Electrical

Engineering
2012-2016
POWER DISTRIBUTION &
UTILIZATION
LAB MANUAL

Name: Rana Shawayz Tariq

Roll No: 12EE05

Electrical Engineering

Swedish College of Engineering &

Technology
Rahim Yar Khan
Contents
SR.NO

Experiment

01

To learn the simple rules of safety.

02

To measure the power by three voltmeter method.

03

To measure the power by three ammeter method.

04

To understand the voltage drop in short transmission line.

05

To understand voltage regulation due to resistive, inductive and capacitive load.

06

To understand the Ferranti effect of pi-model transmission line

07

Voltage control in transmission line using shunt reactor.

08

Understand construction of the line insulator

09

Underground power cables

10

Understand the Power factor correction with static capacitor

11

Simulation of Power factor improvement using series capacitors

12

MATLAB basics and Introduction to MATLAB Simulink

13

Calculation of sag using MATLAB program

14

MATLAB program for the analysis of short, medium and long transmission lines.

15

Designing of line parameter(inductance) using MATLAB

16

Simulation of Transmission Lines on MATLAB Simulink

LAB NO 1
OBJECTIVE:
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the students
will be able to:
To learn the simple rules of safety.
To learn how to use the AC/DC power supply.
Discussion:
We know the location of the first AID supply in your shop or lab. Insist that
every cut or bruise receives immediate attention. Regardless of how minor
it seems to be. Notify your instructor about every accident. He will know
what to do.
If students follow the instruction with a degree of accuracy. These are no
serious hazards of dangers in electro mechanical system of learning. Many
people receive fatal shocks every year from the ordinary 220 volts
electricity found in the home.
A thorough safety program is a must for any one working with
electricity. Electricity can be and even final to those who do not
understand and practice the simple rules of SAFETY .the first rule of
personal safety is always.

THINK FIRST
This rule applies to all industrial work as well as electrical workers.
Develop good habits of workmanship. Learn to use tools correctly and
safely. Always study the job at hand and think through yourprocedures.
Your methods and the applications of tools, instruments and machines
before acting.
Never permit yourself to be distracted from your work and never distract
another worker engaged in hazardous work. Dont be clown! Jokes are fun
as so is horsing around but never moving machinery or electricity. There
are generally three kinds of accidents which appear all too frequently
among electrical students and technicians. Youre knowing and studying
about them and observing simple rules will make you a safe person to
work with. You could personally be saved from painful and expensive
experiences you might be saved to live a rewarding retirement age.

ELETRIC SHOCK
What about electric shocks? Are they fatal? The physiological effects of
electric currents can generally be predicted by the chart shown in fig.

Fig.1
Notes that it is the currents that do the damages. Currents about 100 mill
amperes or only one tenth of an ampere or fatal. Work man who has
contacted currents above 200 mill amperesmay live to see another day if
given rapid treatment. Currents bellow 100 mill amperes can be serious
and painful. A safe rule: dont place yourself in a position to get any kind
of shocks.

What about VOLTAGE?

Current depends upon voltage and resistance. Lets measure your

resistance. Using your ohmmeter, measure your body resistance between
these points:
From left to right hand ohms (resistance).
From hand to footohms (resistance) .
Now wet your fingers and repeat the measurements:
From right to left hand ..ohms (resistance).
From hand to foot.ohms (resistance).
The actual resistance varies of course, depending upon the points of
contact and, as you have discovered, the conditions of your skin, the
contact area. Notice how your resistance varies as you squeeze the
probes more or less tightly. Skin resistance may vary between 250 ohms
for wet skin and large contact area, to 500.000 ohms for dry skin.
Considering the resistance of your body previously measured 100 mill
amperes as a fatal current. What voltage might prove fatal for you to
contact.
Use the formula: volts =0.1*ohms
Contact between two hands (dry).volts
Contacts between one hand and foot (wet).volts

DO NOT ATTEMPT TO PROVE THIS!

Nine rules for safe practice and to avoid electric shocks:
1. Be sure of the conditions of the equipment and the dangers present
BEFORE working on a piece of equipment. Many sportsmen are killed by
supposedly unloaded guns; many technicians are killed by supposedly
dead. Circuits,
2. NEVER rely on safety devices such as fuses, relays and interlock
systems to protect you. They may not be working and may fail to protect
when most needed.
3. NEVER remove the grounding prong of a three wire input plug. This
eliminates the grounding feature of the equipment making it a potential
shock hazard.

4. Disorganized mess of connecting leads, component and tools only leads

to short circuits, shocks and accidents.
5. Do not work on wet floor. Work on a rubber mat or an insulate floor.
6. Donot Work Alone.It is good to have someone around to shot off the
power give artificial respiration and to call a doctor.
7. Work with one hand behind are in your pocket. A current in between a
hands crosses your heart and can be more let than a current from hand to
foot .a wise technician always work with one hand .watch your service
man.
8. Never talk to anyone while working .do not let yourself distracted. Also
do not talk to anyone, if he is working on dangerous equipment. Do not be
the cause of an accident.
9. Always move slowly when work around electrical circuits .violent and
rapid movements leads to accidental shock and shot circuits.

BURNS
Accidents caused by burns although usual not fatal, can be painfully
serious .the dispatchment of energy produces heat.
Four rules for safe practice and to avoids burns
1. Resistors get very hot especially those who carry high current. Watch
those five and ten work resistors .they will burn the skin of your finger.
stay away from them until they cool off.
2. Be on ground for all capacitor which retain a charge. Not only can you
get a dangerous and fatal shot .you may also burn from electrical
discharge. if the rate voltage of electrolytic capacitor is exceeded their
polarities reversed they may get very hot may actually burst.
3. Watch that hot soldering iron organ .do not place it on the bench where
your arm might accidently hit it .never store it away while still .some
innocent unsuspecting student may pick up.

HOT SOLDER:
HOT SOLDER can be particularly uncomfortable contact with your skin.
Wait for soldered joints to cool. When disordering joints, dont take hot
solder of so that you or your neighbor might get hit in the eyes on his
clothes or body.

MECHNICAL INJURIES :
This third class of safety rolls applies to all students whose work with tools
and machinery. It is major concern of technician and safety lesson or
found in correct of the use of tools. Five rolls for safe practice and to avoid
mechanical injury.
Metal corners and sharp edges on chassis and panels can cut and
scratch.
Improper selection of tool for the job can result in equipment
damage and personal injury.
Use proper eye protection when grinding chipping or working with
hot metals.
Protect your hand and clothes while working with battery acids and
finish fluids.
If u dont know ask your instructor.

THE POWER SUPPLY :

The power supply modules EMS-8829 provides both of necessary ac or dc
power. Both fixed and variable single phase and three phase to perform
all of the laboratory experiment the module must be connected to a three
phase 220/380 V, 4 wire system. The power supply furnishes the following
outputs
Fixed 220/380 V, 3 phase power is brought out to 4 terminals
labeled 1,2,3, and n. The current rating of the supply is 10 A per
phase.
Variable 220/380 V 3 phase power is brought out to four terminals
labeled 4,5,6, and n. Variable three phase 0_380 V may be brought
out from terminal 4,5,6 current rating of the supply is 3 A per
phase.
Fixed 220 V dc is brought out 2 terminals labeled 8 and n. Current
rating is 1 A.
Variable 0_220 V dc is brought out 2 terminals labeled 7 and n.
Current rating is 5 A.
The full current rating of various outputs cannot be used simultaneously.
All power is removed from the output when the on off, breaker is in the off
position.

CAUTION :
Power is still available behind the module phase with the
breaker of never remove the power supply from the console
without first remove the input power cable.
The variable ac and dc outputs are controlled by the single
control knob on the front of the module. The supply is fully
protected against over and short circuit. Beside the 10 A
three phase on off circuit breaker all of the output have their
own circuit breaker.
The rated current output may be exceeded considerably for
short period of time without the harming the supply or
tripping the breakers.
All of the power sources may be used simultaneously
provided that the total current drawn must not exceed the 10
A per Phase. Your supply if handled properly, will provide
years of reliable operation and will present not danger to you.

LAB NO 2
To measure the power by three voltmeter method

Equipment:

Three voltmeters
Power Supply
Connecting wires
Wattmeter
Ammeter

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:
On analyzing the given circuit, it is observed that R-L load and R load are
connected in series and same current passes through both loads. The voltage
drop in the inductor leads the current.

Graphically it can be represented as:

Resolve V into components & consider ABC

(V1)2 = (V2+V3cos )2+(V3sin)2

(V1)2 = (V2)2 +2(V2)( V3)cos +( V3)2(cos ) 2+( V3)2(sin ) 2
(V1)2-( V2)2 = 2(V2)( V3)cos + +( V3)2(cos2 +sin2 )

cos = ((V1)2-( V2)2-( V3)2)/2(V2)( V3)------------------------------------(1)

2(V2)( V3)cos = (V1)2-( V1)2-( V3)2
V3cos = ((V1)2-( V2)2-( V3)2)/2(V2)
I* V3cos = I*(( V1)2-( V2)2-( V3)2)/2(V2)

P = I*(( V1)2-( V2)2-( V3)2)/2(V2)---------------------------------------------(2)

Precautions:

Make sure that connections are tight.

Before switching ON power supply show connections to
instructor.
Make sure current does not exceed 5A.

Observations & Calculations:

Pw
Sr.N
o

V1

(Amp (Volts
)
)

V2

V3

(Volts
)

(Volts
)

(wattmet
er
reading)
Watt

Pc
(calculat
ed)

%
Error

Watt

1
2
3
4
5

%error = [(Pw-Pc)/Pw]*100

Questions:
1-Why there is difference b/w calculated and measured values?
2-Calculate the formulas of real power and power factor of above circuit
by

connecting R-C load instead of R-L load?

LAB NO 3
To measure the power by three ammeter method
Equipment:

Three Ammeters
Power Supply
Connecting wires
Wattmeter

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:
On analyzing the given circuit, the total current I1 is divided into I3 and I2.
I2 current is passing through resistor therefore it is in phase wih applied voltage,
while I3 is passing through inductor and resistor therefore it lags by angle with
respect to applied voltage.

Graphically it can be represented as:

Resolve I into components & consider ABC

(I1)2 = (I2+I3cos )2+(I3sin)2
(I1)2 = (I2)2 +2(I2)(I3)cos +(I3)2(cos ) 2+(I3)2(sin ) 2
(I1)2-(I2)2 = 2(I2)(I3)cos + (I3)2(cos2 +sin2 )

cos = ((I1)2-(I2)2-(I3)2)/2(I2)(I3)------------------------------------(1)
2(I2)(I3)cos = (I1)2-(I2)2-(I3)2
I3cos = ((I1)2-(I2)2-(I3)2)/2(I2)
V*I3cos = V*((I1)2-(I2)2-(I3)2)/2(I2)

P = V*((I1)2-(I2)2-(I3)2)/2(I2)---------------------------------------------(2)

Observations & Calculations:

S.N
o

V
(volt
s)

I1

I2

I3

(Am
p)

(Am
p)

(Am
p)

Pw

Pc

(wattmet (calculat
er
ed)

%
Erro
r

reading)
1
2
3
4
5

%error = [(Pw-Pc)/Pw]*100

Questions:
1-Why there is difference b/w calculated and measured values?
2-Calculate the formulas of real power and power factor of above circuit
by

connecting R-C load instead of R-L load?

LAB NO4
OBJECTIVE:
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the students
will be able to:

To understand the voltage drop in short

transmission line.

Apparatus:
3- variable supply
Ammeters
IT-6036
Voltmeters
IT-6038
Transmission line module
3- Resistive load
3- Capacitive load
3- Inductive load
Cables.
Energy meter

IT-6000
IT-6002
IT-6004
IT-6006
IT-6005
IT-6052

Theory:
Transmission line possesses resistance R, inductance L, leakage
conductance G and capacitance. All low voltages overhead lines having
length upto 80 km are categorize as short line. In a short line , the shunt
capacitance C and shunt conductance G are neglected. The series
resistance R and series inductance for the total length of the line is
considered. A single phase supply line is short in length and operate at
low voltage. It has two conductors. Each conductor has resistance R1 and
inductance L1. The inductance is affected equivalent to the inductive
reactance X1=2pifL1. A balance three phase circuit consisting of three
separate identical single phase circuit therefore the calculation for balance
three phase line are carried out in similar manner as singe phase line, the
difference being that per phase base is adopted. In this line all the given
voltages are line to line values that all the current are line current.

Short transmission line:

In short transmission line the parameters are resistance and
inductive reactance.

The equivalent circuit and vector diagram of a short transmission

line are shown in the figure given below.

 In the equivalent circuit short transmission line is represented by the

lumped parameters R and L.
R is the resistance (per phase) L is the inductance (per phase) of the
entire transmission line.
As said earlier the effect of shunt capacitance and conductance is
not considered in the equivalent circuit.The line is shown to have
two ends : sending end (designated by the subscript S) at the
generator, and the receiving end (designated R) at the load.

Connections:

Procedure:Step 01
Make the connections as they are shown in figure.
Step 02
Switch on the power and adjust the voltage to 200.
Step 03

Now by keeping the capacitive load zero and changing the values of
resistive and inductive load, obtain the value of voltage at output
terminal.
Step 04
Then by keeping the line capacitor constant and changing the values of
resistive and inductive load , get the value at output terminal.
Step 05
Now take the values of output by keeping the inductive and resistive load
constant and varying the value of capacitive load.
Step 06
Now by disconnecting all load, taking the value of output.

Table (a)Case 1: changing resistive and inductive

load.
Input

Output

V.D

Table (b)
Case 2: resistive and inductive load varying with line
capacitance.
Input

Output

V.D

Table (c)
Case 3: inductive and resistive load constant and
varying capacitive load.
Input

Output

V.D

Table (d)
Case 4: by disconnecting load.
Input

Output

V.D

Review Questions:Q1: what isthe range of distance for short transmission line?

Q2: what are the parameters in short transmission line?

Q3: what is the voltage range in short transmission line?

Q4: what is the effect of capacitance and conductance in short

transmission line?

Q5: what happened when all the loads are disconnected at the output
terminal?

LAB NO 5
Objective:
To understand voltage regulationdue to resistive, inductive and capacitive
load.

Apparatus:
3- variable supply

IT-6000

IT-6004

3- Resistive load

3- Capacitive load
3- Inductive load
Transmission line module

Three voltmeters

IT-6006
IT-6005
IT-6002
IT-6038

Theory:
In electrical engineering, particularly power engineering, voltage
regulation is the ability of a system to provide near constant voltage
over a wide range of load conditions.In electrical power systems it is a
dimensionless quantity defined at the receiving end of a transmission
line as:

where Vnl is voltage at no load and V Rated is voltage at full load. A smaller
value of VR is usually beneficial.
The Voltage Regulation formula could be visualized with the following;
"Consider power being delivered to a load such that the voltage at the
load is the load's rated voltage VRated, if then the load disappears, the
voltage at the point of the load will rise to Vnl."

Why Voltage Regulation is Required?

Ideally, the output of most power supplies should be a constant voltage.
Unfortunately, this is difficult to achieve. There are two factors that can
cause the output voltage to change. First, the ac line voltage is not
constant. The so-called 115 volts ac can vary from about 105 volts ac to
125 volts ac. This means that the peak ac voltage to which the rectifier
responds can vary from about 148 volts to 177 volts. The ac line voltage
alone can be responsible for nearly a 20 percent change in the dc output
voltage. The second factor that can change the dc output voltage is a
change in the load resistance. In complex electronic equipment, the load
can change as circuits are switched in and out. In a television receiver, the
load on a particular power supply may depend on the brightness of the
screen, the control settings, or even the channel selected.

Voltage regulator:
A
voltage
regulator
is
an
electricity
HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulator_%28automatic_control
%29"regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage
level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may
include
negative
feedback
HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory"control loops. It may use an
electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on
the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power
supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and
other elements. In automobile alternators and central power station
generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an
electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at
a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive
steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the line.

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
Step 1
Connect the 3 phase supply with transmission line module with the help
of connecting probes.(Do not turn on supply)
Step2
Now connect the transmission line module with over voltage and phase
failure relay.
Step3
Now turn on the 3 phase power supply and note reading on energy and
voltmeter mounted on relay.this procedure will give us no load voltage
reading.
Step4
Now connect the inductive,capacitive and resistive load to relay. This will
give reading under load conditions.
Step5
Increase the resistive and inductive load keeping the capacitive load
constant and note reading on voltmeter

Increase the capacitive load keeping the inductive and capacitive load
constant.

Increase the more capacitive load and still keep the inductive and
resistive load constant.
Step6
Construct a table.

Table:
S.NO

Voltage at no
load(Vnl)
(volts)

Voltage at full
load(vf)
(volts)

VR=(Vnl-Vf/Vf)*100

2
3
4
5

Review Questions:Q1. What is Voltage Regulation?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q2.What are the main causes of voltage failure?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q3. What is the effect of variation of resistance ?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q.4 What is a voltage regulator?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q.5 Write the names of some voltage regulators.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Lab No 6
Objective:

To understand the Ferranti effect of pi-model transmissionline.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Apparatus required for the experiment are given below

Three phase supply

IT-6000

Ammeter

IT-6036

Voltmeter

IT-6038

3 power supply

IT-6017

Under-over current relay

IT-6028

Line model

IT-6002

1-3 inductive load

1-3 resistive load

IT-6004

1-3 capacitive load

IT-6006

Cables ammeter

IT-6036

Voltmeter

IT-6038

IT-6005

THEORY OF FERRANTI EFFECT:

A long transmission line draws a substantial quantity of charging current. If such a line is
open circuited or very lightly loaded at the receiving end, the voltage at receiving end may
become greater than voltage at sending end due to capacitive reactance. This is known as
Ferranti effect.
This effect is due to the voltage drop across the line inductance being in phase with the
sending end voltages. Therefore inductance is responsible for producing this phenomenon.
The Ferranti effect will be more pronounced the longer the line and the higher the voltage
applied.The relative voltage rise is proportional to the square of the line length.Due to high
capacitance, the Ferranti effect is much more pronounced in underground cables, even in
short lengths.
It was first observed during the installation of underground cables in Sebastian Ziani de
Ferranti's 10,000 volt distribution
The figure shown below is representing a transmission line by an equivalent pi()-model.
The voltage rise is proportional to the square of the line length.

The Line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated at the receiving end.

In the phasor diagram shown above
OM = receiving end voltage Vr
OC = Charging current drawn by capacitance = Ic
MN = Resistive drop
NP = Inductive reactance drop
Therefore; OP = Sending end voltage at no load and is less than receiving end voltage (Vr)
Since, resistance is small compared to reactance, resistance can be neglected in
calculating Ferranti effect. From -model, Vs=Vr-Impedance drop Under open circuit
condition Ir=0 and hence, Vs=Vr-IcR-jwL*Ic i.e. receiving end voltage is greater than
sending end voltage and this effect is called Ferranti Effect. It is valid for open circuit
condition
of
long
line.
When load current is increased of R-L loads the resultant current is not remains leading,
because of the inductive drop. Hence, receiving end voltage (Vr) is lesser than sending end
voltage (Vs) under full load conditions.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.1

PROCEDURE:
First we arrange the required apparatus to perform the experiment. Then we make the
connection according to the connection diagram given. We supply the 3 electrical power to
the model. model consists of a module to which a bank of inductive load, capacitive and
resistive load is connected. After making the connection we disconnect the capacitive load
and on the power supply. We note the sending end voltage and receiving end voltage and we
notice that sending end voltage is higher than the receiving end voltage as it would be in
normal condition. After that we connect capacitive load to the transmission line and then
supply the 3 power again to the system and note the voltage at sending and receiving end.
Now we observed that receiving end voltage is greater than the sending end voltage. This
effect is increases as capacitive load increases means receiving end voltage becomes greater
than the sending end voltage with the increased capacitive load. This effect is known as
Ferranti effect.

CALCULATIONS:
1.without line capacitance on R&L,C load
S.No.

V1

V2

Vd(V1-V2)

1
2
3

2. with line capacitance on R,Lload

S.No.

V1

V2

Vd

1
2
3

3. with line capacitance on R,L load

S.No.

V1

V2

Vd

1
2
3

4. with line capacitance without any load

S.No.
1
2
3

V1

V2

Vd

LAB NO 7
OBJECTIVE:
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the students will be able
to:

Voltage control in transmission line using shunt

reactor.

Apparatus:
3- variable supply

IT-6000

IT-6004

3- Resistive load

 3- Capacitive load
3- Inductive load
Transmission line module
Energy measuring unit

IT-60O6
IT-6005
IT-6002
IT-6052

Voltmeter & Ammeter

Theory:
Shunt Reactors are used in high voltage energy
HYPERLINK
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_transmission"transmission systems to
stabilize the voltage during load variations. Shunt reactor are generally
employed at the end of long transmission line. During charging of line due
to Ferranti effect receiving end voltage increases dangerously to control
this shunt reactors are used.
A traditional shunt reactor has a fixed rating and is either connected to
the power line all the time or switched in and out depending on the load.
The fixed or mechanically switched reactors may be used for the
absorption or generation of reactive power, the amount of reactive power
produced is fixed and the response time is slow.

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1-Connect all circuit elements as shown in diagram in schematic form.
2-Keep all loads at zero 1st then switch ON the power supply & note the
reading at sending end.
3-Just connect capacitive load at the receiving end of transmission line &
note the vr.
4-Then gradually exceed the inductive load & seek its effects at power
factor & voltage at receiving end side. Write down the reading.
5-Take the difference between receiving & sending end voltage.

Serial# Sending end V

(Vs) in volts
1.
2.
3.

REVIEW QUESTION:
Q 1: Explain voltage regulation?

Receiving end V
(Vr) in volts

Vs - Vr

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q 2: What type of load are causing +ive voltage regulation and why?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q 3: What are the importance of shunt reactors?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LAB NO 8
OBJECTIVE:
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:

 Understand construction of the line insulator

Understand why voltage across the insulators is not equal.
Understand different types of line insulator and their
characteristics

EQUIPMIENT:
PIN TYPE INSULATOR
SUSPENSION TYPE INSULATOR

STRAIN OR TENSION TYPE INSULATOR

DISCUSSION:
Overhead line insulator is used to separate line conductor form each other
and from supporting structures electrically.
Insulator must have the following characteristics
The insulator should have high permittivity to with stand high
electrical stresses. The insulator should be able to with stand
overvoltages due to lightning, switching, or other causes under
severe weather conditions in addition to the normal working
voltages.
It should posses high mechanical strength to bear the conductor
load under worst loading condition
It needs to have high resistance to temperature changes to reduce
damages from power flashover
Leakage current to earth should be minimum to keep the corona
loss and radio interference with in reasonable limits
Insulator material should not be porous and should be imperious to
gases in atmosphere and should be free from impurity and cracks
which may lower the permittivity.
Failure of insulator occur either by puncture or flashover .in case of a
puncture the arc passes through the body of the insulator. Flashover is
caused by an arc discharge between the conductor and earth through air
surrounding the insulator. it is either due to line surges or due to the
formation of wet conducting layer over the insulator surface.

Thickness of material is provided to prevent the puncture conditions

.increasing the resistance to leakage resistance to prevent a flashover.
The length of the leakage path is made large by constructing several
layers called petticoats or rainsheds.they keep the inner surface relatively
dry in wet weather and provide sufficient leakage resistance to prevent a
flashover.
For satisfactory operation, the flashover should occur before puncture .the
ratio of puncture voltage is called the factor of safety is kept as high as
possible. The rain sheds should have shapes of equipotential surface and
they should be constructed along the lines of electrostatic field around the
pin.
Figure show the different types of insulators

Types of insulator:
There are three main types of insulators used for overhead lines:
1. Pin type insulator
2. Suspension type insulator
3. Strain or tension type insulator

Pin type insulator:

Pin type insulator is supported on a forged steel or bolt which is secured to
the cross arm of the supporting structure. single piece type pin insulator
are used for lower voltages but for higher voltages two or more pieces are
cemented together to provide sufficient thickness of porcelain and
adequate leakage path or more creep age path. Figure shows a single
piece insulator. Tow piece and tree piece insulators are shown in figures
respectively.

Suspension type insulators:

It consist number of separate insulator connected with each other by
metal links to form a flexible chain or a string. The insulator string is
suspended from the cross arm of the sport.

Suspension type insulators offer following advantages:

Each unit design for operating voltage of about 11 kv .so that
connecting several units to suit the service voltage con assemble
a string.

 Additional unit can be introducing to the same unit to cop with

future higher voltage. In case of damage to one of the units only
the damaged insulator is replaced.
The string is free to saving in a direction .the tension in the
successive span is balanced .the line can therefore be designed
for longer spans and higher mechanical loading.
There is decrease in ability to lightning disturbances if the string is
suspended from a metallic supporting structure, which works as
alighting shield for conductor.
There are two types of suspension insulators:
Cap-and pin type.
Hewlett or inter link type.
Cap and pin type is more common. a galvanized cast iron is forged steel
cap and a galvanized forged steel pin are connected to porcelain in the
cap and pin type construction. the units are joined together either by ball
and socked or clevis pin connections .Hewlett or interlink type units
employs porcelain having two curved channels with planes at right angles
to each other. Interlink type insulator is mechanically stronger than cap
and pin type. the disadvantage of Hewlett type insulator is that the
porcelain between the links is highly stressed electrically and therefore its
puncture strength is lesser as compared to other types. figure shows the
interlink type insulator.

Strain or tension insulators:

These types of insulators are designed for handling mechanical stresses at
angle position where there is a change in the direction of the line or at
termination of the line. Shackle and pin insulator serve the purpose for low
voltage lines. for high voltage lines having longer spans and greater
mechanical loading, suspension insulator strings are arranged in a
horizontal position.

10 kV ceramic
insulators,
Showing sheds

Egg shaped strain insulator

Disc type insulator

Pin Insulator

Disc Insulator internal structure

Review questions:
Q.1 What is the difference between flashover and puncture of insulation?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q.2 Where do strain or tension insulators are used?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q.3 Write few cases of flashover?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LAB NO 9
Objective:
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the students
will be able to:
UNDERGROUND POWER CABLES
Performance objective :
Understand the constructional parts of the power cables
Understand the dielectric loss of power cable
Learn the skin effect, proximity effect and current rating of
cable
Discussion:
Residential load today have a trend towards their growing density. This
requires rugged construction, greater service reliability safety, and better
appearance. The interface front external disturbances like storms,
lightening, ice, tress, etc, should be reduced to a minimum. These
difficulties are easily overcome by the use of underground cables and a
trouble free service is achieved under a variety of environment conditions.
Underground cables eared to be used In areas where it is almost
impractical to use overhead lines, i.e transmission lines through sea,
cross-over or terminal connections in substations or air-field crossing.
Increased working voltages of the overhead lines require, the cable to be
insulated for such voltages in order to meet the requirement of the
overhead lines. The design of power cables is, therefore, governed by the
requirements of the overhead lines.
Supply interruptions due to external influence will be reduced wit the
underground cables, but if a fault occurs due to any reason it will not be
easily located. For long distance transmission, cables cannot be used to
their large charging current.

Cables construction:
A power cable consists of three main components
Conductor

 Insulation
Sheath

Conductors :
Copper and aluminum are used as conductor materials in cables.
Aluminum occupies a greater space than copper for a given conductance.
Solid or number of bare wires made o either copper or aluminum are used
to make a power cable. For a conductor having more than three wires are
arranged round a central wire such that there are 6 in the first layer, 12 in
the second, 18 in the third and so on. In this way number of wires in
conductor are7, 9,37,62,91 etc. The size of the conductor represented by
7/9, 19,b, 37/c, etc. in which first figure represents the number of strands
and the second figure A, B, C, etc represents the diameter in cm or mm of
the individual wires making the conductor.
Stranded conductors having more than one layer of wires are made such
that the directions of lay wires in adjacent layers are opposite to each
other. Fig 7.1 and 7.2 shows the standard wire called segmental conductor
and shaped conductors respectively.

Insulation:
The dielectric compound, as insulators for power cables should possess
the following main properties:
a. High insulation resistance
b. High dielectric strength
c. Good mechanical properties
d. Capable of being operated at high temperature
e. Low thermal resistance
f. Low power factor
The most commonly used dielectric in power cables is impregnated paper,
but rubber, polyvinyl chlorides(PVC), polythene, cross-linked polthylene
(XPLE). Polyvinyl chloride(PVC) cables is being used today for distributions
purpose as an alternate to paper insulated cable because of its several
advantages over insulated cables.

Polythene insulated power cable are non hygroscopic, used in cables for
submarine and damp soil.

Sheath:
Metal sheath is required to protect the cable from moisture, which would
affect the insulation. Following materials are being used as sheathing
Lad
Lead alloys
Aluminum
Corrugated seamless aluminum (CSA) sheath is used these days. It has
better bending, reduces thickness and loser weigh. It is mainly used in
high voltage oil-filled cables and telephone cables.
Protective covering:
To protect cable from mechanical damage, corrosion and electrolytic
action protective coverings are applied to sheath. Bitumen and bituminous
material (paper, hessian etc) or polyvinyl chloride is used against
corrosion and electrolytic action. Layers of fibrous material permeated
with waterproof compound applied to the exterior of the cabke are called
serving.

Armoring:
One or two layers of galvanized steel wires or two layers or metal tape
Armoring is applied over hessian or jute bedding to protect the sheath
from mechanical demage.Double wire armor is used for cables requiring
increased tensile strength.
Presence of magnetic material within the alternating magnetic field of
single-core cable produce excessive losses, therefore cables are either left
unarmored or, if necessary, they are armored with non-magnetic materials
like tin-bronze tapes or wires.
In case of multi core cables the reluctant alternating magnetic field is
zero. Aluminum is preferred as an armor material due to its non-magnetic
properties, high conductivity and mechanical strength. It is particularly
useful for single core cables working on ac.
Fig. 7.4 shows the mass-impregnated paper insulating submarine cables.
Table 7.1 shows the constructional parts of mass impregnated paper
insulating submarine cables.
Table 7.1
1

Conductor

Conductor

shielding
3

Insulation

Insulation shielding

Lead sheath

Plastic jacket

Tape armor

Optical armor

Steel wire armor

1
0

Serving

Review Questions:
Q1. Explain skin effect
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________
Q2. What is proximity effect?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________
Q3. What is three main cause of dielectric loss in the power cables?
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
Q4. Draw the pencil sketch of circuit oil-filled cable and write its main
components?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________

LAB NO 10
Objective:
Understand the Power factor correction with static capacitor.

Apparatus:
3- variable supply

IT-6000

IT-6004

3- Resistive load

3- Capacitive load
3- Inductive load
Transmission line module
Energy measuring unit

IT-6006
IT-6005
IT-6002
IT-6052

Voltmeter & Ammeter

Theory :
The electrical energy is the almost exclusively generated, transmitted and
distributed in the form of alternating current and 70% of the loads are
inductive in nature, hence have low lagging power factor. The low power
factor causes an increase in current, resulting in additional losses of active
power (P)in all the elements of power system from generation down to
utilization devices. In order to ensure supply system economical, it is
important to have power factor close to unity.

Power factor:

The cosine of angle between voltage and current in an AC

circuit is known as power factor (Pf). In an AC circuit, there is generally a
phase difference between voltage and current. The term Cos is called Pf.
If the circuit is inductive, the current lags behind the voltage and Pf is
called lagging. If the circuit is capacitive, the current leads the voltage
and Pf is called leading. But if the load is resistive, current and voltage
will be in phase and Pf is called unity.
The power factor of a circuit can be defined in one of the following three
ways:
Power factor = Cos = Cosine of angle between V and I
Power factor = R/Z = Resistance / Impedance
Power factor =VI Cos / VI= Active power / Apparent power

Note:
The reactive power is neither consumed in the circuit nor does it do
any useful work. It merely flows back and forth both directions in the
circuit. A var meter measures the reactive power.
Disadvantage of low Power factor:
The power factor plays an important role in an a.c circuits since power
consumed depends upon this factor.
P = VL IL Cos

(for single phase supply)

IL = P / (VL Cos)

(for single phase supply)

P = 3 VL IL Cos

(for 3 phase supply)

IL = P / (3 VL Cos)

(for 3 phase phase supply)

It is clear from above that for fixed power and voltage, the load current is
inversely proportional to the Pf. Lower the Pf, higher is the load current
and vice-versa. A power factor less than unity results in the following
disadvantages:
Larger KVA rating of equipment
Greater conductor size

 Large copper size

Poor voltage regulation
Reduced handling capacity of system

Causes of low Power factor:

Most of the AC motors are of induction type (1 and 3 induction
motors). These motors work at extremely low Pf on small load (0.2
to 0.3) and rise to 0.8 or 0.9 at full load.
Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating furnace
operate at low lagging power factor.
The load on the power system is varying, high during morning and
evening and low at other times. During low period, supply voltage is
increased which increase the magnetization current. This result in
the decreased power factor Pf.

Power factor improvement:

Normally the power factor of the whole load on a large
generating station is in the range of 0.8 to 0.9 lagging. In case of low Pf, it
is important to take special steps to improve it. This can be achieved by
the following equipment.
Static capacitors
Synchronous condenser
Phase advancers

Static capacitors:
Capacitors (generally known as static capacitors) draw leading
current and partly or completely neutralize the lagging reactive
component of load current. This raises the Pf of the load. For 3 loads the
capacitor can be connected in delta or star as shown in the figure 1.

Procedure:
Step 01
Connect to the indicator and load resistor as in figure-2.
Step 02
Switch on power and adjust supply voltage 220 ( L-L ) V.
Step 03
With the help of variable resistive and inductive loads set the load
current 2A at 0.5 lagging power factor.
Step 04
Switch on the capacitive load: increase it in steps as shown in table
and complete the table (a).

Table (a)
S. No

V1

I1

Cos

I2

V2

V.D=V1-

V2

1
2
3
4
5
6

Review Questions:
Part 01
Draw the characteristic curve between power factor and line current
(Pf Vs A1)?

Part 02
Q1.

What are the causes of low power factor?

Q2.

Write methods of improving power factor?

Q3.

What is the importance of power factor in the supply system?

Q4. Why line current reduces as load capacitor increased when RL load
was same in the experiment?

LAB NO11
Objective:
`

improvement using series capacitors

Apparatus:
Single phase ac supply

IT-6017

AC ammeter

IT-6036

TWO ac voltmeter

IT-6038

Wattmeter

IT-6048

Variable resistive load

IT-6004

Variable Inductive load

IT-6005

Variable capacitive load

IT-6006

Connecting leads

Theory:
The power factor of a circuit implies that how efficiently power is being
consumed or utilized in the circuit .The greater the power factor of a
circuit,greater is the ability of the circuit to utilize apparent power.Thus if
the power is 0.5,it means that50%of the power is being utilized.
However,it is desired that power factor of a circuit to be as close to unity
as possible.The cosine of the angle between voltage and current in a
circuit is also known as power factor cosThe power factor of an alternating
circuit is defined as ratio of active power to the apparent power.
Mathematically,
Power factor=cos=KW/KVA
Where
KW=active power delivered or absorbed by the circuit.
KVA=Apparent power of the circuit.

The ratio of resistance to the impedance is also known as power Factor.

Alternatively,

Power Factor=R\Z

Where
R=Resistance of the circuit.
Z=Impedance of the circuit.

Disadvantages of low power factor

A power factor less than unity results in the following disadvantages:
Large KVA rating of equipment.
Greater conductor size.
Large copper losses
Poor voltage regulation.
Reduced handling capacity of system.

Improving the power factor

Power factor improvement using capacitor is done using
following connections:

Series

Shunt

Series capacitors:
Series Capacitors are connected in series with lines but they are hardly
used in the distributed system because there is a requirement for a large
amount of complex Engineering investigation. Figure shows that how
series capacitor compensates forInductive reactance. A series capacitor is
a capacitor (negative) reactance in series with theCircuits inductive
(positive) reactance with the effect of compensating for part or all of
it.Therefore, the primary effect of the series capacitor is to minimize the
voltage drop caused By the inductive reactance in the circuit.
A series capacitor can even be considered as a voltage regulator that
provides voltage rise which increased automatically and instantaneously
as the load increase .Also, a seriesCapacitor produced more net voltage
rise than a shunt capacitor at lower factor, which creates more voltage

drop. However, a series capacitor improves the system power factor much
less than a shunt capacitor and has a little effect on the source current

Consider a feeder circuit and its voltage-phasor diagram as shown in Fig a

and c. The voltagedrop in the feeder can be expressed as

=IRcos+Isin
Where
R=resistance of feeder circuit
=inductive reactance of the circuit
Cos=receiving end power factor
Sin=sine of the receiving end power factor angle
As it can be seen from the phasor diagram the magnitude of the second
term in the above equation for voltage drop is much larger than the first.
The difference gets to be much larger when the power factor is smaller
and the the ratio of R/ is small.
However, when a series capacitor is applied, as shown in Fig b and d. the
resultant lower voltage
Drop can be calculated as cos+I()sinWhere R=resistance of feeder
circuit

Procedure:
connect the circuit as shown below.

Record V, I and Wvaluesin the table.

Calculate p.f, Q and S by using relations given below.

Connect capacitor in series of R,L load as shown below.

Record values of V,I, W and Vc in the table.

Calculate p.f,Q, C and S using relation given below.
Change the value of capacitor and repeat the step 5,6.

Observations and calculation:

Cos=W/(VI)

S=VI

Q=VIsinXc =Vc/IC=1/( 2 XX 50 X Xc)

Table

S.N
o

Vc

cos

Xc

(Volts
)

(Amp
s)

(VA)

(Volts (Watts
)
)

230

36.1

8303

162

6624.
4

0.80 4980

4.48

.00072

235

36.9

8671.
5

166

7197

0.83 4836.
5

4.49

0.0007
0

240

37.6

9024

170

7670.
4

0.85 4752

4.52

0.0007
01

245

38.5

9432.
5

173

8300.
6

0.88 4479

4.50

0.0007
07

250

39.2

9800

177

8918

0.91 4062.
4

4.51

0.0007
05

(vars) (Ohm
s)

C
(Farads)

Review Questions
1.What are the advantages and disadvantages of using series capacitor?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. How much power factor improvement has been achieved in this
experiment?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. What other methods can be employed for p.f correction?

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LAB NO11
MATLAB BASICS
Engineering Problem Solving
Engineering often involves applying a consistent, structured approach to the solving of
problems.
A general problem-solving approach and method can be defined, although variations will be
required for specific problems. Problems must be approached methodically, applying an
algorithm, or step-by-step procedure by which one arrives at a solution.

Problem-Solving Process

The problem-solving process for a computational problem can be outlined as follows:

1. Define the problem.
2. Create a mathematical model.
3. Develop a computational method for solving the problem.
4. Implement the computational method.
5. Test and assess the solution.
The boundaries between these steps can be blurred and for specific problems one or two of
the steps may be more important than others. Nonetheless, having this approach and strategy
in mind will help to focus our efforts as we solve problems
MATALB the program Solver
Matlab is an interactive system for doing numerical
computations.
A numerical analyst called Cleve Moler wrote the first version of
Matlab in the 1970s. It has since evolved into a successful
commercial software package.
Matlab relieves you of a lot of the mundane tasks associated with
solving problems numerically.
This allows you to spend more time thinking, and encourages you
to experiment.
Matlab makes use of highly respected algorithms and hence you
can be confident about your results.
Powerful operations can be performed using just one or two
commands.
You can build up your own set of functions for a particular
application.
Excellent graphics facilities are available, and the pictures can be
inserted into LATEX and Word documents.
MATLAB is a high level computer language used for the programming of
complex engineering problems. MATLAB stands for Matrix Laboratory. In
MATLAB we have many tool boxes each containing functions related to
specific operations, just as we have libraries in JAVA or C language.
Communications, Control System, Image processing and Image acquisition
are some of the mostcommonly used tool boxes. MATLAB has extensive
capabilities of two and three dimensional plotting. We will use these
plotting facilities of MATLAB to aid in the physical interpretation of
equations, particularly those related to fields and potentials.
In MATLAB, there are two modes of executing a program; the first
one is command line execution and the second one is M-File or DOT M (.m)
file execution. For command line execution commands are entered in the
command window where (.m) file, complete program is first written in a
file and saved with DOT M (.m) extension. The complete program is then

RUN like any other programming language. We will use DOT M files
throughout this lab.

BASIC TERMINOLOGY:
MATLAB has some basic terms and predefined variables you should
get familiar with before going any further. One of these is the variable ans.
When you type most commands to MATLAB, they will return values. You
can assign these values to variables by typing in equations. For example,
if you type
>>x = 5
MATLAB will print
x = 5
Review of commands
Display command
>>Disp(I am the student Of SCET)
Input
A=input(Enetr The 1st No.)
B=(Enter The 2nd no);
Fprintf
A=2
Fprintf(The Value of a is % A )

Rational and Logical Operators (LOGICALS)

MATLAB represents true and false by means of the integers 0 and 1.true = 1, false = 0
If at some point in a calculation a scalar x, say, has been assigned a value, we may make
certain logical tests on it:
x == 2 is x equal to 2?
x ~= 2 is x not equal to 2?
x > 2 is x greater than 2?
x < 2 is x less than 2?
x >= 2 is x greater than or equal to 2?
x <= 2 is x less than or equal to 2?
Pay particular attention to the fact that the test for equality involves two equal signs ==

.
>> x = pi
x =
3.1416
>> x ~= 3, x ~= pi
ans =
1
ans =
0
>> A=1:9;
>> B=8-A;
>> tf1=A<=4
tf1 =
1
1
1
>> tf2=A>B
tf2 =
0
0
0
>> tf3=A==B
tf3 =
0
0
0
>> tf4=A-(A>2)
tf4 =
1
2
2

Operators :
OR, AND, NOT, AND, XOR
clc
A=[0 1 0]
B=[0 1 0]
XOR=xor(A,B)
AND=and(A,B)
OR=or(A,B)
NOT=not(A)
NOT=~(A)
Result
A =

B =

XOR =
0
AND =

OR =

NOT =
1

LAB NO11
Objective:
Introduction to MATLAB Simulink

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
A computer running Matlab 7.0 or higher version
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:The MATLAB and Simulink environments are integrated into one entity, and thus we can
analyze, simulate, and revise our models in either environment at any point. We invoke
Simulink from within MATLAB. We begin with a few examples and we will discuss
generalities in subsequent chapters. Throughout this text, a left justified horizontal bar will
denote the beginning of an example, and a right justified horizontal bar will denote the end of
the example. These bars will not be shown whenever an example begins at the top of a page

or at the bottom of a page. Also, when one example follows immediately after a previous
example, the right justified bar will be omitted.
In the Command Window, we type:
>>simulink
Alternately, we can click on the Simulink icon shown in Figure 1.3. It appears on the top bar
on
MATLABs Command Window.

Figure 3.01 The Simulink Library Browser

Exercise with Simulink:
Now we are to draw the sine wave and cosine wave on Simulink.

y_1= Sin x and y_2= cos x

..>>> (2.11)

Figure 3.02: - Dragging the Sine Wave block function into File Untitled

Figure 3.03:- File Equation with added Sine wave and Scope block

Scope Result

Figure 3.04 Sine wave

Figure 3.05:-Block parameters Sine wave

To generate the cos wave we have to change the parameter as follows

Phase (rad) = pi / 2

LAB NO13
Objective:
Calculation of sag using MATLAB program.

Apparatus:
MATLAB software

Theory:
Sag is provided in transmission lines in order to lessen the tension of the transmission lines.
Sag literally means to be bend in shape. In overhead transmission lines , the difference in
level between points of supports (towers or utility poles) and the lowest point on the
conductor is called a sag.
Explanation: While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that the conductors are
under safe tension. If the conductors are too much stressed between the supports ( towers,
utility poles), then the stress on the conductors may reach to an unsafe level and the
conductor may break due to excessive pressure ( i,e tension). in order to permit safe tension
in the conductors, the conductors ( i.e the transmission lines) are not fully stretched but are
allowed to have a dip or a sag.

The sag can be calculated by the parabolic and catenary method.

For the parabolic method it is calculated by using formula
Sigma=w*l^2/8*H
For the catenary method it is calculated by using formula
Sigma=H/w(coshw*l/(2H)-1)
But when the span is of unequal length then the sag is calculated using the formula
Sigma=w*l^2/(8*T)

Matlab program
Example
A transmission line conductor at a river crossing is supported from two towers at heights of
30m and 90m above water level. the horizontal distance between the towers is 270m.If the
tensioning the conductor is 1800kgf and the conductor weights1kgf/meter. Find the clearance
between conductor and the water at a point midway b/w the towers. Assume parabolic
configuration.
MATLAB code
l=270;
%l is in meter(m) and it is a horizontal distance
between towers.
T=1800; % tension in the conductor ,in kg/f
h1=30;
h2=90;
h=h2-h1; % h is the difference in level between two supports .
w=1;
% weight of conductor/meter.
x=l/2-T*h/(w*l);%value of span
x1=-x+l/2;
sigma1=w*x1^2/(2*T)
sigma2=w*x^2/(2*T)
sigma=w*(l-x)^2/(2*T)
clearance=h1+(sigma1-sigma2) %clearance between conductor and
water

Results
sigma1 =
44.4444
sigma2 =
19.5069
sigma =
79.5069
clearance = 54.9375

Review Questions
Q1- What Is Sag?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________
Q2- What Is The Difference B/W Sag And Span?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________
Q3- What Is the Benefit Of Providing Sag In A Transmission Line?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________

LAB NO14
Objective;
Matlab program for the analysis of short,medium and long transmission
lines.

Tool:
Matlab

Theory:
Transmission lines are classified as short, medium and long.

Short Lines:
When the length of the line is less than about 80Km the effect of shunt capacitance and
conductance is neglected and the line is designated as a short transmission line. For these
lines the operating voltage is less than 20KV.

Medium lines:
For medium transmission lines the length of the line is in between 80km - 240km and the
operating line voltage wil be in between 21KV-100KV.In this case the shunt capacitance can
be assumed to be lumped at the middle of the line or half of the shunt capacitance may be
considered to be lumped each end of the line.The two representations of medium length lines
are termed as nominal-T and nominal- respectively.

Long Lines:

Lines more than 240Km long and line voltage above 100KV require
calculations in terms of distributed parameters.Such lines are known as long transmission
lines.This classification on the basis of length is more or less arbitrary and the real criterion is
the degree of accuracy required.

Matlab program;
Matlab program for the analysis of short,medium and long transmission
lines

Matlab code

Q: The receiving end voltage of power system is 33KV. The receiving end power is
15000KVA. Power factor of the system is 0.85. If line resistance per km per phase is 0.29

ohm. The line reactance per km per phase is 0.65 ohm. Find the results if the line length
is 8km.

Result for 8 Km.

STUDYING THE CHARECTERISTICS OF A TRANSMISSION LINE
***************************************************
Receiving end line voltage in volt =33000
length of transmission line in km =8
Rated power at receiving end load =15000000
power factor=0.85
Vr =
1.9053e+004
Ir =
2.6243e+002 -1.6264e+002i
resistance/km/phase=0.29
inductive reactance/km/phase=0.65
Z=
2.3200 + 5.2000i

SHORT TRANSMISSON LINE

**********************
A=

B = 2.3200 + 5.2000i
C=

D=

Vs= 2.0507e+004 +9.8732e+002i

Is =2.6243e+002 -1.6264e+002i

reg =7.7592
Vs_line =3.5519e+004 +1.7101e+003i
Ps =1.6627e+007
eff =90.2152

Review Questions
Q1- Differentiate between long , medium and short transmission line ?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________
Q2- what are the short ,medium and long line parameters?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________
Q3- What is the benefit of thisMATLAB program?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________

LAB NO15
Objective
Designing of line parameter(inductance) usingMATLAB

Tool:
MATLAB

Theory:
Parameters of Transmission Line
Transmission line has four electrical parameters - resistance, inductance, capacitance and
conductance. The inductance and capacitance are due to the effect of magnetic and electric
fields around the conductor. The shunt conductance characterizes the leakage current through
insulators, which is very small and can be neglected. The parameters R, L and C are essential
for the development of the transmission line models to be used in power system analysis both
during planning and operation stages.
While the resistance of the conductor is best determined from manufactures data, the
inductances and capacitances can be evaluated using formula. The student is advised to read
chapter 4 or any other text book before taking up the experiment. The transmission lines are
represented by an equivalent circuit model with approximate circuit parameters on per phase
basis. This model can be used to compute voltages, currents, power flows, efficiency and
regulation etc. Normally the lines are classified into short, medium and long lines for the
purpose of modeling.

inductance of a symmetrical 3- phase system

A transmission line is said to be symmetrical when its conductors are

suited at the corners of a equilateral triangle. Such an arrangement is also sometimes referred
to as equilateral spacing and it is shown in the fig below.

Fig. Symmetrical three phase line

The inductance of a symmetrical three phase line can calculated by using the formula which
has been calculated by using above fig

L=0.2ln
From the equation we found that inductance per conductorof a three phase symmetrically
spaced line s equal to the inductance per conductor of a single phase line of equal length and
with equal spacing between conductors.

Matlab code
%program For the calculation of inductance of symmetrical 3phase line
>>D=input('Enter the spacing between the conductor A and B and C
in meters =');
>>d=input('Enter the diameter of three phase transmission line in
milimeters =');
>>f=input('Enter the value of frequency in HZ=');
>>r=0.5*0.001*d
>>req=0.7788*r
>>L=2e-7*log(D/req)
>>disp('inductance is in H/m')
>>XL=2*pi*f*L
>>disp('inductance reactance is in ohm/m')
Example
A two conductor single phase line operates at 50 Hz, the diameter of each conductor is
20mm and the spacing between the conductors is 3m.calculate
1.inductance of conductor
2.inductive reactance

Solution
By using by above matlab program we have results as
Enter the spacing between the conductor A and B and C in meters =3
Enter the diameter of three phase transmission line in milimeters =>> 20
Enter the value of frequency in HZ=>> 50
r=

0.0100
req =
0.0078
L=
1.1908e-006
inductance is in H/m
XL =
3.7409e-004
inductance reactance is in ohm/m

inductance of unsymmetrical 3-phase line

For an unsymmetrical spaced 3-phase line the inductance and the voltage drops will be
different for all the phases even under balanced current conditions.

When a unsymmetrical
spaced line is properly transposed, the average of flux 3positions in the transpositions cycle
and dividing the sum by 3

The inductance of unsymmetrical 3-phase system can be found by using the formula
L=2 ln( )1/3

Matlab code
%program For the calculation of inductance of unsymmetrical
3-phase line

>>Dab=input('Enter the spacing between the conductor A and B in

meters =');
>>Dbc=input('Enter the spacing between the conductor B and c in
meters =');
>>Dca=input('Enter the spacing between the conductor C and A in
meters =');
>>d=input('Enter the diameter of three phase transmission line in
milimeters =');
>>f=input('Enter the value of frequency in HZ=');
>>Deq=(Dab*Dbc*Dca)^0.33
>>r=0.5*1e-3*d
>>req=0.7788*r
L=2e-7*log(Deq/req)
>>disp('inductor is in H/m')
>>XL=2*pi*f*L
>>disp('inductor is in ohm/m')

Example
A 3-phase, 50 Hz line consist of 3 conductors each of diameter 21mm. The spacing between
the conductors is as follow
AB=3m,
Find 1.inductance of line
2.inductive reactance
Solution

,BC=5m,

CA=3.6m

By using matlab
Enter the spacing between the conductor A and B in meters = 3
Enter the spacing between the conductor B and c in meters =>> 5
Enter the spacing between the conductor C and A in meters =>> 3.6
Enter the diameter of three phase transmission line in milimeters =>> 21
Enter the value of frequency in HZ=>> 50
Deq =
3.7298
r =
0.0105
req =
0.0082
L =
1.2245e-006
inductor is in H/m
XL =
3.8470e-004 inductor is in ohm/m

Review Question
1 What are the parameters of a transmission line?
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LAB NO16
Objective:
Simulation of Transmission Lines on MATLAB Simulink

This demonstration illustrates steady-state and transient simulation of Medium

Transmission Line and use of the Powergui block
CASE STUDY:

Nominal T Model
Nominal Model

Fig 4 Nominal T Model

Fig. 5 Nominal Model

This circuit is a simplified model of a 132 kV three-phase power system. Only one phase of
the transmission system is represented. The equivalent source is modeled by a voltage source
(132 kV rms/sqrt(3) or 160 kV peak, 50 Hz) in series with its internal impedance (Rs + Ls) .
The source feeds a RL load through a 150 km transmission line. The line distributed
parameters (R L and C).
The load (50 MW 0.87 Mvar per phase is modeled by a parallel RLC load block.
Current and Voltage Measurement blocks provide signals for visualization purpose.
Click On the Powergui block and get the required results.

Powergui
Graphical user interface for the analysis of circuits and systems
Library:
Powerlib ( in Simulink)
Demonstration
1. Simulation using a continuous solver
Start the simulation and observe line voltage and load current transients during load
switching and note that the simulation starts in steady-state.
Use the zoom buttons of the oscilloscope to observe the transient voltage.
2. Using the Powergui to obtain steady-state phasors and set initial states
Open the Powergui block and select "Steady State Voltage and Currents" to measure the
steady-state voltage and current phasors..
Using the Powergui select now Initial States Setting to obtain the initial state values
(voltage across capacitors and current in inductances).

Now, reset all the initial states to zero by clicking the to zero" button and then "Apply" to
confirm changes. Restart the simulation and observe transientsat simulation starting. Using
the same Powergui window, you can also set selected states to specific values.

Fig. 6 Powergui Block

3. Discretizing your circuit and simulating at fixed steps

The Powergui block can also be used to discretize your circuit and simulate it at fixed steps.
Open the Powergui. Select Discretize electrical model" and specify a sample time of 50e-6 s.
The state-space model will now be discretizedusing trapezoidal fixed step integration. The
precision of results is now imposed by the sample time. Restart the simulation and compare
simultion results
with the continuous integration method. Vary the sample time of the discrete system and note
the impact on precision of fast transients.
4. Using the phasor simulation method
You will now use a third simulation technique. The "phasor simulation" method consists to
replace the circuit state-space model by a set of algebraicequations evaluated at a fixed
frequency and to replace sinusoidal voltage and current sources by phasors (complex
numbers). This method allows a fastcomputation of voltage and current phasors at a selected
frequency, disregarding fast transients. It is particularly efficient to study
electromechanicaltransients of generators and motors involving low frequency oscillation
modes.
By Changing the Values of Comports in Block we can have a Complete Analysis

Steady State Voltage and Current Measurement by Graphical User Interface:

Fig. 7 Steady State Tool

MODELING IN MATLAB/SIMPOWER SYSTEM

Fig. 8 Block Representation of Medium line A type-T

Fig. 9 Block Representation of Medium line B type-PI

SCOPE OUTPUT:
Fig. 10
Scope Results (a) and (b) for both Models