Finite Element Analysis

IW-CAAD 2004
Understanding and Using
Finite Element Analysis

July 19-21, 2004
Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
Asian Center for Engineering Computations and Software
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Understanding and Using
Buddhi S. Shrama
The Objective
To understand the fundamentals of the

Finite Element Method and the Finite Element
Analysis
To apply the Finite Element Analysis Tools for
Modeling and Analysis of Structures
Use SAP2000 as Tool for Finite Element
Modeling and Analysis of Structures
ACECOMS, AIT
The Program
What is FEM and Why it is needed

Fundamental concepts in FEM and FEA
Concept of Stiffness
Finite Elements and their Usage
Constructing Finite Element Models
Applying Loads to FE Models
Interpreting FE Results
Modeling Different Types of Structures using FE
Intro to Non-linear and Dynamic Analysis
ACECOMS, AIT
What is Finite Element Analysis

and Why do We Need It!
The Structural System
STRUCTURE
EXCITATION
Loads
Vibrations
Settlements
Thermal Changes
pv
RESPONSES
Displacements
Strains
Stresses
Stress Resultants
ACECOMS, AIT
The Need For Analysis
We need to determine the

Response of the Structure to
Excitations
Analysis
so that:
We can ensure that the structure
can sustain the excitation with an
acceptable level of response
Design
ACECOMS, AIT
Analysis of Structures
xx yy zz
pvx 0
x
y
z
Real Structure is governed by Partial
Differential Equations of various order
pv
Direct solution is only possible for:

Simple geometry
Simple Boundary
Simple Loading.
ACECOMS, AIT
The Need for Structural Model

STRUCTURE
RESPONSES
EXCITATION
Loads
Vibrations
Settlements
Thermal Changes
pv
Displacements
Strains
Stress
Stress Resultants
Structural
Model
ACECOMS, AIT
The Need for Modeling
A - Real Structure cannot be Analyzed:

It can only be Load Tested to determine
response
B - We can only analyze a

Model of the Structure
C - We therefore need tools to Model the
Structure and to Analyze the Model
ACECOMS, AIT
Finite Element Method and FEA

Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
A discretized solution to a continuum

problem using FEM
Finite Element Method (FEM)

A numerical procedure for solving (partial)
differential equations associated with field
problems, with an accuracy acceptable to
engineers
ACECOMS, AIT
From Classical to FEM
Equilibrium
Actual Structure
xx yy zz
pvx 0
x
y
z
Partial Differential
Equations
FEM
Assumptions
Classical
Structural Model
Kr R
Stress-Strain Law
Compatibility
Algebraic
Equations
_
dV p u dV p u ds
t
v
t
s
(Principle of Virtual Work)
K = Stiffness
r = Response
R = Loads
ACECOMS, AIT
Simplified Structural System

Deformations (u)
Loads (F)
Fv
(Stiffness)
F
Equilibrium Equation
F=Ku
ACECOMS, AIT
The Total Structural System

STRUCTURE
RESPONSES
EXCITATION
pv
Static
Dynamic
Elastic
Inelastic
Linear
Nonlinear
Eight types of equilibrium equations are possible!

ACECOMS, AIT
The Main Equilibrium Equations

1. Linear-Static
Ku F
Elastic
2. Linear-Dynamic
Elastic
Mu(t ) Cu(t ) Ku(t ) F (t )
3. Nonlinear - Static
Elastic OR Inelastic
Ku FNL F
4. Nonlinear-Dynamic
Elastic OR Inelastic
Mu(t ) Cu(t ) Ku(t ) F (t ) NL F (t )

ACECOMS, AIT
The Basic Analysis Types

Excitation
Structure
Response
Basic Analysis Type
Static
Elastic
Linear
Linear-Elastic-Static Analysis
Static
Elastic
Nonlinear
Nonlinear-Elastic-Static Analysis
Static
Inelastic
Linear
Linear-Inelastic-Static Analysis
Static
Inelastic
Nonlinear
Nonlinear-Inelastic-Static Analysis
Dynamic
Elastic
Linear
Linear-Elastic-Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic
Elastic
Nonlinear
Nonlinear-Elastic-Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic
Inelastic
Linear
Linear-Inelastic-Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic
Inelastic
Nonlinear
Nonlinear-Inelastic-Dynamic Analysis
ACECOMS, AIT
Special Analysis Types
Non-linear Analysis
P-Delta Analysis
Buckling Analysis
Static Pushover Analysis
Fast Non-Linear Analysis (FNA)
Large Displacement Analysis
Dynamic Analysis
Free Vibration and Modal Analysis
Response Spectrum Analysis
Steady State Dynamic Analysis
ACECOMS, AIT
The Finite Element Analysis Process

Engineer
Evaluate Real Structure
Create Structural Model

Discretize Model in FE
Software
Solve FE Model
Interpret FEA Results
Engineer
Physical significance of Results
ACECOMS, AIT
The Fundamentals
In Finite Element Method
From Continuum to Structure

From Structure To Structural Model
ACECOMS, AIT
Solid Structure - Model
3D SOLIDS
Discretization
Simplification
(geometric)
3D-CONTINUM
MODEL
(Governed by partial
differential equations)
CONTINUOUS MODEL
OF STRUCTURE
(Governed by either
partial or total differential equations)
DISCRETE MODEL
OF STRUCTURE
(Governed by algebraic
equations)
ACECOMS, AIT
Equilibrium
Actual Structure
xx yy zz
pvx 0
x
y
z
Partial Differential
Equations
Structure
Assumptions
Continuum
Structural Model
Kr R
Stress-Strain Law
Compatibility
Algebraic
Equations
_
dV p u dV p u ds
t
v
t
s
(Principle of Virtual Work)
K = Stiffness
r = Response
R = Loads
ACECOMS, AIT
Continuum Vs Structure
A continuum extends in all direction, has infinite

particles, with continuous variation of material
properties, deformation characteristics and stress
state
A Structure is of finite size and is made up of an
assemblage of substructures, components and
members
ACECOMS, AIT
Physical Categorization of Structures

Structures can be categorized in many ways.
For modeling and analysis purposes, the overall
physical behavior can be used as basis of
categorization
Cable or Tension Structures

Skeletal or Framed Structures
Surface or Spatial Structures
Solid Structures
Mixed Structures
ACECOMS, AIT
Structure, Member, Element

Structure can be considered as an assemblage of
Physical Components called Members
Slabs, Beams, Columns, Footings, etc.
Physical Members can be modeled by using one

or more Conceptual Components called
Elements
1D elements, 2D element, 3D elements
Frame element, plate element, shell element, solid
element, etc.
ACECOMS, AIT
Structural Members
Continuum
Regular Solid
(3D)
y
Plate/Shell (2D)
x z
t<<(x,z)
z
x
Beam (1D)
b h
L>>(b,h)
h
z
x
L
b
Dimensional Hierarchy of Structural Members
ACECOMS, AIT
The Reference System

To convert continuum to structures, the first step
is to define a finite number of reference
dimensions
The Four Dimensional Reference System:
Three Space Dimensions, x, y, z
One Time Dimension, t
The Entire Structural System is a function of

Space and Time
S (x, y, z, t)
ACECOMS, AIT
Global Axis and Local Axis
Global Axis used to reference the

overall structure and to locate its
components:
Also called the Structure Axis
Local Axis used to reference the

quantities on part of a structure or a
member or an element:
Also called the Member Axis or
Element Axis
ACECOMS, AIT
The General Global Coordinate System

The global coordinate system is a threedimensional, right-handed, rectangular coordinate
system.
The three axes, denoted X, Y, and Z, are mutually
perpendicular and satisfy the right-hand rule.
The location and orientation of the global system
are arbitrary. The Z direction is normally upward,
but this is not required.
All other coordinates systems are converted or
mapped back and forth to General Coordinate
System
ACECOMS, AIT
Polar Coordinate Systems
Polar coordinates include

Cylindrical CR-CA-CZ
coordinates
Spherical SB-SA-SR
coordinates.
Polar coordinate systems

are always defined with
respect to a rectangular XY-Z system.
ACECOMS, AIT
Local Coordinate Systems

Each part (joint, element, or constraint) of the
structural model has its own local co-ordinate
system used to define the properties, loads, and
response for that part.
In general, the local co-ordinate systems may
vary from joint to joint, element to element, and
constraint to constraint
ACECOMS, AIT
Local Axis and Natural Axis

The elements and
variation of fields can
often be described best
in terms Natural
Coordinates
Natural coordinates may
be linear or curvilinear
Shape functions can are
used to associate the
local system and natural
system
ACECOMS, AIT
Primary Relationships
ACECOMS, AIT
The Basic Structural Quantities
Loads
Actions
Deformations
Strains
Stresses
Stress Resultants
The main focus of

Structural Mechanics is to
develop relationships
between these quantities
The main focus of FEM is

solve these relationships
numerically
ACECOMS, AIT
Mechanics Relationships
Load
Action
Stress Resultant
Deformation
Stress
Strain
ACECOMS, AIT
Primary Relationships
Load Action Relationship

Action Deformation Relationship
Deformation Strain Relationship
Strain Stress Relationship
Stress Stress Resultant Relationship
Stress Resultant Action Relationship
Most of these relationships can defined

mathematically, numerically and by testing
ACECOMS, AIT
Action - Deformation Relationship

This involves two types of relationships
Deformations produced due to given

Actions
PL
Example:
AE
Actions needed to produce or restrain

certain Deformation
Example:
EA
P
Moment-Curvatures, Load-Deflection
Curves are samples of this relationship
The represents to Element Stiffness
P
P
ACECOMS, AIT
Simplified Examples of Action-Deformation

L3
v
6 EI
3M
2V
V
M
PL
AE
L
2 EI
2M
ACECOMS, AIT
Deformation Strain Relationship
In general, strain is the first derivative of

deformation
Basic Deformation and Corresponding Strains are:
Shortening
Curvature
Shearing
Twisting
Axial Strain
Axial Strain
Shear Strain
Shear Strain + Axial Strain
Total Strain is summation of strains from different

deformations
ACECOMS, AIT
Strain Stress Relationship
The resistance of the material to strain, derived

from the stiffness of the material particles
For a general Isotropic Material
1 v v v 0 0 0
v 1 v v 0 0 0
x
x

v v 1 v 0 0 0 y
y

z

1
2
v
0 0 0
E
0 0 z

2
xy 1 v 1 2v
xy
1 2v

0 0 0 0
0 yz
yz
2
zx

1 2v zx
0 0 0 0 0
kfc
fy
For 2D, Isotropic Material, V=0
xx E x
xy G xy
ACECOMS, AIT
The Stress Strain Components

The Hook's law is
simplified form of
Stress-Strain
relationship
Ultimately the six
stress and strain
components can be
represented by 3
principal summations
yy
y
x
yz
xy
zy
zz
yx
zx
xz
xx
At any point in a continuum, or solid,

the stress state can be completely
defined in terms of six stress
components and six corresponding
strains.
ACECOMS, AIT
Secondary Relationships
Global Axis - Local Axis
Geometric Transformations Matrices
Local Axis - Natural Axis

Shape Functions
Jacobian Matrix
ACECOMS, AIT
What are Shape Functions
Shape Functions or Interpolation Functions provide a

means of computing value of any quantity (field) at some
point based on the value specified at specific locations
Shape Functions are used in FEM to relate the values ate
Nodes to those within the Element
Nodal Displacements to Element Deformation
Nodal Stresses to Stresses within the Element
Shape Functions can be in 1D, 2D or in 3D

Shape Functions can be Liner or Polynomials
ACECOMS, AIT
One Dimensional Shape Functions
N1 (s) 0.5 s (1 s)
S =-1
S=0
S=0
S =+1
N1 (s) (1 s)
S=1
N 2 (s) (1 s)(1 s)
N3 (s) 0.5 s (1 s)
N1 (s) s
S is the Natural Coordinate System
w( s) N1 ( s) w1 N 2 ( s) w2 N 3 ( s) w3
3
w( s) N i wi
i 1
ACECOMS, AIT
The Jacobian Matrix
Jacobian Matrix relates the derivative of Nodal

Displacement, directly with Element Strains
The Strain is Derivative of Displacement
Displacements are specified on nodes, in Element
Local Axis
For computing K. strains are needed in element in
Natural Coordinates
Shape Functions relate Nodal Displacements with
Element Displacements
N 3
N 2
w N1
J
w1
w2
w3
s
s
s
s
J N i , s wi
ACECOMS, AIT
The Concept of DOF
ACECOMS, AIT
The Concept of DOF

In a continuum, each point can move in infinite
ways
In Structure, movement of each point is
represented or resolved in limited number of
ways, called Degrees Of Freedom (DOF)
The DOF of range from 1 to 7 depending on type
and level of structural model and the element
being considered
Global and Local DOF have different meaning
and significance
ACECOMS, AIT
The Basic Six DOF

Three Translations along the
reference axis
Dx, Dy, Dz
Three Rotations about the

reference axis
Rx, Ry, Rz
ACECOMS, AIT
The Seven Degrees of Freedom

The General Beam
Element may have 7
degrees of freedom
The seventh degree
is Warping
Warping is out-of
plane distortion of
the beam crosssection
ry
uy
y
u x rx
x
z
uz
rz
wz
Each section on a beam

member can have seven
Degrees Of Freedom
(DOF) with respect to its
local axis.
ACECOMS, AIT
Actions and DOF
ACECOMS, AIT
The Complete DOF Picture
uz Axial deformation Axial strain Axial stress

ux Shear deformation Shear strain Shear stress
uy Shear deformation Shear strain Shear stress
rz Torsion Shear strain Shear stress
r y Curvature Axial strain Axial stress
rx Curvature Axial strain Axial stress
wz Warping Axial strain Axial stress
ACECOMS, AIT
Global Structural DOF
Only 3 DOF are really needed at Global Level

The deformation of the structure can be defined
completely in terms of 3 translations of points with
respect to Global Axis
Rotations may be defined arbitrarily at various

locations for convenience of modeling and
interpretation
ACECOMS, AIT
Local DOF and Natural DOF
DOF can be defined for local movements of joints

and elements in 3 Orthogonal reference system
Natural DOF can be defined in terms of Natural

Coordinates System of the element which may be
orthogonal or curvilinear
Relationship between Global, Local and Natural
DOF is established through Transformation
Matrices
ACECOMS, AIT
Types of DOF in SAP2000

Active
the displacement is computed during the analysis
Restrained
the displacement is specified, and the corresponding
reaction is computed during the analysis
Constrained
the displacement is determined from the
displacements at other degrees of freedom
Null
the displacement does not affect the structure and is
ignored by the analysis
Unavailable
The displacement has been explicitly excluded from
the analysis
ACECOMS, AIT
Constraints and Restraints

Restraints:
Direct limits on the DOF

External Boundary Conditions
Fixed Support , Support Settlement
Constraints
Linked or dependent limits on DOF
Internal linkages within the structure, in addition to
or in place of normal connections
Rigid Diaphragm, Master-Slave DOF
ACECOMS, AIT
Body Constraints
A Body Constraint causes all of its constrained joints to

move together as a three-dimensional rigid body.
All constrained joints are connected to each other by rigid
links and cannot displace relative to each other.
This Constraint can be used to:
Model rigid connections, such as where several beams
and/or columns frame together
Connect together different parts of the structural model
that were defined using separate meshes
Connect Frame elements that are acting as eccentric
stiffeners to Shell elements
ACECOMS, AIT
Constraints in SAP2000
A constraint is a set of two or more constrained
joints.
The displacements of each pair of joints in the
constraint are related by constraint equations.
The types of behavior that can be enforced by
constraints are:
Rigid-body behavior
Equal-displacement behavior
Symmetry and anti-symmetry conditions
ACECOMS, AIT
Constraints in SAP2000
Rigid-body behavior
Rigid Body: fully rigid for all displacements
Rigid Diaphragm: rigid for membrane behavior in a
plane
Rigid Plate: rigid for plate bending in a plane
Rigid Rod: rigid for extension along an axis
Rigid Beam: rigid for beam bending on an axis
ACECOMS, AIT
The Concept of
Stiffness
What is Stiffness ?
In structural terms, stiffness
may be defined as
Resistance to Deformation
So for each type of
deformation, there is a
corresponding stiffness
Stiffness can be considered
or evaluated at various levels
Stiffness is also the
constant in the ActionDeformation Relationship
For Linear Response
uF
Ku F
F
K
u
ACECOMS, AIT
The Structure Stiffness

Stress/Strain
Material Stiffness
Cross-section Geometry
EA, EI
Section Stiffness
Member Geometry
EA/L
Member Stiffness
Structure Geometry
Structure Stiffness
ACECOMS, AIT
Structure Stiffness
The overall resistance
of the structures to over
all loads, called the
Global Structure
Stiffness.
Derived from the sum
of stiffness of its
members, their
connectivity and the
boundary or the
restraining conditions.
ACECOMS, AIT
Member and Element Stiffness

The resistance of each
Element to local actions
called the Element Stiffness
This is derived from the
cross-section stiffness and
the geometry of the
Element.
In FEM, the Member
Stiffness can be derived
from stiffness of Elements
used to model the Member
ACECOMS, AIT
Beam Element Cross-section Stiffness
The resistance of the cross-section to unit strains. This is derived

from the cross-section geometry and the stiffness of the
materials from which it is made.
For each of degree of freedom, there is a corresponding
stiffness, and a corresponding cross-section property
uz Cross-section area, Ax
ux Shear Area along x, SAx
uy Shear Area along y, SAy
rz Torsional Constant, J
rx Moment of Inertia, Ixx
r y Moment of Inertia, Iyy
wz Warping Constant, Wzz or Cw
ACECOMS, AIT
Computing Element Stiffness

Assume Nodal Displacements (Deformations)
Determine Deformations within the element using
Shape Functions
Determine the Strains within the element using
Strain-Displacement Relationship
Determine Stress within the element using
Stress-Strain Relationship
Use the principle of Virtual Work and integrate the
product of stress and strain over the volume of
the element to obtain the Stiffness
ACECOMS, AIT
Deriving the Basic Stiffness Equation

Internal Work
I .W dv
External Work
E.W F
I .W dv
Stress-Strain
D
Strain-Disp.
I .W T D dv
V
I .W T B T D B dv
V
I .W B D B dv
V
Equilibrium
E.W I .W
T
F B D B dv
V
F B D B dv
V
F K
ACECOMS, AIT
Stiffness Equation: An Example

E
D
B

DE
1
B
L
L
K
V
K B D B dv
T
1
1
E
dv
L
L
E
L2
dv
E
K 2 AL
L
EA
K
L
EA
ACECOMS, AIT
The Matrices in FEM

Global Nodal Deformations
T-Matrix
Global-Local Cords.
Element Nodal Deformations

N-Matrix
Shape Functions
Deformation in Element Space

B-Matrix
Strain-Deforrmation
Strain In Element Space

D-Matrix
Stress-Strain
Stress in Element Space
ACECOMS, AIT
What is Stiffness Matrix
The actions and deformations of different DOF in

an element are not independent
One action may produce more than one
deformations
One Deformation may be caused by more than one
Action
A Stiffness Matrix relates various Deformation

and actions within an Element
A Stiffness Matrix is generalized expression of
overall element stiffness
ACECOMS, AIT
Element Stiffness Matrix

r5
r2
r3
r6
r1
r4
Node1
Node2
R1
K11
K12
K13
K14
K15
K16
r1
R2
K21
K22
K23
K24
K25
K26
r2
R5
K51
K52
K53
K54
K55
K56
r5
R6
K61
K62
K63
K64
K65
K66
r6
31
41
32
42
33
43
34
44
35
45
36
46
3
4
ACECOMS, AIT
A 2D Frame Element Stiffness

U2
U2
U3
U3
E ,A ,I ,L
U1
U1
Node1
Node2
(P1)1
EA/L
-EA/L
(U1)1
(P2)1
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
-12EI/L3
6EI/L2
(U2)1
(P3)1
6EI/L2
4EI/L
-6EI/L2
2EI/L
(U3)1
(P1)2 =
-EA/L
EA/L
(U1)2
(P2)2
-12EI/L3
-6EI/L2
12EI/L3
-6EI/L2
(U2)2
(P3)2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
-6EI/L2
4EI/L
(U3)2
( U1)1
(U2)1
(U3)1
(U1)2
(U2)2
(U3)3
ACECOMS, AIT
Direct Stiffness Method and FEM
Basically there is no conceptual difference

between DSM and FEM. DSM is a special case
of the general FEM
Direct Stiffness Method (DSM)
The terms of the element stiffness matrix are defined
explicitly and in close form (formulae)
It is mostly applicable to 1D Elements (beam, truss)
Finite Element Method

The element stiffness matrix terms are computed by
numerical integration of the general stiffness
equation
ACECOMS, AIT
Isoparametric Elements
Introduction
In real world, the problem domains are such that
they have no proper shape
It is difficult to find the exact solution of the real
problems
Isoparametric elements are used to discretize a
complex shape problem domain into a number of
geometrical shapes
Analysis is carried out on the simple discretized
shapes and then the result is integrated over the
actual problem domain to get the approximate
numerical solution
ACECOMS, AIT
1D Isoparametric Shape
Consider the example of a bar element
For simplification, let the bar lie in x-axis
First, relate the Global coordinate X to natural
coordinate system with variable r,
Y
x2
x1
U1
U2
X, U
r = -1
r = +1
1 r 1
ACECOMS, AIT
Transformation is given by:
1
1
X (1 r ) X 1 (1 r ) X 2
2
2
h1
x2
x1
U1
U2
X, U
r = -1
r = +1
h2
1
1
are interpolation of
h1 (1 r ) and h2 (1 r )
shape functions
2
2
The bar global displacements are shown by:

2
U hiU i
i 1
ACECOMS, AIT
Element Strains can be calculated by:

dU dr
dr dX
dU U 2 U1
dr
2
dX X 2 X 1 L
and
dr
2
2
Where L is the length of the bar
ACECOMS, AIT
Therefore, we have
U 2 U1
Bu
So, Strain displacement transformation
matrix can be shown as:
1
B 1 1
L
ACECOMS, AIT
The Stiffness Matrix is given by:
K BT EB dV
Where E is the Elasticity constant

Therefore, we have
AE
K 2
L
1
1 1 1 1 Jdr
1
Where,
A = area of the bar
J = Jacobian
relating an element
length in the global
coordinate system
to an element
length in the
natural coordinate
system
dX J dr
L
so J
2
ACECOMS, AIT
Therefore, K is evaluated as
Substituting the value of r from
AE 1 1
K
L 1 1
And put in
1
1
X (1 r ) X 1 (1 r ) X 2
2
2
To get
rX
U hiU i
i 1
( X 1 X 2) / 2
L/2
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 01
Derive
Interpolation Matrix H
Strain Displacement
Interpolation Matrix B
Jacobian Operator J
for the three-node element
as shown in figure
1
2
X, U
r = -1
x1
r=0
L/2
r = +1
L/2
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 01
Finding the interpolation

functions of the given
element
r
h1 (1 r )
2
+1
r = -1
r=0
+1
r = -1
r=0
r
h2 (1 r )
2
r = +1
+1
r = -1
h3 1 r
r = +1
r=0
r = +1
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 01
So,
H h1 h2 h3
The strain displacement

matrix B is obtained by
dH
dr
1
1
B J 1 ( r ) ( r ) 2r
2
2
B J 1
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 01
For Jacobian Operator
x h1 x1 h2 x2 h3 x3
r
r
L
(1 r ) x1 (1 r )( x1 L) (1 r 2 )( x1 )
2
2
2
L L
x x1 r
2 2
dx
J
dr
L
J
2
L
2
J 1 ; det J
2
L
ACECOMS, AIT
2D Isoparametric Element
Linear and quadratic two-dimensional

isoparametric finite elements use the same shape
function for specification of the element shape
and interpolation of the displacement field
3
1
3
2
ACECOMS, AIT
Shape functions Ni are
defined in local
coordinates
, (1 , 1)
The same shape

functions are used for
interpolations of
displacements of
coordinates
u N i ui ; v N i vi
x N i xi ; y N i yi
ACECOMS, AIT
Shape functions for linear quadratic twodimensional isoparametric elements are shown
here
Linear Elements 4-node:
1
N i (1 o )(1 o )
4
ACECOMS, AIT
Quadratic Elements 8-nodes

1
1
N i (1 o )(1 o ) (1 2 )(1 o )
4
4
1
(1 o )(1 2 ) i 1, 3, 5, 7
4
1
N i (1 2 )(1 o ) i 2, 6
2
1
N i (1 o )(1 2 ) i 4, 8
2
where
o i ;o i
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 02
Derive the expressions
needed for the calculation
of Stiffness Matrix of the
isoparametric 4-node
finite element shown in
the figure. Assume plane
stress or plane strain
conditions
y, v
or s
or r
y4
3
4
x4
x, u
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 02
The four interpolation functions for the linear

quadratic isoparametric element are
1
h1 (1 r )(1 s )
4
1
h 2 (1 r )(1 s )
4
1
h 3 (1 r )(1 s )
4
1
h 4 (1 r )(1 s )
4
y, v
or s
or r
y4
3
4
x4
x, u
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 02
The coordinate interpolations for the element is given by
4
i 1
i 1
x hi xi ; y hi yi
Using the interpolation functions, the coordinate
interpolations for this element are
1
1
1
1
x (1 r )(1 s) x1 (1 r )(1 s) x2 (1 r )(1 s) x3 (1 r )(1 s) x4
4
4
4
4
1
1
1
1
y (1 r )(1 s) y1 (1 r )(1 s) y2 (1 r )(1 s) y3 (1 r )(1 s) y4
4
4
4
4
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 02
The displacement interpolations for the element is given
by
4
i 1
11
u hi ui ; v hi vi
Using the interpolation functions, the coordinate
interpolations for this element are
1
1
1
1
u (1 r )(1 s)u1 (1 r )(1 s)u2 (1 r )(1 s)u3 (1 r )(1 s)u4
4
4
4
4
1
1
1
1
v (1 r )(1 s)v1 (1 r )(1 s)v2 (1 r )(1 s)v3 (1 r )(1 s)v4
4
4
4
4
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 02
The element strains are given by
T xx yy xy
xx
u
v
u v
; yy ; xy
x
y
y x
To evaluate the displacement derivatives, we need to

evaluate
x
r r

x
s s
y
r x
y
s y
or
J
r
x
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 02
where
x 1
1
1
1
(1 s ) x1 (1 s ) x2 (1 s ) x3 (1 s ) x4
r 4
4
4
4
x 1
1
1
1
(1 r ) x1 (1 r ) x2 (1 r ) x3 (1 s ) x4
s 4
4
4
4
y 1
1
1
1
(1 s ) y1 (1 s ) y2 (1 s ) y3 (1 s ) y4
r 4
4
4
4
y 1
1
1
1
(1 r ) y1 (1 r ) y2 (1 r ) y3 (1 r ) y4
s 4
4
4
4
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 02
For any value of r and s
1 r 1 and 1 s 1
We can form the Jacobian matrix. Assuming we evaluate
J at r r and s s
i
x

1 r
J
y
s
at r ri and s s j
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 02
To evaluate the element strains, we use

u 1
1
1
1
(1 s )u1 (1 s)u2 (1 s )u3 (1 s )u4
r 4
4
4
4
u 1
1
1
1
(1 r )u1 (1 r )u2 (1 r )u3 (1 s )u4
s 4
4
4
4
v 1
1
1
1
(1 s )v1 (1 s)v2 (1 s)v3 (1 s )v4
r 4
4
4
4
v 1
1
1
1
(1 r )v1 (1 r )v2 (1 r )v3 (1 r )v4
s 4
4
4
4
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 02
Simplifying the above relations, we get

u
x
1 s 0 (1 s ) 0 (1 s ) 0 1 s 0
1
J 1
u
u
1
r
0
1
r
0
(
1
r
)
0
(
1
s
)
0
4

y
and
v
x
0 1 s 0 (1 s ) 0 (1 s ) 0 1 s
1
J 1
u
v
0
1
r
0
1
r
0
(
1
r
)
0
(
1
s
)
4

Where
u T u1 v1 u2 v2 u3 v3 u4 v4
where r ri and s s j
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 02
Strain-displacement transformation is given by
ij Bij u
So, we can get
0
(1 s)
0
1 s
0
1 s 0 (1 s)
1
Bij 0 1 r 0
1 r
0
(1 r )
0 (1 r )
4
1 r 1 s 1 r (1 s) (1 r ) (1 s ) (1 r ) 1 s
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 02
Stiffness Matrix K is given by
K tij ij Fij
i, j
where Fij BijT CBij det J ij
In the above expressions, C is the material property

matrix, t is the thickness of the element at the sampling
point (r,s)
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 03
Calculate the
deflection uA
of the
structural
model shown
Z
U4
U3
U1
Bar with xsectional

area =
1cm2
6 cm
U6
U5
U2
0.1cm
U8
U7= uA
0.5 cm2 each
E= 30 x 106 N/cm2
6 cm
0.3
0.1cm
Section AA
A
8 cm
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 03
By symmetry and boundary

conditions, we only need to
evaluate the stiffness coefficient
corresponding to uA
We know that
Z
U4
U3
U6
x
r
J
x
s
y
r
y
s
U1
Bar with xsectional

area =
1cm2
6 cm
U5
U2
U8
Y
U7= uA
E= 30 x 106 N/cm2
6 cm
0.3
A
8 cm
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 03
So, we have
4 0
J
0
3
Now, calculating B
3(1 s )
1
B
...
0
48
4(1 r )
...
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 03
Stiffness K for an Area is,
K BT EB t det J dr ds
3(1 s )
E
1
3 (1 s )
(0.1)(12)dr ds
3
(
1
s
)
0
4
(
1
r
)
1 48 1 2
2(1 )(1 r )
1 1
K 1336996.34 N / cm
The stiffness of the truss is AE/L, or
(1)(30 X 106 )
k
3750000 N / cm
8
ACECOMS, AIT
Example 03
Hence,
Ktotal = 6.424 x 106 N/cm
Now, since P = Ku
Therefore, u = P/K
6000
4
u
9
.
34
X
10
cm
6
6.424 X 10
u 9.34 X 104 cm
ACECOMS, AIT
Shell Element
A Shell element is used to model shell,

membrane, and plate behavior in planar and
three-dimensional structures
The membrane behavior uses an isoparametric
formulation that includes translational in-plane
stiffness components and a rotational stiffness
component in the direction normal to the plane of
the element.
ACECOMS, AIT
Shell Element
Axis 3
Axis 2
Face 3
J3
Axis 1
Face 2
J2
J4
Face 4
Face5 Bottom
Face6 Top
J1
Face 1
ACECOMS, AIT
Shell Elements
A simple quadrilateral Shell Element
Two dimensional plate bending and membrane
elements are combined to form a four-node shell
element
y
y
z
uy
ux
uy
uz
ux
Plate Bending Element
Membrane Element
Shell Element
ACECOMS, AIT
Shell Elements
A simple quadrilateral Shell Element

A thin-plate (Kirchhoff) formulation is normally
used that neglects transverse shearing
deformation
A thick plate (Mindlin/Reissner) formulation can

also be chosen which includes the effects of
transverse shearing deformation
ACECOMS, AIT
What are
The Finite Elements
(in SAP2000)
Nodes and Finite Elements

The Finite Elements are discretized
representation of the continuous structure
Generally they correspond to the physical
structural components but sometimes dummy or
idealized elements my also be used
Elements behavior is completely defined within its
boundaries and is not directly related to other
elements
Nodes are imaginary points used describe
arbitrary quantities and serve to provide
connectivity across element boundaries
ACECOMS, AIT
Basic Categories of Finite Elements

1 D Elements (Beam type)
Only one dimension is actually modeled as a line, other
two dimensions are represented by stiffness properties
Can be used in 1D, 2D and 2D
2 D Elements (Plate type)

Only two dimensions are actually modeled as a
surface, third dimension is represented by stiffness
properties
Can be used in 2D and 3D Model
3 D Elements (Brick type)

All three dimensions are modeled as a solid
Can be used in 3D Model
ACECOMS, AIT
The Joint or Node
ACECOMS, AIT
Basic Properties of Joints

All elements are connected to the structure at the joints
The structure is supported at the joints using Restraints
and/or Springs
Rigid-body behavior and symmetry conditions can be
specified using Constraints that apply to the joints
Concentrated loads may be applied at the joints
Lumped masses and rotational inertia may be placed at
the joints
Loads and masses applied to the elements are transferred
to the joints
Joints are the primary locations in the structure at which
the displacements are known (the supports) or are to be
determined
ACECOMS, AIT
Joint Local Coordinates
By default, the joint local 1-2-3 coordinate system is

identical to the global X-Y-Z coordinate system
It may be necessary to use different local coordinate
systems at some or all joints in the following cases:
Skewed Restraints (supports) are present
Constraints are used to impose rotational symmetry
Constraints are used to impose symmetry about a plane
that is not parallel to a global coordinate plane
The principal axes for the joint mass (translational or
rotational) are not aligned with the global axes
Joint displacement and force output is desired in
another coordinate system
ACECOMS, AIT
Joint Local Coordinates
ACECOMS, AIT
Spring Restraints on Joints

Any of the six degrees of freedom at any of the
joints in the structure can have translation or
rotational spring support conditions.
Springs elastically connect the joint to the ground.
The spring forces that act on a joint are related to
the displacements of that joint by a 6x6
symmetric matrix of spring stiffness coefficients.
Simple Springs
Coupled Springs
ACECOMS, AIT
Simple Spring Restraints
Independent spring
stiffness in each DOF
ACECOMS, AIT
Coupled Spring Restraints

General Spring Connection
Global and skewed springs
Coupled 6x6 user-defined
spring stiffness option (for
foundation modeling)
ACECOMS, AIT
Stiffness Matrix for Spring Element
where u1 ,u2 ,u3 ,r1 ,r2 and r3 are the joint displacements and rotations,
and the terms u1, u1u2, u2, ... are the specified spring stiffness
coefficients.
ACECOMS, AIT
Some Sample Finite Elements
Truss and Beam Elements (1D,2D,3D)
Plane Stress, Plane Strain, Axisymmetric, Plate and Shell Elements (2D,3D)
Brick Elements
ACECOMS, AIT
One Dimensional Elements
ACECOMS, AIT
DOF for 1D Elements

Dy
Dx
2D Truss
Dy
Dy
Rz
Dz
Dx
3D Truss
2D Beam
Ry
Dy
Rz
Dy
Dx
Rz
Dy
Dz
Rx
Dx
Rx
Rz
2D Frame
2D Grid
3D Frame
ACECOMS, AIT
Variation of 1D Elements
Based on DOF
2D Truss
3D Truss
2D Beam
3D Beam
2D Grid
Based on Behavior
Thick Beam/ Thin Beam
Liner/ Isoperimetric
Non-Linear Elements
NL Link
Gap Element
Tension Only
Compression Only
Friction
Cable
Damper
ACECOMS, AIT
Usage of 1D Elements
3D Frame
2D Grid
2D Frame
ACECOMS, AIT
Nonlinear Link Element in SAP2000
ACECOMS, AIT
Two Dimensional Elements
ACECOMS, AIT
DOF for 2D Elements

Ry ?
Ry ?
Dy
Rz
Rx
Dx
Dy
Dy
Membrane
Plate
Dz
Dx
Rx
Rz
Shell
ACECOMS, AIT
Membrane Element
General
Total DOF per Node = 3 (or 2)

Total Displacements per Node = 2
Total Rotations per Node = 1 (or 0)
Membranes are modeled for flat
surfaces
R3
U2
U2
Node 4
Node 3
U1
3
U1
2
Application
For Modeling surface elements
carrying
in-plane loads
R3
U2
Node 1
R3
U2
Node 2
U1
U1
Membrane
ACECOMS, AIT
Variation of Membrane Elements

Plain-Strain
Assumptions
x
1 unit
x2
x1
x3
3D Problem
2D Problem
Plane Strain Problem
Plane Stress Problem
ACECOMS, AIT
Plate Element
General
Total DOF per Node = 3
Total Displacements per
Node = 1
Total Rotations per Node = 2
Plates are for flat surfaces
U3
U3
R2
Node 3
R2
Node 4
R1
3
R1
2
Application
For Modeling surface
elements carrying
out of plane loads
U3
R2
Node 1
U3
R2
Node 2
R1
R1
Plate
ACECOMS, AIT
Shell Element
General
Total DOF per Node = 6 (or 5)

Total Displacements per Node = 3
Total Rotations per Node = 3
Used for curved surfaces
U3, R3
U3, R3
U2, R2
U2, R2
Node 3
Node 4
U1, R1
3
Application
For Modeling surface elements
carrying general loads
U1, R1
U3, R3
1
U3, R3
U2, R2
Node 1
U2, R2
Node 2
U1, R1
U1, R1
Shell
ACECOMS, AIT
Variations of Plate Elements

Based on Behavior
2D Plane Stress
2D Plane Strain
Axisymetric Solid
Plate
Shell
Based on Number of Nodes

3 Node, 6 Node
4 Node, 8 Node, (9 Node)
Based on Material Model

Rubber
Soil
Laminates
Isotropic/ Orthotropic
ACECOMS, AIT
Shell Elements in SAP2000
ACECOMS, AIT
Shell Elements in SAP2000
ACECOMS, AIT
Local Cords for Shell Element

Each Shell element
has its own local
coordinate system
used to define
Material properties,
loads and output.
The axes of this local
system are denoted 1,
2 and 3. The first two
axes lie in the plane of
the element the third
axis is normal
ACECOMS, AIT
Three Dimensional Elements
ACECOMS, AIT
DOF for 3D Elements

Dy
Dz
Dx
Solid/ Brick
ACECOMS, AIT
Brick Element in SAP2000

8-Node Brick
Bricks can be
added by using
Text Generation in
V7. New version
8 will have
graphical interface
for Bricks
ACECOMS, AIT
Connecting Dissimilar Elements
ACECOMS, AIT
Connecting Different Types of Elements

Truss
Truss
Frame
Shell
Membrane
Plate
Shell
Solid
OK
OK
Dz
OK
OK
OK
Rx, Ry, Rz
OK
Rx, Ry, Rz,

Dz
Rx ?
Dx, Dy
Rx ?
Rx, Ry, Rz
OK
OK
OK
Dx, Dy
OK
OK
Rx, Rz
OK
Rx, Rz
OK
OK
Rx, Rz
Rx, Ry, Rz
OK
Rx, Ry, Rz,

Dz
Dx, Dz
OK
Rx, Rz
OK
OK
Dz
Dx, Dz
OK
OK
Membrane
Plate
Frame
Solid
Orphan Degrees Of Freedom:

0
ACECOMS, AIT
When elements with different degree of freedom at

ends connect with each other, special measures
may need to be taken to provide proper connectivity
depending on Software Capability
Beams to Plates
Beam to Brick
Plates to Brick
ACECOMS, AIT
When members with mesh of different size or

configuration need to be connected we may
have to:
Use special connecting elements

Use special Constraints
Use mesh grading and subdivision
Use in-compatible elements (Zipper Elements in
ETABS)
Automatic Node detection and internal
meshing by the Software
ACECOMS, AIT
Connecting Beams with Membrane
Modeling Shear-Walls
using Panels only
Modeling Shear-Walls using

Panels, Beams, Columns
(No Moment continuity

with Beams and Columns unless
6 DOF Shell is used)
(Full Moment continuity

with Beams and Columns is restored
by using additional beams)
ACECOMS, AIT
Meshing Slabs and Walls
Zipper
In general the mesh in the slab

should match with mesh in the
wall to establish connection
Some software automatically

establishes connectivity by using
constraints or Zipper elements
ACECOMS, AIT
How to Apply Loads to

Finite Element Model
Loads To Design Actions

Loads
Load Cases
Load Combinations
Design Envelopes
Design Actions
ACECOMS, AIT
Load Cases
Load cases are defined by the user and used for
analysis purpose only
Static Load Cases

Dead Load
Live Load
Wind Load
Earthquake Load Cases

Response Spectrum Load Cases
Time History Load Cases
Static Non-Linear Load Cases
ACECOMS, AIT
Load Combinations
The Load Combinations may be created by the
program, user defined or a combination of both.
Some Examples: [Created by the program]
1.4DL
1.4DL + 1.7(LL + RLL)
0.75[1.4DL + 1.7(LL + RLL) + 1.7WL]
0.75[1.4DL + 1.7(LL + RLL) - 1.7WL]
0.9DL + 1.3WL
0.9DL - 1.3WL
1.1 [1.2DL + 0.5(LL + RLL) + 1.0E]
1.1 [1.2DL + 0.5(LL + RLL) - 1.0E]
1.1 (0.9DL + 1.0E)
1.1 (0.9DL - 1.0E)
ACECOMS, AIT
Applying Gravity Loads
All gravity loads are basically Volume Loads generated

due to mass contained in a volume
Mechanism and path must be found to transfer these loads
to the Supports through a Medium
All type of Gravity Loads can be represented as:
Point Loads
Line Loads
Area Loads
Volume Loads
ACECOMS, AIT
Load Transfer Path
The Load is transferred through a medium which may be:
A Point
A Line
An Area
A Volume
A system consisting of combination of several mediums
The supports may be represented as:
Point Supports
Line Supports
Area Supports
Volume Supports
ACECOMS, AIT
Graphic Object Representation

Object
Load
Geometry
Medium
Support
Boundary
Point
Point Load
Concentrated Load
Node
Point Support
Column Support
Line
Beam Load
Wall Load
Slab Load
Beam / Truss
Connection Element
Spring Element
Line Support
Wall Support
Beam Support
Area
Slab Load
Wind Load
Plate Element
Shell Element
Panel/ Plane
Soil Support
Volume
Seismic Load
Liquid Load
Solid Element
Soil Support
ETABS and SAP200 uses graphic object modeling concept

ACECOMS, AIT
Load Transfer Path is difficult to Determine

Load
Complexity of Load Transfer

Mechanism depend on:
Vol.
Area
Complexity of Load
Complexity of Medium
Complexity of Boundary
Line
Point Line
Line
Area
Volume
Medium
Area
Volume
Boundary
ACECOMS, AIT
Load Transfer Path is difficult to Determine
Line
Area
Volume
Transfer of a Point Load to Point Supports Through Various Mediums

ACECOMS, AIT
Simplified Load Transfer
To Lines
To Points
To Lines and Points
Transfer of Area Load

ACECOMS, AIT
Applying Wind Loads
At least 3 basic Wind Load Cases should be

considered
Along X-Direction
Along Y Direction
Along Diagonal
Each Basic Wind Load Case should be entered

separately into load combinations twice, once
with (+ve) and once with (-ve) sign
Total of 6 Wind Load Cases should considered in
Combinations, but only 3 Load Cases need to be
defined and analyzed
ACECOMS, AIT
Applying Wind Loads
At least 3 Basic Load

Case for Wind Load
should be considered
Wx
Diagonal wind load may

be critical for special
types and layouts of
buildings
Wy
Wxy
ACECOMS, AIT
Wind Load Combinations
Comb1
Comb2
Comb3
Comb4
Comb5
Comb6
Wx
+f
-f
Wy
+f
-f
Wxy
+f
-f
(f) Is the load factor specified for Wind in Example:

Comb = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7W) will need Six
the design codes
Actual Combinations
Six Additional Load Combinations are

required where ever Wind is
mentioned in the basic Load
Combinations
Comb1= 0.75(1.4D + 1.7Wx)

Comb2 = 0.75(1.4D - 1.7Wx)
Comb3 = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7Wy)
Comb4 = 0.75(1.4D - 1.7Wy)
Comb5 = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7Wxy)
Comb6 = 0.75(1.4D - 1.7Wxy)
ACECOMS, AIT
Nature of Dynamic Loads
Free Vibration
Forced Vibration
Random Vibration
Seismic Excitation
Response Spectrum
Time History
Steady-State Harmonic Load
Impact
Blast
ACECOMS, AIT
Getting and Interpreting

Finite Element Results
What Results Can We Get ?

(in SAP2000)
ACECOMS, AIT
At Joints
Joint Displacements
Spring Reactions
Restrained Reactions
Constrained Forces
Results Available For:
For all Available DOF
Given on the Local Joint Coordinates
Given for all Load Case, Mode
Shapes,Response Spectrums, Time Histories,
Moving Loads, and Load Combinations
ACECOMS, AIT
For Frame Elements

The Actions Corresponding to Six DOF at Both
Ends, in Local Coordinate System
2
+V2
+M2
+P
2
+V3
+V3
+P
+V2
+T
+M3
+M3
+T
+M2
ACECOMS, AIT
For Shell Element

The Shell element internal forces (also called stress
resultants) are the forces and moments that result from
integrating the stresses over the element thickness.
The results include the Membrane Results (in-plane
forces) and Plate Bending Results
The results are given for Element Local Axis
It is very important to note that these stress resultants
are forces and moments per unit of in-plane length
ACECOMS, AIT
Shell Stress Resultants
ACECOMS, AIT
Membrane Results
ACECOMS, AIT
Plate Bending Results
ACECOMS, AIT
Obtaining Design Actions From Basic Results
ACECOMS, AIT
Obtaining Envelop Results

Comb1
Comb2
Comb3 Comb N
Load Case -1
Load Case - 2
Load Case - 3
Envelop Results
Load Case - M
Total
P1
P2
P3
PN
Max, P
Min, P
ACECOMS, AIT
Can Envelop Results be Used for Design ?
Actions Interact with each other, effecting the

stresses
For Column Design:
For Beam Design:
For Slabs:
P, Mx, My
Mx, Vy, Tz
Mx, My, Mxy

At least 3 Actions from each combination must be
considered together as set
Mx
My
Therefore, Envelop Results Can Not be Used

Every Load Combinations must be used for
design with complete Action Set
ACECOMS, AIT
For static loads, Design

Actions are obtained as
the cumulative result
from each load
combination, as set for
all interacting actions
The final or critical
results from design of
all load combinations
are adopted
Combinations
Load Cases
Design Actions For Static Loads
Design Actions
Obtained as set
from all
Combinations
ACECOMS, AIT
Static, Dynamic and Nonlinear Results

For a Single Action:
Static Load Case

Response Spectrum Load Case
+
1 for each Time Step
Time History Load Case
Static Non-linear Load Case
OR 1 for envelop
Load
Combination
Table
1 for each Load Step

OR 1 for Envelop
ACECOMS, AIT
Response Spectrum Case

All response spectrum cases are assumed to be
earthquake load cases
The output from a response spectrum is all positive.

Design load combination that includes a response
spectrum load case is checked for all possible
combinations of signs (+, -) on the response spectrum
values
A 3D element will have eight possible combinations of

P, M2 and M3 and eight combinations for M3, V, T
ACECOMS, AIT
Response Spectrum Results for Action Set
Maximum Results obtained by:

SRSS, CQC, etc.
P, Mx, My>
+P, +Mx, +My

+P, +Mx, -My
+P, -Mx, +My
+P, -Mx, -My
-P, +Mx, +My

-P, +Mx, -My
-P, -Mx, +My
-P, -Mx, -My
Load Combination Table
Design Actions needed for Columns:
ACECOMS, AIT
Time History Analysis Results

Option 2:
Design For All Values
(At each time step)
Max Val
T (sec)
Option 1:
Envelope Design
Min Val
Response Curve for One Action
ACECOMS, AIT
Time-History Results
The default design load combinations do not include any time
history results
Define the load combination, to include time history forces in a

design load combination
Can perform design for each step of Time History or design for
envelops for those results
For envelope design, the design is for the maximum of each
response quantity (axial load, moment, etc.) as if they occurred
simultaneously.
Designing for each step of a time history gives correct
correspondence between different response quantities
ACECOMS, AIT
Time History Results
The program gets a maximum and a minimum value for

each response quantity from the envelope results for a time
history
For a design load combination any load combination that
includes a time history load case in it is checked for all
possible combinations of maximum and minimum time
history design values.
If a single design load combination has more than one time
history case in it, that design load combination is designed
for the envelopes of the time histories, regardless of what is
specified for the Time History Design item in the preferences.
ACECOMS, AIT
Static Non Linear Results
The default design load combinations do not

include any Static Nonlinear results
Define the load combination, to include Static

Nonlinear Results in a design load combination
For a single static nonlinear load case the design is
performed for each step of the static nonlinear
analysis.
ACECOMS, AIT
Obtaining Reinforcement From Actions
ACECOMS, AIT
Computing Rebars For Beam Elements

For Beam type elements (1D
elements) design actions like Axial
force, moments, and shear force are
output directly.
These actions can be used directly for
design purposes
Generally, design is carried out in two
parts
Axial- Flexural:
Shear Torsion:
My
Vy
Nx
x
Vz
Mz
Tx
3D Beam Column
y
My
P, Mx, My
T, Vx, Vy
Mz
Beam Design:
Column Design:
Mx, Vy, T
Mx, My, P
Nx
Biaxial & Load
ACECOMS, AIT
Computing Rebars For Beam Elements

Ast : To resist
tension due to My
Asc + Al/4: To resist compression due to

moment Mx (doubly reinforced beams) and
tension due to Torsion
Asc : To resist compression
due to My (may not be needed)
Asvt + Asv/2: To resist shear due to

Torsion. Must be closed hoops on sides of
the section
Asw + Al/4 : To resist secondary tension

in deep beams due to moment and due to
Torsion
Ast + Al/4 : To resist main tension due to

moment and tension due to Torsion
ACECOMS, AIT
Computing Rebars For Plate Elements
Moment output for plate type elements in Finite Element

Analysis is reported in moment per unit width along the
local axis of the plate element. These need to be
converted to moments along x and y for design purposes.
The following procedure can be used:

The portion of a plate element bounded by a crack is
shown in the Adjoining figure. The moment about an axis
dx =k dy
parallel to the crack may be given as:
mc ds mx dy mxy kdycos my kdy mxy dy sin
2
dy
mc mx k 2 m y 2kmxy
dx
dy
ds
Crack
ACECOMS, AIT

mxy kdy
The plate needs to be reinforced

with bars in the x and y direction
The corresponding moment
capacity at the assumed crack is
2
dy
mrc mrx k 2 mry
dx
my kdy
mxy dy
mx dy
ms ds
mry kdy
mrx dy
Where mrc must equal or exceed

mc solving for the minimum we
get
1
mry m y mxy
k
mrc ds
mrx , mry
Positive moment
capacities per unit width
ACECOMS, AIT
The reinforcement at
the bottom of the slab in
each direction is
designed to provide
resistance for the
positive moment
The reinforcement at
the top of the slab in
each direction is
designed to provide
resistance for the
negative moment
mry m y mxy
mrx mx mxy
mry and mrx are set to zero if they

yield a negative value
mry m y mxy
mrx mx mxy
mry and mrx are set to zero if they

yield a positive value
ACECOMS, AIT
Computing Rebars For Brick Elements

For Brick elements the FEA results in the nodal stresses
and strains.
The stresses on the brick elements need to be
integrated along x and y direction to obtain forces.
Stress variation in both the directions may be
considered and integrated.
These forces are then used to find the moment about
the two orthogonal axes and the net axial force. Similar
approach is used to obtain shear forces in two directions
After the axial forces, moments and shear forces are
obtained then the section can be designed as a
rectangular beam
ACECOMS, AIT
Computing Rebars For Brick Elements

Sample Calculations for P and M
Following equations are based on the

assumption that there is no stress
variation in the transverse direction
Pi C1 C2 T ........
n
P Pi
i 1
C1
M i C1 x1 C2 x2 Tx3 .......
x1
x3
M Mi
i 1
CL
x2
C2
ACECOMS, AIT
Modeling
Structures
Using FEM
Global Modeling or Macro Model
A model of the Whole Structure

Objective is to get Overall Structural
Response
Results in the form of member forces and
stress patterns
Global Modeling is same for nearly all

Materials
Material distinction is made by using specific
material properties
Global Model may be a simple 2D beam/
frame model or a sophisticated full 3D finite
element model
Generally adequate for design of usual
structures
ACECOMS, AIT
Local Model or Micro Model
Model of Single Member or part of a Member

Model of the Cross-section, Opening, Joints,
connection
Objective: To determine local stress

concentration, cross-section behavior,
modeling of cracking, bond, anchorage etc.
Needs finite element modeling, often using
very fine mesh, advance element features,
non-linear analysis
Mostly suitable for research, simulation,
experiment verification and theoretical studies
ACECOMS, AIT
Global Modeling of Structural Geometry
(a) Real Structure
(b) Solid Model
(c) 3D Plate-Frame
(e) 2D Fram e
(d) 3D Fram e
(f) Grid-Plate
Fig. 1 Various Ways to Model a Real Struture
ACECOMS, AIT
The Basic Issues

Which Model to be used ?
3D or 2D
Frame or Grid
Plate, Membrane, Shell, Solid
Which Elements to be used ?

Beam, Plate, Brick
Size and number of elements
Which Solution to be used ?
Linear or Nonlinear
Static or Dynamic
Linear static or Nonlinear dynamic
Linear dynamic or Nonlinear static
ACECOMS, AIT
Overall Procedure Linear Static
Setup the Units to be used

Define Basic Material Properties
Define Cross-sections to be used
Draw, generate Nodes and Elements
Assign XSections, Restraints, Constraints etc.
Apply Loads to Nodes and Elements
Run the Analysis
Check Basic Equilibrium and Deformations
Interpret and use the Results
ACECOMS, AIT
What Type of Analysis

Should be Carried out!
The type of Analysis to be carried out

depends on the Structural System
The Type of Excitation (Loads)
The Type Structure (Material and Geometry)
The Type Response
ACECOMS, AIT
P-Delta Analysis
Buckling Analysis
Static Pushover Analysis
Fast Non-Linear Analysis (FNA)
Steady State Dynamic Analysis
Free Vibration and Modal Analysis
Large Displacement Analysis
ACECOMS, AIT
Static Excitation
When the Excitation (Load) does not vary rapidly with Time
When the Load can be assumed to be applied Slowly
Dynamic Excitation
When the Excitation varies rapidly with Time
When the Inertial Force becomes significant
Most Real Excitation are Dynamic but are considered

Quasi Static
Most Dynamic Excitation can be converted to
Equivalent Static Loads
ACECOMS, AIT
Static
Dynamic
Self Load
Normal Operation
At lifting/ placement
Superimposed Dead
Load
Normal Operation
At placement
Live Load
Normal Operation
Depends on type
Highway Traffic
Quasi Static
Impact
Water/ Liquid
Normal Operation
Filling, Sloshing
Creep, Shrinkage
Static
No Dynamic
Component
Wind
Equivalent Static
Random Vibration
Seismic Excitation
Equivalent Static
Response Spectrum,
Time History
Vibratory Machines
Equivalent Static
Impulse At Startup
ACECOMS, AIT
Steady State at
Excitation/ Load
Elastic Material
Follows the same path during loading and unloading and

returns to initial state of deformation, stress, strain etc. after
removal of load/ excitation
Inelastic Material
Does not follow the same path during loading and unloading and
may not returns to initial state of deformation, stress, strain etc.
after removal of load/ excitation
Most materials exhibit both, elastic and inelastic behavior

depending upon level of loading.
ACECOMS, AIT
Creating Finite Element Models
ACECOMS, AIT
Model Creation Tools
Defining Individual Nodes and Elements

Using Graphical Modeling Tools
Using Numerical Generation
Using Mathematical Generation
Using Copy and Replication
Using Subdivision and Meshing
Using Geometric Extrusions
Using Parametric Structures
ACECOMS, AIT
Graphic Object Modeling
Use basic Geometric Entities to create FE Models

Simple Graphic Objects
Point Object
Line Object
Area Object
Brick Object
Represents Node
Represents 1D Elements
Graphic Objects can be used to represent

geometry, boundary and loads
SAP2000, ETABS and SAFE use the concept of
Graphic Objects
ACECOMS, AIT
Modeling Objects and Finite Elements

Structural Members are representation of actual
structural components
Finite Elements are discretized representation of
Structural Members
The concept of Graphic Objects can be used to
represent both, the Structural Members as well as
Finite Elements
In ETABS, the Graphic Objects representing the
Structural Members are automatically divided into
Finite Elements for analysis and then back to
structural members for result interpretation
ACECOMS, AIT
Unstable Structures
ACECOMS, AIT
When is Structure Unstable in FEM Solution

When the Global Stiffness Matrix is Singular
The determinant of matrix is zero

Any diagonal element in the matrix is zero
When the Global Stiffness Matrix is IllConditioned

The numerical values in various matrix cells are of
grossly different order
Numerical values are either too small or too large
ACECOMS, AIT
Why are the FEM Models Unstable

Restraint Instability
Not enough Boundary Restraints
Geometric Instability
Not enough Elements

Not enough stiffness of Elements
Elements not connected properly
Presence of Orphan Degrees Of Freedom
Material Instability
Not enough Material Stiffness, (E, G)
Not enough Cross-section Stiffness (A, I, J, ..)
ACECOMS, AIT
Structure Types
Cable Structures
Cable Nets
Cable Stayed
Bar Structures
2D/3D Trusses
2D/3D Frames, Grids
Surface Structures
Plate, Shell
In-Plane, Plane Stress
Solid Structures
ACECOMS, AIT
How to Model the

Foundations
Soil-Structure Interaction
Simple Supports
Fix, Pin, Roller etc.

Support Settlement
Elastic Supports
Spring to represent soil
Using Modulus of Sub-grade reaction
Full Structure-Soil Model

Use 2D plane stress elements
Use 3D Solid Elements
ACECOMS, AIT
Modeling of Foundations and Mats
Soil
Modeling of Mat
Beam
Plate
Brick
Constraint
Yes
Yes
Yes
Spring
Yes
Yes
Yes
Brick
No
Yes
Yes
ACECOMS, AIT
Computing Soil Spring

A = Spacing of
Springs in X
B = Spacing of
Springs in Y
Ks = Modulus of
sub-grade reaction
(t/cu m etc.)
K = Spring constant
(t/m etc)
B
B
K= ks*A*B
ACECOMS, AIT
Raft as Beam-Grid, Soil as Spring

The raft is represented as a
grillage of beams
representing slab strips in
both directions
The soil is represented by
spring
This approach is
approximate and does not
consider the Mxy or the
torsional rigidity of the mat
ACECOMS, AIT
Raft as Plate, Soil as Spring

The raft is modeled using
Plate (or Shell) elements
At least 9-16 elements
should be used in one
panel
Soil springs may be
located or every node or
at alternate nodes
Not suitable fro very thick
rafts like thick pile caps
etc
ACECOMS, AIT
Raft as Brick, Soil as Spring

The raft is represented by
brick elements, soil as
springs
More than one layer of
brick elements should be
used along thickness
(usually 3-5) unless higher
order elements are used
Suitable for very thick
mats and pile caps etc.
Difficult to determine
rebars from brick results
ACECOMS, AIT
Raft as Plate, Soil as Brick

plate elements, soil as
bricks
Soil around the mat should
also be modeled (min 2
times width)
ACECOMS, AIT
Raft as Brick, Soil as Brick

brick elements, soil as bricks
also
More than one layer of brick
elements should be used
along thickness (usually 3-5)
unless higher order elements
are used
Soil around the mat should
also be modeled (min 2 times
width)
Suitable for very thick mats
and pile caps etc.
Difficult to determine rebars
from brick results
ACECOMS, AIT
Modeling of Cellular Mats

The top slab, the walls
and the bottom slab
should be modeled using
plate elements
More than one plate
element layer should be
used in the walls
The soil may be
represented by springs or
by bricks
ACECOMS, AIT
Modeling of Piles
For analysis and design
of individual Pile, it can
be modeled as beam
element and soil
around it as series of
lateral and vertical
springs
For analysis of super
structure, entire pile
can be represented by
a single a set of springs
ACECOMS, AIT
Using Nonlinear Springs to Model Soil

The springs used to represent may be either
linear or non linear
The non-linear response of the soil can be
obtained from actual tests
The non-linear response can then be used to
determine K for various levels of load or
deformation
Nonlinear springs are especially useful for
vertical as well as lateral response of piles
and pile groups
ACECOMS, AIT
Modeling of Shear Walls
ACECOMS, AIT
Modeling of Planner Walls
Using Truss
Using Beam and Column
Using Panels, Plates and Beams

ACECOMS, AIT
Frame Model for Planer Walls
t
B
Rigid Zones
Specially Suitable when H/B

is more than 5
The shear wall is
represented by a column of
section B x t
The beam up to the edge of
the wall is modeled as
normal beam
The column is connected to
beam by rigid zones or very
large cross-section
ACECOMS, AIT
Using Plates to Model Walls
Multiple elements greater accuracy in determination of stress

distribution and allow easy modeling of openings
Using Plate Elements only

(No Moment continuity
with Beams and Columns unless
6 DOF Shell is used)
Using Plate Elements with

Beams, Columns
(Full Moment continuity
with Beams and Columns)
ACECOMS, AIT
Truss Model for Planner Walls
txt
C
t x 2t
B
For the purpose of analysis, assume

the main truss layout based on wall
width and floor levels
Initial member sizes can be
estimated as t x 2t for main axial
members and t x t for diagonal
members
Use frame elements to model the
truss. It is not necessary to use
truss elements
Generally single diagonal is sufficient
for modeling but double diagonal
may be used for easier interpretation
of results
The floor beams and slabs can be
connected directly to truss elements
ACECOMS, AIT
Modeling of Cellular Shear Walls
Uniaxial
Biaxial
ACECOMS, AIT
Modeling Walls With Openings
Plate-Shell Model
Rigid Frame Model
Truss Model
ACECOMS, AIT
Introduction
To Dynamic Analysis
What is Seismic Analysis
Determination of Structural Response due to Seismic

Excitation
The Seismic Excitation is Dynamic in nature
So the Response is governed by
The Dynamic Equilibrium Equation

The question is how to solve this equation?
ACECOMS, AIT
The General
Dynamic Analysis
ACECOMS, AIT
Why Dynamic Analysis In General

Capture the Realistic Behavior of Structures
No Conservative Approximations in Analysis

Puts Check on Structural Irregularities
Identifies Ductility Demands
Lower Base Shears

Required by Code
ACECOMS, AIT
Basic Dynamic Equilibrium No Damping

Static Elastic Only:
Displacement (U)=Force (P) /Stiffness(K) P(u,a)
U = P/K or K u = P
K
Inertia Only :
Acceleration (a)=Force (P) / Mass(M)
a = P/M or Ma = P
BOTH :
Ma+Ku=P
ACECOMS, AIT
Basic Dynamic Equilibrium With Damping

F
FI + F D + FS = F
F(t)I + F(t)D + F(t)S = F(t)

M a(t) + C v(t) + K u(t) = F(t)
M u(t) +C u(t) + K u(t) = F(t)
(Second order differential equation for
linear structural behavior)
F = External Force
FS = Internal Forces
FD = Energy Dissipation Forces
FI= Inertial Force
(t) = Varies with time
u = Acceleration (a)
u = Velocity (v)
u = Displacement
M = Mass
C = Damping
K = Stiffness
ACECOMS, AIT
Basics of Structure Dynamics
Idealization for a Single

Floor
Mass less Column, Entire
mass is concentrated on the
roof
Rigid roof, Rigid ground
Column is flexible in lateral
direction but rigid in vertical
direction
Roof
Column
Ground
ACECOMS, AIT
What is Dynamic Response ?

If the roof is displaced laterally by a
distance uo and then released the
structure will oscillate around its
equilibrium position.
Roof
Column
Ground
One Cycle
uo
uo
-uo
5
ACECOMS, AIT
Dynamic Response
Displacement
uo
Amplitude
time
3
-uo
The oscillation will continue

forever with the same
amplitude uo and the structure
will never come to rest.
Actual structure will oscillate
with decreasing amplitude
and will eventually come to
rest.
uo
uo
-uo
5
ACECOMS, AIT
Damped Dynamic Response
Mass m
Stiffness K
Damping C
Idealized One storey

Building
To incorporate damping or
dying out of dynamic
response feature into the
idealized structure, an energy
absorbing element should be
introduced.
Viscous damper is the most
commonly used energy
absorbing element in the
dynamic modeling of
structures
ACECOMS, AIT
Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration
Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration
Time Period
Frequency
Change in Location
Rate of Change of Displacement wrt Time
Rate of Change of Velocity wrt Time
The time taken to complete one cycle
The no. of cycles per second
u
du
v u
dt
d 2u
a v u 2
dt
ACECOMS, AIT
Free Vibration Analysis
ACECOMS, AIT
Free Vibration Analysis

Definition
Natural vibration of a structure released from initial

condition and subjected to no external load or
damping
Main governing equation -Eigen Value Problem

u c u K ut Pt
t
t
Solution gives
Natural Frequencies
Associated mode shapes
An insight into the dynamic behavior and response
of the structure
ACECOMS, AIT
Free Vibration
M u(t) +C u(t) + K u(t) = F(t)

M u(t) + K u(t) = 0
Which leads to eigenvalue
problem
K n w n2 M n
K w M 0
det K w M 0
2
n
2
n
Solution of above equation yields a

polynomial of order n for w , which in
turn gives n mode shapes
No external force is applied

No damping of the system
w = natural frequencies
F = Mode shape
A mode shape is set of

relative (not absolute)
nodal displacement for a
particular mode of free
vibration for a specific
natural frequency
ACECOMS, AIT
Modal Analysis
Determination of
natural frequencies
and mode shapes.
No external load or
excitation is applied
to the structure.
Obtained from
eigenvalue analysis.
There are as many
modes as there are
DOF in the system
ACECOMS, AIT
Analysis for
Ground Motion
ACECOMS, AIT
Basic Dynamic for Ground Motion
mu cu ku F
F mu mg mug
k
w
; c 2w m
m
mu cu ku mug
mu 2w mu mw 2u mug
u 2w u w 2u ug
The unknown is displacement and its
derivatives ( velocity, acceleration)
Variables are ground acceleration, damping
ratio and circular frequency
ACECOMS, AIT
Ground Motion Input and Displacement Output
u 2w u w u ug
ACECOMS, AIT
Determination the total

dynamic response of
structure as the sum of
response of all mode
shapes using the ground
acceleration at each time
step
+ Damping Ratio for each mode
0.15
Acceleration (a/g)
Response History Analysis
0.1
0.05
0
-0.05 0
10
15
20
25
30
35
-0.1
-0.15
Time (Second)
ACECOMS, AIT
Modal Displacements for Ground Motion
ACECOMS, AIT
Response
Spectrum
Analysis
ACECOMS, AIT
What are Response Spectra
u 2w u w u ug
For a ground acceleration at particular time, for a given

time period and damping ratio, a single value of
displacement, velocity and acceleration can be obtained
Output of the above (u, v, a) equation are the dynamic
response to the ground motion for a structure considered
as a single DOF
A plot of the maximum response for different ground
motion history, different time period and damping ratio give
the Spectrum of Response
ACECOMS, AIT
Response Spectrum Generation
ACECOMS, AIT
Response Spectrum Generation
ACECOMS, AIT
Spectral Parameters
S v wS d
Spectral Displacement
Pseudo Spectral Velocity
Pseudo Spectral Acceleration
Sd
Sv
Sa
S a wSv w 2 S d
u
v u
du
dt
d 2u
a v u 2
dt
ACECOMS, AIT
Spectra For Different Soils
ACECOMS, AIT
How to Use Response Spectra

For each mode of free vibration, corresponding Time
Period is obtained.
For each Time Period and specified damping ratio, the
specified Response Spectrum is read to obtain the
corresponding Acceleration
For each Spectral Acceleration, corresponding velocity
and displacements response for the particular degree
of freedom is obtained
The displacement response is then used to obtain the
corresponding stress resultants
The stress resultants for each mode are then added
using some combination rule to obtain the final
response envelop
ACECOMS, AIT
Modal combination Rules

ABS SUM Rule
Add the absolute maximum value from

each mode. Not so popular and not
ro
used in practice
SRSS
Square Root of Sum of Squares of the
peak response from each mode.
Suitable for well separated natural
frequencies.
CQC
Complete Quadric Combination is
applicable to large range of structural
response and gives better results than
SRSS.
ro
ro
n0
n 1
2
r
n0
n 1

i 1 n 1
r r
in i 0 n 0
ACECOMS, AIT
Uses modal
combination rules to
determine total peak
response from all
modes
Spectral Acceleartion
Determination of
peak response of the
structure based on a
design or specified
response spectrum
and the specified
mode shapes
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0%
2%
5%
Time Period (Sec)
ACECOMS, AIT
Introduction to
Non-linear Analysis
Basic Sources of Non-Linearity

Geometric Non-Linearity
Material Non-Linearity
Compound Non-Linearity
P
P
Large Displacements
d
ACECOMS, AIT
Geometric Non Linearity
The deformations change the

basic relationships in the
stiffness evaluation
Example: Axial Load
Changes Bending Stiffness
The deformation produce

additional actions, not present
at initial conditions
Example: Axial load causes
additional moments
ACECOMS, AIT
Material Non-Linearity
The basic material

constants (E, G, v)
etc. change with level of
strain
kfc
Example: Stress-Strain
curve is non-linear
The cross-section
properties change with
level of strain
Example: Cracking in
reinforced concrete
reduces A, I etc
Kd
N.A
yt
As
ACECOMS, AIT
Material Non-linearity
Moment Curvature
curve generated for a
rectangular column
with circular core. The
outer portion is
modeled by stressstrain curve for low
strength unconfined
concrete where as the
core is modeled by
lightly confined
concrete. Observe the
drop in moment
capacity as the outer
concrete fails.
Semi-confined,
High Strength Concrete
Rectangular Whitney Curve
ACECOMS, AIT
Types of Non-Linearity
Smooth , Continuous
Softening
Hardening
Discontinuous
Snap-through
Bifurcation
Elastic Buckling
In-Elastic Buckling
P-Delta
ACECOMS, AIT
Non-linear Analysis in SAP2000
The non-linear analysis is Always carried out

together with Time History Dynamic analysis
Non-linear behavior can be modeled by:
NL Link Element For Dynamic Nonlinear
Elastic Stiffness for Linear Analysis
Gap, Hook, Damper, Isolator for Nonlinear
Hinge Element For Static Pushover
Material Non linearity
Load-Deflection Curves
ACECOMS, AIT
Introduction to
Push-over Analysis
Why Pushover Analysis
Buildings do not respond as linearly elastic systems

during strong ground shaking
Improve Understanding of Building Behavior
- More accurate prediction of global displacement
- More realistic prediction of earthquake demand on individual
components and elements
- More reliable identification of bad actors
Reduce Impact and Cost of Seismic Retrofit

- Less conservative acceptance criteria
- Less extensive construction
Advance the State of the Practice

ACECOMS, AIT
Performance Based Design - Basics

Design is based not on Ultimate Strength but
rather on Expected Performance
Basic Ultimate Strength does not tell us what will be

performance of the structure at Ultimate Capacity
Performance Based Design Levels
Fully Operational
Operational
Life Safe
Near Collapse
Collapse
ACECOMS, AIT
Pushover Spectrum
ACECOMS, AIT
Pushover Demand Curves
ACECOMS, AIT
Earthquake Push on Building
ACECOMS, AIT
The Pushover Curve
ACECOMS, AIT
Pushover Capacity Curves
ACECOMS, AIT
Demand Vs Capacity
ACECOMS, AIT
Non-linearity Considered in Pushover
Material nonlinearity at discrete, user-defined hinges in

frame/line elements.
1. Material nonlinearity in the link elements.
Gap (compression only), hook (tension only), uniaxial plasticity
base isolators (biaxial plasticity and biaxial friction/pendulum)..
2. Geometric nonlinearity in all elements.

Only P-delta effects
P-delta effects plus large displacements
3. Staged (sequential) construction.

Members can be added or removed in a sequence of stages
during each analysis case.
ACECOMS, AIT
Important Considerations
Nonlinear analysis takes time and patience

Each nonlinear problem is different
Start simple and build up gradually.
Run linear static loads and modal analysis first
Add hinges gradually beginning with the areas
where you expect the most non-linearity.
Perform initial analyses without geometric nonlinearity. Add P-delta effects, and large
deformations, much later.
ACECOMS, AIT
Important Considerations
Mathematically, static nonlinear analysis does not
always guarantee a unique solution.
Small changes in properties or loading can cause
large changes in nonlinear response.
It is Important to consider many different loading
cases, and sensitivity studies on the effect of
varying the properties of the structure
Nonlinear analysis takes time and patience.
Dont Rush it or Push to Hard
ACECOMS, AIT
Procedure for Static Pushover Analysis

1. Create a model just like for any other analysis.
2. Define the static load cases, if any, needed for use in the
static nonlinear analysis (Define > Static Load Cases).
3. Define any other static and dynamic analysis cases that
may be needed for steel or concrete design of frame
elements.
4. Define hinge properties, if any (Define > Frame Nonlinear
Hinge Properties).
5. Assign hinge properties, if any, to frame/line elements
(Assign > Frame/Line > Frame Nonlinear Hinges).
6. Define nonlinear link properties, if any (Define > Link
Properties).
ACECOMS, AIT

7. Assign link properties, if any, to frame/line elements
(Assign > Frame/Line > Link Properties).
8. Run the basic linear and dynamic analyses (Analyze >
Run).
9. Perform concrete design/steel design so that reinforcing
steel/ section is determined for concrete/steel hinge if
properties are based on default values to be computed by
the program.
10. For staged construction, define groups that represent the
various completed stages of construction.
11. Define the static nonlinear load cases (Define > Static
Nonlinear/Pushover Cases).
ACECOMS, AIT

12. Run the static nonlinear analysis (Analyze > Run
Static Nonlinear Analysis).
13. Review the static nonlinear results (Display >
Show Static Pushover Curve), (Display > Show
Deformed Shape), (Display > Show Member
Forces/Stress Diagram), and (File > Print Tables
> Analysis Output).
14. Perform any design checks that utilize static
nonlinear cases.
15. Revise the model as necessary and repeat.
ACECOMS, AIT

Finite Element Analysis

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Finite Element Analysis

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IW-CAAD 2004

Understanding and Using