatingproductioninChina,willhaveminimalaffectonthefinalimpact
results.Nonetheless,itisstillimportanttomorecloselyevaluatethesestagesmaterialsand
manufacturinginparticularastheyaremuchhigherthantheothertwobecausetheyarecollectively
responsibleforasmuchas283kgCO2eqbeforetheirimpactsareallocatedamongthe350,000hand
dryingsthattakeplaceduringadryerslifetime.Additionalevaluationwillalsohelptoinformproduct
designdecisions.
Theproduction(i.e.materialsandmanufacturing)stageGWP,beforeallocationamonglifetimeuses,is
brokendowninFigure12forthealuminumandplasticDysonAirbladehanddryers,andinFigures13
and14fortheXLERATORandstandarddryers,respectively.AscanbeseenfromFigure12,over75%
oftheimpactisduetothreeprocesses:electricity,steelsheet,andaluminumorPC/ABS.Thesteel
34

sheetandaluminumorPC/ABSdominateimpactbecauseoftheirhighmassesrelativetothoseofother
dryercomponents:aluminumandPC/ABSareusedforthedryercoversandsteelsheetforthedryer
backplateplus,inthecaseoftheplasticdryer,reinforcementbrackets.Electricity,ontheotherhand,
dominatesbecausethedryerisassumedtobemanufacturedinChinaandthereforeusesacarbon
intensivegridmix.Theremainingcomponents,whichformthedryermotor,ducts,electronics,andso
forth,arelessthan25%ofproductionimpact.
GFRP
Pkging
Melamine
PS
PP
GFRP
Other
Steel
sheet
PS
PP
Other
Pkging
Melamine
Electricity
PC/ABS
Steel
sheet
Aluminum
Electricity
(a)AluminumAirblade
ProductionGWP:
191kgCO2 eq/dryer
(b)PlasticAirblade
ProductionGWP:
113kgCO2 eq/dryer
Figure12Breakdownofproduction(materials&manufacturing)phaseGWPfor(a)aluminumand(b)
plasticDysonAirbladehanddryers.
OverhalftheproductionGWPsoftheXLERATORandstandarddryersareduetothedryerscontrol
andopticsassemblies(Figures13and14).Theseassemblies,however,accountforlessthan3%ofdryer
mass(seeTable19intheAppendix).Giventheiroutsizedimpactinproportiontotheirmassesaswell
asrelativetoDysonAirbladehanddryerresults(theDysonAirbladehanddryerscircuitboards,by
contrast,accountforlessthan2%ofproductionGWP),thereisanopportunitytotakeacloserlookat
thematerialsandmanufacturingprocessesthatgointoproducingtheseassemblies.Specifically,more
informationabouttheassembliesintheXLERATORandstandarddryersisneededbecausetheir
inventoriesarecurrentlymodeledwithagenericunitprocessfromecoinvent,Electroniccomponent,
active,unspecified,whichmaynotaccuratelyrepresentthem;bycontrast,moredetailsareknown
abouttheDysonAirbladehanddryerselectroniccomponentsandamorespecificunitprocess,
Printedwiringboard,throughhole,leadfreesurface,isused.Theuseofthegenericecoinvent
processtomodeltheelectronicsoftheXLERATORandstandarddryersisexaminedmorecloselyin
Section5.1.6aspartofthesensitivityanalysis.
ElectricityusedinmanufacturingtheXLERATORandthestandarddryersrepresentsthesecondlargest
contributorstotheproductionstageGWP,consistentwiththechartsinFigure12.SincetheXLERATOR
35

coverisassumedtobeacombinationofthedryersthreedifferentcoversstainlesssteel,plastic,and
chromefinishnoonematerialdominatesbymass.
Other
Natural
gas
Zinc
GFRP
Steel
Electricity
Control,
optics
assembly
ProductionGWP:
275kgCO2 eq/dryer
Figure13BreakdownofproductionphaseGWPfortheXLERATORdryer.
Natural
gas
Zinc
Other
Aluminum
Steel
Electricity
Control,
optics
assembly
ProductionGWP:
271kgCO2 eq/dryer
Figure14BreakdownofproductionphaseGWPforastandarddryer.
36

Asnotedearlier,alteringtheassumptionsrelatedtotheproduction,transportation,andendoflife
stageswillhaveminimalaffectonthetotalGWPassociatedwithdryingonepairofhandswithahand
dryer.Assumptionsrelatedtotheusephase,however,cansignificantlychangeGWPbecausetheuse
phasedominatestotalimpact.Usephaseimpactisdrivenentirelybyelectricityconsumption,mostof
whichoccurswhenthedryerisinuseratherthanwhenitisspinningdownoronstandby(Figure15).
Thesensitivityanalysis(Section5.1)includesanassessmentofuseintensity,whichdefineshowlong
userswaittodrytheirhandsandtherebyaffectsusestageGWP;powerconsumptionisconsideredfixed
forthisstudy.
Usestageglobalwarmingpotential[gCO2 eq]
18
16
14
Standby
Spindown
Inuse
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Airblade
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
Figure15BreakdownofdryerusestageGWP.
4.4.2 Cottonrolltowels
Likedryers,cottonrolltowelshavetheirproduction,transportation,andendoflifestageimpacts
allocatedacrossmultipleuses.Forcottonrolltowels,thisisthe103times[12]theycanbereused
beforedisposal.Producingtheequivalentofonepullonacottontowelroll,however,stillemits253g
CO2eq.Thebreakdownofcottonrolltowelproduction(Figure16)showsthatweavingaccountsfora
largefractionofGWPonaccountofitsenergyrequirements,whereassizing,theadditionofstarchto
yarntofacilitateweaving,islessthan1%ofthetotal.
OverhalfofthetotalGWPassociatedwithusingacottonrolltoweltodryapairofhands,though,isdue
totheusestagespecificallylaunderingthetowels(Figure5).Withinthisprocess,thenaturalgas
requiredtoheatthewaterandthermallydisinfectthetowelscontributesthemosttousephaseimpact
(Figure17);transportationtoandfromlaundryfacilitiesisnotincludedinthefigure.
37
Desizing/
scouring/
bleaching
Cotton
fibers
Spinning
Weaving
Sizing
ProductionGWP:
253gCO2 eq/pull
Figure16GWPbreakdownofproducingtheequivalentofonepullonacottontowelroll.
Sewage
Soap
Electricity
Natural
gas
WashingGWP:
6.78gCO2 eq/pull/use
Figure17GWPbreakdownofwashingcottonrolltowel(usestageimpact).
38

4.4.3 Papertowels
Papertowelscontributethemosttosystemimpactintheirrespectivehanddryingsystems:asFigure11
shows,packaging,dispensers,wastebins,andbinlinersaccountforlessthan10%oftotalGWP.Most
ofthisimpact,inturn,canbeattributedtopulpproductionandtowelmanufacturing(Figure5).The
resultsinFigures59indicatethatpapertowelswithrecycledcontenthavealowerimpactthanvirgin
papertowelsforfourofthesixmetrics.Theextentofthedifferenceinimpactdependsonthemetric:
inthecaseofGWP,humanhealth,andwaterconsumption,thedifferencebetweentheimpactsofthe
twosystemsislessthan10%;thisisreflectedinthedryingsystemrankingsinTable9wherebothpaper
towelsystemsareassignedthesamerank.Thisconclusion,naturally,issubjecttopulpingprocessdata
andtheassumptionthattherecycledpulpingprocessisthesameasthevirginpulpingprocess.The
conclusioncouldpotentiallychangeifprocessesotherthansulfatepulpareusedandifinventorydata
onarecycledpulpingprocesswereused.Thedifferencebetweenthetwosystemsismorepronounced
forecosystemquality,CED,andlandoccupation.VirginpapertowelshaveahigherCEDbecausethe
metricaccountsfortheenergyembodiedinthewood.Likewise,thisneedforwoodcontributestothe
landoccupationmetric,whichitselfispartoftheecosystemqualitycalculationintheIMPACT2002+
LCIAmethodology(see[50]).
Figures18and19respectivelybreakdowntheGWPandCEDassociatedwithpapertowelproduction
intopulpmanufacturingandtheprocessesrequiredtoproducepapertowelsfrompulp.Pulp
manufacturingisinturnbrokendownintotheimpactduetowoodorwastepaperandthe
manufacturingprocess.Asthechartsshow,theGWPbreakdownsofbothpapertoweltypesarevery
similar,partlybecausetheGWPLCIAmethodologydoesnotaccountforbiogeniccarbonembodiedin
thewood.Therenewableenergycontentinthepaper(analogoustobiogeniccarbon),however,is
accountedforintheCEDLCIAmethodology:theenergyembodiedinthewoodusedinmanufacturing
virginpulpincreasesthepulpscontributiontoCEDaswellastheoverallimpact(seeFigure7).
39
Sewage
Waste
paper
Sewage
Wood
Pulpmfg
Pulpmfg
Natural
gas
Natural
gas
Electricity
Electricity
ProductionGWP:
5.96gCO2eq/towel
(a) Virgincontent
(b) Recycledcontent
ProductionGWP:
6.08gCO2eq/towel
Figure18GWPbreakdownofpapertowelproductionfrom(a)virginand(b)recycledcontent.
Sewage
Sewage
Natural
gas
Natural
gas
Waste
paper
Pulpmfg
Wood
Electricity
Electricity
Pulpmfg
(a) Virgincontent
ProductionCED:
197kJ/towel
(b) Recycledcontent
ProductionCED:
103kJ/towel
Figure19CEDbreakdownofpapertowelproductionfrom(a)virginand(b)recycledcontent.
5 Lifecycleinterpretation
Thelifecycleinterpretationsectionfocusesonunderstandingthelifecycleimpactassessmentresults
withinthecontextoftheanalysislimitations,uncertainty,andassumptions.Thisisaccomplishedwith
40

sensitivityanduncertaintyanalyses.Theformerevaluatesvariabilityinbaselinescenarioassumptions,
oneparameteratatime,whilethelatterexploressimultaneousvariationofparametersaswellas
addressesuncertaintyinthebillofactivitiesdata.ApedigreematrixandMonteCarlosimulationare
respectivelyusedtoquantifyandtopropagateuncertaintiesintheanalysis.
5.1 Sensitivityanalysis
Onescenarioalonecannotaccountforthewiderangeofusagepatternsorotherparametersthatcan
affectenvironmentalimpact.Sensitivityanalysesarethereforeconductedtoaddressthevariabilityin
thebaselinescenariosassumptions.Assumptionsaddressedinclude:
Lifetimeusage
Manufacturingphaseelectricgridmix
Usephaseelectricgridmix
Useintensity
Endoflifescenario
Dryerelectronicsunitprocess
Cottonrolltowelreuses
Papertowelmass
Pulpmanufacturingprocess
Endoflifeallocationmethodologyforrecycledcontentinpapertowels
Uselocation
Intheseanalyses,thehanddryingsystemGWPsarecomparedunderdifferentscenariostoassessthe
robustnessoftheobservationinSection4.2thathighspeeddryershavethelowestimpactofallthe
systems.Theseanalysesarealsousedtoevaluatehowdifferentfactorsaffecteachsystems
environmentalburdenandwhichofthosefactorsmatterthemost.Theresultsindicatethatelectric
gridmixanduseintensity(Sections5.1.25.1.4)exertthelargestinfluenceondryingsystemGWP.
Later,aMonteCarlosimulation(Section5.2.1)isusedtoevaluatetheuncertaintysurroundingthe
baselinescenarioassumptions.Dryerimpactiscalculatedassumingmeasureddrytimeasassessedwith
theNSFProtocolP335.
5.1.1 Lifetimeusage
Thebaselinescenarioassumesalifetimeusageof350,000pairsofhandsdriedovera5yeartimeframe
[26,27].Theactualnumberofuses,however,couldbehigherorlower,dependingonwashroom
41

traffic:forinstance,theExcelstudyassumes260,000pairsofhandsaredriedover10years[14].Figure
20illustratestheeffectofbothlowerandhigherusageoverthe5yeartimeframe.Increasingusage
reducesimpactbecausetheproductionandendoflifeburdensofthedryer(ordispenser,packaging,
etc.)arespreadovermorepairsofhands.ForthealuminumDysonAirbladehanddryersystem,an
increaseinusageto450,000resultsinalessthan4%decreaseinimpact;thischangeisevenlowerfor
theothersystemsaslittleas0.4%forthecottonrolltowelsystem.Thus,changinglifetimeusage
aloneisnotsufficienttofavoreithercottonorpapertowelsoverthehighspeedhanddryers.
20
18
150,000
16
250,000
14
350,000(baseline)
12
450,000
10
8
6
4
2
0
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure20EffectofproductlifetimeusageondryingsystemGWP.
5.1.2 Manufacturingstageelectricgridmix
Thisnextsensitivityanalysisinvestigatestheconsequencesofalteringthemanufacturingstageelectric
gridmixbyassessingdryingsystemGWPgiventwohypotheticalextremes:acarbonintensiveallcoal
gridandagreenerallhydropowergrid.Ahypotheticalallnucleargridisalsoaddedforcomparison.
Theanalysisaccountsfortheassumptionthatpapertowelsaremanufacturedinadifferentlocation
fromdryersandcottonrolltowelsbyassumingthehypotheticalgridmixesusetechnologiesappropriate
foreachdryingsystemsmanufacturinglocation.Thatis,thehypotheticalallcoalgridfordryer
productionassumesChinesetechnologyandtherebyassociatedemissionsfactorswhereastheall
coalgridforpapertowelmanufacturingassumesUStechnology.
AsseenfromtheresultsinFigure21,alteringthemanufacturingstagegridmixminimallyaffectsdryer
GWPbecausethisstageaccountsforaverysmallfractionofoverallenvironmentalimpact(seeFigure
5).Theoppositeistrueofpapertowels,whichderivethemajorityoftheirimpactfrommaterialsand
manufacturing.Theuseofagreenergrid,however,cannotcompletelyeliminatepapertowelemissions
becausesomeoftheemissionsarederivedfromthepulpingprocess,aswellasfromnaturalgasusedin
tissuemanufacturing(seeFigure18).Cottonrolltowelsfallsomewhereinbetweenthesetwoextremes
42

becausewhiletheirproductionaccountsforalargerfractionofGWPcomparedtothedryers,over50%
ofimpactisduetotheusestage.
20
18
CNorUSaverage(baseline)
16
Allcoal
14
Allhydro
12
Allnuclear
10
8
6
4
2
0
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure21EffectofalteringmanufacturingphasegridmixondryingsystemGWP.
5.1.3 Usephaseelectricgridmix
Inadditiontothemanufacturingstageelectricgridmixanalysis,ausestagegridmixanalysisisalso
conducted.Thelatterisaccomplishedinsimilarfashionwithhypotheticalallcoal,allhydropower,and
allnucleargridsusedtoassesstheconsequencesofvaryinggridmixondryingsystemGWP.Sinceuse
stageisassumedtotakeplaceintheUS,allhypotheticalgridsassumeUStechnologyandemissions
factors.Onlytheimpactsofdryerandcottonrolltowelsystemsareaffected:theimpactsofthepaper
towelsystemsdonotchangeasnousestageelectricityconsumptionisassociatedwiththosesystems.
TheeffectofthedifferentgridsisshowninFigure22.SincetheUSreliesoncoalforaround45%ofits
grid[51],thebaselineisalreadycarbonintensive.Thus,GWPincreasesonaverage53%forthehigh
speeddryerswhentheyarerunonanallcoalgrid.Bycontrast,hydropowerandnucleargridsaremuch
lesscarbonintensive,whichallowsdryerimpacttodecreasedramatically.Whilecottonrolltowel
impactalsodecreases,thechangeislesssignificantthanforthehanddryers.Themajorityoftheuse
stageimpactforcottonrolltowelsisderivedfromnaturalgas(seeFigure17)andtherebyunaffectedby
changesingridmix.
43
30
USaveragemix(baseline)
25
20
USallcoal
USallhydro
USallnuclear
15
10
5
0
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure22EffectofusephaseelectricgridmixondryingsystemGWP.
5.1.4 Useintensity
Alsoimportantistheuseintensityofeachhanddryingsystem.Useintensitydependsheavilyonthe
systemsusershowlongtheyarewillingtowaitwhenusingahanddryerorhowmanytowelsthey
taketowipetheirhands.Threeuseintensityscenariosareexaminedinthissensitivityanalysis:a
moderatescenario,whichisequivalenttothebaselineassumptions(includingmeasureddrytimesfor
thehanddryers),andalowandahighscenario,whichrespectivelyrepresent50%lessor25%more
thanthemoderatescenario(Table10).Resultsforthesescenarios,showninFigure23clearlyillustrate
thesignificanteffecttheuseintensityassumptionhasonahanddryingsystemsGWP.
Table10Useintensityscenarios.
Dryingsystem
Low
Moderate
(Baseline)
High
Airblade
6sec
12sec
15sec
XLERATOR
10sec
20sec
25sec
Standardwarmairdryer
16sec
31sec
39sec
Cottonrolltowels
1pull
1pull
2pulls
1towel
2towels
3towels
Papertowels
44
25
Low
20
Moderate(baseline)
High
15
10
0
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure23EffectofuseintensityondryingsystemGWP.
5.1.5 Endoflifescenario
ThisnextsensitivityanalysisevaluatestheeffectofdifferentendoflifescenariosintheUS.These
scenariosinvestigateenergyrecoveryfromincineration,thefractionofincineratedwaste,and
composting.Inthebaselinecase,76.7%ofcardboardpackagingisrecycled,with19%oftheremaining
cardboardandallotherwasteincineratedand81%senttothelandfill[30].Thethreehypothetical
alternativescenariosassume1)landfilling100%ofthewaste,2)incinerating100%ofthewaste,and3)
thebaselinecasewith100%compostingforthetowels.
Thecompostingunitprocessinventoryassumeseachkilogramofwasteresultsin350gramsof
compost,whichdisplaces18.4gramsofsyntheticfertilizer(basedondatafrom[32,47]).Thetowel
dryingsystemsarecreditedwiththeemissionsthatwouldhaveresultedfromtheproductionofthe
syntheticfertilizer.Energyrecoveryattheincinerationfacilityandfromthecombustionofmethane
capturedatthelandfillisassumedforthebasecaseandallalternativescenarios.Theexactdetailsof
theseprocessesareincludedinAppendixA.2.Onlycardboardpackagingisassumedtoberecycled.
Figure24illustratestheconsequencesofthedifferentendoflifescenarios.Sincetheburden
associatedwithhanddryerendoflifeissuchasmallfractionofoverallimpact,thereisalmostno
differencewhetherthedryersaresenttothelandfillorincinerated.Thechoiceoflandfillversus
incinerationalsohasminimaleffectontheGWPofthecottonrolltowelandpapertowelsystems.
Sending100%ofthewastetothelandfillresultsinslightlyloweremissionsduetothecombinationof
methanecaptureandenergyrecovery;sending100%ofthewastetobeincineratedactuallyresultsin
slightlyincreasedemissions.Compostingcansignificantlyreduceapapertowelsendoflifeburden
becauseoftheavoidedproductionofsyntheticfertilizer.
45
20
18
19%incin.(baseline)
16
0%incin.
14
100%incin.
12
19%incin.w/compost
10
8
6
4
2
0
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure24EffectoffractionofwasteincineratedondryingsystemGWP.
5.1.6 Dryerelectronicsunitprocess
Thenextfivesensitivityanalysesexamineparametersthatconcernatmosttwoofthesevendrying
systems;theothersystemsremainunchanged.Thefirstoftheseanalysesaddressesthechoiceof
ecoinventunitprocessesforthecontrolandopticsassembliesintheXLERATORandthestandard
dryers.Asseeninthedryercontributionanalysis(Section4.4.1),theseassembliesaccountfora
disproportionatelylargefractionofeachdryersproductionGWP(Figures13and14),especiallywhen
comparedtothemuchsmallerimpactoftheDysonAirbladehanddryerscircuitboards(aggregated
underotherinFigure12).Thisisduetothechoiceofagenericunitprocess,Electroniccomponent,
active,unspecified,torepresentthecontrolandopticsassemblies;amorespecificunitprocess,
Printedwiringboard,throughhole,leadfreesurface,isusedfortheDysonAirbladehanddryers
inventory.Figure25illustratestheconsequencesofsubstitutingtheprintedwiringboard(PWB)unit
processforthegenericunitprocessintheXLERATORandstandarddryerinventories.Thissubstitution
reducesdryerproductionimpactfrom275to104kgCO2fortheXLERATORdryerandfrom270to100
kgCO2forthestandarddryer(cf.Figures13and14).Theproductionstage,however,accountsforonly
asmallfractionoftheGWPassociatedwithafunctionalunit(seeFigure5);thus,changingproduction
impacthasminimaleffectontotalfunctionalunitGWP,asillustratedinFigure26.
46
Other
Control,
optics
assembly
Other
Zinc
Zinc
Control,
optics
assembly
Natural
gas
Natural
gas
Aluminum
Electricity
GFRP
Electricity
Steel
Steel
Revised productionGWP:
104kgCO2 eq/dryer
(a)XLERATOR
(b)Standarddryer
RevisedproductionGWP:
100kgCO2 eq/dryer
Figure25RevisedproductionGWPbreakdownfromalteringtheecoinventunitprocessusedtomodel
controlandopticsassembliesforthe(a)XLERATORand(b)standarddryers.
20
18
EndofLife
16
Use
14
Transportation
12
10
8
Manufacturing
Materials
6
4
2
0
Figure26EffectofalteringecoinventunitprocessusedtomodelcontrolandopticsassembliesonGWP
associatedwithafunctionalunit.
47
5.1.7 Cottonrolltowelreuses
Thenumberoftimesacottonrolltowelcanbelaunderedandreusedwillaffecthowmuchofits
productionburdenisallocatedtodryingasinglepairofhands.Thisisincontrasttolifetimeusage
(Section5.1.1),whichaddressedthelifetimeofthetoweldispenser.Figure27showstheconsequences
oflaunderingandreusingatowelasfewas70timesorasmanyas130times[12];inthebaseline
scenario,cottonrolltowelsarereused103times
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
EndofLife
Use
Transportation
Manufacturing
Materials
Figure27Effectofchangingnumberoftimescottonrolltowelarelaunderedandreused.
5.1.8 Pulpmanufacturingprocess
Thisthirdsystemspecificanalysisinvestigatestheconsequencesofchangingthepulpingprocesson
virginpapertowelGWP.Whilethekraftorsulfatepulpingprocessisthemostcommon,itrepresents
onlyoneofmanytechnologiesusedtomanufacturepulp.Otherpulpingprocessesincludethesulfite
pulpingprocess,stonegroundwoodpulping,thermomechanicalpulping,andchemithermomechanical
pulping.Additionally,sulfatepulpcancomeeitherunbleachedorbleached,withtheECF(elemental
chlorinefree)methodaccountingforoverhalftheproductionofbleachedsulfatepulp[32,52](TCFor
totalchlorinefreeistheotheroption).Alltheseprocessesareevaluatedforvirginpapertowels,
althoughnotallarenecessarilyappropriatefortissueproduction;additionaldetailsforeachofthese
processescanbefoundin[33].
Figure28illustratestheconsequencesofsubstitutingalternativepulpingprocessesontheGWPofvirgin
papertowels.Theresultsvaryfrom3.5%belowthebaseline(unbleachedsulfatepulp)to9.8%above
thebaseline(chemithermomechanical).
48
20
18
16
14
12
10
Papertowels,virgin
EndofLife
Use
Transportation
Manufacturing
Materials
8
6
4
2
0
Figure28EffectofpulpingprocessonvirginpapertowelGWP.
5.1.9 Papertowelmass
Inadditiontopapertoweluseintensity,papertowelmasscanalsoaffectdryingsystemenvironmental
impact.Thisstudyassumedapapertoweluseintensityoftwotowelsperhanddryingbasedon
observationsfromaUniversityofFloridastudy[37]andassumptionconsistentwiththeotherLCA
studiesreviewedinthisreport(onlytheKimberlyClarkstudyassumesaloweruseintensityof1.5
towelsperhanddrying[13]).Papertowelmass,however,variedwidelybetweenLCAstudies,from1.98
gforKimberlyClarkandExcel[13,14],to4gforETSA[12](seeTable40).Theconsequencesof
changingpapertowelmassareillustratedinFigure29.Environmentalimpactcalculationscontinueto
assumea3.85%manufacturingloss,consistentwithbaselineassumptions,andthattwopapertowels
areusedperhanddry.
49
35
Papertowels,virgin
EndofLife
30
Use
25
Transportation
20
Manufacturing
15
Materials
10
5
0
Figure29EffectofpapertowelmassonvirginpapertowelGWP.
5.1.10 Allocationofrecycledcontent
Thethirdpapertowelsensitivityanalysisinvestigateshowchangingtheallocationoftheburdenfrom
recycledcontentcanaffectpapertowelGWP.Inallocationforanopenlooprecyclingsystem,a
methodologicaldecisionhastobemaderegardingwhichproductwithinthesystemreceivestheburden
forprimarymaterialproduction(inthiscase,pulpproductionfromwood),recycling(i.e.repulpingfrom
wastepaper),andendoflife;burdensfrommanufacturingandtransportationareassignedtotheir
respectiveproducts.Sincemultipleproductlifecyclesareinvolved,aproductsburdenalsodependson
whetheritcanuserecycledcontentandwhetheritcanberecycled.Forinstance,papertowelscanuse
recycledcontent,butcannotberecycled[13]andthereforerepresentthefinalproductbeforedisposal.
AdescriptionofthedifferentallocationschemesusedinthisanalysisisincludedinAppendixA.4.The
cutoffscheme,inwhichthefullrepulpingandendoflifeimpactsareassignedtothepapertowels,is
chosenforthebaselinescenario.Noallocationisnecessaryforvirginpapertowels:theycannotbe
recycledandthusareallocatedthefullburdensofpulpproductionandendoflife.
ImpactresultsareshowninFigure30forpapertowelsmanufacturedentirelyfromrecycledcontent.
Dependingonallocationchoice,theburdenofpapertowelsfromrecycledcontentcanbemoreorless
thantheburdenoftowelsmanufacturedfromvirgincontent.Ultimately,changingtheallocation
schemedoesnotchangewhetherpapertowelsarepreferredovercottonrolltowelsorhighspeedhand
dryersasthemajorityofapapertowelsburdencomesfromtissuemanufacturing,whichisunaffected
byallocationchoice.
50
20
18
16
14
12
10
Papertowels,100%recycled
EndofLife
Use
Transportation
Manufacturing
Materials
8
6
4
2
0
Figure30EffectofdifferentallocationschemesforrecycledcontentonpapertowelGWP.
5.1.11 Manufacturinglocation
ThenexttwoanalysesinvestigatedryingsystemGWPsensitivitytomanufacturinganduselocations.
Themanufacturinglocationanalysisdiffersfromtheanalysisconcerningmanufacturingstagegridmix
becauseitaffectsnotonlygridmix,butalsotransportationdistancetowarehouse(whichisnot
accountedforinSection5.1.2).Inthebaselinescenario,dryersandcottonrolltowelsareassumedto
bemanufacturedinChina,whilepapertowelsaremanufacturedintheUSthesamelocationwhere
theyareused.Thesensitivityanalysisconsiderstwoalternativemanufacturinglocations:Malaysia,
whereDysonAirbladehanddryersaremanufactured,andtheUS,whereXLERATORdryersare
manufactured.TheGWPsofallproducts,withtheexceptionofpapertowels,areevaluatedassuming
theproductsweremanufacturedinthealternativelocations;papertowelmanufacturingisassumedto
continuetotakeplaceintheStatesbecausetheuselocationisunaffected.
Table11summarizesthechangesinanalysisparameters;impactresultsareshowninFigure31.
Becauseproductionandtransportationcompriseasmallfractionofoverallimpactforthehanddryer
systems(seeFigure5),theGWPsofthesesystemsarerelativelyunaffectedbythechangein
manufacturinglocation.Alteringmanufacturinglocationhasaslightlylargereffectonthecottonroll
towelsystemGWPasproductionandtransportationaccountforover40%ofitsoverallGWP.The
papertowelsystemsarealsoaffectedbecausethedispenser,wastebin,andbinlinersareassumedto
bemanufacturedintheUSorMalaysiaasopposedtoChina;theimpactattributabletothepaper
towels,however,isunchanged.
51

Table11Manufacturinglocationassumptions.
China(baseline)
US
Malaysia
Ref
Manufacturinggridmix
Coal
Naturalgas
Nuclear
Renewablea
CNavg.
78.6%
0.32%
2.1%
16.1%
USavg.
49.3%
17.4%
19.6%
8.9%
MYavg.
26.9%
63.6%
0%
7.7%
[32,53]
Transportation
Rawmaterialtoplant
PortAtoB
PortBtowarehouse
250km
10,500km
2,624km
250km
0km
0km
250km
15,160km
2,624km
[27,43,44]
(a)Renewableincludeselectricityproducedfromhydropower,solar,wind,andcogen
20
18
16
14
China(baseline)
US
Malaysia
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure31EffectofalteringmanufacturinglocationondryingsystemGWP.
5.1.12 Uselocation(regionalvariation)
Thissensitivityanalysisinvestigateshowhanddryingsystemimpactchangeswithuselocation.Altering
uselocationaffectsnotonlythetransportationrequiredtodelivertheproductfromitsmanufacturing
plantinChinatothenewlocation,butalsotheelectricgridmix,useintensity,andtheendoflife
scenario.Papertowelmanufacturinglocationisalsoimpactedbecausetowelsareassumedtobe
manufacturedinthesamecountrywheretheyareused.
Theoretically,theimpactofregionalvariationcanbeestimatedfromtheprevioussensitivityanalyses
sinceemissionsfromaregionsgridwilllikelyfallbetweentheemissionsofthehypotheticalallcoaland
52

allhydropowergrids(Section5.1.2).Likewise,theaverageuseintensityassociatedwitharegioncan
reasonablybeexpectedtobesimilartotherangesconsideredinSection5.1.4.Transportationisnot
anticipatedtohaveasignificantimpactonGWPbecauseitaccountsforasmallfractionofoverall
impact(seeFigure5).ChangingtheendoflifescenarioisalsolikelytohaveminimaleffectonGWP(see
Section5.1.5).Similarassumptionsasthoseusedbythebaselinescenarioareapplied:landfillmethane
emissionsarecapturedandflaredwithenergyrecovery,andonlycardboardpackagingisrecycled
(althoughthelatterisnotstrictlytrueinEuropebecauseofthewasteelectricalandelectronic
equipmentdirective[39]).Whetherornotenergyrecoverytakesplacefromincinerationdependson
thecountry.Nonetheless,itisworthwhiletoconductthisanalysisandcomparehanddryingsystem
impactoutsidetheUS.Table12summarizesassumptionsforfourlocations:US(baseline),France,
Germany,andUK;secondaryregionsareincludedinAppendixA.7.2.
Table12Regionalassumptions.
Uselocation
US
France
Germany
UK
Ref
10,500km
2,624km
1,760km
19,625km
30km
644km
19,625km
30km
752km
19,100km
372km
541km
[27,43,44]
Gridmix
Coal
Naturalgas
Nuclear
Renewablea
USavg.
49.3%
17.4%
19.6%
8.9%
FRavg.
4.4%
3.6%
76.8%
12.1%
DEavg.
44.0%
10.6%
25.3%
9.7%
GBavg.
32.6%
40.9%
19.1%
3.4%
[32]
Useintensityb
Airblade
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
Cottonrolltowels
Papertowels
12sec
20sec
31sec
1towel
2towels
10sec
18sec
28sec
1towel
2towels
10sec
18sec
28sec
1towel
2towels
10sec
18sec
29sec
1towel
2towels
[12,14,27]
Dryerpowerrating
Airblade
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
1,400W
1,500W
2,300W
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
[27]
76.6%
0%
19%
81%
60%
7%
9%
84%
70%
12%
21%
67%
45%
3%
0%
97%
[30,54]
Transportation
PortAtoB
PortBtowarehouse
Warehousetowashroom
MSW
Cardboardrecycled
Incinerated
Incineratedw/recovery
Landfilled
(b)DryeruseintensitymeasuredaccordingtoNSFProtocolP335[19].
53

ImpactresultsareshowninFigure32.Fordryers,theelectricgridmixhasthelargesteffectonGWP
consistentwithobservationsinSection4.2.DryersintheUS,Germany,andtheUKallrelyoncoaland
gasintensivegridsandthushavelargerGWPsthandryersinFrance,wherenuclearpowersuppliesthe
majorityoftheelectricity.ThisdifferenceingridmixhasasmallereffectontowelsystemGWPs
becausealargefractionoftheirburdensarederivedfromnaturalgasratherthanelectricity.
20
18
US(baseline)
16
France
14
Germany
12
UK
10
8
6
4
2
0
aluminum
plastic
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
100%
recycled
Figure32EffectofregionalvariationondryingsystemGWP.
5.2 Uncertaintyanalyses
Twoanalysesareconductedtoevaluatehowdryingsystemenvironmentalimpactisaffectedby
uncertaintyandvariationinlifecycleinventoryflows.Thefirstoftheseinvestigatesvariationinthe
assumptionsthatdefinethebaselinescenarioandthesecondaddressesuncertaintyandvariationinthe
billofactivitiesdata.
5.2.1 Scenariouncertainty
Investigatingvariationinthebaselinescenarioassumptionsisnecessarybecause,whilethesensitivity
analyses(Section5.1)providesomeinsightintotheeffectofthisvariationondryingsystemGWP,there
remainsagapinunderstandingbecausemostoftheanalysesconductedvaryonlyoneparameterata
time.Consequently,theycannotaddresshowinteractionsbetweentheseparametersmightaffect
systemGWP.Eventhemanufacturinglocationandregionalvariationanalyses,whichcombinemultiple
parameters,consideronlyalimitedsetofscenarios.Ascenariouncertaintyanalysisisthereforeusedto
explorethepotentialimpactsofmultipleparametersvaryingsimultaneously,therebysimulatingarange
ofscenarios.Theanalysisisessentiallyatestofthechoicesmadeinframingthelifecycleassessment.
Inthisscenariouncertaintyanalysis,theMonteCarlomethodisusedtorandomlysamplevaluesfora
setofdryingsystemparameters,suchasuseintensityorelectricgridmix;thesetofparameters
54

characterizeascenario.Environmentalimpactisthencalculatedbasedontheselectedparameter
values.TheanalysisisimplementedinExcelwithCrystalBallandusesdataobtainedfromecoinventvia
SimaPro.
Table13summarizestheindependentparametersconsideredintheuncertaintyanalysis.Auniform
distributionisassumedforalltheparametersduetolackofinformationonactualdistributions.The
firstfiveparametersinthetableconcernlifetimeusage,whichisrepresentedasthenumberofpairsof
handsdriedbeforetheproductisdisposed.Theseparametersareuncorrelatedinthisuncertainty
analysisbecausethereisnoreasontoexpectastandarddryerwilllastaslongasanXLERATORdryeror
viceversa.Thus,fiveindependentvariablesareusedintheanalysis,oneforeachdryersystem,plus
twomoreforthetoweldispensersandwastebin.Thenumberoftimesthecottontowelitselfcanbe
launderedandreusedisalsoincludedintheanalysis.
Thenextsetofparametersconcernmanufacturingandusephaseelectricgridmixes.Manufacturing
gridmixesareassumedtobeindependent(i.e.uncorrelated)foreachdryingsystembecausethereisno
reasontoexpectthatproductswillbemanufacturedinthesameregion.Usegridmixes,however,are
perfectlycorrelatedacrossthesystemsbecausethesystemsusephasestakeplaceinthesame
washroom(oratmost100kmaway,asisthecaseforcottonrolltowellaundering).Keepingdryersand
cottonrolltowelsonthesamegridalsoensuresaconsistentcomparativebasisfortheusephase.
TheuncertaintyanalysisrepresentsgridmixasacontinuousvariableofkgCO2eqperkWh;itisnot
necessarytodefinetheexactfractionsofcoal,naturalgas,hydropower,etc.requiredtogeneratethat
kilowatthourofelectricitybecauseonlythegridsGWPmattersinthecalculations.Theminimumand
maximumvaluesforthegridmixparametersareestimatedbasedontheGWPsofthehypotheticalall
hydropowerandallcoalgrids(sameasthoseusedinSections5.1.2and5.1.3).
Dryingsystemuseintensityisdecoupledfordryersandtowelsundertheassumptionthattheaverage
usertreatshanddryers,cottonrolltowels,andpapertowelsdifferently.Forinstance,auserwhoonly
spendsafewsecondsinfrontofahanddryermaynonethelessgrabthreepapertowelstodryhishands
quickly.Towelusageisassumedtovarycontinuouslybetweenoneandtwocottonrolltowelpullsor
betweenoneandthreepapertowels.Twosetsofdrytimesaredefinedfordryeruseintensityas
introducedinSection3.1.2.Thefirstrepresentsdryingdrivenusageinwhichusersholdtheirhandsin
theairstreamuntiladesireddrynessisachieved.Thedrytimerangesforthisdryingdrivenusage
patternaredefinedas50%belowto25%abovemeasuredbaselinedrytimes(asdefinedbytheNSF
ProtocolP335inTable4).Thesecondsetofdrytimerangesrepresentstimedrivenusage,inwhich
userswaitthesamelengthoftimefortheirhandstodry,regardlessofdryertype,beforeleaving.
Parameterlimitsforthistimedrivenusagepatternareapproximatedtorepresenttherangeof
reasonabledryingdrivenusagetimes.Alowerlimitof5secondswaschosenbasedontheDyson
Airbladehanddryersminimumdrytimeinthedryingdrivenscenario,andanupperlimitof30
secondsasthemaximumtimeusersarelikelytowaitfortheirhandstodry.Inbothcases,drytimesare
perfectlycorrelatedacrossdryers.
55

Table13ParameterrangesanddistributionsinMonteCarlosimulation.
Independentparameters
Dryingsystems
Baseline
Lifetimeusage
Airblade
350,000
Lifetimeusage
XLERATOR
350,000
Lifetimeusage
Standarddryer
350,000
Lifetimeusage
Lifetimeusage
Numberofreuses
Cottonrolltowel
(dispenser)
Papertowel
(dispenserandbin)
350,000
350,000
Range
150k550kpairsof
handsover5yrs
150k550kpairsof
handsover5yrs
150k550kpairsof
handsover5yrs
150k550kpairsof
handsover5yrs
150k550kpairsof
handsover5yrs
70130launderings
andreuses
0.0191.44
kgCO2eq/kWh
0.0191.44
kgCO2eq/kWh
0.0191.44
kgCO2eq/kWh
0.0191.44
kgCO2eq/kWh
0.0111.22
kgCO2eq/kWh
Distribution
Uniform
Uniform
Uniform
Uniform
Uniform
Cottonrolltowel
103
Airblade
CNaverage
XLERATOR
CNaverage
Standarddryer
CNaverage
Cottonrolltowels
CNaverage
Papertowels
USaverage
Airblade
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
Cottonrolltowels
USaverage
0.0161.32
kgCO2eq/kWh
Uniform
Uniform
Usegridmix
Uniform
Uniform
Uniform
Uniform
Uniform
Uniform
Useintensity
Airblade
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
12seconds
20seconds
31seconds
Dryingdriven:
50%to+25%of
measuredbaseline;
Timedriven:
530seconds
Useintensity
Cottonrolltowels
1towel
12towels
Uniform
Useintensity
Papertowels
2towels
13towels
Uniform
All
19%
0%100%
Uniform
Papertowels,
Cottonrolltowels
Y,N
Binary
MSWincineration
fraction
Compost
56

ThelasttwoparametersinTable13concerntheendoflifestage.Thefirst,municipalsolidwaste
(MSW)incinerationfraction,appliestoallhanddryingsystemsandspecifiesthepercentofeachsystem
thatisincineratedafterdisposal(theremainderisassumedtobesenttoalandfill).Whileapplyingthe
samescenariotobothdryersandpapertowelsmaynotbewhollyrealisticgiventhatdryersare
disposedafteralifespanoffiveyearswhereaspapertowelsaredisposedonlyafterasingleuse,the
incinerationfractionisnotanticipatedtochangewithinsoshortatimeframe.Asacaseinpoint,the
fractionofUSwasteincineratedafterrecoveryforrecyclinghaschangedverylittlesince1990whenthe
USincineratedaround17.2%ofitswaste[30].Finally,compostingindicateswhetherthetowelsare
compostedorincineratedand/orsenttoalandfill.
ParametersnotlistedinTable13areassumedtobethesameasinthebaselinescenario.Forexample,
ECFbleachedsulfatepulpisassumedforpapertowelsmanufacturedfromvirgincontent,andthecut
offstrategyforallocatingrecycledcontentassumedforpapertowelscontainingsuchcontent.
TheresultingGWPprobabilitydistributionsafter20,000iterationsarepresentedinFigure33forboth
dryingdriven(Figure33a)andtimedriven(Figure33b)usagepatterns.Statisticsforthedistributions
aredetailedinTable14.Onlyfiveofthesevensystemsareshown:analysesfortheplasticDyson
Airbladehanddryerandpapertowelsmanufacturedwithrecycledcontentwerenotconducteddueto
thesimilarityofthebaselineresultsfortheseproductswiththealuminumDysonAirbladehanddryer
andthepapertowelsmadeformvirginpulp,respectively.DryerGWPdistributionsassociatedwith
timedrivenusagearesimilarbecausethedryersthemselvesaredifferentiatedonlybytheirrespective
powerratings:drytimesarethesameforalldryers.Bycontrast,thedistributionsoftheXLERATOR
andstandarddryersystemshaveamuchwiderspreadthanthatoftheDysonAirbladehanddryer
systemwhendryingdrivenusageisconsidered.Thisisduetothebroaderrangeofdrytimesforthe
firsttwosystems:sincedryingdrivenusagevariesfrom50%to+25%ofthemeasuredbaseline,the
XLERATORandstandarddryerdrytimeshaveawiderspread(10to25secondsand16to39seconds,
respectively)owingtotheirlongermeasureddrytimesrelativetothatoftheDysonAirbladehand
dryer(seeTable4).
WhiletheprobabilitydistributionsofdryingsystemGWPinFigure33clearlyoverlap,thesecurvesare
notindicativeoftherelativeimpactsforanygivenscenariofromtheMonteCarlosimulationbecause
theyarenotfullyindependentofeachother.Comparisonindicators(CI),asproposedbyHuijbregts
[55],arethereforeusedtoestimatethefrequencywithwhichtheimpactofonedryingsystemislower
thanthatofanotherforagivenscenario.Followingthisapproach,twodryingsystemsarecomparedby
calculatingtheratiothecomparisonindicatoroftheirenvironmentalimpactsforeachiterationin
theMonteCarloanalysis.Iftheresultingdistributionofthisratioisconsistentlyaboveorbelowone,
thenitispossibletoclaimthattheimpactofonedryingsystemisconsistentlyhigherthantheimpactof
another.However,ifthedistributionfallsaroundone,thenitisnotpossibletomakesuchaclaim,
becauseitindicatesthattherearenumerousscenarioswheretherankorderofimpactamongthe
productsisswitched.
57
0.12
0.12
Airblade,aluminum
0.10
XLERATOR
0.10
Standarddryer
Cottonrolltowels
0.08
Probability
Probability
0.08
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.00
Papertowels,virgin
0.00
0
10
20
30
40
GWP[gCO2 eq]
10
20
30
40
GWP[gCO2 eq]
(a) Dryingdriven
(b) Timedriven
Figure33GWPprobabilitydistributionsgiven(a)dryingdrivenand(b)timedrivenusagepatterns.
0.40
0.40
0.35
0.35
0.30
0.30
0.25
0.25
Probability
Probability
0.20
0.15
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.10
0.05
0.05
0.00
0.00
0
GWPCI
(a) Dryingdriven
4
GWPCI
(b)Timedriven
Figure34GWPcomparisonindicatorprobabilitydistributions(calculatedrelativetoAirbladeGWP).
58

Table14StatisticsforGWPdistributionsinFigure33(inunitsofgCO2eq).
Mean
Median
St.Dev.
COV*
Min
Max
Baseline
Airblade,aluminum
3.42
3.23
1.79
0.52
0.36
8.83
4.59
XLERATOR
6.02
5.71
3.25
0.54
0.55
15.8
8.14
Standarddryer
12.9
12.2
7.58
0.59
0.63
34.9
17.8
Cottonrolltowels
15.2
15.1
3.21
0.21
8.11
25.5
10.9
Papertowels,virgin
14.1
13.4
4.86
0.34
4.78
28.4
15.5
Airblade,aluminum
5.28
4.53
3.41
0.65
0.38
16.2
4.59
XLERATOR
6.07
5.27
3.75
0.62
0.54
18.4
8.14
Standarddryer
8.72
7.48
5.68
0.65
0.59
26.8
17.8
Cottonrolltowels
15.3
15.2
3.20
0.21
8.16
25.8
10.9
Papertowels,virgin
14.2
13.5
4.89
0.35
4.81
28.6
15.5
Dryingdriven
Timedriven
*COV:coefficientofvariation=standarddeviation/mean
ComparisonindicatordistributionsfortheGWPofdifferentdryingsystemsrelativetothatofthe
aluminumDysonAirbladehanddryerareshowninFigure34givenbothdryingdrivenandtimedriven
usagepatterns.Theresultsindicatethatfordryingdrivendrytimes,thecomparisonindicator
distributionisalmostentirelyaboveone.Bycontrast,thisdistributionisshiftedtotheleftfortime
drivendrytimes.ThisshifttotheleftisreflectedinTable15,whichshowsthefrequencyatwhichthe
GWPoftheDysonAirbladehanddryersystemishigherthanthatoftheotherdryingsystemsgiven
bothdryingdrivenandtimedrivendrytimes.Overall,however,theGWPoftheDysonAirbladehand
dryerisstilllowerthanthatofanygivendryingsysteminover92%oftheiterations.
TheresultsinTable15indicatethattheDysonAirbladehanddryersystemalmostalwayshasthe
lowerimpactforagivenscenarioduetothecorrelationbetweenusephasegridmixandbetweendryer
useintensityparameters.Thus,whentheDysonAirbladehanddryerisoperatedonacarbon
intensivegrid,sotooaretheXLERATORandstandarddryers;likewise,whentheDysonAirbladehand
dryerisusedatlowintensity,theotherdryersareaswell,leadingtheAirbladetobeconsistently
favoredasithastheshorterdrytime(inthecaseofdryingdrivenusage)andthelowerpowerrating.
Thereareafewinstances,however,whentheXLERATORsystemhasthelowerimpact.Thisoccursin
scenarioswheretheXLERATORdryerhasahighlifetimeusage,theDysonAirbladehanddryeralow
lifetimeusage,andtheusephasealowcarbongridmix.Thegreenerusephasegridmixreducesthe
usephaseburdenrelativetotheproductionphaseburdensothatthelatterinsteadoftheformerdrives
dryersystemimpact.Sinceproductionimpactdeterminesrankorderofdryingsystems,theXLERATOR
systemisthenfavoredovertheDysonAirbladehanddryersystembecauseitshigherlifetimeusage
enablestheallocationofitsproductionburdenovermorepairsofhandsandreducestheimpact
associatedwithdryinganyonepairofhands.Thisfrequencyishigherfortimedrivenusagebecause
59

usephaseburdensarenearlyequal,whichinturnincreasesthelikelihoodthattheXLERATORGWPwill
belessthantheGWPoftheDysonAirbladehanddryerinthecaseofthisanalysis,7.3%comparedto
1.3%ofMonteCarloiterationsfortimeanddryingdrivenusage,respectively.ThelongerDyson
Airbladehanddryerdrytimesassociatedwithtimebasedusagealsoincreasethefrequencyatwhich
thepapertowelsystemwillhavealowerimpactthantheDysonAirbladehanddryersystem.
Table15Comparisonindicatorfrequencies.
FrequencyGWPA<GWPB
DryingsystemA
DryingsystemB
Dryingdriven
Timedriven
XLERATOR
Airblade,aluminum
1.3%
7.3%
Standarddryer
Airblade,aluminum
0.16%
0.95%
Cottonrolltowels
Airblade,aluminum
0.0%
1.3%
Papertowels,virgin
Airblade,aluminum
0.40%
6.5%
AdditionalscenariouncertaintyresultsindicatethatthevariationindryersystemGWPisprimarily
drivenbythevariationinusestagegridmix,followedbydryeruseintensity.Bycontrast,thevariation
incottonrolltowelsystemGWPisduetochangesintoweluseintensityandthentochangesin
manufacturingandusestagegridmix.Forthepapertowelsystems,variationinthetoweluseintensity
andinthemanufacturingstagegridmixmatterthemost.
Thecurrentscenariouncertaintyanalysisassumesthatregardlessofusagepattern,useintensityis
perfectlycorrelatedamongthehanddryers.Inreality,thismaynotbethecaseasthedryersare
inherentlydifferentandmayelicitdifferentuserbehavior.Additionally,thecurrentanalysisdefaultsto
thebaselinescenarioforallassumptionsandparametersnotlistedinTable13.Thecontributionand
sensitivityanalyses(Sections4.4and5.1),however,showthatalteringsomeoftheseassumptions
reducesdryingsystemGWP.Inparticular,thechoiceofunitprocessfortheXLERATORandstandard
dryercontrolandopticsassemblies(Section5.1.6)isaddressed.
Globalwarmingpotentialandcomparisonindicatorsarethereforereevaluatedunderdifferentsetsof
assumptionsforbothdryingdrivenandtimedriveusagepatterns.Thefirstreevaluationassumes
uncorrelateddryeruseintensity,butisotherwisethesameastheoriginalscenariouncertaintyanalysis.
Thesecondnotonlyassumesuncorrelateddryeruseintensity,butalsoreplacestheunitprocessforthe
XLERATORandstandarddryercontrolandopticsassemblieswiththelowerimpactprintedwiring
board(PWB)process.
ComparisonindicatorsforeachsetofassumptionsaresummarizedinTable16,whichincludesthe
resultsfromTable15.Theresultsindicatethatremovingthecorrelationbetweendryeruseintensities
increasesthefrequencyatwhichtheGWPsoftheXLERATORandstandarddryersystemsarelessthan
thatoftheDysonAirbladehanddryersystem,particularlyfortimedrivenusage.Thecomparison
60

indicatorsforcottonrolltowelandpapertowelsystemsareunaffected.Changingtheelectronicsunit
processfortheXLERATORandthestandarddryersalsoincreasesthenumberofMonteCarlo
generatedscenariosthatresultintheirGWPsundercuttingtheDysonAirbladehanddryerGWP.For
theXLERATORsystem,useofthePWBunitprocessreducesGWPenoughsothathalfthetime,its
impactislessthanthatoftheDysonAirbladehanddryersystemwhentimedrivenusageisassumed.
Table16Summaryofcomparisonindicatorsfromscenariouncertaintyanalyses.
FrequencyGWPX<GWPAirblade
XLERATOR
Cotton
Paper
andStd.dryer
XLERATOR Std.dryer
towels
towels
electronics
Usagepattern
Dryeruse
intensity
correlated?
Dryingdriven
Electronic
component
1.3%
0.16%
0.0%
0.40%
Dryingdriven
Electronic
component
4.5%
0.15%
0.0%
0.45%
Dryingdriven
PWB
14%
1.2%
0.0%
0.44%
Timedriven
Electronic
component
7.3%
0.95%
1.3%
6.5%
Timedriven
Electronic
component
37%
19%
1.3%
6.2%
Timedriven
PWB
50%
27%
1.3%
6.4%
5.2.2 Billofactivitiesuncertaintyanalysis
Inadditiontoassessingscenariouncertainty,itisalsousefultoinvestigateuncertaintyandvariationin
thebillofactivitiesdatathatis,theamountofmaterials,processing,energy,andtransportrequired
overthelifecycleofaproductsystem.Thus,thisanalysisevaluatesuncertaintyinquantitiesofallunit
processeslistedinthebillofactivitiesandtheireffectondryingsystemenvironmentalimpact.Often,
however,suchuncertaintydataarenotavailableandsomehowhavetobeestimated.Thisestimationis
conductedwithapedigreematrixapproach,describedin[32],whichisusedtoqualitativelyassessdata
sourcequalityandtoquantifytheuncertaintythatpoorqualitysourcesmayintroduceintothelifecycle
assessment.Thesamemethodologyisusedbyecoinventtoassessthequalityoftheirowndatasources
forallunitprocessesintheirdatabase.
Table39intheappendixdetailsthequalitylevelsandresultinggeometricstandarddeviationsforeach
unitprocessusedinthisanalysis.Allprocessesareassumedtofollowalognormaldistributionbasedon
observationsbyHofstetter[56]andthefactthatitistheprimarydistributionusedbyecoinvent[32].
OncedistributionshavebeendefinedforallunitprocessesandenteredintoSimaPro,aMonteCarlo
simulationisrunfor500iterations.Bydefault,SimaProassumesunitprocessesthatappearmultiple
61

timeswithinadryingsystemsinventoryarecorrelated[57];dryingsystems,however,areanalyzed
independently.
TheresultingGWPdistributionscanbeusedtoassesstheconsequencesofdatasourcequalityondrying
systemenvironmentalimpact.Specifically,thedistributionsarecomparedwithattesttodetermine
whetherdifferencesbetweentheirmeansarestatisticallysignificant.Inthiscase,ttestdetermines
whetherimpactofdryingsystemAislowerthanthatofdryingsystemB.Whetherthedistributionspass
orfailthetestdependsonthesignificancelevel,,whichrepresentstheprobabilityofstatingthatthe
impactofdryingsystemAislowerthanthatofdryingsystemBwhen,infact,theirdistributionsand
meansarestatisticallyindistinguishable.Typicallyischosentobeequaltoorlessthan0.05thus,a
5%chancethatthestatementthatdryingsystemAhasthelowerimpactisincorrectforstatistical
significance.
Sincettestsrequirethateachsamplebenormallydistributed,achisquaregoodnessoffittestisused
todeterminewhetherthenormalorlognormalmodelsareappropriaterepresentationsofGWP
distributions.AdditionaldetailscanbefoundinAppendixA.3.1.
Table17StatisticsforinventoryuncertaintyanalysisfromFigure35(inunitsofgCO2eq).
Dryingsystem
Mean
Median
St.Dev.
COV*
Min
Max
Baseline
Baselinescenario(measureddrytimes)
Airblade,aluminum
4.62
4.36
1.62
0.351
2.14
17.8
4.59
XLERATOR
8.0
7.55
2.68
0.335
3.07
20.9
8.14
Standarddryer
17.9
16.8
6.41
0.358
6.60
65.4
17.8
Cottonrolltowels
11.0
10.9
1.29
0.117
7.54
16.6
10.9
Papertowels,virgin
15.4
15.2
2.06
0.134
10.6
21.9
15.5
Baselinescenario(reporteddrytimes)
Airblade,aluminum
4.62
4.36
1.62
0.351
2.14
17.8
4.59
XLERATOR
5.51
5.19
1.80
0.327
2.29
14.9
5.35
Standarddryer
17.5
16.3
6.32
0.361
6.02
46.6
17.3
Cottonrolltowels
11.0
10.9
1.29
0.117
7.54
16.6
10.9
Papertowels,virgin
15.4
15.2
2.06
0.134
10.6
21.9
15.5
PWBunitprocesssubstitutedinXLERATORandstandarddryerinventories(reporteddrytimes)
Airblade,aluminum
4.62
4.36
1.62
0.351
2.14
17.8
4.59
XLERATOR
4.80
4.47
1.86
0.387
1.80
14.9
4.87
Standarddryer
17.0
15.9
5.92
0.348
5.29
43.7
16.8
Cottonrolltowels
11.0
10.9
1.29
0.117
7.54
16.6
10.9
Papertowels,virgin
15.4
15.2
2.06
0.134
10.6
21.9
15.5
*COV:coefficientofvariation=standarddeviation/mean
62

MonteCarlosimulationsareruninSimaProforeachdryingsystemunderthreesetsofconditions:1)
baselinescenarioassumptionsgivenmeasureddrytimes(seeTable4);2)baselinescenarioassumptions
givenreporteddrytimes;and3)baselinescenarioassumptionsgivenreporteddrytimes,butwiththe
PWBunitprocessusedfortheXLERATORandstandarddryercontrolandopticsassemblies.GWP
distributionresultsforthefirstbaselinescenariowithmeasureddrytimesareshowninFigure35with
statisticsdetailedinTable17.Sincechisquaregoodnessoffittestresultsindicatedthatthelognormal
modelisareasonablefitforalldistributions,thedistributionsweretransformedtonormaland
comparedviathettest.TtestresultsareshowninTable18for=0.01;additionalinformationis
includedinAppendixA.3.1.
Inmostcases,itispossibletostatethatthedistributionsarestatisticallydifferentandidentifywhichis
associatedwiththelowermeanimpact.Oneofthetwoexceptionsisthecomparisonbetweenthe
standarddryerandthepapertoweldistributions,whichfailsthettestinthebaselinecasewith
reporteddrytimesandinthecasewithreporteddrytimes,plustheuseoftheprintedwiringboard(i.e.
nongeneric)unitprocessforthestandarddryerscontrolandopticsassemblies.Inthelattercase,the
distributionsarestillindistinguishableevenwhenthecriterionforstatisticalsignificanceisrelaxedto
=0.05.Usingthestandarddryersmeasureddrytime,however,increasesthedryersystemsimpact
enoughthatthedifferencebetweenitandthepapertowelsystembecomesstatisticallysignificant.The
secondexceptionisthecomparisonbetweenthealuminumDysonAirbladehanddryerandthe
XLERATORdryerwhentheGWPsarecalculatedwithreporteddrytimesandtheprintedwiringboard
unitprocessfortheXLERATORsopticsandcontrolassemblies.Undertheseconditions,the
XLERATORsGWPisreducedcomparedtothebaselinesmakingthetwodryerdistributionsstatistically
indistinguishableatbotha1%anda5%significancelevel.
Table18Dryingsystemttestresultsafterlognormaltonormaltransformation.
GWPA<GWPBorindistinguishableat=0.01?
Baseline,
Baseline,
PWB,reported
measured
reported
DryingsystemA
DryingsystemB
Airblade,aluminum
XLERATOR
Yes
Yes
Indistinguishable
Airblade,aluminum
Standarddryer
Yes
Yes
Yes
Airblade,aluminum
Cottonrolltowels
Yes
Yes
Yes
Airblade,aluminum
Papertowels,virgin
Yes
Yes
Yes
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
Yes
Yes
Yes
XLERATOR
Cottonrolltowels
Yes
Yes
Yes
XLERATOR
Papertowels,virgin
Yes
Yes
Yes
Cottonrolltowels
Standarddryer
Yes
Yes
Yes
Cottonrolltowels
Papertowels,virgin
Yes
Yes
Yes
Papertowels,virgin
Standarddryer
Yes
Indistinguishable
Indistinguishable
63
Probability
Airblade,aluminum
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
Probability
XLERATOR
0.00
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
Probability
Standarddryer
0.00
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
Probability
Cottonrolltowels
0.00
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
Probability
Papertowels,virgin
0.00
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
Figure35GWPprobabilitydistributionsresultingfromuncertaintyinunitprocessinventorydata.
Assumesbaselinescenariowithmeasureddrytimes.
64
40
6 Conclusions
Baselineresultsinthisstudyshowthattheenvironmentalimpactofhighspeedhanddryersisgenerally
lowerthanthatofotherhanddryingsystems,althoughtheexactrankorderofthesystemsissensitive
toLCIAmethodology(seeTable9).TheDysonAirbladehanddryersystem,however,hasthelowest
impactregardlessofimpactassessmentmethod.Evenwhenscenariouncertaintyistakenintoaccount,
theGWPofthisdryingsystemisnearlyalwaysthelowest,providedusersfollowthedryingbasedusage
patternandthathanddryertimesarecorrelated(Table15).Itshouldbenoted,however,thatunder
timebasedassumptions,theimpactoftheXLERATORdryersystemisveryclosetothatofDyson
Airbladehanddryersystem.
Studyresultsalsoindicatethattheusestageistheprimarydriverofdryersystemimpact(Figures59).
Papertowelsystemimpact,bycontrast,isdrivenbytheproductionstageandcottonrolltowelsystem
impactbyboththeproductionandusestages.Therefore,itisnotsurprisingthatelectricitygridmixand
useintensityhavethelargestinfluenceontheGWPoutcomes,asdemonstratedinthesensitivity
analysis(seeFigures2123).Thesetwoparametersalsocontributethemosttovariabilityinthe
scenarioanalysis.
Theremainderofthissectiondiscussestheseconclusionsinmoredetail.Additionally,
recommendationsforreducingimpactarelistedinSection6.4andstudylimitationspresentedin
Section6.5.Completeness,sensitivity,andconsistencychecksarealsoincludedinAppendixA.8.
6.1 Keydriversofenvironmentalimpact
6.1.1 Handdryers
ThebaselineresultsinSection4.2.1showthathanddryerenvironmentalimpact,regardlessofimpact
assessmentmetric,isdrivenbytheusephaseenergyconsumedintheactiveuseofthehanddryer(i.e.,
asopposedtostandbyorothermodescf.Figure15).ThecontributionanalysesinSection4.4indicate
thatthekeydriverofimpactwithintheproductionphase(includingmaterialsandmanufacturing)
dependsontheproduct.ForthealuminumDysonAirbladehanddryer,productionofthealuminum
componentsrepresentsoverhalfoftheburden,followedbytheelectricityusedtoassemblethe
product.Togethertheyrepresentover75%oftheproductionGWPburden.Bycontrast,theproduction
burdenoftheplasticDysonAirbladehanddryerisdominatedbytheelectricityusedinassembly,
followedbytheproductionoftheplasticcomponents.
TheGWPproductionburdensoftheXLERATORandstandarddryersaredominatedeitherbythe
controlandopticsassemblyorbytheelectricityusedtoassembletheproduct,dependingonthe
inventorydatausedforthecontrolandopticsassembly.Regardlessofdryingsystem,theelectricity
associatedwithassemblyisasignificantfractionoftheproductionburden.
6.1.2 Cottonrolltowels
Thekeydriversofenvironmentalimpactforthecottonrolltowelsaremoresensitivetothechoiceof
impactassessmentmethodology.Whenglobalwarmingpotential,humanhealth,cumulativeenergy
demand,andwaterconsumptionareused,theusephase(i.e.,washingthetowels)accountsforover
65

halfofthetotalimpact,followedbytransportationandmanufacturingandthenbymaterials.By
contrast,thematerialsphaseismuchmoresignificantintheecosystemqualityandlandoccupation
metricsbecausetheyplacegreateremphasisontheburdensassociatedwithgrowingthecotton
comparedtotheothermetrics.Theseresultsindicatethatalllifecyclephases,withtheexceptionof
endoflife,areimportanttoconsiderwhenassessingthelifecycleimpactofcottonrolltowels.
Thecontributionanalysisshowsthatbetweenmaterialproduction(cottonfibers)andprocessing
(spinning,weaving,anddesizing),nosinglestepdominatestheGWPproductionimpactofacotton
towelroll.Furthermore,theanalysisindicatesthattheuseofnaturalgasinthewashingstepisthe
primarydriverofGWP.
6.1.3 Papertowels
Thekeydriversofenvironmentalimpactforpapertowelsalsodependontheimpactassessment
methodology.Themanufacturingphasemakesupoverhalfoftheimpactforglobalwarmingpotential
andwaterconsumption,followedbythematerialsproductionphaseandtransportation.Itis
noteworthythatpapertowelsaretheonlyproductforwhichproductendoflifehasanysignificant
impactspecificallyinglobalwarmingpotential(causedbydegradationofpapertowelsinlandfills).For
theecosystemqualityandcumulativeenergydemandmethods,thematerialsphaseisthekeydriver,
makingupontheorderofhalfoftheimpact.Landuseisdrivenalmostentirelybythematerialsphase.
Theseresultsindicatethatthematerialsandmanufacturingstagesarethemostimportanttoevaluate
inthelifecycleofpapertowelsbecausetheyarekeydriversforallimpactassessmentmethods.
Theresultsofthecontributionanalysisindicatethattheelectricityandthenaturalgasusedinthepaper
towelproductionaretheprimarycontributorstotheproductionGWP,makingupapproximatelythree
quartersoftheimpact,followedbypulpmanufacturing.Theexactbreakdown,however,willdependon
thepulpmanufacturingprocesswhich,fortherecycledcontenttowels,haslargeruncertaintydueto
unitprocessinventoryassumptions.
6.2 Sensitivityofresultstoscenariosanddataquality
Numerousassumptionsandinventorydatadecisionsaremadethroughoutthedevelopmentofthis
study.Theinterpretationstepofthestudyisusedtoexploretheimpactofthosedecisionsonthe
outcomes.
ThesensitivityanalysesinSection5.1includetestsofvariationsinthirteenassumptionsonthe
outcomesofthestudy.Oftheseparameters,theelectricalgridmixandtheuseintensity(timeofuse
forhanddryers,numberofpullsforcottonrolltowels,andnumberoftowelsforpapertowels)were
showntohavethelargestinfluenceonGWPoutcomes.Theelectricalgridmixassumptioncausesthe
mostsignificantvariationforthehanddryersbecausehanddryerGWPsaredrivenbytheusephase,
whichreliesonelectricity.TheGWPsofthesesystemscanvarybyanorderofmagnitudedependingon
thegridmixassumption.Ontheotherhand,thepapertowelsandcottonrolltowelsaremoreaffected
bytheuseintensityassumption.Otherparametersaddressedinthesensitivityanalyseswereshownto
haveminimaleffect(typicallylessthan10%deviationfromthebaseline)ondryingsystemGWP.
66

Thescenariouncertaintyanalysistestsnumerouscombinationsofassumptions(i.e.,scenarios)to
determinetherangeofimpactsthatwouldresultfromthesecombinations.Theanalysesindicatethat
thereisawiderangeofpossibleGWPvaluesforallofthescenarios:coefficientsofvariation(standard
deviationdividedbythemean)forthehanddryerswere5060%andforthetowelswere2034%.The
handdryershavehighercoefficientsofvariationbecausetheelectricalgridmiximpactsthemmorethan
thetowels.ThescenarioanalysisresultsalsoshowthatvariationindryersystemGWPisprimarily
drivenbyvariationinusestageelectricgridmix,whereasvariationintowelsystemGWPisdrivenby
changesinuseintensityandmanufacturingstagegridmixconsistentwithresultsfromthesensitivity
analysis.Theimpactofthedifferentlevelsofvariationoncomparativeassertionsissummarizedinthe
followingsection.
Theimpactofdataqualityassumptionsaretestedusingtheuncertaintyanalyses,whichrelyonthe
pedigreematrixapproachtoquantifytheuncertaintyassociatedwithdataquality.Theanalysesindicate
coefficientsofvariationofapproximately35%forthehanddryersand12%forthetowelsusingthe
baselinescenario.
6.3 Comparativeassessmentofproductenvironmentalimpact
Theresultsfromthisreportmaybeusedtomakecomparativeassertionsabouthanddryingsystems,so
itisimportanttoreiteratehowtherankorderofsystemimpactisaffectedbyimpactassessment
methodandthestatisticalsignificanceofthedifferenceintheimpactbetweenthesystems.
Table9comparesrankorderofdryingsystemsforeachimpactassessmentmethod.Systemsare
assignedthesamerankifthedifferencebetweentheirimpactsiswithin10%ofthelowerofthetwo
numbers.Theresultsshowthatingeneral,theDysonAirbladehanddryersystemshavethelowest
environmentalimpactandthepapertowelandstandarddryersystemshavethehighestimpact,
althoughtheexactorderultimatelydependsonLCIAmethodology.
Ascenariouncertaintyanalysisandabillofactivitiesuncertaintyanalysisareusedtoevaluatethe
significanceofthedifferencebetweendryingsystemenvironmentalimpacts.Comparisonindicator
resultsfromthescenariouncertaintyanalysis(Section5.2.1)showthatwhendryingdrivendrytimes
arecorrelatedacrosshanddryersystems,theXLERATORdryersGWPislessthantheDysonAirblade
handdryersGWPinfewerthan2%ofthescenariosexplored.Thisfiguredropstowellbelow1%for
eachoftheothersystemsexamined.Whendryingtimesaremodeledastimedriven,thesefigures
growto7.3%fortheXLERATOR,6.5%forthepapertowels,andlessthan1.3%fortheotherproducts.
Removingdrytimecorrelationbetweenhanddryersystemsincreasesthelikelihoodtheimpactofthe
XLERATORorstandarddryerswillbelessthantheimpactofthealuminumDysonAirbladehand
dryer;thesubstitutionoftheprintedwiringboardunitprocessfortheXLERATORandstandarddryer
controlandopticsassemblieshassimilarconsequences(regardlessofusagepattern).Thus,when
dryersareusedasrecommendedthatis,todryhandscompletelyasdefinedbytheNSFProtocol
P335oreventojustachieveacertaindrynessdryingdrivenusagethealuminumDysonAirblade
handdryerhasalowerGWPthantheXLERATORin86%ofthescenariosexplored,andalowerGWP
thantheotherdryingsystemsin98%orgreaterofthescenarios.Whendryersareusedinterchangeably
67

withoutregardtohanddryness(i.e.timedrivenusage),itislesslikelythatthealuminumDyson
Airbladehanddryerwillhavethelowerimpact.
Theseconduncertaintyanalysis(Section5.2.2)calculatesaprobabilitydistributionofGWPusingthe
baselinescenarioandconsideringuncertaintyandvariationofunitprocessquantitiesinthebillof
activities.Theresultsofttestsontheseanalyses(showninTable18)indicatethatdifferencesbetween
themeanestimatedimpactscanbeconsideredstatisticallysignificantforalmostalldryingsystem
comparisonsatan=0.01significancelevel.Exceptionsincludethecomparisonsbetweenthe
standarddryerandpapertoweldistributionsgivenbothscenarioswithreporteddrytimes,andbetween
theXLERATORdryerandtheDysonAirbladehanddryerdistributionsgivenreporteddrytimesand
useoftheprintedwiringboardunitprocessfortheXLERATORselectroniccomponents.Onlythe
comparisonbetweenthestandarddryerandpapertoweldistributionswiththereporteddrytime
baselineisstatisticallysignificantata5%significancelevel;thecomparisonbetweenthesetwosystems
withtheprintedwiringboardprocessforthestandarddryerandbetweentheXLERATORdryerandthe
DysonAirbladehanddryerarenotstatisticallysignificantatanylevelofsignificance.
ItisimportanttoincludeacommentfromtheISO14044standard[11]aboutthecarethatshouldbe
usedinemployingcomparativeassertions:
AnLCIAshallnotprovidethesolebasisofcomparativeassertionintendedtobe
disclosedtothepublicofoverallenvironmentalsuperiorityorequivalence,asadditional
informationwillbenecessarytoovercomesomeoftheinherentlimitationsintheLCIA.
Valuechoices,exclusionofspatialandtemporal,thresholdanddoseresponse
information,relativeapproach,andthevariationinprecisionamongimpactcategories
areexamplesofsuchlimitations.LCIAresultsdonotpredictimpactsoncategory
endpoints,exceedingthresholds,safetymarginsorrisks.
Thus,althoughthisstudymaybeusedasafoundationforcomparativeassertionsaboutenvironmental
performance,theassertionsshouldalsoincludeotherinformationabouttherelativeperformanceof
theproductstostrengthentheclaims.
6.4 Recommendationsforreducingdryingsystemenvironmentalimpact
Anothergoalofthestudyistoidentifywaystoreducetheenvironmentalimpactoftheproducts,
therebyinformingdesigndecisions.Basedonthekeydriversofenvironmentalimpactidentifiedinthis
study,opportunitiesexistforreducingproductimpact.Theopportunitiesforhanddryersinclude:
Reducingproductelectricityconsumptionduringoperation.
Shorteningdrytimes(ifpossible).
Replacingvirginaluminumwithlessimpactintensivematerials(includingrecycledaluminum).
Usingcontrolandopticsassemblieswithalowerenvironmentalfootprint.
Decreasingelectricityburdenassociatedwithproductassembly.
68

Theopportunitiesforcottonrolltowelsinclude:
Limitingusetoonepullperdry.
Usingmaterialsthathavelowerwaterandlandoccupationburdens.
Reducingburdenofspinningandweavingprocesses.
Decreasingnaturalgasconsumptionduringwashingprocesses(e.g.,coldertemperature
washing).
Theopportunitiesforpapertowelsinclude:
Limitingusetoonepapertowelperdry.
Reducingnaturalgasandelectricityconsumptionduringthematerialproductionphase.
Collectingmaterialatendoflifetopreventitfromdegradinginlandfills.
6.5 Studylimitations
Thereareseverallimitationsofthisstudythatneedtobeconsideredwheninterpretingtheresults.
Datafromotherstudieswereappliedwithouthavingdirectaccesstothepractitionersand
commissionersofthosestudies.Sensitivityanalyseswereusedininstanceswhereassumptions
ordatainotherstudieswereunclear.
Inventorydataforproductionofdeinkedpulpfrom100%recycledcontentwasnotavailable;
thus,simplifyingassumptionsweremadeforthedeinkedpulpmanufacturingprocess.Itis
difficulttoassessexactlyhowthisassumptionimpactstheresultsbecausetheKimberlyClark
studycalculatesat30%increaseinGWPimpactforrecycledpapertowelsovervirginpaper
towels[13],whereasthePaperTaskForce[58]notedina1995reportonprintingpaperthat
deinkedpulpproductionconsumeslessenergyandmorebleachingchemicalsthanbleached
kraftpulpproduction.Improvedinventorydataonrecycledpapertowelswouldhelptoclarify
thesediscrepancies.
Europeandata(ecoinvent)andmethods(IMPACT2002+)wereappliedtoaUScontext.Thisis
necessarybecauseoflimiteddataavailabilityfortheUScontext.
Dataonobservedhanddryingtimes,whichisakeydriverofenvironmentalimpact,werenot
availableforallhanddryers.However,thescenarioanalysesexploredtheimpactofvariationin
handdryingtimes.
NouncertaintyanalysiswasconductedusingtheLCIAmethodologiesbecausethe
methodologiesdonotprovideinformationonthedegreeofvariationforthecharacterization
factors.Thus,suchananalysisisnotpossibleatthemoment.
69
Thepedigreematrixapproachtoestimatinguncertaintyinaninventoryusessubjectivedata
qualityassessmentsanduncertaintyvaluestoquantifyuncertainty.However,thedatasource
qualityassessmentswereappliedconsistentlyacrossallproducts,sotheuncertainty
assessmentsforallproductscanbeusedtomakemeaningfulrelativecomparisons.
Inspiteoftheselimitations,thescenarioanalysesandtheuncertaintyanalyseshaveshownthatthe
resultsofthestudyarerobustforawiderangeofscenariosanddataassumptions.Thus,thelimitations
donotfundamentallydiminishtheoutcomesofthestudy.
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72
8 Criticalreview
AcriticalreviewofthisreporthasbeenconductedbyapeerreviewcommitteeofLCAexperts.The
committeeconsistedofH.ScottMatthews(AvenueCAdvisors,LLC)whoservedasthechairofthepanel
andJeffMorris(SoundResourceManagementGroup)andCynthiaManson(IndustrialEconomics,Inc.).
ThecommitteefoundthereporttobeincompliancewiththeISO14040/14044standards.Furthermore,
thecommitteehadnumeroussuggestionsonhowtoimprovethecontentandqualityofthereport.
Mostofthesesuggestionshavebeenimplementedinthisreport.Afulllistofthecommittees
commentsonthereportisincludedinaseparatedocument.
A Appendices
A.1 Handdryingsystembillsofactivities
BillofactivitiesdataforeachofthehanddryingsystemsisdetailedinTables19and20inthisappendix.
Thedatarepresentthematerialsandprocessesrequiredtodryasinglepairofhandsthatis,one
functionalunit.Itshouldalsobenotedthatwithineachlifecyclestage,thedataisconsolidatedby
materialorprocessratherthanbypart.
73

Table19Billofactivitiesdatarepresentingonefunctionalunitofhanddryersystems.
Lifecycle
stage
Materials
74
Airblade,
aluminum
Airblade,
plastic
Standard
dryer
Acrylonitrilebutadienestyrenecopolymer,ABS,atplant(RER)
mg
0.302
0.302
1.62
0.405
Adhesiveformetals,atplant(DE)
mg
0.086
0.086
Aluminium,primary,atplant(RER)
mg
25.7
2.797
Aluminium,secondary,fromoldscrap,atplant(RER)
mg
2.797
Ceramictiles,atregionalstorage(CH)
mg
0.302
Chromium,atregionalstorage(RER)
mg
0.016
Copper,primary,atrefinery(RER)
mg
0.029
0.029
0.966
0.767
Electroniccomponent,active,nspecified,atplant(GLO)
mg
0.669
0.669
Epoxyresin,liquid,atplant(RER)
mg
0.025
Galvanizedsteel
mg
6.24
Glassfiberreinforcedpolypropylene
mg
2.81
2.807
Glassfibrereinforcedplastic,polyamide,injectionmolding,atplant(RER)
mg
4.01
Glassfibre,atplant(RER)
mg
0.494
0.494
Melamine,atplant(RER)
mg
1.70
1.703
Nickel,99.5%,atplant(GLO)
mg
0.0056
Nylon6,atplant(RER)
mg
0.342
Paper,newsprint,atregionalstorage(RER)
mg
0.483
0.483
Plasticmixturewithextrusion
mg
1.25
Polycarbonate,atplant(RER)
mg
0.464
9.401
Unitprocess
Unit
XLERATOR
Polyethyleneterephthalate,granulate,amorphous,atplant(RER)
mg
0.179
Polyethylene,LDPE,granulate,atplant(RER)
mg
0.459
0.459
Polypropylene,granulate,atplant(RER)
mg
3.24
3.239
Polystyrene,generalpurpose,GPPS,atplant(RER)
mg
1.89
1.89
Polyurethane,rigidfoam,atplant(RER)
mg
0.063
0.063
Polyvinylchloride,atregionalstorage(RER)
mg
0.493
0.493
Stainlesssteelsheet
mg
6.14
11.03
Steel,converter,chromiumsteel18/8,atplant(RER)
mg
1.31
1.309
9.67
3.80
Syntheticrubber,atplant(RER)
mg
2.05
2.050

Lifecycle
stage
Unitprocess
Materials(contd)
Zinc,primary,atregionalstorage(RER)
Unit
Airblade,
aluminum
Airblade,
plastic
XLERATOR
Standard
dryer
7.02
1.61
mg
2
Printedwiringboard,throughhole,leadfreesurface,atplant(GLO)
mm
0.051
0.051
Sawntimber,softwood,planed,kilndried,atplant(RER)
cm3
0.001
Unspecifiedmass
mg
4.82
0.483
Packaging
Corrugatedboard,freshfibre,singlewall,atplant(RER)
mg
0.376
1.47
Packaging
Corrugatedboard,recyclingfibre,singlewall,atplant(RER)
mg
8.297
0.376
Packaging
Packagingfilm,LDPE,atplant(RER)
mg
0.150
Manufacturing
Electricity,mediumvoltage,atgrid(CN)
kJ
0.420
0.423
0.445
0.445
Naturalgas,burnedinindustrialfurnacelowNOx>100kW(RER)
kJ
0.474
0.474
75
Water,unspecifiednaturalorigin
cm
0.013
0.0183
Treatment,sewage,towastewatertreatment,class3(CH)
cm3
0.013
0.0181
Use
Electricity,lowvoltage,atgrid(US)
Endoflife
Transportation
kJ
17.2
17.2
31.6
92.2
Recyclingcardboard
mg
6.36
6.36
0.576
1.13
Disposal,municipalsolidwaste,tolandfill,methaneenergyrecovery
mg
40.8
31.1
24.6
17.2
Disposal,municipalsolidwaste,toincineration,energyrecovery
mg
9.56
7.30
5.77
4.03
Toplant
Transport,lorry>16t,fleetaverage(RER)
kgkm
0.0142
0.0112
0.0077
0.0056
ToUSport
Transport,transoceanicfreightship(OCE)
kgkm
0.533
0.386
0.290
0.205
Towarehouse
Transport,freight,rail,diesel(US)
kgkm
0.132
0.0957
0.0719
0.0509
Towarehouse
Transport,lorry>32t,EURO3(RER)
kgkm
0.0012
0.00088
0.00066
0.00047
Towashroom
Transport,lorry1632t,EURO3(RER)
kgkm
0.0894
0.0648
0.0487
0.0344
Towastefacility
Transport,lorry7.516t,EURO3(RER)
kgkm
0.0051
0.0037
0.0028
0.0020
References
[27]
[27]
[14,27]
[14,27]
Referenceflow
1/350,000ofdryerandpackaging
Electricitytodryonepairofhands

Table20Billofactivitiesdatarepresentingonefunctionalunitoftowelsystems.
Lifecycle
stage
Materials
Cottonroll
towels
Wastebin
andliners
Copper,primary,atrefinery(RER)
mg
0.483
Cottonfibres,ginned,atfarm(CN)
mg
178
Unitprocess
Unit
Papertowels
Dispenser
Polyethylene,LDPE,granulate,atplant(RER)
mg
126
Polypropylene,granulate,atplant(RER)
mg
9.13
Steel,converter,chromiumsteel18/8,atplant(RER)
mg
0.483
20.4
Sulphatepulp,ECFbleached,atplant(RER)
mg
4,112
Pulpfromwastepaper
mg
(4,112)a
Packaging
Corrugatedboard,freshfibre,singlewall,atplant(RER)
mg
414
0.648
10.1
Packaging
Packagingfilm,LDPE,atplant(RER)
mg
90.2
Manufacturing
76
Electricity,mediumvoltage,atgrid(CN)
kJ
0.445
kJ
29.4
Naturalgas,burnedinindustrialfurnacelowNOx>100kW(RER)
kJ
48.7
0.474
Water,nspecifiednaturalorigin
0.212
Treatment,sewage,towastewatertreatment,class3(CH)
0.212
Extrusion,plasticfilm(RER)
mg
126
Extrusion,plasticpipes(RER)
mg
7.98
Spinningcottonfiber
mg
160
Sizing
mg
160
Weaving
mg
157
Desizing/scouring/bleaching
mg
157
Use
Laundering
16.2
Endoflife
Recyclingcardboard
mg
317
0.496
7.75
mg
218
3,410
8.30
120
mg
51.0
800
1.95
28.2

Lifecycle
stage
Transportation
Cottonroll
towels
Wastebin
andliners
Toplant
Transport,lorry>16t,fleetaverage(RER)
kgkm
0.0671
1.13
0.0027
0.039
ToUSport
Transport,transoceanicfreightship(OCE)
kgkm
1.65
0.098
1.57
Towarehouse
Transport,freight,rail,diesel(US)
kgkm
0.409
0.0243
0.388
Towarehouse
Transport,lorry>32t,EURO3(RER)
kgkm
0.0038
0.00022
0.0036
Towashroom
Unitprocess
Unit
Papertowels
Dispenser
Transport,lorry1632t,EURO3(RER)
kgkm
0.277
7.60
0.0164
0.262
Tolaundry
Transport,lorry3.57.5t,EURO3(RER)
kgkm
1.62
Towastefacility
Transport,lorry7.516t,EURO3(RER)
kgkm
0.024
0.432
0.00093
0.015
References
[12]
[1214]
[14]
[6,14]
1/350,000of
dispenserand
packaging
1/350,000of
wastebin&
pkging,plus
1/270ofbin
liner&pkging
Referenceflow
1/103ofone
towelpulland
packaging,
pluslaundry
2paper
towels
77
(a)Parenthesesindicatemassesassociatedwithpapertowelsmanufacturedfrom100%recycledcontent(assumingcutoffallocationofthatcontent).

A.1.1 Energyconsumptioncalculationsfordryerusestage
AsnotedinSection3.1.2,handdryersconsumeenergynotonlywhenactivelydryinghands,butalso
whenspinningdownandwheninstandbymode(duetotheiruseofopticalswitchestosensewhento
turnonandoff).Spindownenergyconsumptionisestimatedbyassuminga1.5secondspindowntime
athalfpower.Standbyenergyconsumptioniscalculatedbasedonthedryersstandbypowerratingand
thetotaltimeinthe5yeardryerlifespan,lessthetimethedryerisinuseorspinningdown.Total
energyconsumptioncanthereforebewrittenas:
E Pin use t in use Pspin down t spin down Pstandby t standby
wherePxandtxrepresenttheinuse,spindown,andstandbypowerratingsandtimes,respectively.tinuseisgivenbythemeasured(orreported)timesinTable4;additionalpowerratingsandtimescanbe
foundinTable5.tstandbyiscalculatedfromtin-useandtspin-downfollowing:
t standby
t life _ span lifetime _ usage t in use t spin down

lifetime _ usage
tlife_spanrepresentsadryers5yearlifespanandlifetime_usagethepairsofdryhandsdriedoverthe5
yeartimeframe(equalto350,000pairsinthisstudy).Totalenergyconsumptionisthus
E Pin usetin use Pspin downt spin down Pstandbyt standby

Pin usetin use
158 106 sec 350,000 tin use 1.5 sec .

1
Pin use 1.5 sec Pstandby
350,000
2
A.2 Modifiedunitprocessdata
Tables2236presentunitprocessesneededforthisstudy,butnotavailableintheecoinventdatabase.
Theseprocesseswereeitheradaptedorcreatedusingecoinventdataoradoptedfromexternalsources.
Themodifiedprocessesinclude:
Galvanizedsteel(Table22)Thequantityofthezinccoatingrequiredwasestimatedby
calculatingtheareaofa0.7mmthicksquareofsteelweighingonekilogram.Giventhatthe
zincremainingonthesteelisapproximately45mm[32],itaddslessthan12gtooverallmass
andisthereforenotcountedintheprocess.
Stainlesssteelsheet(Table23)Thisprocessassumesstainlesssteelisrolledintosheetsand
thattherearenolossesfromrolling.
Plasticmixturewithextrusion(Table24)BecauseoflackofspecificdataintheExcelstudy
[14],thisprocesswascreatedtoprovideagenericplasticprocessfortheXLERATORand
standarddryers.Italsoassumestherearenolossesfromprocessing.
Glassfiberreinforcedpolypropylene(Table25)Thisprocesswascreatedspecificallyforthe
DysonAirbladehanddryers;itassumesthesameamountofelectricityconsumptionasthe
PC/ABSprocess(Table26).
78
Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene(Table26)Processdatawereobtainedfrom
Dyson[27]andassumea3%materialloss.
Cottontowelproductionandlaundering(Tables2731)Processdatawereobtainedfromthe
ETSAstudy[12].
Pulpfromwastepaper(Table32)Thisprocessmakestheassumptionthattheinputand
outputflowsfrommanufacturingpulpfromwastepaperareequaltothoseofmanufacturing
ECFbleachedsulfatepulpfromvirginwood.Theonlyexceptionisthatinsteadofwood,waste
paperisused.Onlyapartialinventoryisshownbecausetheunitprocessisadoptedfromthe
ecoinventunitprocessforECFbleachedsulfatepulp.
Cardboardrecycling(Table33)Theavoidedproductionofcardboardiscalculatedassuming
eachkilogramofrecycledpaperstillrequires0.22kgofvirginfibers[12].
Incinerationwithenergyrecovery(Table34)Theecoinventprocessformunicipalsolidwaste
incineration(Disposal,municipalsolidwaste,22.9%water,tomunicipalincineration/CHU)is
modifiedtoincludetheavoidedproductionof0.65kWhofelectricityperkilogramofwaste
incinerated[38].ThiselectricityisassumedtoreplaceelectricityproductionontheUSaverage
gridmix,thusleadingtotheavoidedemissionsof0.632gCO2eqperkilogramofwaste
incinerated.Theseemissionsfromtheavoidedproductionofelectricityarecreditedtothe
dryingsystems.Table34onlyincludesasubsetofprocessinputsandemissions;flowsnot
includedarethesameasthoseintheunmodifiedecoinventprocess.
Landfillwithmethanecapture(Table35)Theecoinventprocessformunicipalsolidwaste
landfill(Disposal,municipalsolidwaste,22.9%water,tosanitarylandfill/CHU)ismodifiedto
accountformethanecaptureoflandfillemissionsandthesubsequentcombustionofsuch
emissionswithenergyrecoverytoproduceelectricity.Seventyfivepercentofmethane
emissionsfrombothbiogenicandfossilsourcesarecaptured[46]foratotalof16.2gof
methaneperkilogramofwaste.Thesecapturedemissionsareburnedandcompletely
convertedtocarbondioxide,whichisreleasedintotheatmosphere(4.43gCO2perkilogramof
waste).Heatfromthecombustionreactionisrecovered(thelowerheatingvalueofmethane,
802kJ/kgCH4,isassumed)andusedtoproduceelectricity.Givenanefficiencyof11,600MJ
perkWh[46],251J(6.97105kWh)ofelectricityisgeneratedandassumedtoreplace
productionontheUSaveragegrid.Allemissionsfromtheavoidedproductionofelectricityare
creditedtothedryingsystems.Table35onlyincludesasubsetofprocessinputsandemissions;
flowsnotincludedarethesameasthoseintheunmodifiedecoinventprocess.
Composting(Table36)Compostingtowelsinplaceofsendingthemtoalandfillorincinerator
isanalyzedinthesensitivityanalysis(Section5.1.5).Thisprocessassumesthatthecompost
generatedallowstheavoidedproductionoffertilizer,themassofwhichiscalculatedbasedon
datafromecoinventandaEuropeanCommissionstudyonbiodegradablemunicipalwaste[32,
47].CalculationresultsareshowninTable21.Theseresultsassumethat1kgdrymatter
79

displaces18.9gN,4.86gP2O5,and11.7gK2Oover10years,andthat1kgofbiodegradable
wasteyields350gcompost,whichcontains60%drymatter.Nutrientdisplacementvalues
representdataforanaveragecompost,whichincludessomefractionofkitchenscrapsandyard
waste,becausenodataisavailableforpaperorcottononlycompost.Fertilizertypesare
selectedbasedonusagedatafromtheUSDAEconomicResearchService[59]andweight
fractionsofnutrientsineachfertilizeraretakenfromecoinventdocumentation[32].The
calculatedmassofdisplacedureaammoniumnitrateaccountsforthepresenceofnitrogenin
monoammoniumphosphate,thephosphorusfertilizer.
Table21Avoidedfertilizerproductionassumptionsforcompostendoflifescenario.
Mass
Mass
displacedper displacedper
kgdrymatter kgcompost
Nutrient
Nitrogen
18.9g
11.3g
Mass
displacedper
kgwaste
3.95g
Phosphorus
4.9g
2.9g
1.02g
Potassium
11.7g
7.0g
2.45g
Fertilizer
Ureaammonium
nitrate
Monoammonium
phosphate
Monoammonium
phosphate
Potassium
chloride
Fertilizer
Nutrient
displacedper
weight%
kgwaste
32%
11.7g
11%
52%
2.0g
60%
4.1g
Table22Unitprocessforgalvanizedsteel.
UnitProcess:Galvanizedsteel
Inputs
Outputs
Name
Amount
Unit
kg
Chromiumsteel(RER)
Zinccoating(RER)
0.1815
Name
Amount
Unit
Galvanizedsteel
kg
Amount
Unit
Table23Unitprocessforstainlesssteelsheet.
UnitProcess:Stainlesssteelsheet
Inputs
Outputs
Name
Amount
Unit
Name
Chromiumsteel(RER)
kg
Sheetsteel
kg
Sheetrolling(RER)
kg
80

Table24Unitprocessforplasticmixturewithextrusion.
UnitProcess:Plasticmixturewithextrusion
Inputs
Outputs
Name
Amount
Unit
Polypropylene(RER)
kg
Extrusion(RER)
kg
Name
Amount
Unit
kg
Amount
Unit
Table25Unitprocessforglassfiberreinforcedpolypropylene.
UnitProcess:Glassfiberreinforcedpolypropylene
Inputs
Outputs
Name
Amount
Unit
Name
Glassfiber(RER)
0.3
kg
GlassfiberreinforcedPP
kg
Polypropylene(RER)
0.7
kg
Electricity(CN)
0.3
kWh
Amount
Unit
Table26Unitprocessforpolycarbonate/acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene.
UnitProcess:Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene[27]
Inputs
Outputs
Name
Amount
Unit
Polycarbonate(RER)
0.721
kg
PC/ABS
kg
ABScopolymer(RER)
0.309
kg
0.3
kWh
Electricity(CN)
Name
Table27Unitprocessforspinning(cottontowels).
UnitProcess:Spinningcottonfiber[12]
Inputs
Outputs
Amount
Unit
Amount
Unit
Electricity(CN)
Name
7.67
MJ
Spuncottonfiber
Name
kg
Naturalgas(RER)
2.5
MJ
Amount
Unit
kg
Table28Unitprocessforsizing(cottontowels).
UnitProcess:Sizing[12]
Inputs
Outputs
Name
Starch(DE)
Amount
Unit
0.1
kg
Name
Sizedfiber
81

Table29Unitprocessforweaving(cottontowels).
UnitProcess:Weaving[12]
Inputs
Outputs
Name
Amount
Unit
Electricity(CN)
15.2
MJ
Naturalgas(RER)
13.9
MJ
Name
Amount
Unit
Wovencottontowel
kg
Table30Unitprocessfordesizing,scouring,andbleaching(cottontowels).
UnitProcess:Desizing/scouring/bleaching[12]
Inputs
Outputs
Amount
Unit
Amount
Unit
Water
Name
0.162
m3
Bleachedcottontowel
Name
kg
Hydrogenperoxide(RER)
0.45
kg
Sodiumhydroxide(RER)
0.055
kg
Towater
Electricity(CN)
3.6
MJ
Ammonium
1.6
Naturalgas(RER)
14.9
MJ
Nitrogen
2.9
Phosphorus
0.24
Sewage(CH)
0.162
m3
Amount
Unit
Table31Unitprocessforlaundering(cottontowels).
UnitProcess:Laundering
Inputs
Outputs
Name
Amount
Unit
Name
Water
9.4
Washedcottontowel
kg
Soap(RER)
26.1
Electricity(US)
0.1
kWh
9.4
Naturalgas(RER)
4.1
MJ
Sewage(CH)
82

Table32Partialunitprocessinventoryforproducingpulpfromwastepaper.
UnitProcess:Pulpfromwastepaper
Inputs
Outputs
Name
Amount
Water
0.074
Wastepaper(RER)
Unit
3
Name
Bleachedsulfatepulp
Amount
Unit
kg
1.5
kg
Quicklime(CH)
0.0084
kg
Toair
Carbondioxideliquid(RER)
0.001
kg
Heat,waste
5.26
MJ
Hydrogenperoxide(RER)
0.0054
kg
Carbondioxide,biogenic
2.21
kg
Sulfuricacid(RER)
0.0301
kg
Sameasecoinventprocess
Towater
Disposal,hazardouswaste(DE)
0.00026
kg
Amount
Unit
Corrugatedboard
kg
Table33Unitprocessforcardboardrecycling.
UnitProcess:Cardboardrecycling
Inputs
Outputs
Name
Amount
Unit
Corrugatedboard(RER)
kg
Avoidedproduction
0.78
kg
Corrugatedboard(RER)
Name
Table34Unitprocessforincinerationwithenergyrecovery.
UnitProcess:Incinerationwithenergyrecovery
Inputs
Outputs
Amount
Unit
Municipalsolidwaste
Name
kg
Amount
Unit
Emissions
Additionalinputs
Avoidedproduction
0.65
kWh
Electricity(US)
Name
83

Table35Unitprocessforlandfillwithmethanecaptureandenergyrecovery.
UnitProcess:Landfillwithmethanecaptureandenergyrecovery
Inputs
Outputs
Name
Amount
Unit
Municipalsolidwaste
kg
Carbondioxide,biogenic
182
Avoidedproduction
Carbondioxide,fossil
8.30
251
Methane,biogenic
5.15
Methane,fossil
0.236
Additionalinputs
Additionalemissions
Amount
Unit
0.35
kg
Electricity(US)
Name
Toair
Amount
Unit
Table36Unitprocessforcompostingasawastetreatmentoption.
UnitProcess:Compost(wastetreatment)[32,47]
Inputs
Outputs
Name
Amount
Unit
kg
Compost
Diesel(RER)
0.291
Electricity(US)
Biodegradablewaste
Name
0.0175
kWh
Ammonia
Toair
130
mg
Avoidedproduct
Carbondioxide
124
Ureaammoniumnitrate
11.7
Carbonmonoxide
9.29
mg
Monoammoniumphosphate
2.0
Hydrocarbons,unspecified
3.81
mg
Potassiumchloride
4.1
Hydrogenchloride
0.013
mg
Hydrogenfluoride
0.013
mg
Methane
344
mg
Nitrogenoxides
15.73
mg
Particulates
0.897
mg
Sulfuroxides
3.54
mg
VOC
8.4
mg
Towater
BOD
0.013
mg
COD
0.013
mg
TOC
0.145
mg
Chlorine
0.013
mg
Fluorine
0.013
mg
Metallicions
0.013
mg
Phenol
0.013
mg
Suspendedsolids
0.013
mg
84
A.3 Unitprocessimpactandquality
Environmentalimpactsoftheunitprocessesusedinthebillofactivities(Tables19and20)arelistedin
Table38.Qualitylevelsandthebasicuncertaintyfactorrequiredinthepedigreematrixanalysisarealso
detailedforeachprocessinTable39.
A.3.1 Statisticaltests
Twostatisticaltestsareusedtoevaluatetheresultsofthedataqualityanalysis(Section5.2.2):thettest
andthechisquaregoodnessoffittest.TtestisusedtocompareGWPdistributionmeansand
determinewhethertheirdifferencesarestatisticallysignificant.Forthisparticularanalysis,the
followingequationisusedtotestwhethertheimpactofdryingsystemAislowerthanthatofdrying
systemB:
to
y A yB
S A2 S B2
n A nB
y representsthesamplemean,S2thesamplevariance,andnthesamplesizeofeachsystem.Thetest
isconsideredtobestatisticallysignificanti.e.theimpactofsystemAislikelylowerthantheimpactof
systemBifto < t,vwhereisthesignificancelevelofthetestandvthedegreesoffreedom.Inthis
case,thesignificancelevelrepresentstheprobabilityofstatingthattheimpactofdryingsystemAis
lowerthanthatofdryingsystemBwhen,infact,theirdistributionsandmeansarestatistically
indistinguishable(i.e.thesamplesweredrawnfromthesamepopulation).Typicallyischosentobe
equaltoorlessthan0.05thus,a5%chancethatthestatementthatdryingsystemAhasthelower
impactisincorrectforstatisticalsignificance.Thedegreesoffreedom,v,iscalculatedfromthesample
variancesandsamplesizes:
S A2
S B2
n
n B
A
2
A
2
B
nA
S nB
nA 1
nB 1
vandtoarecalculatedforeachdryingsystemcomparison;t,visobtainedfromalookuptableand
dependsonchoiceof(aswellasvalueofv).Table37summarizestheresultingtovaluesfromeach
comparisonofthedryingsystemGWPdistributionsinSection5.2.2.t,vforallttestsvariedfrom
2.358to2.345for=0.01andfrom1.658to1.653for=0.05.Onlyinthreeinstancesisto
greaterthant,v:thecomparisonbetweenthestandarddryerandpapertowelssystemsgivenboth
scenarioswithreporteddrytimes,andthecomparisonbetweentheDysonAirbladehanddryerand
theXLERATORdryersystemsgivenmanufacturerreporteddrytimesandtheuseoftheprintedwiring
boardunitprocessfortheXLERATORsopticsandcontrolassemblies
Sincethettestrequiresthateachsamplebenormallydistributed,thechisquaregoodnessoffittestis
appliedtoassesstheappropriatenessofmodelingGWPdistributionsaseithernormalorlognormal.
85

ThistestcomparesaGWPdistributiontoanormalorlognormaldistributionwithameanandstandard
deviationestimatedfromtheGWPsample.Goodnessoffitisthenmeasuredbysummingthesquares
ofdifferencesbetweenobserved(O)andexpected(E)outcomes,dividedbytheexpectedoutcome:
Oi
i 1
Ei
Ei
2
Thenullhypothesisthatis,theGWPdistributionandthepredictednormalorlognormalmodelare
drawnfromthesamepopulationandthusrepresentthesamedistributionistrueif
Q 2 r
whereisthesignificancelevelandrthedegreesoffreedom.Forthistest,requalsk3(degreesof
freedomarelostbecausethemeanandstandarddeviationareestimatedfromthesample).Thechi
squaretestischosenfromamongothergoodnessoffittestsbecauseitisapplicabletothebinnedGWP
dataobtainedfromSimaPro.
Table37ResultsfortteststatisticsfordryingsystemGWPdistributionsinSection5.2.2.
Baseline,
measured
Baseline,
reported
PWB,use
intensity,
measured
DryingsystemA
DryingsystemB
to
to
to
Airblade,aluminum
XLERATOR
12
3.2
0.3
Airblade,aluminum
Standarddryer
28
28
27
Airblade,aluminum
Cottonrolltowels
26
26
26
Airblade,aluminum
Papertowels,virgin
35
35
35
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
17
25
25
XLERATOR
Cottonrolltowels
11
22
23
XLERATOR
Papertowels,virgin
20
31
31
Cottonrolltowels
Standarddryer
12
711
11
Cottonrolltowels
Papertowels,virgin
19
19
19
Standarddryer
Papertowels,virgin
2.8
2.2
1.4
86
IMPACT2002+Humanhealth
[106DALY]
IMPACT2002+Ecosys.quality
2
[PDF.m .yr]
IMPACT2002+Climatechange
[kgCO2eq]
IMPACT2002+Resources
[MJprimary]
CEDv1.07
[MJ]
Waterconsumption
[m3]
ecoinvent2.1
4.39
5.60
0.100
3.86
101
99.3
0.694
9.32E4
kg
ecoinvent2.1
4.51
4.59
0.218
4.15
90.2
88.7
1.70
0.00502
kg
ecoinvent2.1
12.2
10.2
2.44
12.6
163
194
323
0.0374
Aluminium,secondary,fromoldscrap,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
1.38
0.886
1.58
1.32
22.7
23.8
6.91
0.0156
Ceramictiles,atregionalstorage
kg
ecoinvent2.1
0.780
6.48
0.184
0.750
14.4
14.7
3.30
0.0181
Chromium,atregionalstorage
kg
ecoinvent2.1
26.7
18.5
6.16
26.1
467
577
1,291
0.0640
Copper,primary,atrefinery
kg
ecoinvent2.1
1.85
14.7
12.5
1.77
29.5
34.5
60.4
0.0298
Corrugatedboard,freshfibre,singlewall,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
0.981
0.899
1.10
0.942
15.1
45.2
4.48
0.744
Corrugatedboard,recyclingfibre,singlewall,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
0.982
0.414
0.432
0.939
15.0
15.8
1.01
0.0900
Cottonfibres,ginned,atfarm(China)
kg
ecoinvent2.1
3.50
3.78
12.2
2.58
32.0
51.1
12.3
8.17
Electroniccomponent,active,unspecified,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
735
598
348
715
11,800 12,352 3,766
Epoxyresin,liquid,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
6.72
7.19
0.258
6.15
138
135
0.452
6.30E4
Galvanizedsteel
kg
Modified
5.56
11.6
9.52
5.36
89.9
92.2
127
0.0448
kg
Modified
2.52
2.32
0.163
2.30
69.9
69.8
2.81
0.00361
Unitprocess
Units
Source
Acrylonitrilebutadienestyrenecopolymer,ABS,atplant
kg
Adhesiveformetals,atplant
Aluminium,primary,atplant
Materials
Landoccupation
2
[m .org.arable]
GWPv1.02(IPCC2007100a)
[kgCO2eq]
Table38Environmentalimpactofunitprocesses.
87
4.02
Glassfibrereinforcedplastic,polyamide,injectionmoulding,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
8.80
3.59
0.260
8.07
148
148
6.91
0.0175
Glassfibre,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
2.63
2.64
0.414
2.49
45.7
45.9
7.81
0.00689
Melamine,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
5.07
3.24
0.637
4.86
103
101
8.04
0.0199
Nickel,99.5%,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
10.8
96.3
30.8
10.6
148
187
429
0.135
Nylon6,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
9.27
3.91
0.159
7.22
125
122
0.263
2.58E4
Packagingfilm,LDPE,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
2.70
1.44
0.112
2.38
91.3
92.7
3.02
0.0209
2
[PDF.m .yr]
[kgCO2eq]
[MJprimary]
CEDv1.07
[MJ]
Waterconsumption
[m3]
Landoccupation
2
[m .org.arable]
[106DALY]
Unitprocess
[kgCO2eq]
Units
Source
Paper,newsprint,atregionalstorage
kg
ecoinvent2.1
1.28
1.02
0.495
1.23
24.8
42.0
10.8
0.251
kg
Modified
2.35
1.83
0.080
2.14
83.0
83.2
2.22
0.0117
Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene
kg
[27]
7.32
5.30
0.144
6.24
114
112
0.782
0.00196
Polyethylene,LDPE,granulate,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
2.10
1.13
0.0296 1.81
79.8
79.5
0.0654 8.53e5
Materials(contd)
88
Polyethyleneterephthalate,granulate,amorphous,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
2.70
4.67
0.268
2.48
78.7
78.4
5.77
Polypropylene,granulate,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
1.97
1.61
0.0241 1.77
75.8
75.1
0.0560 5.46e5
Polystyrene,generalpurpose,GPPS,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
3.50
1.38
0.0616 2.97
89.4
87.9
0.166
9.58e5
Polyurethane,rigidfoam,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
4.31
2.75
0.145
102
103
2.59
0.00325
3.73
0.00903
Polyvinylchloride,atregionalstorage
kg
ecoinvent2.1
2.00
0.642
0.0536 1.92
60.5
60.3
0.558
3.72e4
Printedwiringboard,throughhole,leadfreesurface,atplant
m2
ecoinvent2.1
105
75.6
75.8
99.4
1,901
1,975
573
0.614
Sawntimber,softwood,planed,kilndried,atplant
m3
ecoinvent2.1
122
172
373
119
2,224
12,709 526
291
Stainlesssteelsheet
kg
Modified
4.99
10.2
4.81
4.80
82.8
84.1
121
0.0441
Steel,converter,chromiumsteel18/8,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
4.44
9.50
4.53
4.28
72.4
73.4
113
0.0405
Sulphatepulp,ECFbleached,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
0.670
0.933
1.23
0.501
8.56
55.3
2.31
1.05
Pulpfromwastepaper
kg
Modified
0.491
0.967
0.11
0.553
9.26
9.57
1.98
0.00329
Syntheticrubber,atplant
kg
ecoinvent2.1
2.64
1.77
0.326
2.50
89.9
91.3
6.65
0.0191
Unspecifiedmass
kg
Modified
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Zinc,primary,atregionalstorage
kg
ecoinvent2.1
3.37
7.22
22.3
3.22
48.8
56.0
70.6
0.0176
raw
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
0.0
Waterconsumption
[m3]
Landoccupation
2
[m .org.arable]
CEDv1.07
[MJ]
[MJprimary]
[kgCO2eq]
Source
2
[PDF.m .yr]
Processing
Units
[106DALY]
Unitprocess
[kgCO2eq]
89
Extrusion,plasticfilm
kg
ecoinvent2.1
0.526
0.261
0.0750 0.509
9.34
10.9
2.83
0.0201
Extrusion,plasticpipes
kg
ecoinvent2.1
0.378
0.228
0.0557 0.367
7.17
8.06
2.17
0.0117
Spinningcottonfiber
kg
2.68
2.88
0.163
25.4
27.2
3.08
0.0107
Sizing
kg
0.121
0.0867 0.370
0.0991 1.40
3.42
0.181
0.178
Weaving
kg
5.95
5.79
0.341
5.38
61.8
65.0
6.30
0.0214
kg
2.85
2.45
1.28
2.65
41.9
42.2
4.37
0.00793
Laundering
kg
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
0.418
0.176
0.128
0.400
7.11
8.18
0.565
0.0435
0.382
0.933
6.89
0.349
5.25
5.67
3.17
0.00494
Treatment,sewage,towastewatertreatment,class3
Energy
ecoinvent2.1
2.41
Electricity,mediumvoltage,atgrid(China)
MJ
ecoinvent2.1
0.327
0.372
0.0207 0.293
2.89
3.14
0.395
0.00139
Naturalgas,burnedinindustrialfurnacelowNOx>100kW
MJ
ecoinvent2.1
0.070
0.0092 0.0020 0.0671 1.29
1.24
0.0213 1.67e5
Electricity,mediumvoltage,atgrid(US)
MJ
ecoinvent2.1
0.214
0.161
0.0306 0.207
3.44
3.56
0.8287 5.09e4
MJ
ecoinvent2.1
0.232
0.178
0.053
0.225
3.73
3.86
0.904
5.86e4
Recyclingcardboard
kg
ecoinvent2.1
0.217
0.287
0.425
0.204
3.23
19.4
2.48
0.490
kg
ecoinvent2.1
0.142
0.0236 0.0068 0.0454 0.40
0.418
0.109
0.00151
kg
ecoinvent2.1
0.325
0.021
0.10
0.341
8.60
2.03
1.1e3
Compost
kg
[32,47]
0.381
0.019
0.002
0.0787 0.673
0.652
0.022
2.7e4
Endoflife
8.31
Landoccupation
2
[m .org.arable]
Waterconsumption
[m3]
CEDv1.07
[MJ]
[MJprimary]
[kgCO2eq]
Source
2
[PDF.m .yr]
Units
[kgCO2eq]
Unitprocess
[106DALY]
Transportation
90
Transport,lorry>16t,fleetaverage
tkm
ecoinvent2.1
0.126
0.137
0.0465 0.122
2.13
2.15
0.168
0.00109
Transport,transoceanicfreightship
tkm
ecoinvent2.1
0.012
0.023
0.0021 0.011
0.168
0.170
0.163
3.84e5
Transport,freight,rail,diesel
tkm
ecoinvent2.1
0.0497 0.0769 0.0100 0.0492 0.753
0.763
0.0789 9.05e4
Transport,lorry>32t,EURO3
tkm
ecoinvent2.1
0.117
0.107
0.0408 0.114
1.97
1.99
0.140
8.41e4
Transport,lorry1632t,EURO3
tkm
ecoinvent2.1
0.168
0.151
0.0658 0.164
2.78
2.80
0.215
0.00156
Transport,lorry7.516t,EURO3
tkm
ecoinvent2.1
0.292
0.262
0.0724 0.284
4.67
4.71
0.330
0.00266
Transport,lorry3.57.5t,EURO3
tkm
ecoinvent2.1
0.660
0.593
0.205
10.7
10.8
0.981
0.00846
0.641

Table39Unitprocessqualitylevelsusedinpedigreematrixanalysis.Qualitylevelsshowninorderforreliability,completeness,temporalcorrelation,
geographiccorrelation,furthertechnologicalcorrelation,andsamplesize;basicuncertaintyfactorsarealsoincluded.
Unitprocess
Materials
Acrylonitrilebutadienestyrenecopolymer,ABS,atplant
XLERATOR,standarddryer,
papertowels
Airblade
Cottonrolltowels
Qualitylevels
GSD
Qualitylevels
GSD
Qualitylevels
GSD
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Adhesiveformetals,atplant
1,1,3,1,3,5,1.05
1.322
Aluminium,primary,atplant
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Aluminium,secondary,fromoldscrap,atplant
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Ceramictiles,atregionalstorage
2,3,3,1,3,5,1.05
1.333
Chromium,atregionalstorage
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Cottonfibres,ginned,atfarm(China)
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Electroniccomponent,active,unspecified,atplant
2,3,3,1,3,5,1.05
1.333
Epoxyresin,liquid,atplant
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Galvanizedsteel
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Glassfibre,atplant
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
Melamine,atplant
1,1,3,1,3,5,1.05
1.322
Copper,primary,atrefinery
91
Glassfibrereinforcedplastic,polyamide,injectionmoulding,atplant
Nickel,99.5%,atplant
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Nylon6,atplant
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
Paper,newsprint,atregionalstorage
Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene
Polyethylene,LDPE,granulate,atplant
2,3,3,1,3,5,1.05
1.333
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Polyethyleneterephthalate,granulate,amorphous,atplant
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
Polypropylene,granulate,atplant
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Polystyrene,generalpurpose,GPPS,atplant
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
Polyurethane,rigidfoam,atplant
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
Unitprocess
papertowels
Airblade
Cottonrolltowels
Qualitylevels
GSD
Qualitylevels
GSD
Qualitylevels
GSD
Polyvinylchloride,atregionalstorage
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
Stainlesssteelsheet
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
Steel,converter,chromiumsteel18/8,atplant
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Sulphatepulp,ECFbleached,atplant
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Pulpfromwastepaper
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
Materials(contd)
Syntheticrubber,atplant
Zinc,primary,atregionalstorage
Printedwiringboard,throughhole,leadfreesurface,atplant
Sawntimber,softwood,planed,kilndried,atplant
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Corrugatedboard,freshfibre,singlewall,atplant
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Corrugatedboard,recyclingfibre,singlewall,atplant
92
Packagingfilm,LDPE,atplant
Manufacturing
Electricity,mediumvoltage,atgrid(China)
Electricity,mediumvoltage,atgrid(US)
Naturalgas,burnedinindustrialfurnacelowNOx>100kW
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Treatment,sewage,towastewatertreatment,class3
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
1,1,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.235
Extrusion,plasticfilm
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Extrusion,plasticpipes
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Spinningcottonfiber
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Sizing
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Weaving
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,3,1,5,1.05
1.25
2,3,3,3,1,5,1.05
1.25
Use
Laundering
Unitprocess
papertowels
Airblade
Cottonrolltowels
Qualitylevels
GSD
Qualitylevels
GSD
Qualitylevels
GSD
Recyclingcardboard
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Transport,lorry>16t,fleetaverage
2,3,3,1,1,5,2
2.067
2,3,3,1,1,5,2
2.067
2,3,3,1,1,5,2
2.067
Transport,transoceanicfreightship
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Transport,freight,rail,diesel
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
2,3,3,1,1,5,1.05
1.249
Transport,lorry>32t,EURO3
2,3,3,1,1,5,2
2.067
2,3,3,1,1,5,2
2.067
2,3,3,1,1,5,2
2.067
Transport,lorry1632t,EURO3
2,3,3,1,1,5,2
2.067
2,3,3,1,1,5,2
2.067
2,3,3,1,1,5,2
2.067
Transport,lorry3.57.5t,EURO3
2,3,3,3,1,5,2
2.068
Transport,lorry7.516t,EURO3
2,3,3,1,1,5,2
2.067
2,3,3,1,1,5,2
2.067
2,3,3,1,1,5,2
2.067
Endoflife
Transportation
93

L1
L2
L3:Papertowels
L1
Product1
production
L3:Papertowels
Virginpulp
Product2
production
Repulping1
Product1use
Repulping2
Product2use
Product3
production
50/50
Cutoff
Virginpulp
L2
Product3use
Product1
production
Repulping1
Product1use
Product2
production
Repulping2
Product2use
Product3use
Waste
management
L1
L2
Waste
management
L3:Papertowels
L1
94
Product1use
L2
L3:Papertowels
Virginpulp
Repulping1
Product2
production
Product2use
Repulping2
Product3
production
Product3use
Downstreamburden
Wastetreatment
Virginpulp
Product1
production
Product3
production
Product1
production
Repulping1
Product1use
Waste
management
Product2
production
Product2use
Repulping2
Product3
production
Product3use
Waste
management
Figure36Allocationschemesforrecycledcontent[60].
A.4 Allocationofrecycledcontent
Whenaproductispartofanopenlooprecyclingsystem,amethodologicaldecisionhastobemade
regardinghowtoallocatetheburdensfromvirginmaterialproduction,recycledmaterialproduction,
anddisposalatendoflife.Anumberofoptionshavebeenproposed(see[60]),someofwhichare
illustratedinFigure36andusedinasensitivityanalysisinthisreport.Threeproductlifecycles,L1,L2,
andL3,werechosenforeachsystemtoapproximatelyrepresentthenumberoftimespaperisusedand
reusedintheUSbeforebeingsenttoalandfilloranincinerator.Thisassumptionisconsistentwiththe
assumptionmadebytheEnvironmentalPaperNetworksPaperCalculator[31];itcanalsobeestimated
bycalculatingbasedonUSpaperandpaperboardrecyclingrates3.Sincepapertowelsarealways
disposedofafteruse,theyrepresentL3,thefinallifecycleintheopenloopsystem.
AfifthallocationschemebasedonISO14049[61]isalsoconsidered.IntheISObasedscheme,L2and
L3areassignedthefullburdenoftheirprecedingrepulpingstepssimilartothecutoffschemein
Figure36aswellassomefractionoftheburdenofpulpmanufacturedfromvirgincontent.The
allocationofthevirginpulpisbasedontheproduction,disposal,andrecyclinglossesincurredovereach
lifecycle.Figure37illustratestheflowofpulpthroughanopenlooprecyclingsystem.Forthisstudy,a
3.9%productionloss[14],a44.5%disposalloss[30],anda33.3%recyclingloss[12]areassumed.Thus,
inordertoproduce1kgofpapertowels,8.2kgofvirginpulpisrequired.This8.2kgofmaterialis
allocatedtothethreelifecyclesasfollows:
0.533
L1 burden 8.2 kg 0.039 0.428

5.3 kg
3
0.19 2
L2 burden 8.2 kg 0.014 0.152 0.177

2.4 kg
2 3
0.19 2
L3 burden 8.2 kg
0.5 kg
2 3
Virginpulp
17.7
100
ISO
3.9
Product1
production
1.4
6.3
Product2
production
Repulping2
35.6
Repulping1
96.1
12.7
34.2
Product1use
0.5
12.2
Product2use
53.3
Product3
production
Product3use
19.0
42.8
15.2
12.2
Waste
management
Waste
management
Waste
management
Figure37Materialflowthroughanopenlooppaperrecyclingsystem.
In2008,55.5%ofpaperandpaperboardwererecycled[30].Thiscorrespondsto2.24productlifecycles,basedonthesumof
aninfinitegeometricseries.
95
A.5 NSFP335Protocol
TheNSFP335Protocolcontainsminimumrequirementsformaterials,designandconstruction,and
performanceofcommercialhanddryersthatincorporateantimicrobialcapabilitiesintheirdesignand
function[19].Theprotocolspecifiesatestprocedurefordeterminingthelengthoftimeahanddryer
requirestohygienicallydryapairofhands.Sixsubjectswithhandsofaspecificsizeareselected.The
subjectswetandthendrytheirhandsinahanddryeraspermanufacturersinstructionsforsetperiods
oftime(incrementsof5seconds).Anymoistureremainingontheirhandsissubsequentlyremoved
withapapertowel,whichisweighedimmediatelyafterwardstoassesstheexactamountofwaterleft
behind.Theprocedureisrepeateduntilthetimeittakestoreach0.1gofmoisturecanbeextrapolated
foreachhanddryertype.
A.6 Comparisonwithexistingstudies
Existinghanddryerandtowellifecycleassessmentsarereviewedandtheirresultscomparedwith
resultsfromthisstudy.Theintentionofthissectionistoprovidearealitycheckonthenumbers
generatedinthisanalysis.ExistingLCAsusednumerousassumptionsthataredifferentthantheones
usedinthisstudy.Indeed,thedifferencesarethemotivationforthisstudy.Thus,onewouldexpectthe
resultsofexistingstudiestobedifferentfromtheresultsfromthisanalysisdependingonthevariation
inassumptions.However,acomparisonoftheresultsfromexistingstudiesandthisstudyhelptoinsure
thatthisstudysresultsarereasonableandthatthedifferencesinresultscanbeexplainedbythe
differencesinassumptions.
Globalwarmingpotentialischosenasthecomparisonmetricbecausemoststudiesusethismetricto
reportenvironmentalimpact.Thecharacterizationfactors,however,differslightlyacrossstudies
becauseafewofthestudieswereconductedpriorto2007,theyearofthefourthIPCCreportinwhich
thesefactorswereupdated.
A.6.1 Dryers
Figure38compareshanddryerGWP,calculatedwithreporteddrytimes,withcorrespondingresults
fromtheExcelDryer[14],AirDri[6],MyClimate[7],andCarbonTrust[27]studies.Ifnecessary,results
fromthepublishedstudiesarenormalizedbythefunctionalunitinthosestudiestorepresentthe
impactofdryingonepairofhands.Insomeinstances,theGWPassociatedwitheachdryertypeis
comparableacrossthestudies,particularlyfortheExcelDryerresults.Thedifferentresultscan
generallybeattributedtodifferingassumptions.Forexample,thelowerGWPofthedryersinthe
MyClimatestudy[7]canbeattributedtothestudysuseof10and27seconddrytimesfortheDyson
Airbladehanddryerandthestandarddryer,respectively,combinedwiththeSwissaverageelectric
gridmix,whichhasmuchloweremissionscomparedtotheUSaveragegridmix4.Thedifferencesare
muchsmallerfortheXLERATORresultsandcanbeattributedtothedifferenceinversionsofecoinvent
libraries(v2.1usedbythisstudy,v2.01usedbythestudyforExcelDryer),theassumptionthat
manufacturingtakesplaceinChinaratherthantheUS,andtheinclusionofstandbyenergyconsumption
intheusestageofthelifecycle.Similarfactorsalsocontributetothedifferencesbetweenstandard
ElectricityinSwitzerlandisgeneratedprimarilyfromhydropowerandnuclearsources[54];consequently,gridemissionsare
around16%ofUSemissionsperunitofelectricity.
96

dryerGWPs.NotenoughinformationisavailableintheCarbonTrustandAirdrireportstoexplainwhy
theirrespectiveGWPsoftheAirbladeandstandarddryersarelowerthanthisstudysresults.Despite
theusestagebeingtheimpactdriver,neitherprovidesdetailsonelectricgridmixoremissionfactors.
20
18
16
Nobreakdownavail.
EndofLife
Use
14
Transportation
12
Manufacturing
10
Materials
8
6
4
2
0
Figure38ComparisonofdryerGWP(calculatedusingreporteddrytimes)withresultsfromliterature.
A.6.2 Cottonrolltowels
Figure39comparesthecottonrolltowelGWPcalculatedinthisreportwithresultsfromtheETSA[12]
andMyClimate[7]studies.Aswiththedryers,anumberofthedifferencesbetweenresultscanbe
attributedtothedifferingassumptionsbetweenthestudies.Forinstance,theimpactfromcottontowel
production(materialsplusmanufacturing)islowerintheETSAstudythaninthisstudy,notonlybecause
ofthedifferentunitprocessdatabasesUmbertov4.3intheETSAstudyversusecoinventv2.1inthis
studyusedbythetwostudies,butalsobecauseofthedifferentassumptionsforcottonfiber
production.Thedifferenceintransportationisalsolikelyduetotheuseofdifferenttransportation
processesfromdifferentdatabases.Towelmanufacturinginputandoutputflows,though,arethesame
(cottontowelmanufacturingprocessesinAppendixA.2arebasedonSection7.2in[12]).Theimpactof
washing,however,issimilarforbothanalyses.AlthoughtheETSAstudycontainsadetailedbreakdown
ofchemicalsfoundindetergent,mostoftheimpactcomesfromnaturalgasandelectricity,theflowsof
whicharethesameinbothstudies.Finally,ETSAassumesthat88%ofcottontowelsarerecycledas
disposableindustrialcleaningclothsanddisplacevirginpapertowels,andthatcottontowelsare
incineratedwithenergyrecoverybothofwhichleadtoanegativeendoflifeimpact.
97

WhilethereareminimaldetailsontheMyClimatestudy,thereportindicatesthatthemajorityofa
cottontowelsimpactisfromwashing,whichisconsistentwithboththisandETSAresults.
14
12
10
Nobreakdownavail.
EndofLife
Use
Transportation
Manufacturing
Materials
0
2
Cottonrolltowels
Cottonrolltowels Cottonrolltowels[7]
[12]
Figure39ComparisonofcottonrolltowelGWPwithresultsfromliterature.
A.6.3 Papertowels
Althoughresultsinthisstudyindicatethatusingrecycledcontentcanreduceapapertowelsproduction
burden,thisconclusionultimatelydependsontheassumptionsthatgointocalculatingimpactaswellas
theselectedLCIAmethodology.Figure40comparespapertowelGWPfromdifferentstudies.Study
assumptionsaresummarizedinTable40.Aswiththeprevioustwosystems,thenumbersare
normalizedbyfunctionalunittorepresenttheimpactfordryingonepairofhands.Theliteratureresults
showthatinsomecases,virginpapertowelshavethegreaterburden[7,14]whileinothers,paper
towelswithrecycledcontenthaveahigherimpact[12,13].TheExcelstudy[14],forinstance,concludes
thatvirginpapertowelshavethehigherimpactbecause,duetolackofdata,itdoesnotaccountforthe
energyrequiredtoconvertwastepaperintopulp.Itdoes,however,addressthisassumptioninits
sensitivityanalysisbyaddingtheenergyrequiredforrepulpingtothelifecycleinventory,thus
increasingtheimpactoftherecycledcontentinthepapertowels(representedbyRecycled100%a
[14]inFigure40).Likewise,theKimberlyClarkstudyexaminestwodifferentallocationsofrecycled
content(Recycled45%[13]andRecycled45%a[13]inthefigures).Althoughthestudyconcludes
thatpapertowelswithrecycledcontenthaveagreaterimpactthanthosewithvirgincontent,thechoice
ofallocationschememakesadifference.
98
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5
Materials
Manufacturing
Transportation
Use
EndofLife
Nobreakdownavail.
Figure40ComparisonofpapertowelsystemGWPwithresultsfromliterature.
Whilethestudiesdoconsistentlyconcludethatthematerialsandmanufacturingstagescontributethe
mosttototalpapertowelsystemimpact,differencesinassumptionsleadtovariationinsystemimpact.
AsTable40indicates,thestudiesassumethatdifferentnumbersofpapertowels,withdifferentmasses,
arerequiredtodryapairofhands.Dispensersandwastebinsarenotalwaysincludedintheanalysis,
norisenergyrecoveryfromincineration.Additionally,databasesandLCIAmethodologiesdiffer.While
allthestudiescalculateGWPovera100yeartimeframe,onlysomearerecentenoughtousethe
updatedIPCC2007methodology.
Sincemostofapapertowelsburdenliesinproduction,itisimportantthattheassumptionsassociated
withtheselifecyclestagesarereasonable.Onekeyassumptioninthisstudywastheadoptionofthe
ECFbleachedsulfatepulpingprocessasaproxyforthemanufactureofdeinkedpulp.Inthemodified
process,1.5kgofwastepaperwasdirectlysubstitutedforthe4,108cm3ofwoodrequiredperkilogram
ofrecycledpulp.Theassumptionisnowassessedbycomparingthemodifiedprocesswithprocesses
fromtheExcel[14]andETSA[12]studies(Figures41and42).Literatureresultswererecalculatedto
placethemonaconsistentbasisatleastintermsofecoinventdatabaseandLCIAmethodologywith
thisstudy.Thefiguresindicatethatthisstudysassumptionsarereasonablegiventhatresultsaremore
orlessconsistentwiththoseofotherstudies.GWPresultsfromtheETSAstudyareslightlyhigher
becausetheunitprocessinventorydoesnotspecifywhethercarbondioxideemissionsarefromfossilor
biogenicsources.ThedistinctionbetweenthesetwosourcesisalsothereasonwhyinFigure41,a
kilogramoftissuehasapproximatelythesameGWPregardlessofwhetheritusesvirginorrecycled
content,whereasinFigure42,theCEDoftissuemanufacturedfromvirgincontentisconsistentlyhigher
99

thantheCEDoftissuefromrecycledcontent.CEDaccountsfortheenergyembodiedinthevirgin
wood,whereasGWPdoesnotaccountforcarbonstoredinsolidsorbiogeniccarbondioxideandcarbon
monoxideemissions.
Table40Comparisonofassumptionsforpapertowelsystemsfromliterature.
MIT/Dyson
Excel
[14]
ETSA
[12]
260,000
[13]
Airdri
[6]
MyClimate
[7]
10,000
39,000
130,000
1.5
3or2
1.98g
1.98g
4g
1.98g
3.79g
2.6gorN/A
0%,100%
0%,100%
0%,50%
0%,45%
0%
0%,100%
Manufacturing
location
US
US
EU
North
America
EU
Uselocation
US
US
EU
US
EU
Dispenser?
Wastebin?
Liners?
Packaging?
50/50
Cutoff
Cutoff
Cutoff,ISO
N/A
Notspecified
19%
20%
100%
21%
Notspecified Notspecified
Notspecified Notspecified
ecoinvent
v2.1
IPCC2007
100a
ecoinvent
v2.01
IPCC2007
100a
Umberto
v4.3
ecoinvent,
owndata
IPCC2007
100a
FunctionalUnit
[pairsofhands]
Towelsper
functionalunit[#]
Towelmass
[gpertowel]
Recycledcontent
Recycling
allocation
Incineration
fraction
Energyrecovery?
Database
GWPmethodology
100yr
100
KC
Switzerland,
Germany
Switzerland,
EU
PEMS4
ecoinvent
v2.0
IPCC2001
IPCC2001
GWPperkilogramoftissue[kgCO2 eq]
6
5
4
3
TissueMfg
PulpMfg
Wastepaper
1
Wood
Figure41ComparisonofGWPsresultingfromtheproductionofonekilogramoftissue.
CEDperkilogramoftissue[MJ]
120
100
80
60
TissueMfg
PulpMfg
40
Wastepaper
20
Wood
Figure42ComparisonofCEDsresultingfromtheproductionofonekilogramoftissue.
101
A.7 Supplementalanalyses
A.7.1 Warehousing
Thissectionsupportstheclaim,statedinSection2.2.2.1,thatwarehousingcanjustifiablybeexcluded
fromthisstudysscope.Roughcalculations,basedondatafromCMUsbuy.comstudy[28],predictthat
warehousingaccountsforlessthan4%ofdryingsystemoverallimpact.Thesecalculationsassumethat
warehousingresultsinemissionsof675gCO2eqperpackage.Eachpackage,inturn,containsone
dryer,2,400papertowels,or100cottonrolltowelpulls,whicharerespectivelycapableofdrying
350,000,1,200,or10,000pairsofhands.Sinceonepairofhandsrepresentsafunctionalunit(FU),the
emissionscanbenormalizedbythenumberofpairsofhandsandusedtocalculatethewarehouses
contributiontoafunctionalunitsGWP.TheresultsinTable41indicatethatthepapertowelsaremost
affectedwhenwarehousingisincludedintheanalysis.
Theanalysiscanbefurtherrefinedbyacknowledgingthateconomicdatawasfirstusedtoallocate
warehouseemissionstobuy.combeforebeingnormalizedbythenumberofpackagesbuy.comsold.
Onedryerisclearlymoreexpensivethanoneboxofpapertowelsandthuswillbeallocatedagreater
fractionofthewarehousesenvironmentalimpact.GoingbythecostsinTable41,onedryershouldbe
allocatedthesameburdenas40boxesofpapertowels.Whilethiswillreducepapertowelwarehousing
burden,bothrelativetothedryersimpactandtototalsystemimpact,theresultwillstillbehigherthan
thatofthedryer.
Table41Warehousingimpactassumptions.
Packageunit
Packagecontents
Pairsofhands
GWP[gCO2eq/pkg]
GWP[gCO2eq/FU]
FractionoftotalGWP
Cost
Oneboxofpaper
towels
2,400towelsa
1,200
675
0.56
3.1%
$30
Onedryer
1dryer
350,000
675
0.002
0.04%
$1,200c
Onerollofcotton
towels
100pullsb
10,000
675
0.068
0.56%
?
(a)BasedonKimberlyClark01510cfoldtowels
(b)ETSAstudy[12]
(c)CostofDysonAirbladehanddryer.
A.7.2 Regionalvariation:secondarylocations
InadditiontotheregionsanalyzedinSection5.1.11,anumberofsecondaryregionsarealsoevaluated.
Table42detailsassumptionsusedintheanalysis.Asbefore,transportation,gridmix,useintensity,
dryerpowerrating,andendoflifescenarioarealladjustedtoaccountforthedifferencebetween
territories(althoughrecyclingscenariosarenotconsideredforendoflife).ResultsarelistedinTable43
forGWP,CED,HumanHealth,andEcosystemQuality(thelattertworepresentingtwoofthefour
IMPACT2002+endpointcategories).
102

Table42Regionalassumptionsforsecondaryregions.
Transportation
PortAtoB
PortBtowarehouse
Warehousetowashroom
Gridmix
Coal
Oil
Naturalgas
Nuclear
Renewablea
103
Useintensityb
Airblade
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
Cottonrolltowels
Papertowels
Dryerpowerrating
Airblade
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
MSW
Cardboardrecycled
Incinerated
Landfilledw/CH4capture
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Italy
Netherlands
Spain
Refs
19,625km
30km
814km
19,625km
30km
538km
19,625km
30km
1,030km
19,625km
30km
1,252km
19,625km
30km
604km
19,625km
30km
1,732km
20%
2%
16%
6%
53%
10%
2%
24%
53%
4%
41%
4%
21%
6%
23%
13%
13%
39%
6%
21%
26%
3%
54%
7%
5%
27%
8%
19%
24%
20%
10sec
18sec
28sec
1towel
2towels
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
67%
10%
24%
66%
10sec
18sec
28sec
1towel
2towels
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
60%
34%
39%
27%
10sec
18sec
28sec
1towel
2towels
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
70%
76%
24%
10sec
18sec
28sec
1towel
2towels
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
69%
13%
6%
81%
10sec
18sec
28sec
1towel
2towels
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
69%
21%
8%
61%
10sec
18sec
28sec
1towel
2towels
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
51%
1%
4%
95%
[27,43]
[32]
[12,14,27]
[27]
[54]
Sweden
Switzerland
Australia
Canada
SaudiArabia
Transportation
PortAtoB
PortBtowarehouse
Warehousetowashroom
Gridmix
Coal
Oil
Naturalgas
Nuclear
Renewablea
19,625km
30km
1,679km
1%
1%
1%
46%
41%
19,625km
30km
389km
6%
2%
49%
37%
8,290km
19km
1,019km
77%
1%
15%
7%
9,330km
3,381km
571km
17%
2%
6%
14%
60%
10,780km
0km
1,175km
57%
43%
UnitedArab
Emirates
10,780km
940km
175km
2%
98%
Useintensityb
Airblade
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
Cottonrolltowels
Papertowels
Dryerpowerrating
Airblade
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
MSW
Cardboardrecycled
Incinerated
Landfilledw/CH4capture
10sec
18sec
28sec
1towel
2towels
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
12%
12%
88%
10sec
18sec
28sec
1towel
2towels
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
50%
100%
10secc
18sec
28sec
1towel
2towels
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
40%
100%
12secc
20sec
31sec
1towel
2towels
1,400W
1,500W
2,300W
21%
5%
95%
10secc
18sec
28sec
1towel
2towels
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
100%d
10secc
18sec
28sec
1towel
2towels
1,600W
1,400W
2,400W
100%d
Refs
[27,43,62]
[32,53]
[12,14,27]
104
[27]
[54,6365]
(b)DryeruseintensitymeasuredaccordingtotheNSFProtocolP335[19]
(c)UseintensityinCanadaassumedtobethesameasintheUS;useintensityinAustralia,SaudiArabiaandUAEassumedtobethesameasintheEU(basedoncountrygrid
voltages)
(d)Estimated

Table43Secondaryregionimpactresults.
Airblade,
plastic
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
Cottonroll
towels
Papertowels,
virgin
Papertowels,
100%recy.
Globalwarmingpotential[gCO2eq]
2.60
Austria
2.25
Belgium
3.42
Denmark
3.51
Italy
3.89
Netherlands
3.29
Spain
1.05
Sweden
1.19
Switzerland
6.31
Australia
2.16
Canada
5.64
SaudiArabia
5.75
UnitedArabEmirates
2.37
2.02
3.18
3.28
3.66
3.06
0.81
0.96
6.08
1.92
5.41
5.52
4.09
3.52
5.40
5.56
6.18
5.20
1.56
1.80
10.1
3.69
9.03
9.20
9.29
7.82
12.7
13.1
14.7
12.2
2.74
3.36
24.9
7.49
22.1
22.6
10.3
10.2
10.6
10.6
10.7
10.5
9.7
9.8
11.5
10.1
11.3
11.3
11.9
11.7
13.7
13.6
14.1
13.2
9.7
9.7
17.0
10.5
16.1
15.6
12.1
11.9
14.0
13.9
14.3
13.5
10.0
10.0
17.2
10.7
16.3
15.8
Cumulativeenergydemand[kJ]
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Italy
Netherlands
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Australia
Canada
SaudiArabia
UnitedArabEmirates
46.2
61.8
53.1
54.0
59.3
60.8
53.7
52.9
71.7
49.6
82.6
91.3
79.6
105
91.0
92.2
102
103
91.5
90.7
121
94.2
139
153
186
252
216
219
241
247
217
215
293
202
339
376
185
190
186
188
190
191
188
185
194
186
198
201
393
412
388
418
421
434
424
369
442
399
458
461
205
224
200
230
233
246
236
181
254
210
269
273
Airblade,
aluminum
105
49.8
65.4
56.7
57.7
63.0
64.5
57.4
56.5
75.4
53.3
86.2
95.0
Airblade,
aluminum
106
IMPACT2002+HumanHealth[109DALY]
1.21
Austria
1.41
Belgium
1.62
Denmark
1.98
Italy
1.51
Netherlands
3.22
Spain
1.33
Sweden
0.95
Switzerland
4.31
Australia
1.81
Canada
5.73
SaudiArabia
1.59
UnitedArabEmirates
IMPACT2002+EcosystemQuality[PDF.cm2.yr]
6.18
Austria
7.12
Belgium
7.87
Denmark
7.51
Italy
7.68
Netherlands
8.46
Spain
7.56
Sweden
6.14
Switzerland
12.6
Australia
7.48
Canada
16.5
SaudiArabia
7.08
UnitedArabEmirates
Airblade,
plastic
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
Cottonroll
towels
Papertowels,
virgin
Papertowels,
100%recy.
1.03
1.24
1.45
1.81
1.34
3.05
1.15
0.78
4.14
1.64
5.56
1.42
1.81
2.14
2.49
3.07
2.31
5.07
2.00
1.40
6.85
3.05
9.16
2.44
3.44
4.29
5.20
6.70
4.74
11.9
3.92
2.38
16.5
6.03
22.5
5.09
5.90
5.98
6.04
6.19
6.01
6.63
5.96
5.78
6.96
6.09
7.47
6.00
7.36
7.81
8.00
8.99
7.94
11.1
8.09
6.41
12.06
7.99
14.3
7.39
7.50
7.95
8.14
9.13
8.08
11.2
8.23
6.55
12.2
8.13
14.4
7.53
5.79
6.73
7.48
7.11
7.28
8.06
7.15
5.76
12.2
7.08
16.2
6.69
12.7
14.2
15.4
14.8
15.1
16.3
14.8
12.7
23.0
16.1
29.5
14.1
24.7
28.7
31.9
30.2
31.0
34.1
30.3
24.8
51.4
30.4
68.3
28.5
48.4
48.7
48.9
49.0
48.9
49.3
49.0
48.1
50.7
48.8
52.1
48.7
76.2
76.6
77.1
80.4
79.0
83.5
82.3
71.5
88.1
78.2
93.3
77.2
30.0
30.4
31.0
34.2
32.8
37.3
36.1
25.4
42.0
32.1
47.2
31.0
A.8 Evaluation
Theevaluation,requiredintheISOstandards,consistsofchecksperformedonthedataandonthe
resultsoftheanalysis.Thesechecksensurethedataiscompleteandconsistent,bothamongthe
productsystemsandwiththegoalandscopeoftheanalysis,andassessthesensitivityoftheresultsto
variationinthedataandothermethodologicaldecisions.
A.8.1 Completenesscheck
Thecompletenesschecksummarizesavailabledataforeachproductsystemandlifecyclestage.Data
gapsareidentifiedandtheinformationisreviewedforconsistencywiththegoalandscopeofthe
analysis.CompletenessisdetailedinTable44.Insomecases,stepsweretakentoaccommodate
incompletedata.Forinstance,agenericunitprocess(Electroniccomponent,active,unspecified)was
usedfortheopticsandcontrolassembliesintheXLERATORandstandarddryerinventoriesduetolack
ofmoredetailedinformationregardingthesecomponents.Sinceitwasshowntoaccountforover50%
ofdryerproductionburden(seeFigures13and14),however,asensitivityanalysiswasconductedin
whichamorespecificunitprocess,Printedwiringboard,throughhole,leadfreesurface,was
substituted(Section5.1.6).TheuncertaintyanalysesinSection0takethechangeofunitprocessinto
accountaswell.Additionally,appropriateunitprocessinventorydataforpulpmanufacturedfrom
wastepaper(i.e.deinkedpulp)couldnotbeidentified.Thislackofinformationwasaddressedbyusing
theinventoryformanufacturingECFbleachedsulfatepulpasaproxyformanufacturingdeinkedpulp
withwastepapersubstitutedinplaceofwood.Aconsistencycheckwasperformedwithother
literatureresultsforpapertowelproduction(seeFigure40)toensurethatthisstudysresultswere
reasonable;however,itisrecommendedthatamoredetailedstudyonrecycledpapertowelsbe
conducted.
Inotherinstances,themissinginformationisshownoranticipatedtohaveminimaleffectonthefinal
environmentalimpactresults.InthecaseoftheXLERATORdryersusestage,thedryersstandby
powerratingwasunavailableandthatoftheDysonAirbladehanddryersubstitutedinitsplace.
Figure15illustrates,however,thatthesubstitutionhasminimalimpactonoverallresultsbecause
standbyenergyconsumptionaccountsforaverysmallfractionofusestageenergyconsumption.While
additionalinformationwasavailableonchemicallydisinfectingthecottonrolltowelsduringtheiruse
phase,thisinformationwasnotusedduetolackofunitprocessinventorydata.Instead,theunit
processforSoapwasusedinplaceofallthechemicals(i.e.laundrydetergent)listedintheETSA
report[12]andtheresultscheckedagainstliterature(seeFigure39).Finally,energyoradditionalinputs
requiredtomanufacturedryerortowelpackagingwereonlyseparatedoutfortheDysonAirblade
handdryersandisunknownwhethersuchinformationwasaccountedforintheproductsystembillsof
activities.Packaging,however,isasmallfractionoftotalburden(seeFigure11)sothemissing
informationisnotanticipatedtoaffectthestudysconclusions.
107

Table44Summaryofdryingsystemdatacompleteness.
Lifecyclestage
Airblade,
aluminum
Airblade,
plastic
XLERATOR
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
recycled
Materials
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available
Available
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available
Manufacturing
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Use
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available
Available,
complete
Available
N/A
N/A
Endoflife
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Transportation
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Packaging
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available
Available
Available
Available
Available
Dispenser
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
Wastebinandliners
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Available,
complete
Available,
complete
A.8.2 Sensitivitycheck
Thesensitivitycheckassessesandsummarizesthereliabilityofthefinalresultsgivenuncertaintiesin
thedata,variationsintheassumptionsandmethods,andchoicesofLCIAmethodology.Keyissuesthat
drivevariationintheresultsarealsoidentified.Sincetheevaluationofenvironmentalimpactunder
differentscenariosisoneofthisstudysgoals,sensitivityanduncertaintyanalyseswereconductedand
presentedaspartofthereport(Sections5.1and0).Thischeckreliesonresultsfromthoseanalyses,as
wellasresultsfromSection4.2,thebaselinescenarioanalysis.
Table45exploreshowchangingthelifecycleimpactassessmentmethodologyimpactsthecomparison
amongdryingsystems.ResultsareshownrelativetotheimpactofthealuminumDysonAirbladehand
dryer.TheresultsindicatethattheimpactoftheplasticDysonAirbladehanddryerisconsistently
lowerthanthatofthealuminumDysonAirbladehanddryer,andthattheimpactsofthestandard
dryerandpapertowelsare,almostconsistently,multipletimesthatoftheDysonAirbladehand
dryers.TheXLERATORandcottonrolltowelsystemsgenerallyfallinbetweenthesetwoextremes.
FurtherdiscussioncanbefoundinSection6.3.
108

Table45SensitivitytoLCIAmethodology(relativetoaluminumDysonAirbladehanddryer).
Lifecyclestage
Airblade,
aluminum
Airblade,
plastic
XLERATOR
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Paper
towels,
virgin
Paper
towels,
recycled
Globalwarming
potential
1.0
0.95
1.8
3.9
2.4
3.4
3.4
Humanhealth,
IMPACT2002+
1.0
0.95
1.8
3.8
1.9
3.2
3.2
Ecosystemquality,
IMPACT2002+
1.0
0.96
2.1
4.1
4.8
8.2
3.7
Cumulativeenergy
demand
1.0
0.95
1.8
3.9
2.6
5.9
3.4
Waterconsumption
1.0
0.69
1.3
2.8
0.64
1.6
1.6
Landoccupation,
IMPACT2002+midpt
1.0
0.92
2.2
4.7
220
440
21
Table46summarizesthesensitivityofdryingsystemGWPtovariationinbaselinescenarioassumptions.
ThecolumnChangesfrombaselineindicatesminimumandmaximumpercentagechanges(when
possible)ineachattributefromthebaseline;correspondingeffectsofthesechangesondryingsystem
GWPareshowninthecolumnstotheright.Theresultsindicatethatdryingsystemimpactsaremost
sensitivetochangesinelectricgridmixanduseintensity.TheGWPsoftheDysonAirbladehand
dryersandXLERATORdryerarealsosensitivetoreductioninlifetimeusage,whichincreasesthe
fractionofhanddryerproductionburdenallocatedtothefunctionalunit.Althoughhanddryingsystem
impactsarealsoshowntobesensitivetouselocation,thissensitivityisprimarilydrivenbychangesin
usephaseelectricgridmix.
109

Table46SummaryofdryingsystemGWPsensitivitytobaselinescenarioassumptions.
Changefrom
baseline
Min
Max
Min
Max
Min
Max
Min
Max
Min
Max
Min
Lifetimeusage
57%
+29%
+20%
3.4%
+14%
2.3%
+15%
2.5%
+6.2%
1.0%
Manufacturing
electricgridmix
a
98%
+23%
2.9%
+0.7%
3.1%
+0.7%
1.8%
+0.4%
0.8%
Useelectricgridmix
98%a
+58%
86%
+50%
90%
+53%
88%
+52%
Useintensity
50%
42%
+21%
45%
+22%
43%
0.0%
+0.0%
0.0%
+0.1%
Endoflifescenario
+25%
to
+100%
Various
scenarios
Airblade,
aluminum
Airblade,
plastic
Papertowels,
virgin
Papertowels,
recycled
Max
Min
Max
Min
Max
+2.6%
0.4%
+6.5%
1.1%
+6.5%
1.1%
+0.2%
14%
+3.2%
41%
+24%
40%
+24%
94%
+55%
12%
+7.2%
+21%
45%
+24%
+98%
48%
+48%
48%
+48%
0.0%
+0.1%
0.0%
+0.0%
0.2%
+0.4%
2.9%
+4.2%
2.9%
+4.1%
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
Cottonroll
towels
PWB
6.0%
2.7%
Cottonrolltowel
reuses
32%
+26%
+11%
4.9%
Papertowelpulping
process
25%
71%
3.5%
+9.8%
Papertowelmass
49%
+102%
45%
+93%
Allocationof
recycledcontent
WT
ISO
4.6%
+6.8%
Manufacturing
location
US
1.3%
1.3%
0.7%
0.3%
5.2%
0.6%
0.6%
Uselocation
FR
77%
81%
80%
84%
11%
41%
40%
110
Dryerelectronics
unitprocess
(a)ChangeshownforimpactofhypotheticalallhydropowerorallcoalgridsinkgCO2eqperkWhrelativetobaselinegridimpact.
(b)Changeshownforimpactofunbleachedsulfatepulp(low)orchemithermomechanicalpulp(high)inkgCO2eqperkgpulprelativetobaselinepulpingprocessimpact.
(c)WastetreatmentandallocationbasedonISO14049[61](seeSectionA.4).
(d)Baselinerepresentsmaximumimpact.

ImpactsensitivitytouncertaintyissummarizedinTable47forboththescenariouncertaintyanalysis
andthebillofactivitiesuncertaintyanalysis.MinimumandmaximumvaluesresultingfromeachMonte
Carlosimulationforadryingsystem(seeTables14and17)areshownasabsoluteresultsaswellas
relativetothesystemsbaselineimpact.TherangeinrelativeGWPforeachdryingsystemindicates
thatuncertaintycanleadtowidevariationinsystemimpact.Itisveryunlikely,however,thatdrying
systemimpactwillbeashighoraslowastheresultsinTable47suggestbecausetheseminimumand
maximumvaluesrepresentextremescenarios(e.g.veryshortuseofahighlifetimeusagehanddryeron
ahydropowerfueledelectricgridorverylonguseofalowlifetimeusagedryeronacoalfueledelectric
grid).
TheresultsinTable47alsoindicatethatthedryingsystemGWPrangesoverlap(e.g.therangeof
feasiblevaluesofthecottonrolltowelsystemfallentirelywithintherangeoffeasiblevaluesofthe
papertowelsystem),whichcanpotentiallyleadthesystemstoswitchrankorderdependingonthe
analysisassumptions.Theprobabilityofthesystemsswitchingrankorder,however,willdependonthe
systemsGWPprobabilitydistributions(showninFigures33and35).AdditionalanalysesinSection5.2
wereconductedtoassessthelikelihoodthatdryingsystemGWPislessthanthatofthealuminum
DysonAirbladehanddryersystemandtoascertainthatthedifferenceintheGWPdistributionsand
theirmeanswerestatisticallysignificant.
Table47SummaryofminimumandmaximumGWPsofdryingsystemfromuncertaintyanalyses.
Baseline
Airblade,
aluminum
XLERATOR
Standard
dryer
Cottonroll
towels
Papertowels,
virgin
4.59
8.14
17.8
10.9
15.5
Scenariouncertaintyanalysis(dryingdrivendrytimes)
Minimum,
absolute
Maximum,
absolute
Minimum,
relativetobaseline
Maximum,
relativetobaseline
0.36
0.55
0.63
8.11
4.78
8.83
15.8
34.9
25.5
28.4
92%
93%
96%
26%
69%
+92%
+94%
+96%
+134%
+83%
Billofactivitiessourceuncertaintyanalysis(baselinescenario,measureddrytimes)
Minimum,
Absolute
Maximum,
absolute
Minimum,
relativetobaseline
Maximum,
relativetobaseline
2.14
3.07
6.60
7.54
10.6
17.8
20.9
65.4
16.6
21.9
53%
62%
63%
31%
32%
288%
157%
267%
52%
41%
111

A.8.3 Consistencycheck
Theconsistencycheckassesseswhetherassumptions,methods,anddataforeachproductsystemare
consistentwitheachotheraswellaswithanalysisgoalandscope.Thisinformationissummarizedin
Table48.Therightmostcolumn,labeledConsistencyacrosssystems,indicateswhetherdatais
consistentamongtheproductsystems,whereascheckmarks()intheboxessymbolizewhetherthe
dataisconsistentwiththegoalandscopeoftheanalysis.Datasourcelistswherethebillofactivities
andtheunitprocessinventorydatawereobtained.Theaccuracyofthesedataisreflectedinthedata
accuracyrow.Dataagerepresentswhenthedatawascollectedandisonlyincludedforthebillof
activitiesdata.(Itshouldbenoted,however,thatresultswerecalculatedusingthemostrecentversion
ofecoinventavailable.)Bycontrast,timerelatedcoveragerepresentstheageofthetechnologyitself
whetheritwasrecentlydevelopedorisamixofoldandnew.Technologycoverageindicateswhichof
theoldand/ornewtechnologiesareconsideredandgeographicalcoveragereferstothegeographic
areafromwhichthedatawascollected(e.g.USisusedfortheDysonAirbladehanddryersbillof
activitiesbecauseitrepresentsthehanddryerfortheUSmarket,whereastheinventorydataisbased
onunitprocessesusingdatafromUSorEurope).
112

Table48Dataconsistencycheck.
Airblade,
aluminum
Airblade,plastic
XLERATOR
Standarddryer
Cottonrolltowels
Papertowels
Consistency
acrosssystems
113
Billofactivitiesdata
source
Manufacturer
Manufacturer
PriorLCAstudy
PriorLCAstudy
PriorLCAstudy
PriorLCAstudy
Verygood
Unitprocess
inventorydata
source
ecoinventv2.1
ecoinventv2.1
ecoinventv2.1
ecoinventv2.1
ecoinventv2.1
ETSAreport[12]
ecoinventv2.1
Verygood
Dataaccuracy
Verygood
Verygood
Good
Good
Good
Good,except
forrecycledpulp
production
Good
Dataage
(billofactivities)
Within1year
Within1year
Within2years
Within2years
Within5years
Within2years
Verygood
Technology
coverage
Specificto
product,except
formfglocation
andtransport.
assumptions
Specificto
product,except
formfglocation
andtransport.
assumptions
Specificto
product,except
formfglocation
andtransport.
assumptions
Representative
ofproduct
category
Representative
ofproduct
category
Representative
ofproduct
category
Good
Timerelated
coverage
Representative
ofcurrent
situation
Representative
ofcurrent
situation
Representative
ofcurrent
situation
Representative
ofcurrent
situation
Representative
ofcurrent
situation
Representative
ofcurrent
situation
Verygood
Geographical
coverage
(billofactivities)
US
US
US
US
Europe
US
Geographical
coverage
(unitprocess
inventorydata)
USorregion
withsimilar
technology(e.g.
Europe)
USorregion
withsimilar
technology(e.g.
Europe)
USorregion
withsimilar
technology(e.g.
Europe)
USorregion
withsimilar
technology(e.g.
Europe)
USorregion
withsimilar
technology(e.g.
Europe)
USorregion
withsimilar
technology(e.g.
Europe)
symbolizesconsistencywithgoalandscopeofstudy.
Good
Verygood

Life Cycle Assessment of Hand Drying Systems

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LifeCycleAssessmentofHandDryingSystems

Airblade, Airblade, XLERATOR Standard Cottonroll

Airblade, Airblade, XLERATOR Standard Cottonroll

Airblade, Airblade, XLERATOR Standard Cottonroll

t life _ span lifetime _ usage t in use t spin down

E Pin usetin use Pspin downt spin down Pstandbyt standby

158 106 sec 350,000 tin use 1.5 sec .

11,800 12,352 3,766

0.0092 0.0020 0.0671 1.29

0.0236 0.0068 0.0454 0.40

0.0497 0.0769 0.0100 0.0492 0.753

L1 burden 8.2 kg 0.039 0.428

L2 burden 8.2 kg 0.014 0.152 0.177

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