Cytology Sel

Van De Graaff: Human
Anatomy, Sixth Edition
III. Microscopic Structure

of the Body
3. Cytology
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
Cytology
Introduction to Cytology 49
Cellular Chemistry 50
Cellular Structure 52
Cell Cycle 65
CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS 70
Clinical Case Study Answer 74

Chapter Summary 74
Review Activities 75
Clinical Case Study

A 46-year-old inebriated male is brought to the emergency room by paramedics after his girlfriend called 911 reporting that he was experiencing a seizure. Over the next hour, the patient
becomes increasingly somnolent (sleepy). While the emergency room staff initiates gastric
lavage for presumed drug ingestion, you seek more medical history from the mans girlfriend.
She reports that she found him amidst several empty bottles of antifreeze. Upon hearing this,
you immediately order a 10% ethanol solution to be given to the man intravenously.
How do enzymes promote metabolism of chemicals? What is meant by competitive inhibition and how does this relate to therapy for ethylene glycol poisoning? As you read this
chapter, pay attention to other enzyme reactions and recognize that these are important targets
for therapeutic medications.
FIGURE: Drugs work at the cellular level

where a delicate chemical balance is
maintained. A thorough knowledge of cellular
structure is imperative to understand cellular
physiology and drug therapy.


of the Body
3. Cytology
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Chapter 3
INTRODUCTION TO CYTOLOGY
The cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of the
body. Although cells vary widely in size and shape, they have
basic structural similarities, and all cells metabolize to stay alive.
Objective 1
Define the terms cell, metabolism, and cytology.
Objective 2
Using examples, explain how cells differ from

one another and how the structure of a cell determines its
function.
Human anatomy is concerned with the structure of the human

body and the relationship of its parts. The body is a masterpiece
of organization for which the cell provides the basis. For this reason, the cell is called the functional unit. As discussed in chapter 2,
cellular organization forms tissues, whose organization in turn
forms the organs, which in turn form systems. If the organs and
systems are to function properly, cells must function properly.
Cellular function is referred to as metabolism. In order for cells
to remain alive and metabolize, certain requirements must be
met. Each cell must have access to nutrients and oxygen and be
able to eliminate wastes. In addition, a constant, protective environment must be maintained. All of these requirements are
achieved through organization.
Cells were first observed more than 300 years ago by the
English scientist Robert Hooke. Using his crude microscope to
examine a thin slice of cork, he saw a network of cell walls and
boxlike cavities. He called them little boxes or cells, after the
barren cubicles of a monastery. As better microscopes were developed, the intriguing architectural details of cellular structure were
gradually revealed. The improved lenses resulted in a series of developments that culminated in the formulation of the cell theory
in 1838 and 1839 by two German biologists, Matthias Schleiden
and Theodor Schwann. This theory states that all living organisms are composed of one or more cells and that the cell is the
basic unit of structure for all organisms. The work of Schleiden
and Schwann laid the groundwork for a new science called cytology, which is concerned with the structure and function of cells.
A knowledge of the cellular level of organization is important for understanding the basic body processes of cellular respiration, protein synthesis, mitosis, and meiosis. An understanding
of cellular structure gives meaning to the concept of tissue,
organ, and system levels of functional body organization. Furthermore, many dysfunctions and diseases of the body originate
in the cells. Although cellular structure and function have been
investigated for many years, we still have much to learn about
cells. The etiologies, or causes, of a number of complex diseases
metabolism: Gk. metabole, change

cytology: L. cella, small room; Gk. logos, study of
etiology: L. aitia, cause; Gk. logos, study of
49
are as yet unknown. Scientists are seeking why and how the body
ages. The answers will come only through a better understanding
of cellular structure and function.
Advancements in microscopy have revolutionized the science of cytology. In a new process called microtomography, the capabilities of electron microscopy are combined
with those of CT scanning to produce high-magnification, threedimensional, microtomographic images of living cells. With this
technology, living cells can be observed as they move, grow, and
divide. The clinical applications are immense, as scientists can
observe the response of diseased cells (including cancer cells) to
various drug treatments.
Cellular Diversity
It is amazing that from a single cell, the fertilized egg, hundreds
of kinds of cells arise, producing the estimated 60 trillion to
100 trillion cells that make up an adult human. Cells vary
greatly in size and shape. The smallest cells are visible only
through a high-powered microscope. Even the largest, an egg
cell (ovum), is barely visible to the unaided eye. The sizes of
cells are measured in micrometers (m)one micrometer
equals 1/1,000th of a millimeter. Using this basis of comparison,
an ovum is about 140 m in diameter and a red blood cell is
about 7.5 m in diameter. The most common type of white
blood cell varies in size from 10 to 12 m in diameter. Although
still microscopic, some cells can be extremely long. A nerve cell
(neuron), for example, may extend the entire length of a limb
and be over a meter long.
Although a typical diagram of a cell depicts it as round
or cube-shaped, the shapes of cells are actually highly variable. They can be flat, oval, elongate, stellate, columnar, and
so on (fig. 3.1). The shape of a cell is frequently an indication
of its function. A disc-shaped red blood cell is adapted to
transport oxygen. Thin, flattened cells may be bound together
to form selectively permeable membranes. An irregularly
shaped cell, such as a neuron, has a tremendous ratio of surface area to volume, which is ideal for receiving and transmitting stimuli.
The surfaces of some cells are smooth, so that substances
pass over them easily. Other cells have distinct depressions and
elevations on their cell membranes to facilitate absorption. Some
cell surfaces support such structures as cilia, flagella, and gelatinous coats, which assist movement and provide adhesion. Regardless of the sizes and shapes of cells, they all have structural
modifications that serve functional purposes.
Knowledge Check
1. Why is the cell considered the basic structural and functional unit of the body?
2. What conditions are necessary for metabolism to occur?
3. Give some examples of structural modifications that allow
cells to perform specific functions?
CHAPTER 3
Cells as Functional Units
Cytology

50
Unit 3

of the Body
3. Cytology
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
Microscopic Structure of the Body
(b)
CHAPTER 3
(c)
(a)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
FIGURE 3.1 Examples of the various shapes of cells within the body. (The cells are not drawn to scale.) (a) A neuron (nerve cell) showing the
cell body surrounded by numerous dendritic extensions and a portion of the axon extending below, (b) a squamous epithelial cell from the lining
of a blood vessel, (c) a smooth muscle cell from the intestinal wall, (d ) a skeletal muscle cell, (e) a leukocyte (white blood cell), (f ) an erythrocyte
(red blood cell), (g) an osteocyte (bone cell), and (h) a spermatozoon (sperm cell).
CELLULAR CHEMISTRY
All tissues and organs are composed of cellular structures that
have basically the same chemical components. The most important inorganic substances in the body include water, acids, bases,
and salts. The most important organic substances in the body include proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.
Objective 3
List the common chemical elements found
within cells.
Objective 4
Differentiate between inorganic and organic

compounds and give examples of each.
Objective 5
Explain the importance of water in maintaining

body homeostasis.
Objective 6
Differentiate between proteins, carbohydrates,
and lipids.
To understand cellular structure and function, one must have a

knowledge of basic cellular and general body chemistry. All of
the processes that occur in the body comply with principles of
chemistry. Furthermore, many of the dysfunctions of the body
have a chemical basis.
Elements, Molecules, and Compounds

Elements are the simplest chemical substances. Four elements
compose over 95% of the bodys mass. These elements and their
percentages of body weight are oxygen (O) 65%, carbon (C)
18%, hydrogen (H) 10%, and nitrogen (N) 3%. Additional common elements found in the body include calcium (Ca), potassium (K), sodium (Na), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), and
sulfur (S).
A few elements exist separately in the body, but most are
chemically bound to others to form molecules. Some molecules
are composed of like elementsan oxygen molecule (O2), for
example. Others, such as water (H2O), are composed of different
kinds of elements. Compounds are molecules composed of two or
more different elements. Thus, the chemical structure of water
may be referred to as both a molecule and a compound.
Organic compounds are those that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include common body substances such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. Inorganic
compounds generally lack carbon and include common body
substances such as water and electrolytes (acids, bases, and salts).
The percentages of organic and inorganic compounds found in
adult males and females are compared in table 3.1.


of the Body
3. Cytology
The McGrawHill
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Chapter 3
Males and Females (Expressed as Percentage

of Body Weight)
Water
Male
Female
62
59
18
15
Lipid
14
20
Carbohydrates
Other (electrolytes, nucleic acids)
The disparity of proteins, lipids, and water in adult males

and females can be explained by relative amounts of sex hormones. Male sex hormones promote the development of proteins, especially in skeletal muscle tissue. Female sex hormones
promote the retention of fats, which are an important food resource for nursing a child. Because proteins contain more water
than lipids, there is a disparity between the percent of body fluids
between males and females.
Water
Water is by far the most abundant compound found within cells
and in the extracellular environment. Water generally occurs
within the body as a homogeneous mixture of two or more compounds called a solution. In this condition, the water is the solvent, or the liquid portion of the solution, and the solutes are
substances dissolved in the solution. Water is an almost universal
solvent, meaning that almost all chemical compounds dissolve in
it. In addition, it is also used to transport many solutes through
the cell membrane of a cell or from one part of the cell to another. Water is also important in maintaining a constant cellular
temperature, and thus a constant body temperature, because it
absorbs and releases heat slowly. Evaporative cooling (sweating)
through the skin also involves water. Another function of water
is as a reactant in the breakdown (hydrolysis) of food material in
digestion.
Dehydration is a condition in which fluid loss exceeds fluid intake, with a resultant decrease in the volume of intracellular
and extracellular fluids. Rapid dehydration through vomiting, diarrhea, or excessive sweating can lead to serious medical problems by
impairing cellular function. Infants are especially vulnerable because
their fluid volume is so small. They can die from dehydration resulting
from diarrhea within a matter of hours.
Characteristic
Examples
Acid
Ionizes to release hydrogen

ions (H+)
Carbonic acid, hydrochloric

acid, acetic acid, phosphoric
acid
Base
Ionizes to release hydroxyl

ions (OH) that combine
with hydrogen ions
Sodium hydroxide, potassium

hydroxide, magnesium
hydroxide, aluminum
hydroxide
Salt
Substance formed by the

reaction between an acid
and a base
Sodium chloride, aluminum

chloride, magnesium sulfate
Electrolytes
Electrolytes are inorganic compounds that break down into ions
when dissolved in water, forming a solution capable of conducting electricity. An electrolyte is classified according to the ions it
yields when dissolved in water. The three classes of electrolytes
are acids, bases, and salts, all of which are important for normal
cellular function. The functions of ions include the control of
water movement through cells and the maintenance of normal
acid-base (pH) balance. Ions are also essential for nerve and
muscle function, and some ions serve as cofactors that are
needed for optimal activity of enzymes. Symptoms of electrolyte
imbalances range from muscle cramps and brittle bones to coma
and cardiac arrest. The three kinds of electrolytes are summarized in table 3.2.
Proteins
Proteins are nitrogen-containing organic compounds composed
of amino acid subunits. An amino acid is an organic compound
that contains an amino group (NH2) and a carboxyl group
(COOH). There are 20 different types of amino acids that can
contribute to a given protein. This variety allows each type of
protein to be constructed to function in very specific ways.
Proteins are the most abundant of the organic compounds.
They may exist by themselves or be conjugated (joined) with
other compounds; for example, with nucleic acids (RNA or
DNA) to form nucleoproteins, with carbohydrates to form glycoproteins, or with lipids to form lipoproteins.
Proteins may be categorized according to their role in the
body as structural or functional. Structural proteins contribute
significantly to the structure of different tissues. Examples include collagen in connective tissue and keratin in the epidermis of
electrolyte: L. electrum, amber; Gk. lysis, a loosening

acid: L. acidus, sour
protein: Gk. proteios, of the first quality
CHAPTER 3
Protein
solution: L. solvere, loosen or dissolve

hydrolysis: Gk. hydor, water; lysis, a loosening
51
TABLE 3.2 Kinds of Electrolytes
TABLE 3.1 Compounds Found in Adult
Substance
Cytology

52
Unit 3

of the Body
3. Cytology
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
TABLE 3.3 Chemical Substances of Cells: Location and Function

Substance
Location in Cell
Functions
Water
Throughout
Dissolves, suspends, and ionizes materials; helps regulate temperature
Electrolytes
Throughout
Establish osmotic gradients, pH, and membrane potentials
Proteins
Membranes, cytoskeleton, ribosomes, enzymes
Provide structure, strength, and contractility; catalyze; buffer
Lipids
Membranes, Golgi complex, inclusions
Provide reserve energy source; shape, protect, and insulate
Carbohydrates
Inclusions
Preferred fuel for metabolic activity
DNA
Nucleus, in chromosomes and genes
Controls cell activity
RNA
Nucleolus, cytoplasm
Transmits genetic information; transports amino acids
Vitamins
Cytoplasm, nucleus
Work with enzymes in metabolism
Minerals
Cytoplasm, nucleus
Essential for normal metabolism; involved in osmotic balance; add strength; buffer
CHAPTER 3
Nucleic acids
Trace materials
the skin. Functional proteins assume a more active role in the

body, exerting some form of control of metabolism. Examples include enzymes and antibodies. Many hormones belong to a specialized group of messenger and regulator proteins produced by
endocrine glands. Cellular growth, repair, and division depend
on the availability of functional proteins. Proteins, under certain
conditions, may even be metabolized to supply cellular energy.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, or simple sugars,
disaccharides, or double sugars, and polysaccharides, or longchained sugars. Carbohydrates are the bodys most readily available energy source and also may be used as a fuel reserve.
Excessive carbohydrate intake is converted to glycogen (animal
starch) or to fat for storage in adipose tissue.
If a person is deprived of food, the body uses the glycogen
and fat reserves first and then metabolizes the protein within
the cells. The gradual destruction of cellular protein accounts for the
lethargy, extreme emaciation, and ultimate death of starvation victims.
Lipids
Lipids are a third group of important organic compounds found in
cells. They are insoluble in water and include both fats and fatrelated substances, such as phospholipids and cholesterol. Fats are important in building cell parts and supplying metabolic energy. They
also protect and insulate various parts of the body. Phospholipids and
protein molecules make up the cell membrane and play an important role in regulating which substances enter or leave a cell.
Lipids, like carbohydrates, are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Lipids, however, contain a smaller proportion
of oxygen than do carbohydrates.
The locations and functions of inorganic and organic substances within cells are summarized in table 3.3.
Knowledge Check
4. List the four most abundant elements in the body and state
their relative percentages of body weight.
5. Define molecule and compound. What are the two kinds of
compounds that exist in the body? On what basis are they
distinguished?
6. List some of the functions of water relative to cells and define solvent and solute.
7. Discuss the importance of electrolytes in maintaining
homeostasis within cells.
8. Define protein and describe how proteins function within cells.
Explain how proteins differ from carbohydrates and lipids.
CELLULAR STRUCTURE
The cell membrane separates the interior of a cell from the extracellular environment. The passage of substances into and out of
the cell is regulated by the cell membrane. Most of the metabolic
activities of a cell occur within the cytoplasmic organelles. The nucleus functions in protein synthesis and cell reproduction.
Objective 7
Objective 8
Describe the composition and structure of the

cell membrane and relate its structure to the functions it
performs.
Objective 9
hormone: Gk. hormon, setting in motion
lipid: Gk. lipos, fat
Describe the components of a cell.
Distinguish between passive and active

transport and describe the different ways in which each is
accomplished.


of the Body
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Chapter 3
Cytology
53
TABLE 3.4 Cellular Components: Structure and Function

Component
Structure
Functions
Cell (plasma) membrane
Membrane composed of a double layer of phospholipids

in which proteins are embedded
Gives form to cell and controls passage of materials in and

out of cell
Cytoplasm
Fluid, jellylike substance between the cell membrane and

the nucleus in which organelles are suspended
Serves as matrix substance in which chemical reactions

occur
Endoplasmic reticulum
System of interconnected membrane-forming canals and

tubules
Provides supporting framework within cytoplasm; transports

materials and provides attachment for ribosomes
Granular particles composed of protein and RNA
Synthesize proteins
Golgi complex
Cluster of flattened membranous sacs
Synthesizes carbohydrates and packages molecules for

secretion; secretes lipids and glycoproteins
Mitochondria
Double-walled membranous sacs with folded inner

partitions
Release energy from food molecules and transform energy

into usable ATP
Lysosomes
Single-walled membranous sacs
Digest foreign molecules and worn and damaged cells
Peroxisomes
Spherical membranous vesicles
Contain enzymes that detoxify harmful molecules and break

down hydrogen peroxide
Centrosome
Nonmembranous mass of two rodlike centrioles
Helps organize spindle fibers and distribute chromosomes

during mitosis of a cell cycle
Vacuoles
Membranous sacs
Store and release various substances within the cytoplasm
Fibrils and microtubules
Thin, hollow tubes
Support cytoplasm and transport materials within the

cytoplasm
Cilia and flagella
Minute cytoplasmic projections that extend from

the cell surface
Move particles along cell surface or move the cell
Nuclear membrane (envelope)
Double-walled membrane composed of protein and

lipid molecules that surrounds the nucleus
Supports nucleus and controls passage of materials between

nucleus and cytoplasm
Nucleolus
Dense nonmembranous mass composed of protein

and RNA molecules
Forms ribosomes
Chromatin
Fibrous strands composed of protein and DNA molecules
Contains genetic code that determines which proteins

(especially enzymes) will be manufactured by the cell
Objective 10
Describe the structure and function of the

endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi complex,
lysosomes, and mitochondria.
Objective 11
Describe the structure and function of the nucleus.
As the basic functional unit of the body, the cell is a highly organized molecular factory. As previously discussed, cells come in a
great variety of shapes and sizes. This variation, which is also apparent in subcellular structures (organelles), reflects the diversity
of function of different cells in the body. All cells, however, have
certain features in commona cell membrane, for example, and
most of the other structures listed in table 3.4. Thus, although no
one cell can be considered typical, the general structure of cells
can be indicated by a single illustration (fig. 3.2).
For descriptive purposes, a cell can be divided into three
principal parts:
1. Cell (plasma) membrane. The selectively permeable cell
membrane gives form to the cell. It controls the passage of
molecules into and out of the cell and separates the cells
internal structures from the extracellular environment.
plasma: Gk. plasma, to form or mold
2. Cytoplasm and organelles. The cytoplasm (sito-plazem)

is the cellular material between the nucleus and the cell
membrane. Organelles (orga-nelz) are the specialized
structures suspended within the cytoplasm of the cell that
perform specific functions.
3. Nucleus. The nucleus (nookle-us) is the large spheroid
or oval body usually located near the center of the cell. It
contains the DNA, or genetic material, that directs the activities of the cell. Within the nucleus, one or more dense
bodies called nucleoli (singular, nucleolus) may be seen.
The nucleolus contains the subunits for ribosomes, the
structures that serve as sites for protein synthesis.
Cell Membrane
The extremely thin cell (plasma) membrane is composed primarily of phospholipid and protein molecules. Its thickness
ranges from 65 to 100 angstroms (); that is, it is less than a millionth of an inch thick. The structure of the cell membrane is
not fully understood, but most cytologists believe that it consists
of a double layer of phospholipids in which larger globular
nucleus: L. nucleus, kernel or nut
CHAPTER 3
Ribosomes

54
Unit 3

of the Body
3. Cytology
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
Golgi complex
Secretion
granule
Nuclear membrane
Centriole
Mitochondrion
Nucleolus
Lysosome
CHAPTER 3
Chromatin
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Microtubule
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Cytoplasm
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosome
w
Le
FIGURE 3.2 Structural features of a generalized cell.
proteins are embedded (fig. 3.3). The proteins are free to move
within the membrane. As a result, they are not uniformly distributed, but rather form a constantly changing mosaic. Minute
openings, or pores, ranging between 7 and 10 in diameter extend through the membrane.
The two most important functions of the cell membrane
are to enclose the components of the cell and to regulate the passage of substances into and out of the cell. A highly selective exchange of substances occurs across the membrane boundary,
involving several types of passive and active processes. The various kinds of movement across a cell membrane are summarized
in table 3.5 and illustrated in figure 3.4.
The permeability of the cell membrane depends on the following factors:
Structure of the cell membrane. Although cell membranes
of all cells are composed of phospholipids, there is evidence
that their thickness and structural arrangementboth of
which could affect permeabilityvary considerably.
Size of the molecules. Macromolecules, such as certain
proteins, are not allowed into the cell. Water and amino
acids are small molecules and can readily pass through the
cell membrane.
Ionic charge. The protein portion of the cell membrane

carries a positive or negative ionic charge. Ions with an opposite charge are attracted to and readily pass through the
membrane, whereas those with a similar charge are repelled.
Lipid solubility. Substances that are easily dissolved in
lipids pass into the cell with no problem, since a portion of
the cell membrane is composed of lipid material.
Presence of carrier molecules. Specialized carrier molecules within the cell membrane are capable of attracting
and transporting substances across the membrane, regardless of size, ionic charge, or lipid solubility.
Pressure differences. The pressure difference on the two
sides of a cell membrane may greatly aid movement of molecules either into or out of a cell.
Cell membranes of certain cells are highly specialized to facilitate specific functions (fig. 3.5). The columnar cells lining the
lumen (hollow portion) of the intestinal tract, for example, have
numerous fine projections, or microvilli (mikro-vili), that aid in
microvilli: Gk. mikros, small; villus, tuft of hair


of the Body
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Chapter 3
Cytology
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CHAPTER 3
FIGURE 3.3 The cell membrane consists of a double layer of phospholipids, with the phosphates (shown by spheres) oriented outward and
the hydrophobic hydrocarbons (wavy lines) oriented toward the center. Proteins may completely or partially span the membrane. Carbohydrates
are attached to the outer surface.
TABLE 3.5 Movement through Cell Membranes

Processes
Characteristics
Energy Source
Example
Simple diffusion
Tendency of molecules to move from regions of high

concentration to regions of lower concentration
Molecular motion
Respiratory gases are exchanged in lungs
Facilitated
diffusion
Diffusion of molecules through semipermeable

membrane with the aid of membrane carriers
Carrier energy and

molecular motion
Glucose enters cell attached to carrier protein
Osmosis
Passive movement of water molecules through

semipermeable membrane from regions of high
water concentration to regions of lower water
concentration
Molecular motion
Water moves through cell membrane to maintain

constant turgidity of cell
Filtration
Movement of molecules from regions of high pressure

to regions of lower pressure as a result of hydrostatic
pressure
Blood pressure
Wastes are removed from blood within kidneys
Active transport
Carrier-mediated transport of solutes from regions of

their low concentration to regions of their higher
concentration (against their concentration gradient)
Cellular energy (ATP)
Glucose and amino acids move through membranes
Process in which membrane engulfs minute droplets

of fluid from extracellular environment
Cellular energy
Membrane forms vacuoles containing solute

and solvent
Process in which membrane engulfs solid particles

from extracellular environment
Cellular energy
White blood cell membrane engulfs bacterial cell
Release of molecules from cell as vesicles rupture
Cellular energy
Hormones and mucus are secreted out of cell;

neurotransmitters are released at synapse
Endocytosis
Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis
Exocytosis

Unit 3
56

of the Body
3. Cytology
Permeable
membrane
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Selectively
permeable
membrane
Sugar molecule
Water molecule
B
A
CHAPTER 3
Sugar molecule
Water molecule
3
1
Time
2
Time
(a) Diffusion
(b) Osmosis
Smaller
molecules
Larger
molecules
Blood pressure
Capillary
membrane
Tissue fluid
(c) Filtration
FIGURE 3.4 Examples of various kinds of movements through membranes. (a) Sugar molecules diffuse from compartment A to compartment B until equilibrium is achieved in 3. (b) Osmosis occurs as a selectively permeable membrane allows only water to diffuse through the
membrane between compartments A and B, causing the level of the liquid to rise in A. (c) Filtration occurs as small molecules are forced through
a membrane by blood pressure, leaving the larger molecules behind.
Mv
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 3.5 Microvilli in the small intestine. The microvilli (Mv), are seen here with (a) the transmission and (b) the scanning electron microscope. (TW is the terminal web, a protein mesh to which the microvilli are anchored.)
Reproduced from R. G. Kessel and R. H. Kardon, Tissues and Organs: A Text Atlas of Scanning Electron Microscopy, W. H. Freeman and Co., 1979.


of the Body
3. Cytology
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Chapter 3
Cytology
57
lylike substance that is 80% to 90% water. The organelles and

inorganic colloid substances (suspended particles) are dispersed
throughout the cytoplasm. Colloid substances have similar ionic
charges that space them uniformly.
Metabolic activity occurs within the organelles of the cytoplasm. Specific roles such as heat production, cellular maintenance, repair, storage, and protein synthesis are carried out
within the organelles.
The structure and functions of each of the major organelles
are discussed in the following paragraphs and summarized in
table 3.4.
FIGURE 3.6 A transmission electron microscope (TEM) like this

one is used to observe and photograph organelles within the cytoplasm of a cell.
the absorptive process of digestion. A single columnar cell may

have as many as 3,000 microvilli on the exposed portion of the
cell membrane, and a square millimeter of surface area may contain over 200 million microvilli.
Certain sensory organs contain cells that have specialized
cell membranes. The photoreceptors, or light-responding rods
and cones of the eye, have double-layered, disc-shaped membranes called sacs. These structures contain pigments associated
with vision. Within the spiral organ (organ of Corti) in the inner
ear are hair cells. These tactile (touch) receptors are stimulated
through mechanical vibration. Hair cells are so named because of
the fine hairlike processes that extend from their cell membranes.
Cytoplasm and Organelles

Cytoplasm refers to the material located within the cell membrane but outside the nucleus. The material within the nucleus is
frequently called the nucleoplasm. The term protoplasm is sometimes used to refer to the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm collectively.
When observed through an electron microscope (fig. 3.6),
distinct cellular components called organelles can be seen in the
highly structured cytoplasm. The matrix of the cytoplasm is a jel-
Often abbreviated ER, the endoplasmic reticulum (endoplazmik re-tikyu-lum) is widely distributed throughout the cytoplasm as a complex network of interconnected membranes
(fig. 3.7). Although the name sounds complicated, endoplasmic
simply means within the plasm (cytoplasm of the cell) and
reticulum means network. Between the interconnected membranes are minute spaces, or cisterna, that are connected at one
end to the cell membranes. The tubules may also be connected
to other organelles or to the outer nuclear envelope.
The ER provides a pathway for transportation of substances
within the cell and a storage area for synthesized molecules.
There are two distinct varieties, either of which may predominate in a given cell:
1. a rough, or granular, endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER),
characterized by numerous small granules called ribosomes
that are attached to the outer surface of the membranous
wall; and
2. a smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER) that lacks
ribosomes.
The membranous wall of rough ER provides a site for protein
synthesis within ribosomes. Smooth ER manufactures certain
lipid molecules. Also, enzymes within the smooth ER of liver
cells inactivate or detoxify a variety of chemicals.
A person who repeatedly uses certain drugs, such as alcohol
or phenobarbital, develops a tolerance to them, so that greater
quantities are required to achieve the effect they had originally. The
cytological explanation for this is that repeated use causes the
smooth endoplasmic reticulum to proliferate in an effort to detoxify
these drugs and protect the cell. With increased amounts of smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, cells can handle an increased concentration
of drugs.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes (ribo-somz) may occur as free particles suspended
within the cytoplasm, or they may be attached to the membranous wall of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are
small, granular organelles (fig. 3.7) composed of protein and
RNA molecules. They synthesize protein molecules that may be
used to build cell structures or to function as enzymes. Some of
the proteins synthesized by ribosomes are secreted by the cell to
be used elsewhere in the body.
CHAPTER 3
Endoplasmic Reticulum

Unit 3
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CHAPTER 3
Golgi Complex
(a)
Nucleus
The Golgi (golje) complex (Golgi apparatus) consists of several

tiny membranous sacs located near the nucleus (fig. 3.8a).
The Golgi complex is involved in the synthesis of carbohydrates and cellular secretions. As large carbohydrate molecules
are synthesized, they combine with proteins to form compounds
called glycoproteins that accumulate in the channels of the Golgi
complex. When a critical volume is reached, the vesicles break
off from the complex and are carried to the cell membrane and
released as a secretion (fig. 3.8b). Once the vesicle has fused with
the cell membrane, it ruptures to release its contents, thus completing the process known as exocytosis.
The Golgi complex is prominent in cells of certain secretory organs of the digestive system, including the pancreas and
the salivary glands. Pancreatic cells, for example, produce digestive enzymes that are packaged in the Golgi complex and secreted as droplets that flow into the pancreatic duct and are
transported to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.
Mitochondria
Tubule
Membrane
Ribosome
(b)
Nucleus
Mitochondria (mi to-kondre-a) are double-membraned saclike

organelles. They are found in all cells in the body, with the exception of mature red blood cells. The outer mitochondrial membrane is smooth, whereas the inner membrane is arranged in
intricate folds called cristae (kriste) (fig. 3.9). The cristae create
a enormous surface area for chemical reactions.
Mitochondria vary in size and shape. They can migrate
through the cytoplasm and can reproduce themselves by budding
or cleavage. They are often called the powerhouses of cells because of their role in producing metabolic energy. Enzymes connected to the cristae control the chemical reactions that form
ATP. Metabolically active cells, such as muscle cells, liver cells,
and kidney cells, have a large number of mitochondria because of
their high energy requirements.
The darker color of some cuts of meat (a chicken thigh, for example, as compared to a breast) is due to larger amounts of
myoglobin, a pigmented compound in muscle tissue that acts to
store oxygen. Mitochondria are likewise more abundant in red meat.
Both mitochondria and myoglobin are important for the high level of
metabolic activity in red muscle tissue.
(c)
FIGURE 3.7 The endoplasmic reticulum. (a) An electron micrograph of the endoplasmic reticulum (about 100,000). The rough endoplasmic reticulum (b) has ribosomes attached to its surface,
whereas the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (c) lacks ribosomes.
Because mitochondria are contained within ova (egg cells)

but not within the heads of sperm cells, all of the mitochondria in a fertilized egg are derived from the mother. As cells divide
during the developmental process, the mitochondria likewise replicate themselves; thus, all of the mitochondria in a fetus are genetically identical to those in the original ovum. This accounts for a
unique form of inheritance that is passed only from mother to child.
A rare cause of blindnessLebers hereditary optic neuropathy
and perhaps some genetically based neuromuscular disorders, are
believed to be inherited in this manner.
Golgi complex: from Camillo Golgi, Italian histologist, 18431926

mitochondrion: Gk. mitos, a thread; chondros, lump, grain
cristae: L. crista, crest
Lebers hereditary optic neuropathy: from Theodor Leber, German
ophthalmologist, 18401917


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Chapter 3
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Secretory
storage granule
Nucleus
(a)
Secretion
Golgi complex
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes
Cisternae
Cytoplasm
Lysosome
Cell membrane
(b)
FIGURE 3.8 The Golgi complex. (a) An electron micrograph of a Golgi complex. Notice the formation of vesicles at the ends of some of the
flattened sacs. (b) An illustration of the processing of proteins by the rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex.
Mitochondrial diseases may soon be treatable with mitochondria replacement. The treatment will require extraction of the
cytoplasm and its organelles from an afflicted egg and replacing it
with healthy material from another womans donar egg. A potential
ethical problem to this procedure is that some scientists regard mitochondrial DNA as part of the human genome.
closed within lysosomes are capable of breaking down protein

and carbohydrate molecules. White blood cells contain large
numbers of lysosomes and are said to be phagocytic, meaning that
they will ingest, kill, and digest bacteria through the enzymatic
activity of their lysosomes.
Lysosomes
The normal atrophy, or decrease in size, of the uterus following

the birth of a baby is due to lysosomal digestive activity. Likewise, the secretions of lysosomes are responsible for the regression
of the mammary tissue of the breasts after the weaning of an infant.
Lysosomes (liso-somz) vary in appearance from granular bodies to

small vesicles to membranous spheres (fig. 3.10). They are scattered throughout the cytoplasm. Powerful digestive enzymes enlysosome: Gk. lysis, a loosening; somo, body
phagocytic: Gk. phagein, to eat; kytos, a cell
CHAPTER 3
Proteins

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External mitochondrial
membrane
CHAPTER 3
Internal mitochondrial
membrane
Cristae
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 3.9 (a) An electron micrograph of a mitochondrion (about 40,000). The external mitochondrial membrane and the infoldings (cristae)
of the internal mitochondrial membrane are clearly seen. (b) A diagram of a mitochondrion.
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 3.10 (a) An electron micrograph of a lysosome (about 30,000). (b) A diagram of a lysosome.
Lysosomes also digest worn-out cell parts, and if their

membranes are ruptured they destroy the entire cell within
which they reside. For this reason, lysosomes are frequently
called suicide packets.
case with other organelles, whose structures generally were

observed and described before their functional roles in the cell were
understood.
Several diseases arise from abnormalities in lysosome function. The painful inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis, for example, occurs when enzymes from lysosomes are released into the joint
capsule and initiate digestion of the surrounding tissue.
Peroxisomes (pe-roks-somz) are membranous sacs that resemble

lysosomes structurally and they too contain enzymes. Peroxisomes
occur in most cells but are particularly abundant in the kidney
and liver. Some of the enzymes in peroxisomes promote the
breakdown of fats, producing hydrogen peroxidea highly toxic
substanceas a by-product. Hydrogen peroxide is an important
compound in white blood cells, which phagocytize diseased or
Lysosomes were not discovered until the early 1950s, but

their existence and functions had been predicted before
these organelles were actually observed in cells. Such was not the
Peroxisomes


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Chapter 3
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(b)
FIGURE 3.11 (a) An electron micrograph of centrioles in a centrosome (about 14,200). (b) A diagram showing that the centrioles are positioned at right angles to each other.
worn-out cells. Peroxisomes also contain the enzyme catalase,

which breaks down excess hydrogen peroxide into water and
oxygen so that there is no toxic effect on other organelles within
the cytoplasm.
Centrosome and Centrioles

The centrosome (central body) is a nonmembranous spherical
mass positioned near the nucleus. Within the centrosome, a pair
of rodlike structures called centrioles (sentre-o lz) (fig. 3.11) are
positioned at right angles to each other. The wall of each centriole is composed of nine evenly spaced bundles, and each bundle
contains three microtubules.
Centrosomes are found only in those cells that can divide.
During the mitotic (replication) process, the centrioles move
away from each other and take positions on either side of the nucleus. They are then involved in the distribution of the chromosomes during cellular reproduction. Mature muscle and nerve
cells lack centrosomes, and thus cannot divide.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles (vakyoo-o lz) are membranous sacs of various sizes that
usually function as storage chambers. They are formed when a
portion of the cell membrane invaginates and pinches off during
endocytosis. Vacuolation is initiated either by pinocytosis (pinosi-tosis), in which cells take in minute droplets of liquid through
the cell membrane, or by phagocytosis (fag o-si-tosis), in which
the cell membrane engulfs solid particles (fig. 3.12). Vacuoles
may contain liquid or solid materials that were previously outside
the cell.
vacuole: L. vacuus, empty
Fibrils and Microtubules

Both fibrils and microtubules are found throughout the cytoplasm. The fibrils are minute rodlike structures, whereas the microtubules are fine, threadlike tubular structures of varying
lengths (fig. 3.13). Both provide the cell with support by forming
a type of cytoskeleton. Specialized fibrils called myofilaments are
particularly abundant in muscle cells, where they aid in the contraction of these cells. Microtubules are also involved in the
transportation of macromolecules throughout the cytoplasm.
They are especially abundant in the cells of endocrine organs,
where they aid the movement of hormones to be secreted into
the blood. Microtubules in certain cells provide flexible support
for cilia and flagella.
Cilia and Flagella

Although cilia and flagella appear to be extensions of the cell
membrane, they are actually cytoplasmic projections from the interior of the cell. These projections contain cytoplasm and supportive microtubules bounded by the cell membrane (fig. 3.14).
Cilia and flagella should not be confused with microvilli or with
stereocilia, both of which are specializations of cell membranes.
Cilia (sile-a) are numerous short projections from the exposed border of certain cells (fig. 3.15). Ciliated cells are interspersed with mucus-secreting goblet cells. There is always a film
of mucus on the free surface of ciliated cells. Ciliated cells line
the lumina (hollow portions) of sections of the respiratory and reproductive tracts. The function of the cilia is to move the mucus
and any adherent material toward the exterior of the body.
Flagella (fla-jela) are similar to cilia in basic microtubular
structure (see fig. 3.14), but they are somewhat longer than cilia.
The only example of a flagellated cell in humans is the sperm
cell, which uses the single structure for locomotion.
CHAPTER 3
(a)
Cytology

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Cell
membrane
Fluid-filled
vesicle
Fluid
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
CHAPTER 3
(a) Pinocytosis
Cell
membrane
Vesicle
Particle
Phagocytized
particle
Nucleolus Nucleus
(b) Phagocytosis
FIGURE 3.12 Pinocytosis and phagocytosis compared. (a) During pinocytosis, the cell takes in a minute droplet of fluid from its surroundings.
(b) During phagocytosis, a solid particle is engulfed and ingested through the cell membrane.
Microtubules
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 3.13 (a) An electron micrograph showing microtubules forming a type of cytoskeleton (about 30,000). (b) A diagram of a microtubule showing the precisely arranged globular proteins of which they are composed.


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Chapter 3
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Flagellar
or ciliary
membrane
Cell
membrane
CHAPTER 3
(a)
Cilia
Debris
Goblet
cell
Flagellum
FIGURE 3.15 An electron micrograph of ciliated cells that line the

lumen of the uterine tube (640).
(b)
(c)
Creek
FIGURE 3.14 (a) Cilia and flagella are similar in the structural
arrangement of their microtubules. (b) A sperm cell (spermatozoon)
has a single flagellum for propulsion. (c) Cilia produce a wavelike
motion to move particles toward the outside of the body.
Cell Nucleus
The spherical nucleus is usually located near the center of the
cell (fig. 3.16). It is the largest structure of the cell and contains
the genetic material that determines cellular structure and controls cellular activity.
Most cells contain a single nucleus. Certain cells, however,
such as skeletal muscle cells, are multinucleated. The long skeletal muscle fibers contain so much cytoplasm that several governing centers are necessary. Other cells, such as mature red blood
cells, lack nuclei. These cells are limited to certain types of
chemical activities and are not capable of cell division.
The nucleus is enclosed by a bilayered nuclear membrane
(nuclear envelope) (fig. 3.16). The narrow space between the
inner and outer layers of the nuclear membrane is called the nucleolemma cisterna (sis-terna). Minute nuclear pores are located along the nuclear membrane. These openings are lined
with proteins that act as selective gates, allowing certain molecules, such as proteins, RNA, and protein-RNA complexes, to
move between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
Two important structures within the nucleoplasm of the

nucleus determine what a cell will look like and what functions
it will perform:
1. Nucleoli. Nucleoli (noo-kleo-li) are small, nonmembranous spherical bodies composed largely of protein and
RNA. It is thought that they function in the production of
ribosomes. As ribosomes are formed, they migrate through
the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
2. Chromatin. Chromatin (kroma-tin) is a coiled, threadlike mass. It is the genetic material of the cell and consists
principally of protein and DNA molecules. When a cell
begins to divide, the chromatin shortens and thickens into
rod-shaped structures called chromosomes (kromo-somz)
(figs. 3.17 and 3.18). Each chromosome carries thousands
of genes that determine the structure and function of a cell.
Knowledge Check
9. Describe the composition and specializations of the cell
membrane. Discuss the importance of the selective permeability of the cell membrane.
10. Describe the various kinds of movements across the cell
membrane. Which are passive and which are active?
11. Describe the structure and function of the following cytoplasmic organelles: rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
complex, lysosomes, and mitochondria.
12. Distinguish between the nucleus and nucleoli.
13. Distinguish between chromatin and chromosomes.

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Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane
Nucleolus
Outer layer
Nucleolemma
cisterna
Nucleus
CHAPTER 3
Inner layer
(a)
Chromatin
(b)
FIGURE 3.16 (a) An electron micrograph of the cell nucleus (about 20,000). The nucleus contains a nucleolus and masses of chromatin.
(b) The double-layered nuclear membrane has pores that permit substances to pass between nucleus and cytoplasm.
FIGURE 3.17 A color-enhanced light micrograph showing the full

complement of male chromosomes arranged in numbered homologous pairs.
FIGURE 3.18 The structure of a chromosome after DNA replication, in which it consists of two identical strands, or chromatids.


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Chapter 3
Cytology
65
CELL CYCLE
A cell cycle consists of growth, synthesis, and mitosis. Growth is
the increase in cellular mass resulting from metabolism. Synthesis
is the production of DNA and RNA to regulate cellular activity. Mitosis is the division of the nucleus and cytoplasm of a cell that results in the formation of two daughter cells.
Objective 12
Describe the structure of DNA and RNA
molecules.
Objective 13
Discuss genetic transcription and protein
synthesis.
CHAPTER 3
Objective 14
List the stages of mitosis and discuss the

events of each stage.
Objective 15
Discuss the significance of mitosis.
Cellular replication is one of the principal concepts of biology.

Through the process of cellular division called mitosis (mi-tosis),
a multicellular organism can develop and be maintained. Mitosis
enables body growth and the replacement of damaged, diseased,
or worn-out cells. The process ensures that each daughter cell
will have the same number and kind of chromosomes as the original parent cell.
In an average healthy adult, over 100 billion cells will die and
be mitotically replaced during a 24-hour period. This represents a replacement of about 2% of the body mass each day. Some of the most
mitotically active sites are the outer layer of skin, the bone marrow,
the internal lining of the digestive tract, and the liver.
Before a cell can divide, it must first duplicate its chromosomes so that the genetic traits can be passed to the succeeding
generations of cells. A chromosome consists of a coiled deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule that is complexed with protein.
As mentioned previously, chromosomes are formed by the shortening and thickening of the chromatin within the nucleus when
the cell begins to divide, at which time they are clearly visible
under the compound microscope. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in each human body (somatic) cell and approximately
20,000 genes are positioned on each chromosome.
Chromosomes are of varied lengths and shapessome
twisted, some rodlike. During mitosis, they shorten and condense, each pair assuming a characteristic shape (see fig. 3.17).
On the chromosome is a small, buttonlike body called a centromere to which are attached the spindle fibers that direct the
chromosome toward the pole of the cell during mitosis.
Structure of DNA
The DNA molecule is frequently called a double helix because of
its resemblance to a spiral ladder (fig. 3.19). The sides of the
DNA molecule are formed by alternating units of the sugar de-
mitosis: Gk. mitos, thread
FIGURE 3.19 The double-helix structure of DNA. Each strand of

the helix contains only four kinds of organic bases (A, T, C, and G).
oxyribose and phosphoric acid called the phosphate group. The rungs
of the molecule are composed of pairs of nitrogenous bases. The
ends of each nitrogenous base are attached to the deoxyribosephosphate units. There are only four types of nitrogenous bases
in a DNA molecule: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C),
and guanine (G).
The basic structural units of the DNA molecule are called
nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a molecule of deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one of the four nitrogenous bases.
Thus, there is a nucleotide type for each of the four bases.

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G
T
C
Region of parental DNA helix.

(Both backbones are light.)
C
CHAPTER 3
G
C
C
G
G
Region of replication. Parental
DNA is unzipped and new
nucleotides are pairing with
those in parental strands.
A
A
T
T
A
G
G
G
T
C
T
G
Region of completed replication.

Each double helix is composed
of an old parental strand (light
purple) and a new daughter
strand (dark purple). The two
DNA molecules formed are
identical to the original DNA
helix and to one another.
C
C
G
G
C
G
C
C
T
C
T
A
T
FIGURE 3.20 The replication of DNA. Each new double helix is composed of one old and one new strand. The sequence of bases of each of
the new molecules is identical to that of the parent DNA because of complementary base pairing.
The pairing of the nitrogenous bases of the nucleotides is

highly specific. The molecular configuration of each base is such
that adenine always pairs with thymine and cytosine always pairs
with guanine. The hydrogen bonds between these bases are relatively weak and can be easily split during cellular division
(fig. 3.20). During division, the sequence of bases along the sides
of the DNA molecule serves as a template that determines the
sequence along each new strand.
James Watson and Francis Crick, who devised the doublehelix model, first described their vision of DNA in 1953, in the
journal Nature (see table 1.2). The closing sentence of their brief arti-
cle (a mere 900 words) is a marvel of humility and restraint: It has

not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have
postulated . . . immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material.
Structure of RNA and RNA Synthesis

In the process of protein synthesis, DNA produces a messenger
molecule of RNA of complementary structure to transport the
genetic information. Like DNA, RNA consists of long chains of
nucleotides joined together by sugar-phosphate bonds. However,


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Chapter 3
Cytology
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A
G
RNA
C
G
G
T
DNA
C
C
G
C
G
G
C
G
G
G
G
C
G
A
C
U
A
C
T
G
C
G
A
U
C
C
G
C
C
G
G
C
FIGURE 3.21 Differences between the nitrogenous bases and
sugars in DNA and RNA.
G
A
U
A
U
as shown in Fig. 3.21, nucleotides in RNA differ from those in

DNA in the following ways:
A ribonucleotide contains the sugar ribose (instead of
deoxyribose).
The base uracil is present in place of thymine.
RNA is composed of a single polynucleotide strand; it is
not double-stranded like DNA.
RNA is considerably shorter than DNA.
Four types of RNA are produced within the nucleus, each with a
different composition and function:
1. Precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA), which is altered within the nucleus (through cutting and splicing) to
form mRNA;
2. Messenger RNA (mRNA), which contains the code for
the synthesis of specific proteins;
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA), which transfers amino acids and
which is needed for decoding the genetic message contained in mRNA; and
4. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which forms part of the structure of ribosomes.
The DNA that codes for rRNA synthesis is located in the nucleolus. Pre-mRNA and tRNA synthesis is controlled by DNA located elsewhere in the nucleus.
Genetic TranscriptionRNA Synthesis

During cell division, the chromosomes are inactive packages of
DNA. The genes do not become active until the chromosomes
A
C
G
T
G
U
G
G
G
T
C
FIGURE 3.22 RNA synthesis (genetic transcription). Notice that

only one of the two DNA strands is used to form a single-stranded
molecule of RNA.
unravel. Active DNA directs the metabolism of the cell indirectly through its regulation of RNA and protein synthesis.
One gene codes for one polypeptide chain. Each gene is a
strand of DNA that is several thousand nucleotide pairs long. In
order for the genetic code to be translated for the synthesis of
specific proteins, the DNA code must first be transcribed into an
RNA code (fig. 3.22). This is accomplished by DNA-directed
RNA synthesis, or genetic transcription.
During RNA synthesis, the enzyme RNA polymerase breaks
the weak hydrogen bonds between paired DNA bases. This does
not occur throughout the length of DNA, but only in the regions that are to be transcribed (there are base sequences that
code for start and stop). Double-stranded DNA, therefore,
separates in these regions so that the freed bases can pair with
the complementary RNA nucleotide bases that are freely available in the nucleus.
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G
G
T
C
T
T
C
C
C
DNA
double
helix
C
T
G
G
Transcription
DNA coding strand
Messenger RNA
Translation
CHAPTER 3
Codon 1
Codon 2
Codon 3
Codon 4
Codon 5
Codon 6
Codon 7
Methionine
Glycine
Serine
Isoleucine
Glycine
Alanine
Alanine
Protein
FIGURE 3.23 The genetic code is first transcribed into base triplets (codons) in mRNA and then translated into a specific sequence of amino
acids in a protein.
This pairing of bases follows the law of complementary base

pairing: guanine bonds with cytosine (and vice versa), and adenine bonds with uracil (because uracil in RNA is equivalent to
thymine in DNA). In RNA synthesis, only one of the two freed
strands of DNA serves as a guide (see fig. 3.22). Once an RNA
molecule has been produced, it detaches from the DNA strand
on which it was formed. This process can continue indefinitely,
producing many thousands of RNA copies of the DNA strand
being transcribed. When the gene is no longer to be transcribed,
the separated DNA strands can recoil into their helical form.
In the case of pre-mRNA, the finished molecule is altered
after synthesis. Within the pre-mRNA are noncoding regions
known as introns. The introns are removed through the action of
enzymes, and the coding regions are then spliced together so that
they can direct the synthesis of a specific protein.
Protein Synthesis
Once produced, mRNA leaves the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm, where it attaches to ribosomes. The mRNA passes through
a number of ribosomes to form a polyribosome, or polysome for
short. The association of mRNA with ribosomes is needed for

genetic translationthe production of specific proteins according
to the code contained in the mRNA base sequences.
Functions of Codons and Anticodons

Each mRNA molecule contains several hundred or more nucleotides, arranged in the sequence determined by complementary base pairing with DNA during genetic transcription (RNA
synthesis). Every three bases, or base triplet, is a code word
called a codonfor a specific amino acid. Sample codons and
their amino acid translation are shown in figure 3.23. As
mRNA move through the ribosome, the sequence of codons is
translated into a sequence of specific amino acids within a growing polypeptide chain.
Translation of the codons is accomplished by transfer RNA
(tRNA) and particular enzymes. One end of each tRNA contains the anticodon. The anticodon consists of three nucleotides
that are complementary to a specific codon in MRNA. Enzymes
in the cell cytoplasm join specific amino acids to the ends of
tRNA, so that a tRNA with a given anticodon is always bonded
to one specific amino acid. There are 20 different varieties of


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Chapter 3
Codons
mRNA
5
8
Codons
Next amino acid
7
4
6
Ala
tRNA
tRNA
I
H
tRNA
G
tRNA
F
Gly
Next amino acid
E
tRNA
tRNA
Iso
C
Ser
Gly
A
Gly
Ser
Met
Iso
tRN
Amino acids
in growing
polypeptide
chain
Gly
Met
Ribosome
FIGURE 3.24 The actions of mRNA and tRNA in genetic translation. The three-letter abbreviations for the amino acids in the growing polypeptide chain stand for the amino acids indicated in figure 3.23.
synthetase enzymesone for each type of amino acid. Each synthetase must not only recognize its specific amino acid, it must
also be able to attach this amino acid to the particular tRNA
that has the correct anticodon for that amino acid. Each of the
tRNA molecules in the cytoplasm of a cell is thus bonded to a
specific amino acid and is capable of bonding by its anticodon
base triplet with a specific codon in mRNA.
Formation of a Polypeptide
The anticodons of tRNA bind to the codons of mRNA as the
mRNA moves through the ribosome. Because each tRNA molecule carries a specific amino acid, the joining together of
these amino acids by peptide bonds forms a polypeptide whose
amino acid sequence has been determined by the sequence of
codons in mRNA.
The first and second tRNA bring the first and second
amino acids together, and a peptide bond forms between them.
The first amino acid then detaches from its tRNA, so that a
dipeptide is linked by the second amino acid to the second
tRNA. When the third tRNA binds to the third codon, the
amino acid it brings forms a peptide bond with the second amino
acid (which detaches from its tRNA). A tripeptide is thus attached by the third amino acid to the third tRNA. The polypep-
tide chain lengthens as new amino acids are added to its growing
tip (fig. 3.24). This polypeptide chain is always attached by
means of only one tRNA to the strand of mRNA, and this
tRNA molecule is always the one that has added the latest
amino acid to the growing polypeptide.
As the polypeptide chain becomes longer, interactions between its amino acids cause the chain to twist into a helix (secondary structure) and to fold and bend upon itself (tertiary
structure). At the end of this process, the new protein detaches
from the tRNA as the last amino acid is added.
Cell Cycle and Cell Division

A cell cycle is the series of changes that a cell undergoes from
the time it is formed until it has completed a division and reproduced itself. Interphase is the first period of the cycle, from cell
formation to the start of cell division (fig. 3.25). During interphase, the cell grows, carries on metabolic activities, and prepares itself for division.
Interphase is divided into G1, S, and G2 phases. During
the G1 (first growth) phase, the cell grows rapidly and is metabolically active. The duration of G1 varies considerably in different types of cells. It may last only hours in cells that have rapid
CHAPTER 3
69
Anticodons
Cytology

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Highly specialized cells, such as muscle and nerve cells, do

not replicate after a person is born. If these cells die, as the result of disease, injury, or even disuse, they are not replaced and scar
tissue may form. Nerve cells are especially vulnerable to damage
from oxygen deprivation, alcohol, and various other drugs.
es
is
Knowledge Check
Mitosis
Cy
to
k
in
Tel
oph
ase
Anaphase
ase
aph
Met
h
op
Pr
as
Mitotic Phase
CHAPTER 3
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G2
Final growth and
activity before
mitosis
G1
Centrioles
replicate
DNA replication
14. Explain why the DNA molecule is described as a double

helix.
15. Describe the various forms of RNA, and discuss how RNA
directs protein synthesis.
16. List the phases in the life cycle of a cell and describe the
principal events that occur during each phase.
17. Explain why mitosis is such an important biological process.
CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Cellular Adaptations
Interphase
FIGURE 3.25 Interphase and the mitotic phase are the two principal divisions of the cell cycle. During the mitotic phase, nuclear division is followed by cytoplasmic division and the formation of two
daughter cells.
division rates, or it may be a matter of days or even years for

other cells. At the end of G1, the centrioles replicate in preparation for their role in cell division. During the S (synthetic)
phase, the DNA in the nucleus of the cell replicates, so that the
two future cells will receive identical copies of the genetic material. During the G2 (second growth) phase, the enzymes and
other proteins needed for the division process are synthesized,
and the cell continues to grow.
The actual division of a cell is referred to as the mitotic
phase, or simply M phase (fig. 3.25). The mitotic phase is further divided into mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis is the period
of a cell cycle during which there is nuclear division and the
duplicated chromosomes separate to form two genetically identical daughter nuclei. The process of mitosis takes place in four
successive stages, each stage passing into the next without
sharp structural distinctions. These stages are prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase (fig. 3.26). Cytokinesis
(sito-knsis) is division of the cytoplasm, which takes place
during telophase.
cytokinesis: Gk. kytos, a hollow; kinesis, movement
Apparently included within cellular specialization of structure

and function is mitotic potential. Certain cells do not require
further division once the organ to which they contribute becomes functional. Others, as part of their specialization, require
continuous mitosis to keep an organ healthy. Thus, in the adult,
it is found that some cells divide continually, some occasionally,
and some not at all. For example, epidermal cells, hemopoietic
cells within bone marrow, and cells that line the lumen of the GI
tract divide continually throughout life. Cells within specialized
organs, such as the liver or kidneys, divide as the need becomes
apparent. Naturally occurring cellular death, disease, or trauma
from surgery or injury may necessitate mitosis in these organs.
Still other cells, such as muscle or nerve cells, lose their mitotic
ability as they become differentiated. Trauma to these cells frequently causes a permanent loss of function.
Although the factors regulating mitosis are unclear, evidence suggests that mitotic ability is genetically controlled and,
for those cells that do divide, even the number of divisions is
predetermined. If this is true, it may be a factor in the aging
process. Physical stress, nutrition, and hormones definitely have
an effect on mitotic activity. It is thought that the replication activity of cells might be controlled through a feedback mechanism
involving the release of a growth-inhibiting substance. Such a substance might slow or inhibit the cell divisions and growth of particular organs once they had amassed a certain number of cells or
had reached a certain size.
Except for cells on exposed surfaces, most cells of the body
are located in a fairly homogeneous environment, where continual adaptation to change is not necessary for survival. However,
cells do have remarkable adaptability and resilience, enabling
them to withstand conditions that might otherwise be lethal.
Prolonged exposure to sunlight, for example, stimulates the synthesis of melanin and tanning of the skin. Likewise, mechanical


of the Body
3. Cytology
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
Chapter 3
Cytology
71
CHAPTER 3
FIGURE 3.26 The stages of mitosis.

CHAPTER 3
72
Unit 3

of the Body
3. Cytology
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
friction to the skin stimulates mitotic activity and the synthesis

of a fibrous protein, keratin, which results in the formation of a
protective callus.
Cells adapt to potentially injurious stimuli by several specific mechanisms. Hypertrophy (hipertro-fe) refers to an increase in the size of cells resulting from increased synthesis of
protein, nucleic acids, and lipids. Cellular hypertrophy can be either compensatory or hormonal. Compensatory hypertrophy occurs when increased metabolic demands on particular cells result
in an increase in cellular mass. Examples of compensatory hypertrophy include the enlargement of skeletal muscle fibers as a result of exercise and cardiac (heart) muscle fibers or kidney cells
because of an increased work demand. Hypertension (high blood
pressure) causes cardiac cells to hypertrophy because they must
pump blood against raised pressures. After the removal of a diseased kidney, there is a compensatory increase in the size of the
cells of the remaining kidney so that its normal weight is approximately doubled. Examples of hormonal hypertrophy are the increased size of the breasts and smooth muscles of the uterus in a
pregnant woman.
Hyperplasia (hiper-plaze-a) refers to an increase in the
number of cells formed as a result of increased mitotic activity.
The removal of a portion of the liver, for example, leads to regeneration, or hyperplasia, of the remaining liver cells to restore
the loss. But the triggering mechanism for hyperplasia is not
known. In women, a type of hormonally induced hyperplasia occurs in cells of the endometrium of the uterus after menstruation,
which restores this layer to a suitable state for possible implantation of an embryo.
Atrophy (atro-fe) refers to a decrease in the size of cells
and a corresponding decrease in the size of the affected organ.
Atrophy can occur in the cells of any organ and may be classified
as disuse atrophy, disease atrophy, or aging (senile) atrophy.
Metaplasia (meta -pl ze-a) is a specialized cellular change
in which one type of cell transforms into another. Generally, it
involves the change of highly specialized cells into more generalized, protective cells. For example, excessive exposure to inhaled
smoke causes the specialized ciliated columnar epithelial cells
lining the bronchial airways to change into stratified squamous
epithelium, which is more resistant to injury from smoke.
Trauma to Cells
As adaptable as cells are to environmental changes, they are subject to damage from aging and disease. If a trauma causes extensive cellular death, the condition may become life threatening.
A person dies when a vital organ can no longer perform its metabolic role in sustaining the body.
hypertrophy: Gk. hyper, over; trophe, nourishment

hyperplasia: Gk. hyper, over; plasis, a molding
atrophy: Gk. a, without; trophe, nourishment
metaplasia: Gk. meta, between; plasis, a molding
Energy deficit means that more energy is required by a cell

than is available. Cells can tolerate certain mild deficits because
of various reserves stored within the cytoplasm, but a severe or
prolonged deficit will cause cells to die. An energy deficit occurs
when the cells do not have enough glucose or oxygen to allow
for glucose combustion. Examples of energy deficits are low levels
of blood sugar (hypoglycemia) and the impermeability of the cell
membrane to glucose (as in diabetes mellitus). Malnutrition also
may result in an energy deficit. Few cells can tolerate an interruption in oxygen supply. Cells of the brain and the heart have
tremendous oxygen demands, and an interruption of the supply
to these organs can cause death in a matter of minutes.
Physical injury to cells, another type of trauma, occurs in
a variety of ways. High temperature (hyperthermia) is generally
less tolerable to cells than low temperature (hypothermia). Respiratory rate, heart rate, and metabolism accelerate with hyperthermia. Continued hyperthermia causes protein coagulation
within cells, and eventually cellular death. In frostbite, rapid or
prolonged chilling causes cellular injury. In severe frostbite, ice
crystals form and cause the cells to burst.
Burns are particularly significant if they cause damage to
the deeper skin layers, which interferes with the mitotic activity
of cells (see fig. 5.20). Of immediate concern with burns, however, is the devastating effect of fluid loss and infection through
traumatized cell membranes.
Accidental poisoning and suicide through drug overdose
account for large numbers of deaths in the United States and
elsewhere. Drugs and poisons can cause cellular dysfunction by
disrupting DNA replication, RNA transcription, enzyme systems, or cell membrane activity.
Radiation causes a type of cell trauma that is cumulative in
effect. When X rays are administered for therapeutic purposes
(radiotherapy), small doses are focused on a tumorous area over a
course of many days to prevent widespread cellular injury. Some
cells are more sensitive to radiation than others. Immature or mitotically active cells are highly sensitive, whereas cells that are
no longer growing, such as neurons and muscle cells, are not as
vulnerable to radiation injury.
Infectious agents, or pathogens, also cause cellular dysfunction. Viruses and bacteria are the most common pathogens.
Viruses usually invade and destroy cells as they reproduce themselves. Bacteria, on the other hand, do not usually invade cells
but will frequently poison cells with their toxic metabolic wastes.
Medical Genetics
Medical genetics is a branch of medicine concerned with diseases that have a genetic origin. Genetic factors include abnormalities in chromosome number or structure and mutant genes.
Genetic diseases are a diverse group of disorders, including malformed blood cells (sickle-cell anemia), defective blood clotting
(hemophilia), and mental retardation (Down syndrome).
Chromosomal abnormalities occur in approximately 0.6%
of live-birth infants. The majority (70%) are subtle, cause no
problems, and usually go undetected. Structural changes in the
DNA that are passed from parent to offspring by means of sex


of the Body
3. Cytology
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
Chapter 3
cells are called mutations (myoo-tashunz). Mutations either
occur naturally or are environmentally induced through chemicals or radiation. Natural mutations are not well understood.
About 12% of all congenital malformations are caused by mutations and probably come about through an interaction of genetic
and environmental factors. Many of these problems can be predicted by knowing the genetic pedigree of prospective parents
and prevented through genetic counseling. Teratology (ter-atolo-je) is the science concerned with developmental defects and
the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of malformations.
Genetic problems are occasionally caused by having too
few or too many chromosomes. The absence of an entire chromosome is termed monosomy (mono-somme). Embryos with
monosomy usually die. People with Turners syndrome have
only one X chromosome and have a better chance of survival
than those who are missing one of the other chromosomes. Trisomy (tri so-me), a genetic condition in which an extra chromosome is present, occurs more frequently than monosomy. The
best known among the trisomies is Down syndrome.
Cancer
Cancer refers to a complex group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell replication. The rapid proliferation of cells results
in the formation of a neoplasm, or new cellular mass. Neoplasms,
frequently called tumors, are classified as benign or malignant
based on their cytological and histological features. Benign neoplasms usually grow slowly and are confined to a particular area.
These types are usually not life threatening unless they grow to
large sizes in vital organs like the brain. Malignant neoplasms
(fig. 3.27) grow rapidly and metastasize (me-tasta-sz) (fragment
and spread) easily through lymphatic or blood vessels. The original malignant neoplasm is called the primary growth and the new
tumors, or metastatic tumors, are called secondary growths.
Cancer cells resemble undifferentiated or primordial cell
types. Generally they do not mature before they divide and are
not capable of maintaining normal cell function. Cancer causes
death when a vital organ regresses because of competition from
cancer cells for space and nutrients. The pain associated with cancer develops when the growing neoplasm affects sensory neurons.
73
Normal cells
(with hairlike cilia)
Cancer cells
FIGURE 3.27 An electron micrograph of cancer cells from the

respiratory tract (59,800).
The various types of cancers are classified on the basis of the
tissue in which they develop. Lymphoma, for example, is a cancer
of lymphoid tissue; osteogenic cancer is a type of bone cancer;
myeloma is cancer of the bone marrow; and sarcoma is a general
term for any cancer arising from cells of connective tissue.
The etiology (cause) of cancers is largely unknown. However, initiating factors, or carcinogens (kar-sino-jenz), such as
viruses, chemicals, or irradiation, may provoke cancer to develop. Cigarette smoking, for example, causes various respiratory
cancers to develop. The tendency to develop other types of cancers has a genetic basis. Some researchers even think that physiological stress can promote certain types of cancerous activity.
Because the causes of cancer are not well understood, emphasis is
placed on early detection with prompt treatment.
Aging
mutation: L. mutare, to change

teratology: Gk. teras, monster; logos, study
Although there are obvious external indicators of aginggraying

and loss of hair, wrinkling of skin, loss of teeth, and decreased
muscle masschanges within cells as a result of aging are not as
apparent and are not well understood. Certain organelles alter
with age. The mitochondria, for example, may change in structure and number, and the Golgi complex may fragment. Also,
lipid vacuoles tend to accumulate in the cytoplasm, and the cytoplasmic food stores that contain glycogen decrease.
Turners syndrome: from Henry H. Turner, American endocrinologist,

18921970
Down syndrome: from John L. H. Down, English physician, 182896
carcinogen: Gk, karkinos, cancer
CHAPTER 3
In an attempt to better understand medical genetics, the

Human Genome Project was launched by Congress in 1988
with the ambitious goal of completely mapping the human genome.
Scientists are currently on the verge of determining the exact sequences of bases with which the 3 billion base pairs are arranged to
form the 50,000 to 100,000 genes in the haploid human genome of a
sperm cell or ovum. Knowing this information will provide the ultimate
reference for diagnosis and treatment of the 4000 genetic diseases
that are known to be directly caused by particular abnormal genes.
Cytology

74
Unit 3

of the Body
3. Cytology
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
ies, and its deterioration is thought to be associated with such

vascular diseases as arteriosclerosis in aged persons.
Clinical Case Study Answer

Giving a substance that competes for the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase
can inhibit the reaction that forms the toxic metabolite of ethylene glycol. Thus, infusing a nearly intoxicating dose of alcohol can spare the
kidneys from harm. The ethylene glycol is then excreted harmlessly.
CHAPTER 3
The chromatin and chromosomes within the nucleus

show changes with aging, such as clumping, shrinking, or fragmenting with repeated mitotic divisions. There is strong evidence that certain cell types have a predetermined number of
mitotic divisions that are genetically controlled, thus determining the overall vitality and longevity of an organ. If this is true,
identifying and genetically manipulating the aging gene might
be possible.
Extracellular substances also change with age. Protein
strands of collagen and elastin change in quality and number in
aged tissues. Elastin plays an important role in the walls of arter-
Chapter Summary
Introduction to Cytology (p. 49)
1. Cells are the structural and functional
units of the body. Cellular function is
referred to as metabolism and the study of
cells is referred to as cytology.
2. Cellular function depends on the specific
membranes and organelles characteristic
of each type of cell.
3. All cells have structural modifications
that serve functional purposes.
Cellular Chemistry (pp. 5052)

1. Four elements (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen,
and nitrogen) compose over 95% of the
bodys mass and are linked together to
form inorganic and organic compounds.
2. Water is the most abundant inorganic
compound in cells and is an excellent
solvent.
(a) Water is important in temperature
control and hydrolysis.
(b) Dehydration, a condition in which
fluid loss exceeds fluid intake, may be a
serious problemespecially in infants.
3. Electrolytes are inorganic compounds that
form ions when dissolved in water.
(a) The three classes of electrolytes are
acids, bases, and salts.
(b) Electrolytes are important in
maintaining pH, in conducting
electrical currents, and in regulating
the activity of enzymes.
4. Proteins are organic compounds that may
exist by themselves or be conjugated with
other compounds.
(a) Proteins are important structural
components of the body and are
necessary for cellular growth, repair,
and division.
(b) Enzymes and hormones are examples

of specialized proteins.
5. Carbohydrates are organic compounds
containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
with a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen.
(a) The carbohydrate group includes the
starches and sugars.
(b) Carbohydrates are the most abundant
source of cellular energy.
6. Lipids are organic fats and fat-related
substances.
(a) Lipids are composed primarily of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
(b) Lipids serve as an important source of
energy, form parts of membranes, and
protect and insulate various parts of
the body.
Cellular Structure (pp. 5264)

1. A cell is composed of a cell membrane,
cytoplasm and organelles, and a nucleus.
2. The cell membrane, composed of
phospholipid and protein molecules,
encloses the contents of the cell and
regulates the passage of substances into
and out of the cell.
(a) The permeability of the cell membrane
depends on its structure, the size of the
molecules, ionic charge, lipid solubility,
and the presence of carrier molecules.
(b) Cell membranes may be specialized
with such structures as microvilli,
sacs, and hair cells.
3. Cytoplasm refers to the material
between the cell membrane and the
nucleus. Nucleoplasm is the material
within the nucleus. Protoplasm is a
collective term for both the cytoplasm
and nucleoplasm.
4. Organelles are specialized components

within the cytoplasm of cells.
(a) Endoplasmic reticulum provides a
framework within the cytoplasm and
forms a site for the attachment of
ribosomes. It functions in the
synthesis of lipids and proteins and in
cellular transport.
(b) Ribosomes are particles of protein
and RNA that function in protein
synthesis. The protein particles
may be used within the cell or
secreted.
(c) The Golgi complex consists of
membranous vesicles that synthesize
glycoproteins and secrete lipids. The
Golgi complex is extensive in
secretory cells, such as those of the
pancreas and salivary glands.
(d) Mitochondria are membranous
sacs that consist of outer and
inner mitochondrial layers and
folded membranous extensions
of the inner layer called cristae.
The mitochondria produce ATP
and are called the powerhouses
of a cell. Mitochondria are lacking
in sperm cells and red blood cells.
(e) Lysosomes are spherical bodies that
contain digestive enzymes. They are
abundant in the phagocytic white
blood cells.
(f) Peroxisomes are enzyme-containing
membranous sacs that are abundant in
the kidneys and liver. Some of the
enzymes in peroxisomes generate
hydrogen peroxide, and one of them,
catalase, breaks down excess hydrogen
peroxide.


of the Body
3. Cytology
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
Chapter 3
6. The nucleotides in DNA consist of the sugar
deoxyribose, phosphate, and one of four
nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine,
cytosine, or thymine. According to the law of
complementary base pairing, bases are
specific in their bonding: adenine bonds with
thymine and guanine bonds with cytosine.
7. RNA contains the sugar ribose (instead of
deoxyribose) and the base uracil (in place
of thymine). The three major forms of
RNA are mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
8. The genetic code in mRNA consists of
three bases called codons. Codons bond to
anticodons, which are three bases in tRNA.
9. Each type of tRNA is bonded to a specific
type of amino acid, which the tRNA
brings to the growing polypeptide chain.
Cell Cycle (pp. 6570)

1. The cell cycle consists of growth,
synthesis, and mitosis.
(a) Growth is the increase in cellular
mass that results from metabolism.
75
Synthesis is the production of DNA

and RNA to regulate cellular activity.
Mitosis is the splitting of the cells
nucleus and cytoplasm that results in
the formation of two diploid cells.
(b) Mitosis permits an increase in
the number of cells (body growth)
and allows for the replacement
of damaged, diseased, or
worn-out cells.
2. A DNA molecule is in the shape of a
double helix. The structural unit of the
molecule is a nucleotide, which consists
of deoxyribose (sugar), phosphate, and a
nitrogenous base.
3. Cell division consists of a division of the
chromosomes (mitosis) and a division of
the cytoplasm (cytokinesis). The stages of
mitosis include prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase.
Review Activities
Objective Questions
1. Inorganic compounds that form ions
when dissociated in water are
(a) hydrolites.
(d) ionizers.
(b) metabolites. (e) nucleic acids.
(c) electrolytes.
2. The four elements that compose over
95% of the body are
(a) oxygen, potassium, hydrogen, carbon.
(b) carbon, sodium, nitrogen, oxygen.
(c) potassium, sodium, magnesium,
oxygen.
(d) carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen.
(e) oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, sulfur.
3. Which organelle contains strong
hydrolytic enzymes?
(a) the lysosome
(b) the Golgi complex
(c) the ribosome
(d) the vacuole
(e) the mitochondrion
4. Ciliated cells occur in
(a) the trachea. (c) the bronchioles.
(b) the ductus
(d) the uterine tubes.
deferens.
(e) all of the above.
5. Osmosis deals with the movement of
(a) gases.
(c) oxygen only.
(b) water only.
(d) both a and c.
6. The phase of mitosis in which the

chromosomes line up at the equator
(equatorial plane) of the cell is called
(a) interphase.
(d) anaphase.
(b) prophase.
(e) telophase.
(c) metaphase.
7. The phase of mitosis in which the
chromatids separate is called
(a) interphase.
(d) anaphase.
(b) prophase.
(e) telophase.
(c) metaphase.
8. The organelle that combines protein with
carbohydrates and packages them within
vesicles for secretion is
(a) the Golgi complex.
(b) the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
(c) the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
(d) the ribosome.
9. The enlarged skeletal muscle fibers that
result from an increased work demand
serve to illustrate
(a) disuse atrophy.
(b) compensatory hypertrophy.
(c) metaplasia.
(d) inertia.
10. Regeneration of liver cells is an example of
(a) compensatory hypertrophy.
(b) hyperplasia.
(c) metaplasia.
(d) hypertrophy.
11. Which of the following statements about
DNA is false?
(a) It is located in the nucleus.
(b) It is double-stranded.
(c) The bases adenine and thymine can
bond together.
(d) The bases guanine and adenine can
bond together.
12. Which of the following statements about
RNA is true?
(a) It is made in the nucleus.
(b) It contains the sugar deoxyribose.
(c) It is a complementary copy of the
entire DNA molecule.
(d) It is double-stranded.
Essay Questions
1. Explain why a knowledge of cellular
anatomy is necessary for understanding
tissue and organ function within the
body. How is the study of cells important
for the understanding of body dysfunction
and disease?
2. Why is water a good fluid medium
of the cell?
CHAPTER 3
(g) The centrosome is the dense area of

cytoplasm near the nucleus that
contains the centrioles. The paired
centrioles play an important role in
cell division.
(h) Vacuoles are membranous sacs that
function as storage chambers.
(i) Fibrils and microtubules provide
support in the form of a cytoskeleton.
(j) Cilia and flagella are projections of
the cell that have the same basic
structure and that function in
producing movement.
5. The cell nucleus is enclosed in a nuclear
membrane that controls the movement of
substances between the nucleoplasm and
the cytoplasm.
(a) The nucleoli are small bodies of
protein and RNA within the nucleus
that produce ribosomes.
(b) Chromatin is a coiled fiber of protein
and DNA that shortens to form
chromosomes during cell reproduction.
Cytology

CHAPTER 3
76
Unit 3

of the Body
3. Cytology
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
3. How are proteins, carbohydrates, and

lipids similar? How are they different?
What are enzymes and hormones?
4. Describe the cell membrane. List the
various kinds of movement through the cell
membrane and give an example of each.
5. Describe, diagram, and list the functions
of the following:
(a) endoplasmic reticulum,
(b) ribosome,
(c) mitochondrion,
(d) Golgi complex,
(e) centrioles, and
(f) cilia.
6. Define inorganic compound and organic
compound and give examples of each.
7. Define the terms protoplasm, cytoplasm,
and nucleoplasm. Describe the position of
the membranes associated with each of
these substances.
8. Describe the structure of the nucleus and
the functions of its parts.
9. What is a nucleotide? How does it relate
to the overall structure of a DNA
molecule?
10. Explain the relationship between DNA,
chromosomes, chromatids, and genes.
11. Describe how RNA is produced and list
the different forms of RNA.
12. Explain how one DNA strand can serve
as a template for the synthesis of another
DNA strand.
13. Distinguish between mitosis and

cytokinesis. Describe the major events of
mitosis and discuss the significance of the
mitotic process.
14. Give examples of factors that contribute
cellular hypertrophy, hyperplasia, atrophy,
and metaplasia.
15. Explain how cells respond to
(a) energy deficit,
(b) hyperthermia,
(c) burns,
(d) radiation, and
(e) pathogens.
16. Define the following genetic terms:
teratology, monosomy, trisomy, and
mutation.
17. In what ways do cells of a neoplasm differ
from normal cells. How may a malignant
neoplasm cause death?
18. Discuss the cellular and extracellular
changes that accompany aging.
Critical-Thinking Questions
1. How is the structural organization of its
individual cells essential to a multicellular
organism?
2. Construct a table comparing the structure
and function of several kinds of cells.
Indicate which organelles would be of
particular importance to each kind of cell.
3. Define medical genetics and give some
examples of genetic diseases. Is spending
Visit our Online Learning Center at http://www.mhhe.com/vdg

for chapter-by-chapter quizzing, additional study resources, and related web links.
the billions of dollars required to

complete the Human Genome Project
justified? Why or why not?
4. The brain is protected to some extent by
the blood-brain barriera membrane
between circulating blood and the brain
that keeps certain damaging substances
from reaching brain tissue. However, the
brain is still subject to trauma that can
cause it to swell, much like an ankle
swells with a sprain. Because the cranium
is a cavity of fixed size, brain edema
(swelling) can rapidly lead to coma and
death. Knowing what you do about
movement of water across a membrane,
can you explain why mannitol, a type of
sugar that does not cross the blood-brain
barrier, is commonly used to treat patients
who have suffered head trauma?
5. Your friend knows that you have just
reviewed cellular chemistry, and so he asks
for your opinion about his new diet. In an
attempt to eliminate the lipid content in
adipose tissue and thus lose weight, he has
completely eliminated fat from his diet.
He feels that he is now free to eat as much
food as he likes, provided it consists only
of carbohydrates and protein. Is your
friends logic flawed? Would you advise
him to stick with this diet?

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Van De Graaff: Human

Anatomy, Sixth Edition

III. Microscopic Structure

Clinical Case Study Answer 74

Clinical Case Study

FIGURE: Drugs work at the cellular level

Van De Graaff: Human

III. Microscopic Structure

Define the terms cell, metabolism, and cytology.

Using examples, explain how cells differ from

Human anatomy is concerned with the structure of the human

metabolism: Gk. metabole, change

Cells as Functional Units

Van De Graaff: Human

III. Microscopic Structure

Microscopic Structure of the Body

List the common chemical elements found

Differentiate between inorganic and organic

Explain the importance of water in maintaining

Differentiate between proteins, carbohydrates,

To understand cellular structure and function, one must have a

Elements, Molecules, and Compounds

Van De Graaff: Human

III. Microscopic Structure

Males and Females (Expressed as Percentage

Other (electrolytes, nucleic acids)

The disparity of proteins, lipids, and water in adult males

Ionizes to release hydrogen

Carbonic acid, hydrochloric

Ionizes to release hydroxyl

Sodium hydroxide, potassium

Substance formed by the

Sodium chloride, aluminum

electrolyte: L. electrum, amber; Gk. lysis, a loosening

solution: L. solvere, loosen or dissolve

TABLE 3.2 Kinds of Electrolytes

TABLE 3.1 Compounds Found in Adult

Van De Graaff: Human

III. Microscopic Structure

Microscopic Structure of the Body

TABLE 3.3 Chemical Substances of Cells: Location and Function

Dissolves, suspends, and ionizes materials; helps regulate temperature

Establish osmotic gradients, pH, and membrane potentials

Membranes, cytoskeleton, ribosomes, enzymes

Provide structure, strength, and contractility; catalyze; buffer

Membranes, Golgi complex, inclusions

Provide reserve energy source; shape, protect, and insulate

Preferred fuel for metabolic activity

Nucleus, in chromosomes and genes

Controls cell activity

Transmits genetic information; transports amino acids

Work with enzymes in metabolism

the skin. Functional proteins assume a more active role in the

Describe the composition and structure of the

Describe the components of a cell.

Distinguish between passive and active

Van De Graaff: Human

III. Microscopic Structure

TABLE 3.4 Cellular Components: Structure and Function

Cell (plasma) membrane

Membrane composed of a double layer of phospholipids

Gives form to cell and controls passage of materials in and

Fluid, jellylike substance between the cell membrane and

Serves as matrix substance in which chemical reactions