ROMAN

AND

LIFE

MANNERS
THE

UNDER

EARLY

EMPIRE

By

LUDWib
Authorized

FRIEDLANDER

Translation of

and Revised Edition of the

Enlarged

Seventh

the

Roms
Sittengeschichte

by
LEONARD

A.

MAGNUS,

LL.B.

LONDON

ROUTLEDGE

GEORGE
New

York:

"

E. P. DUTTON

33

LIMITED

SONS
"

CO

^HIj:^

7"f

Author's

The

Preface

this

of

text

edition

that

my

the

many

to

viz.

Chr.

J.

Neumann,

Strassburg.

and

been

have

OechsU,

in

been

afforded

by

me

me

O.

Keil,

J.

E.

Christianity

part

Crutz,

scholars

these

ations,
alter-

many

O.

Cuntz,

O.

Ad.

Kromayer,

Schiirer,

revised.

several

of

to

Conrady,

Br.

sections

have

help

ened,
short-

on

suggested

A.

W.

been

supplemented,

the

the

Hiilsen,

the

at

have

immortality

Messrs.

is

but,

footnotes

amplified

acknowledge

criticisms

whose

K.

in

beUef

edition

passages

or

have

sixth

the

Manners

and

excursus

corrected

the

of

have

and

and

Life

as

pubUsher,

of

omitted,

Roman

Edition

my

same

request

feld,

of

the

essentially

Seventh

the

to

W.

Spiegelberg.

Hirsch-

Michaehs,

CHRONOLOGICAL

TABLE

DATES,
THE

HISTORICAL

"31

Battle

724

of

Death

Actium,

725

A.U.C.

29

September

2.

"27

triumphs,
Augustus

B.C.

"

A.U.C.

"25

729

end

Aulus

Terentius

the

cius
in

in the

of the
and

wards
to-

year

to

DURING

69

(elegiac
B.C.), in

Governor

autumn

of

Egypt.
Virgil (bom 70
B.C.) completes and publishes
the Georgics.
about
Propertius
(bom
B.C.) writes elegies.
49
Marcus

Terentius

dies

Varro

B.C.).

(bom
(born

116

Livy
writes
his

B.C.)

59

of

first book

the

from

history

27-25

B.C.

ComeUus

Gallus

dies.

tribes

B.C.).

Revolts

and

Cantabrians,

plain,

the

to

Asturians

the

among

and

bom

the
Agrippa builds
returns
Augustus
Gaul
through
(end

Rome

of 25

Gallus

C. Cornelius

poet,

Horace

Vini-

Germanic

conquers

Gaul.

to

of
Epodes
(bom 65 B.C.)

conquers
Graian
and

Marcus

Alps.

Pantheon.

B.C.

Varro

Salassi

Pennine

"24

the

bably
pro-

Spain.
Cantabrians
War
against the
and
Asturians, 26-25 B.C.

B.C.

730

of

of

title

Gaul,

to

goes

A.U.C.

6-8.
the

(January 16)
the
beginning

the

26

and

Rome

to

August

at

728

Egypt

The

the

receives

summer

A.U.C.

in the

August.

returns

Octavian

B.C.

Antonius

of

province.

Octavian

B.C.

727

A.U.C.

of Marcus

beginning

B.C.

=30

IMPORTANT

LITERARY,

AND

B.C.

A.U.C.

"

MOST

EMPIRE

723

A.U.C.

THE

OF

their
20

moval
re-

or

19

B.C.
A.U.C.

"23

A.U.C.
"22

731
B.C.

732
B.C.

ill,cured

Augustus
Musa.

Agrippa

Marcus

Marcellus

Towards

leaves

the

of

year
for

Rome

leaves

Augustus

Rome.

dies.

end

the

Antonius

by

of

Sicily.
A.U.C.
"21

733
B.C.

Augustus
of

the

goes

A.U.C.
"20

734
B.C.

Augustus
Asia

Greece,

to

Samos.

at

middle

the

in

year

winters
marries

Virgil reads
2nd, 4th

and

Agrippa

JuUa.
goes

and

in

the

again

spring
winters

Samos.
vii

to
at

the

Augustus
and

Aeneid,

6th

the

Books

VIll

Table
Chronological
Virgil,September
at

22,

dies

Brundusium.
c. 54
B.C.)
of year.
writes the Carmen

(bom

TibuUus

dies at end
Horace

Saeculare.

Propertius

dies.

about

Vitruvius

his

finishes

14

B.C.

Architec-

tura.

Commentaries

Agrippa's

this time.

about

Livy's last
with

book

the

(142)ends

narrative

of

this year's events.

Horace

dies November

27.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus
finishes his History of
Rome.

Ovid

(bom 43
lishes the Ars
2

or

B.C.

B.C.) pub
Amaioria

Table
Chronological
Tiberius

back

Caesar
Gaius

Rome.

at

dies at
Caesar

Lucius

Marseilles.
dies.

Tiberius

adopted on June 27, opens

third campaign
against
returns

IX

the

Asinius

Pollio
of

age

dies

at

the

80.

many,
Ger-

in December

to

Rome.

Tiberius

forces his way

to the
Famine
at Rome
up to

Elbe.
8

A.D.

Tiberius
Suevi

to combat

prepares

under

is forced

the

Maroboduus,

by

ends,

Judaea

his banishment,

the
and

books

Roman

before

but

insurrection to

an

Pannonia.

Ovid

phoses
Metamor-

the

first six

of the Fasti.

Province.
War

in Dalmatia

under

Tiberius

and

Pannonia

and

Germani-

cus.

Pannonia

Ovid

mostly subdued.

in his

fifty-first
year

banished

Tomi

to

the first book

gins
be-

of his

Tristia.
Conclusion

of

War.

the

Defeat

Wald

Publius

in the Teuto-

Quintilius Varus

burger

Manilius

Dalmatian
of

at the

end

begins

poem
9

didactic

after

astronomy

on

A.D.

of the

summer.

Tiberius

on

Tiberius

and

the

the

Rhine.

Germanicus

over

Marcus

Valerius

Corvinus

Rhine.

Messalla

dies at the

age

of 72.

Tiberius

again

goes

to

Germany.

Completion

of

the

Res

gestaediviAugusti (Marmot
Ancyranum).
Germanicus

in the

spring on the
Rhine.
His campaigns there,
13-16 A.D.
Augustus dies on
in
his seventy-sisth
August 19
year (born September 23).

Tiberius
The

(bom 712"42
appointment

transferred
15

Triumph

the

officials

legions in
Germany.
Germanicus, May 26.

of

Germanicus
October

under

Tiberius.

and

B.C.).
of

the

Livy dies, 17
dies

19

Sextians

Augustus

of

and

Pannonia
17

philosophic school

to the Senate.
of

Insurrection

The

dies at
10.

Antioch

on

Strabo

18

(bom

about

finishes his work

19

Ovid

a.d.

A.D.

a.d.

Dies

63 B.C.)
not

fore
be-

24 A.D.

Table
Chronological

Tiberius:

Under

of

author

Celsus,

The

Medicina.

De

fabulist

Phaedrus.

Paterculus' Roman

Velldus

History.
Maximus

Valerius

writes

after

Sejanus'
(ix.II. 4.).
First writings of L. Seneca
i
(bom shortly before
soon

fall

A.D.) imder

Tiberius

and

C"ligula.
The
12

A.D.).

elder

Seneca

B.C.)

54

dies

(bom

about

39

A.D.

Apio in
cjmic

39

Alexandria.

The

Demetrius

in

Rome.
Philo

40

ambassador

as

Alexandrian

of the

Jews

in

Rome.
41

Gaius

41-54

Claudius

murdered

January 24.
10
B.C.).

(bom

42

Paetus

43

Subjection of

Arria

and

Under

die.

Claudius, the
Fomponius

Seneca

Britain.

banished

the

bonius

Secular

48

Messalina

49

Claudius

so

Adopts Nero.

S3

Nero

S4

Claudius

54-68

Nero

54

Narcissus

games.

Under

marries

Agrippina.

Claudius

Nero

or

the

Panegyric
pumius Fiso.

on

Cal-

Cologne founded.
Octavia.

dies

on

October

of eclogues
Calpumius, author
during the early
years of Nero's reign.

13.

(born 37).
dies.
at

Recipe-boolc
physician ScriLargus about 47

A.D.

died.

marries

Burrus

sica,
Cor-

41-49.

of

47

to

grapher
geoMela.

Seneca

the helm

and

of state.

The

satiric

poet

34-62.

Lucan

(after64

in

Fersius

39-65

disgrace).

Table
Chronological

XI

A.Di

55

Pallas

Britannicus

degraded.

59

Pomponia Graecina
Agrippina dies.

6o

Corbulo

62

Burrus

5?

Nero

victorious

arraigned.
in

65
66

Nero

writes

Pallas

Foppaea.

Fire of Rome,

Naples.

July 19-25.
Discovery of Piso's conspiracy.
The
King of Parthia, Tiridates
in Rome.
Nero's
journey to
Greece.

Outbreak

the

of

The

62-64 ?
38) in

(bom
64.

Stoic Musonius

Rufus,

ished
Epictetus' teacher, banin 65.

Demetrius,
Rome

the

cjTiic,in

the

at

death

naeus

Paetus,
Stoic, Lucius
Comutus,
Under

Nero

end

of year.
of Vindex
and
at

68

Revolt

Nero

tica)before 65.
[Aetna),
nius [Saturae).

Petro-

(April 6)
July

murdered

Nero

Galba.

ished.
ban-

Rits-

turns Lucilius
Re-

liberty.

gives Greece

66.

An-

Re

{De

Columella

67

of

Thrasea
The

War.

Jewish

from

dies in 65.

in Rome

Josephus
Rome

at

letters

degrading

Court, 62, and

St. Paul

marries

his

Armenia.

dies.

dies.

64

Seneca

after his

dies.

9-

68-69

Galba, Otho, Vitellius. January

the
German
2
legions call
ba
Galthe
to
Vitellius
Empire.
dies on January 15, 73 years
old.
Otho
dies, April 16 or
20,

old.

July

Galba

to

with

comes

Rome.

of Bedriacum

after battle

37 years

Quintilian

before
Vitellius,

18, enters

Rome.

pasian
Ves-

proclaimed Emperor,
July

3
in Rome

at

Vitellius

Caesarea.

and
dies

Capitol
December

Battle
burned.
22,

in his fifty-fifth
year.

Quintilian,first teacher

of

oratory.

Periplus
Erythraei.
of
phers
philoso-

about,

70-75
Maris
Banishment

from

(except

Josephus
War

Rome

Musonius

writes

about

his

75.

7r-73
fus).
Ru-

Jewish

ChronologicalTable

Xll

A.D.

Pliny (born 23)

Elder

The

77

Titus

bands

his Natural

History.
78

Agricola

(bom about 46),

Vespasian, begins
shorter writings.

Plutarch

in Britain.

under
his

79

Vespasian

79-81

Titus

80

dies June

81-96
81-82

30,

of

burial

Herculaneiun

of

39).

The

elder

Pliny dies.

and

Vesuvius

Eruption

and

Pompeii August 24.

and
fire in
Rome.
Epidemic
at
Games
100
days at Rome
of the Flavian

the consecration

81

23.

December

(bom

amphitheatre (Colosseum).
dies September 13.
Domitian
(bom 51).
The
Capitol rebuilt.

Titus

Statins

writes

the

Thebais

(80-92) ; publishes
Silvae

82-83

the

against

Campaign

Chatti.

Martial

(bom
the

books

85

Agricola

86

Foimdation

recalled

from

of the

Britain.

Agon Capito-

linus.

of

38-41) publishes
first eleven
his

Epigrams

85/86-98 ; leaves Rome

98 ; died, at the latest,
104.

85-86

Dacian

88

Secular

89

Dacian

War.

92

Sarmatian

93

Agricola dies.

(September).

games

Tacitus

(bom

Plutarch

Triumph
year).

in

the

(91-96).

(prob.

end

of

lectures

on

54) Praetor.
(88-89) gives

philosophy.

Quintilian'sInstitutio

War.
Domitian

again

toria

93-95.
of
philosophers

Rome.
from

Rome

Josephus

94

Ora-

ment
Banish-

93.

finishes

ties
Antiqui-

of the Jews.

Silius

Italicus,Punica.
95

Execution

96

Domitian

of the Consul

Flavins

Clemens.
dies

18.

Wall

built

mate

perors,
Lands, by Flavian EmDomitian.
principally

96-98

Nerva.

97

Revolt

Nerva
old.

to

protect

Decu-

Dio
of the Praetorian

In autumn

98

September

Guards.

Trajan adopted.

dies January

25, 72 years

of

Prusa

Domitian's

returns

death

after
from

in
long joumeyings :
tus
TaciTrajan's favour.
writes the Agricola
and
Germania
(in begin-

Table
Chronological

xui

ning 98). The younger

Pliny (bom
62) publishes
his
letters
(97108).

98-117
99

Trajan (born 53).

to
Trajan returns
Cologne.
First

Dacian

leaves
Peace

with

105-107

Second

106

Conquest

113

Column

of March.

Decebalus

Triumph.
bridge

Stone

Trajan

War.
end

Rome

104-5

from

Rome

Danube.

over

Dacian

and

Panegyric of the Younger

Pliny September, 100.
a.d.
Juvenal (born about
and 116
112
60) between
begins the
publishing
of

War.

Satires

dies

about

140.

of

Arabia

Trajan

of

of

Forum

the

to

goes

Petraea.

Trajan

Trajan.
East

in

erected

in October.

under
Epictetus teaches
Trajan in Nicopolis,Arrian his pupil. Tacitus
about

106-7 busied

his

Hisloriae.

with
The

Younger Pliny governor

in Bithynia and Pontus.
with
Correspondence
Trajan
(111-113) and
of
the
persecution
Christians

died

soon

after 113.
in Armenia.

Campaign
in
Campaign
Earthquake

114
115

Mesopotamia.
at

Antioch,

cember
De-

marches

Trajan
and

the

to

Lives
written

Men

of Great
under

Trajan.

13.

116

Plutarch's

Ctesiphon
Gulf (late

to

Persian

summer).
of the

Insurrection

117

dies

117-138

Hadrian

117

Hadrian

118

Hadrian

121

Leaves

August

Jews.
7

or

jan
Tra-

8.

{born 76).

Armenia,
jan's
TraAssyria,
Mesopotamia,
conquests.
abandons

(beginning

of

August)

Suetonius

of the

in Rome.

Flavins

for the Provinces.

lisher

(bom 77) Lives

Emperors (i2o).
Aixianus, publiof Epictetus' lectures,
Consul

121

Hadrian

125/6
126/7
128/9
B,L.M.

Hadrian's

in

Britain.

Wall

gun.
be-

first stay in Athens.

Hadrian

in Rome.

Hadrian

in Africa.

and

124.

between

Table
Chronological

XIV

A.D.

129

Hadrian's

/30

Hadrian

130

stay in Athens.

second
in

Death

Egypt.

of

Antinous.
131

/2

of

Insurrection
Hadrian
Hadrian

134

returns

May

the

134.

Edictum

Julianus'
Perpetuum 132.

Salvius

before

Rome

to

Rome

5.

Jews.

until

Judaea

in

Tibur

and

decorated.
135

Aelius

Verus

138

Verus

dies

The

adopted.

i.
January
adopted February
Hadrian
dies July 10.
Antoninus
Pius (born 86)
Scottish Wall
begun.

138-161
142

on

25.

Marcus

orator

toninus
An-

nelius
Cor-

and

Pronto

Herodes

Sophist
(101-177)
Appian's

Consuls

143.

History

Civil

the

Atticus

Wars.

Ptolemaeus

the

of

Claudius
servatory
ob-

the

at

in Alexandria.

The

(bom

129),

until
Celebration

147

of

magnificent

r6i

Antoninus

i6i-i8o

Marcus
L.

162

with

900

shows.

Pius

March

dies

i.

(born
121).
to 169.
co-Emperor

Verus

III

Lucius

Verus

attacks
in

Apuleius

(bom
at

152,

about

124)

Rome

the

Metamorphoses
(151in
155)
Africa, the
Apologia (158 circa).
The
Neoplatonist Maxiof
mus
T5n:e. Gains,
stitutions
the jurist(110-180), In-

Armenia.

Antioch

ill aboiit

172.

writes

Aurelius

Vologases
of

A.u.c.

Aristides

Sophist

before

161.

(end

year).

162 /3

War

in Armenia.

165

War

with

166

Peace

Parthia.

with

taniia

Lucian

Parthia.

Mesopo-

(bom about
115120) writing 155-180.

Roman.

Roman

legates

travellers

manni,

in

commercial

or

China.

Marco-

Quadi, lazyges invade

Roman

territory.
plague in
(introduced by Lucius
army).

167/8

The

Oriental

Rome
Verus'

Second
about

visit of Galen

129) to Rome,

onwards.

Lucian's

(bom
169
Pere-

On
grinus Proteus, and
the Writing of History

169

Lucius

174

Marcus

Verus

dies at

Aiurehus

Miracle

of

Aquileia.

in Rome.

Rain

of

the

Fulminata.
175

Revolt

of Avidius

Cassius.

The

Legio

165.
Justin Martyr dies 165/6.

Table
Chronological
A

XV

.D.

176

Marcus

Aurelius

in

and

triumph

Return

177/8

33.
of the

Persecution

the

East.
cember
De-

on

Christians

in

Gaul.

178

Aurelius

Marcus

the

to

go

Invasion

of

Commodus

in Germany.
Smyrna.

war

Earthquake
178/9

and

at

the

Costoboci

in

Greece.

Victory over

179
180

Marcus

the

Marcomanni.

Aurelius

March

dies at Sirmium

17.

Artemidorus'

Book

of

Dreams.

Pausanias'

fifth

book

the
174/5 ;
tenth,
Marcus
lius'
Aurer79 /80.
Meditations, 173Aristides
174.
(129Sacred
189
circa),
Attic
Speeches. Gellius,
Celsus
Nighis.
"\ridiii
Oldest
Xtryos,177-180.
Latin
Bible
(Itala)
in
perhaps in Africa
second

half

of

second

century.

180-192

Commodus

185

Perennis

189

Fall

of Cleander.

191

Fire

at Rome.

192

Commodus

193

Pertinax

(born 161).
dies.

dies December

(diesMarch
Didius

old).
I

93-2

I I

June I,
Septimius
Severus

28, 67

(dies

of 61).

Severus

(bom 146).
co-Emperor after 198

in

Dissolution

Rome.

re-organization

and

years

lulianus

at the age

Caracalla
193

31.

of

the

Guards.

Byzantium.
Niger dies.
in
Mesopotamia,
Campaign
of

194-6

Siege

194

Pescennius

195

bia,
Ara-

Tertullian

(145-330).

Adiabene.

196

Caracalla

197

Clodius

Caesar.
Albinus

dies

199

Parthicus

Lyons.

Parthian

departs
campaign.
Caracalla Augustus, Geta
at Ctesiphon.
Massacre
Severus

198

at

for

Caesar.
Severus

Maximus.

Titus

Flavins

Clemens

Alexandria's
under
dies

of

Stromaia

Severus.

Galen

201.

returns
by Sjnria and
Abgar IX
Egypt to Rome.
of
Osroene,
(179-314 /16)
sibly
pos-

Severus

at
to

203

Rome,

later converted

Christianity.

Severus'

Arch

and

the

Septi-

Cassius

zonium.

Dio,
dn

Rome

gaged
en201-333,
his History of

Table
Chronological

XVI

A.D.

games.
Plautianus
dies, January

205

Saccas, founder

Ammonius

Seculai

204

Neo-Platonie

the

of

22.

School,
208

Severus

for

departs

in

war

teaching

at

Alexandria.

Britain.
of Caledonia.

209

Invasion

210

Restoration

Pius.

silver

Severus

;
to 60 per cent.

alloyed 50

Severus

211

of the

Lowering

under

currency

of Antoninus

Wall

of the

dies

February

at

4,

York.
2 1 1-2

17

Severus

Aurelius

as

Praetorians

of

Praefect

Plautianus

after

dies

212.

Origen (bom
at

Marcus

jurist,

the

Papinian,

185) teaches
(203).

Alexandria

toninus
An-

(Caracalla)bom
Papinian die. The
Roman
suffrage granted to all
peregrini by the Coustitutio
188.

and

212

Geta

213

Caracalla

214

Caracalla

Oppian's Cynegetica-

Antoniniana.

the

in Gaul.
defeats

Main

the

on

Alemanni

and

winters

in

Nicomedia.
Z15

Caracalla

216-217

Parthian

in Antioch

and

andria
Alex-

(massacre).
Caracalla

War.

in

Edessa.
217

Dedication

of Thermae

Caracalla

dies

of Caracalla.

(April 8)

near

Edessa.

217-218
217

Opellius Macrinus.
dies.
Julia Domna

feated Philostratus
de-

Romans

at Nisibis.

2l8

Macrinus
Peace

dies
with

about
the

publishes Life
of Tyana
(after217).

of ApoUonius
June

Parthians

11.

at

of 50,000,000
denarii.
Foundation
of Catacombs
of

ransom

Callistus,
218-222

bishop

217-222.
Aurelius
Marcus

gabalus (bom

of

Antoninus

201).

Rome,
Ela-

Domitius

Ulplan, Praefect
Praetorians, dies

of the
228.

Paulus,

the

Praetorians,

Cassius

Dio

engaged
219

Elagabalus

221

Alexander

222

Elagabalus

comes

Severus

to

Rome.

Caesar.

dies in March.

Praefect

on

Consul
his

230-234.
Claudius
Aelianus
of

De

Itum,
under

of

229.
still

History,
(writer

Natura

Anima-

etc.),

flourishes

Elagabalus.

Table
Chronological

XV u

A.D.

222-235

M.

227

Artaxerxes

Severus

Aurelius

Alexander

(born 205).
(Ardashir)
from

Persia

Lord

of

overthrows

224,

Parthian

the

founds

Empire, and
Sassanid
Empire.

the

230-233

War

with
in

Persia.

Germany.

234

War

235

Alexander

235-238

Maximin.

dies in March.
Gordian

throne

March

Maximin

16

attacks

raised

to

; dies

April 6.
Italy,March-

of Maximus
April. Election
and Balbinus(April 1 6) Maximin
,

dies
and

Balbinus

238-244

Gordian

242

)Var

244

June

III

with

Maximus
17.
die July 23.

and

Philippus

248

Thousandth

back

won

in

Gordian

summer.

2+9

anniversary

at

Decius

Traianus.
of the

in

Verona

Great

Natali, 238.
History (180-

the
Plotinus,
Neo-Platonist
(born 205)
with

the Roman

Army

to

Persia

Rome

244

Celsus

writes

2^8

(in

dies

270).
Agairist

; dies 253.

the

Lives
Diogenes Laertius'
the
of
Philosophers.

cution
perse-

epidemics.
on
campaign against

Persistent

251

Decius

251-253

Gallus

253-260
256

Valerian
The

257

lost,but for
Aurelian's
victory

258

Postumus

259/60

Valerian

the

Die

Censorinus

Christians.

250

dies

235.

Cyprian (200-257) Bishop

of Carthage, 248.

autumn.

249-251

about

Origen
of

of Rome.

dies

Philip

from

Elagabalus.
The
Refutation of the
Heresies
of Hippolytus
to

marches

Arabs.

foundation

of Emperors

Nerva

Herodian's

dies.

244-249

writes

238).

Nisibis

spring or

Maximus

Lives

De

(born 223).

Persia.

Carrhae

Marius

Goths.
and

Caesar.

Volusianus

and

GalUenus.

Franks

invade

Dacia

Spain.

fortresses.
over

the

Goths.

Emperor in Gaul.
captured by Sapor.
rival

Porphyry

(born 233)
Plotinus'

in Rome
260-8

GalUenus.

264

Odenathus

of

Palmyra,

Governor

in the East, recaptures Nisibis

and Carrhae.

266/7

Odenathus

268

Tetricus

and

Postumus

rival Emperor
dies
in
GalUenus

Claudius.

die.

in Gaul.
March.

tends
at-

lectures

(263-8).

XVIU

Table
Chronological

ChronologicalTable

XX

A.D.

(born 314) in

Libanius
Division
Empire.

dies

364-375

Valentinian

364-378

Valens

after

Antioch

of

352,

392/3.
of
Bishop
Poitiers, dies
368.
Lucifer, Bishop of

Hilarius,

in the West.
in the

(316-368)
Secretary

Himerius

East.

J uhan's

dies

CagUari

371.

362.
375-383

Gratian.

Julian'sCaesar

es, and

II.

Valentinian
Theodosius

392-395

395-408

Arcadius

(310

Basil

dies 380

Gregory

dies 390.

in

the West

(at

under

406
410

history down

Stilicho).
Visigoths in

the

by

writes

to 404,

Lives

of

Philosophers.
Olympiodorus' History
of 407-425-

sacked

Rome

tury.
cen-

(born 346)
Dexippus'

continues

and

Gaul.

ning
begin-

fifth

Eunapius

of

regency

at

poet

Alaric.

The

of

philosopher Hy-

patia murdered

Plutarch,

Empire

of the

goths.
Visi-

Neoat

at

415.

Vandals

rule

of the

Platonic

School

Athens,

Sjrianus

dies

431
succeeds

tween
be435.
him.

in Africa.

Quintus
Symmachus
(about
340384/5
402),P"-"/."r("i
Speeches and Letters
(two-thirds of latter
395-402).
Ammianus

Marcellinus

Flavius

dedicates

tus

the

the

Latin

down

Rufinus

408-450

Theodosius

II.

present

and

of
to

translates

Euse-

378.

410)
Origen
-

Eusebius.

Prudentius, a
poet, 348-

Christian
410.

lates
trans-

ments
compleHistory of

(345

Aurelius
East

Bible

390-405

the

World

374.

(340-420)

translates

and

395.

of Milan

Jerome

the

tween
be-

(340-397)

Bishop
St.

bius

the

384 and
Ambrosius

and

(412-485).

of War

Theodosius

the

him

work

Art

Vulgate),

succeeds

Rena-

Vegetius

(whence

In

Roman

(330-400),

into

Proclus

of fourth

Aurelius

on

head

and

430

end

of

century.

to

415

(a

manual

Byzantine

History from 96-378.

Alexandria

Establishment

poet.

Dignitatum

State)

407.
of

Honorlus

dies,

Chrysostomus
Nonnus,

first

Christian

370.

(305-384)

Notitia

the East.

395-423

Consul

Damasus

Ruler.
in

Magnus

390,
379), Mosella

(rulerof East
after 379).
Sole

Ausonius

D.

362.

383-392

Festus
Avienus,
geographical poems.

Rufus

ings
writ-

anti-Christian

Table
Chronological

XXI

A.D.

In
425-455

Socrates' Ecclesiastical

the West

Valentinian

History of 306-439.
Priscus

III.
451

Attila

defeated
Aetius

by

ChSlons.

at

452

The

Huns

in

Italy.

ambassador

Attila
writes

to

Paulinus

the end

448,

the

History

Byzantine
up

(353

Bishop of
Claudianus,

to

474.

Zosimus, History from

Augustus to 410.

of fourth
of

beginning

dies.

Rome

of

the

writes

the

403.

Macrobius

fourth

taken

dals.
by the Van-

Capella,

ix

Liberalium

Libri, about

Rutilius

Avitus.

400.

Namatianus'

poetical descriptions

Maiorianus.

of
Libius

of

of fifth century.
Artium

461-465
465-467
467-472

end

at

beginning

or

Marcianus

456
457-461

fifth

St.Augustine (354-430)
Bishop of Hippo 395.
Ciuitate
Dei
De
(after
410).
SulpiciusSeverus (365finishes
bis
425)

Saturnalia
455

and

century.

World
Attila

409.

poet at

Chronicle

453

431)

Nola

travel,

Orosius'

Severus.

the World

Ricimer.

Law

Anthemius.

416.

History of
to

417.

of Citations,426.
about

450,

Gubernatione

Dei.

Salvianus,
De

473

Glycerins.

Sidonius,
ApoUinaris
of
Clermont
Bishop
and
469 /70 ; poems

474-475

lulius

Boethius,

letters.

Nepos.

dies 525
latione.

475-476

Romulus

about
End

; De

310,
Conso-

Priscianus, grammarian
at Constantinople

Au-

gustulus.
476

Consul

500.

Cassiodorus

of Western

(480-575),

Secretary

Empire.

to

doric,
Theo-

writes
chronicle
492-525

King
Italy.
527-565

Johannes

Theodoric
of

peror
Justinian Emof the
East.

Lydus

after 522.

thor
au-

up

Tribonian
edits

(dies 545)
the
and

Pandects

the
530-33,
lustinianeus.
Isidore

to 519.

dex
Co-

Bishop of Seville
570-640, writes Origines,XX books.

Contents

xxiv

PAGE

CHAP.

Abas-

toUs, Literary Counsellor.

Capito

cantus.

50-S6

"

Imperial Chamberlains Helicon,

Parthenius,
Sigerus, Saoteros,

" 3 The

Marcia

Panthea

" 5 The

Courtiers

Free

"6

Physicians,

tutors
III

The

logers,
astro-

67-70

....

of

Companions

and

Friends

65-67

61-65

slaves

Palace

Caenis,

Acts,

Acme,

" 4 Freedwomen

56-61

artists

Court

Castor.

Cleander,

the

peror
Em-

70-82
Their

Privy Council.

of the

Members

friends.
classes
of
two
The
power.
The titles. The
morning reception. The
invitations

IV

The

position at Court.
Emperor's Table

The

Ceremonials

"

I.

Their

Travels.

dinner.

to

Companions

82-85

86-97

.....

The

Morning Receptions
tors
morning reception of senaand
others.
The
Empresses'
New
On
Year's
receptions.
Day and Accession
Day. Dress,
.

86-93

The

etc.

manners,

" 2. The

Public

vited.

Meals.
The

The

Three

in-

were

Conventions

banquets.
III

Who

at these

93-97

....

Estates

98-206

.....

Rank

and

birthrights
Survival

of old ranks.

Provincials.
three
II

The

98-106

....

'

Freedmen.

Municipals.

The

orders.

Senators

106-133

......

Relations

Few

Of Senate

old

The

families.

old

second

families.

rank.

Public

rights

to

Emperor.

Novi

homines.

Senators

Senatorial

of

census.

XeiToupTfoi. Restricted
of

earning. Oratory and

Advocacy. New
hierarchy of

office.

Grant

of

honours

by

''
"

Contents

XXV

CHAP.

PAGE

Ill

Emperor

or

Senate.

Expulsion

Outside

Rome

Insignia of

senate.

from

Knights

134-144
first

the

Senatorial

knights.
Wealth
knighthood.
order.
IV

order.

The

Third

rank.

Grades

of

of

the

held.

Offices

Estate

"

1.

Riches

"

2.

Industry

and

Great

Poverty
and

sub-division

of

" 3. Miscellaneous
Pursuits

144-146

Crafts

Trade.

labour-guilds 146-154

Crafts,

Arts,

and

154-188

i General

154-156

Teachers,

ii

and

Rhetoricians

iii

Jurisconsulti

iv

Medicine

cates
Advo-

156-165
165-167
167-185

Doctors

mostly

and

wet

doctors
Source

nurses.

Use

medicaments.

The

foreign,

Female

Specialists.

Schools

of

of

of

drugs.

Doctors.

Astrology
Agriculture

185-188

" 4. i

ii The

188-189

Marine

189-190
Oifices

iii Subordinate
The

iv

190

Army

191-195

" s. Clients

" 6. The

195-202

History

of

Clients.

Treatment

Freedmen
EfEect
The

IV

Roman

Society

II

The

Ardeliones.

on

of Clients.
202-200

population

on

of Rome.

207-227

social engagements
207

Inheritance

Dice.

No

or

freedom

politics. Secret
trivial

Other

"

Publicity.

Day

nouveaux-nches.

Clients.

of

....

morning reception

The

44-206

hunting.
of

pression
ex-

versation,
police. Con-

educational

2J2

Contents

xxvi

PAGE

CHAP.

Position

The

Women

of

after

twelfth

the

Procurindependence.
Formal
marriages. Conventus
and
Divorce.
Slavery

aiores.
matronarum.

The

effects.

moral

Means
I

Oriental

women.

roads

by

and

Security
roads

ii The

of

extent

State

Roman

directions,

Post

Journeys

278-280

....

and

sea

280-287
287-299

.....

Inns.

268-280

268-278

main

speed of travel by land

Land

.....

The

III

268-322

....

Communications

The

ism.
Juda-

cults.

Communication

of

II

Public-

Christianity. Astrology. Magic.

Some
heroic women.
inscriptions.

The

VI

quets.
Ban-

games.

relations.

Social
minded

From

Betrothal.

year.

into

Nursery

its

Marriage

Instruction.

Games.

Childhood.

228-267

....

Tolls.

Robbers.

ious
Luxur-

simple equipages.
Billetings.. Innkeepers in ill
and

Brigands.

repute.
Bulla.

IV

The

Nature

"

The
.

Modern

of the

times

traffic

trafificof the

Felix

pared.
com-

Roman

Empire

Official messengers.
Colonization
and

299-322
299-303

Garrisons.

mixing

of

populations.
"

2.

Commercial

(i)The

Intercourse

journeys

Great

spread

Unity

of

of

Commercial
To

and

India

amber

(ii)The
" 3. Travel

to

the

China.

of

general

Science.

For

North,

distribution
in

304-314

commerce.

Rome
coinage.
frontier.
beyond
frequent.
voyages

honoured

304-316

Journeys

the
.

of

goods
.

students,

314-316

316-332

Contents

xxvu

CHAP.

PAGE

professors,doctors, actors,
To

festivals.

To

Egypt,

etc.

Sta-

biae, Anticyra.
VII

Touring
I

under

Empire

the

infrequency

The

The
and

extent
II

323-428
limitedness

and

geographical horizon.

aim

of

coveries.
disThe

tours

Italy. Villeggiatureon
the

of

323-329

the

Coast

and

in

Hills

329-336

Baiae
III

IV

336-338

Sicily

339

Greece

340-343

VI

The

Islands

Greek

and

344-349

Egypt
A

349-367
great

drian

attraction

shipping.
exotic.

What

interested

Rome.

to

of

Size

Alexan

ships.

un-Romanized.

only country
VII

Asia

Little

dria
Alexan-

Thebes,

Memphis,
Roman

Egypt

tourists

etc.

The

"

Seven

Wonders

367-394
368-378

"

I.

The

historical

The

temples

as

remains.

"

2.

Art

as

motive
as

Ancient

feelingfor

love

Roman

Virgil,Horace,
villa.
love

development

the

"

Romantic
I.

Mountains

Averni.

Nature

feelingfor
.

up

situated.
scenery.

modern

disliked

trees.

can
Pliny'sTus-

etc.

Villas, where

in

to

century, e.g.
Petrarch,

Italian

395-428

landscape.

Pilgrims,Scheuchzer, etc.,down
de S6vign6, Gray. 1729,
to Mme.
Haller's
Alps.
.

eighteenth

Cynewulf, Dante,

etc.

380-394

countiry life in

of mountain

of the

different.

Ancient

Tempe

for

travel

to

Nature

Groves.

Corycian Cave.

The

378-380

....

incentive

an

Grottoes.

No

Heroic

museums.

rpoToia

" 3. Nature

interest.

395-406

Contents

xxvm

CHAP.

"

2.

Konrad

of

Birth

Gesner.

mance
Ro-

407-408
.....

"

3.

Rousseau.

Coxe.

408-413

Saussure
.

"

4.

Ruskin.

Del-

Chateaubriand.

briick

414-418
.....

" 5.

Southern

scenery

influences

ment
judg418-421

.....

Ancient

" 6.

Ancient

atmosphere
Italian

Persia,

Mexico,

etc.

landscape-painting.
effects

landscape

in

and

No

antiquity.
gardens

-zfai
.,.

-428

The

At

War

Punic
had

much

earlier
the

"

of the
outwards

of Sulla, Rome

became

the

of

obstacles

Sulla, it became

(thePomerium)

statelier,inasmuch

In

same.

63

Rome

B.C.

was

hillystreets, tall houses,

with Capua, altera Roma,

compare

in Domitian's

time

did

of

the

Rome

extension

necessary
After

to

the

push
time

as

the

Tabularium

Senators'

exist in the

built,but the lie of the

were

to

second

the

after

soon

fortifications

the

chief

boundary

fragments

fine edifices

even

under

even

the sacred

(of which

possibly

"

of the

one

and,

town,

date

dismantling

of

disposed

Rome

City of

narrow

the
stand

not

palace) and other

and frontagesrestreets
mained
zagging
poorly paved, had zigalleys,and could not
cityof the plain,which
far behind
the capital.
anyhow.
During
up

was
a
Augustus' Rome
city grown
Sulla's death
the five-and-thirtyyears
between
and Caesar's
had
bedecked
herself with
murder
(78-44 B.C.)Rome
many
magnificent buildings, public and private, in which
generals,

officers, civil
riches, and

and

servants

from

loot

East

business-men
and

West,

exhibited

their

gained in that

epoch

of

hundred
over
one
conquest. In the year 44 b.c. there were
Cicero, a quarter of a century afterwards,
palaces in Rome.
and richly adorned
a beautiful
thought he might call Rome
edifices
city,even
though, in Plutarch's
opinion, the Roman
not comparable with those of Pericles at
before the Empire were
is doubtless
Athens
; and Suetonius
rightin saying that Augustus
found
the city of Rome
unworthy of her imperial dignity.
Under
architecture
received
a tremendous
Augustus Roman
returned
with
feeling of security, which
impetus. The
universal
increasing prosperity and population ; the
peace,
great influx of capital,and the lowering of interest from 12
per cent., in 29 b.c, to 4 per cent., not tospeakof the Emperor's
endow
Rome
to
with
the
personal endeavour
splendour
commensurate
with
the
world's
the
sovereign city, were
main

used

in

was

; but

soon

into

on

the

matchless

on

many

Further, the firm

grandees,
many

the

on

resolve

capitalistsand

gorgeous

being, and

Most

Carrara

marble

of the

improvement
scale, in public places and monugenerous
ments
regulations and widenings of the chaotic

(largely consequent

also made.
also

had

huge quantitiesin building.

of Rome

streets

first

He

causes.

ornamentations)
of the

contractors,

private houses

overshadowed

the

monarch

older

and

so

were

reacted

that

very

palaces sprang

buildings.

At

the

City of

The
solidity of

Rome

rejoiced; he was
palace Augustus was
building,he said, for Rome's
eternity.
Augustus' wish and example for the architectural reorganization
of Rom.e
had
less swift and impressive results than
no
the

Piso's

incentive

Naples

the

of

modem

some

of

reign

the

rulers

Spanish viceroy

new
era
a
(1532-1553) heralded
(1585-1590) impressed his mark

rule

(1523-1560)

any

other

was

followed

of the
XIV

658 houses
after

and

out

the

Moscow,

Palais

owed

Royal,

two

both

where, towards

the

wooden

roughly carpentered
or
replace the hundreds
of Count
Golitsyn's new

to

he

stone
a

at

was

the

houses

little

head
were

Pietro

de

architecture.
Rome.

on

Toledo

Sixtus

houses

stone

Vasa's

Gustavus

more

At

towns.

than

London
European city, even
; his policy
by John III (1568-1592) : in 1582, 429 out
To the precedent set by Louis
stone.
were

Paris

1661

of

Stockholm

secured

northern

in modem

of
buUt.

city of wood,

cities round

new

superior
end
houses

of the
were

the

to

old

on

Sulpice

town.

seventeenth

burnt

thousands

St.

In

century,

sale in the markets

down,

had

the

example

effect ; whilst

a
palace
great
affairs (1682-1689) no
less than
3,000
found
Dresden
Augustus the Strong

and

converted

it into

one

of stone,

the

Montagu (1716) in all Germany.

Warsaw
herself from
her poverty-strickencondition
redeemed
the city for his
he chose
under
Stanislaus
Augustus, when
it with
capital,and, together with his magnates, enriched
numerous
palaces and publicbuildings. Berlin was improved
II at great public
Frederick
Wilham
I and
under
Frederick
also enforced
:
later, at the
cost, and
private building was
brisk epoch
Years'
a
close of the Seven
War, there was
very
received
from
her first
of building. Similarly, too, Rome
from
a city of brick
architectural
monarch
a new
garb, and
became
a
city of marble '. Thirty years after the battle of
Rome, that holds the
Actium
Ovid
speaks of 'the Golden
Yet the streets of Rome
'.
of the conquered world
treasures
under
altered or improved only to a very slightextent
were
raised that
Tiberius
the complaint was
For under
Augustus.
of the streets
and
narrowness
the great height of the houses
of escaping
allowed
of no protection against fire,or possibility
fire
in case
of collapse. Nero's
to the other side of the road
extent
mainly to the narrow
(in 64 A.D.) owed its enormous
streets and
tortuous
over-heavy houses of old Rome.'
prettiest,according

to

Lady

'

'

"

The

4
A

Rome

new

burnt

down
of

out

the

from

arose

fourteen

only smouldering

quarters

remains

fire-proof
up

now

to

in six
The

seven.

height, and

was

three

fire,when

laid low

left of

were

Gallic

of the

which

Rome,

of Nero's

were

certain

Rome

the ashes

anniversary

the

on

City of

days,

houses

and

were

of Gabinian

made

height allowed,
the districts were
made
regular, the streets straighter and
arcaded.
At
Nero's
death
(68 a.d.)these operations were
naturally not completed. Vespasian found the city marred
by the ruins of fires and fallen houses and an inscriptionof 71
boasts
of his having repaired the neglected streets of
A.D.
and

Albanian

former

stone, intervals

Yet

the

even

of the

whole)

agree

that

Juvenal
streets

Pliny,
be

there

says

but

no

the

of Rome

and

the whole

city.

of

as

ever

loftier

had

at Berlin

the

so

houses

tenants
than

Building Ordinances

street

of the

same

to

the

compass
calculated

but

in

this

liftsothers

man

cities

were

piling

site for Caesar's

width, as
only corresponding increases, and
in

sea

the

in his Laudation

says

bears

for

In

16,360) ;

Rome

in

houses, says

was

strong

sea

motives

to

of the

to

add

to

they outspread

Italy from

the

objects

Rome

Aristides

lofty.

very

great.

as

evenas

them,

;^875,ooocompensation
Rome

tall.

Were

fact, the

strong

as

carries

breadth

As

were

year
74
Alexandria

not

herself.

above

height

Authorities

were

were

(in the

(145 a.d.)that

him

up over
raised

one

the

world

and

13,200
paces,
the houses
were

town

as

of Rome

larger

was

If

seen.

two-thirds

old evils.

whence

windows,

dimly

than

more

great fire houses

were

compass
city in

Alexandria
to

after the

even

and

(which was
wholly remedy the
town

new

less

cost.

own

did not

were

extent

his

at

ages,

left,and

were

on

Forum

cities,

the

plain,

continuous

one

up

on

storeys
had

cost

were
over

and

ground landlords.
modem
capitals. Whilst
of i860
allow only 36 feet,
the maximum
height, and
at Vienna
only 45 feet (at

four

the

most

storeys)and at Paris at the most

63-6 feet to a
of
similar width, Augustus at Rome
street
fixed the maximum
height of the frontages at 70 Roman
feet, which
room
gave
for six to seven
this to 60 Roman
storeys ; Trajan reduced
five or
six storeys. Neither
feet, that is about
regulation
much
neither
extended
was
regarded ;
to
courtyards and
the

backs

taller

of the

Martial

houses

tells of

;
'

which,

no

doubt,

poor devil whose

were

built

attic is two

much

hundred

The
steps up'.
of the

aspect in which

an

Whilst

capitals.
is 70
that

heights were

These

street,

City of

Berlin

in

Rome

independent

of

Rome

behind

the

the

larger streets

is, less

the

least

where

the

houses

street, the
13 feet

be

may

Vicus

on

Rome,

at

had

modern

to

scale

high.

breadth

of

16

only

Paris

feet

the

breadth

were

the

only 36

Tuscus,

lagged

average

feet, in Rome
than

of

streets
19

feet,

24

feet,

fashionable

The

of only

pavement

If Tyre
lugarius only 16 feet 6 in.
than
Rome,
(according to Strabo) had really taller houses
of its insular
it was
the consequence
position.
in the Campus
to be found
Long and straight streets were
Martins, such as the Via Lata corresponding to the southern
part
of the Corso, and that answering to the Via de' Coronari, which
leads from the Ponte
Colonna
de Sant' Angelo to the Piazza
;
Patricius
also in the
other
like
the
Vicus
some
(Via
parts,
and
the
Semita
del
Venti
AJta
Settembre) ;
Urbana)
(Via
fall of hill and valley made
but the constant
rise and
them
few, especially as the valleys were
mostly occupied by the
Fora
and
other
magnificent vistas,
public places. Such
6

in.,the

Antioch

as

had.

In

lines

and

miles

parades,

Vicus

Alexandria

long

days of Sixtus V,
fragments of the
the
beginning of
of

the

breadth

Further,

and

their

with

to

even

the

never

ancient

the
down

present date.

'

great

rectangular blocks, Rome

in

'

to

The

the
torn

Capitoline city, referable to

third
almost
the
an
equal
century, show
remains
of straight, right-angled,and
irregular
indicate
the
mere
(no
chance)
greatest diversity

districts,and
in

show

of the lie of the town,

consequence
been
Rome,
preserved in mediaeval

have

number

and

could

"

the

of

plan

in the

the

streets.

efiect of

architectural

the

streets

of

Rome

of
by some
peculiarities
spoiled in modern
eyes
ancient
from
the straight
style : frontages,that often swerved
of irregularshape or isolated in the upper storeys,
line,windows
houses, and
unequal heights of different parts of the same
of the
the frequency of buildings adjunct or jutting,a cause
The
narrowing of the Uveliest streets.
ground floors had
no
opening on to the street, and the street walls never
spaces
would

had

be

windows.

Where

pass
In
streets.

along them

workshops

and

might

the

there
; but

arcaded

were

this could

narrower

roads,

drinking

establishments

only

taverns,
were

fronts, traffic
be in the

booths,
built

broader

shops,
into

the

The

street, as
has
In

booths
the

in the

even

with

of

their obstructions

says Martial
taken
were

be

working

whole

barbers

breadth
in

way

fit

and

tavern-room,
roads

sooty, smoking
of

for

of the

thresholds

of

All Rome,

found.

all the streets

butchers,

tradesmen,

and

wall.

sensible

itself so

big tavern,

one

dealers

by

be

to

street

houses

vanished.

the
publican'sstakes, flasks of
upon
traffic the barber
of the thickest
might

midst

muddy

the

become

; the

chained

in the

or

relief had

some

house

every

inconvenience

the

streets

projectionsmade

these

by

fixed

Roman

in 92 a.d., had
possessionof

publicans and
There
hung
wine,

tables

the

occasionally,that

Pompeii
against the
of

business-streets

shop

turmoil

Rome

City of

street

and

traffic.

now

Yet

had

Praetors

carriage-road.

streets

shops

cooked-meat

Domitian

widened

from

up

make

restricted
mere

paths

the
their
the
into

projections from

wooden

the

to

took

by
expressly indicated
the mob
between
Herodian
in a descriptionof a street-fight
in the year
and the Praetorians
ing
237 or 238 ; any fire originatthe whole
in them,
was
quickly spread over
by them
bade
forPraetextatus
town.
In the year
368 the City Praefect
of their
balconies
and bow-windows
altogether,because
danger of fires, especiallyas they had curtains.
was
site, Rome
But, despite her deficiencies in streets and
could
show
could
still aver
that Heaven
peerless. Claudian
nothing fairer ; that no eye could see her immensity, no
heart feel all her beauty, no tongue sing all her praise : and,
hundred
later, Fulgentius, the African, cried out,
one
years
beauteous
must
he saw
her :
How
the New
as
Jerusalem
be so gorgeous
!
A panegyrist of
be, if this earthly Rome
Rome
(Callinicusof Petra in Arabia) in the third century
the deprivation of those who
have
not seen
her to
compares
do not know
the sun
that of the blind, who
; he only who
Rome
dare aver
he has lived ; his lot is more
knows
apart
from
all others, than that of the consecrate
and the polluted.
the enormous,
marvellous
The
thing was
unresting turmoil
of a cosmopolitanpopulation, the confusion
and enchantment
of a reallyuniversal
intercourse, the magnificence and number
of the public places, and
the tremendous
size of the city.
From
what
aspect, asks Aristides, could a complete view be
of so many
had
heights covered with buildings,
or
so
many
into towns,
or
land made
into one
so much
valleys converted
the

houses

remained

numerous,

as

is

'

'

The
city ?

Wherever

City of
is, is the

Rome

7
And,

centre.

actually, any
height
Capitol, lost count
in this whirr
of palaces, public buildings and
monuments,
forth
beneath
him
hill
and
over
dale, endlessly.
stretching
The
ruined
of
desert
the Albanian
Hills,
to-day towards
the home
of malaria, was
then a healthy plain,all built over
one

one

looking

down

from

streets

that

teemed

with

bounded
where

in

Rome

of the

the

with

sense
;
any
ended
and

life.

On

landmark

no

no

side

there

was

the

was

realm

signify

to

The

town

outskirts

began.
Campagna,
gradually ate up the
numerous
villagesand places of the neighbourhood, and the
suburbs
lost in new
sites of beautiful
were
country-houses,
monuments.
The
marble
temples and
peaks, gables and
cupolas shone up from the dark green of the parks and gardens.
The
the most
were
public places on the Campus Martins
Strabo
has given us
a
spacious, and as magnificent as any.
picture of the impressiveness of Augustus' marble
city.
The
broad
its
the
enclosed
sinuous
on
stream,
plain
by

continued

into

immense

surface

its sward

about,
view,

rounded
an

of the
and

ever

see

new

the

and

room

green,
o"E with

for vehicles

the

was

Fora

and

colonnades,

and

the

Colonnade

riders

public buildings and

parks and avenues

essential of life,the

town

and

mere

and

But, enter

all this
the

"

and

what

had

was

remainder

city itself,
with temples

the

outspread in succession, cased in

the Capitol and
its erections,
of Livia

all

monuments

centre, to which

addition.

gymnasts,

been

the

Palatine

seen

without

concludes
might well be forgotten. Such a town, Strabo
his description,is Rome.
Any losses in the fires under Nero
tions
and Titus were
replaced or restored, and the originalfoundacould
be
of the Campus
Martins
enlarged. The whole
traversed
under
the cover
of colonnades
entire length
; the
ten
of the
principal porticos of the ninth Regio (Circus
and
the
at
estimated
metres,
Flaminius) has been
4,500
whole
and
rain
at
sun
area
protected from
27,500 ; the
about
and
2,000
metres,
100,000
comprised about
square
columns.
Pliny says that in every single one of her wonders
Rome
was
sovereign, but her entirety and the collection of
In the
world
in size.
in a singlespot created
them
a second
latter days of the Republic, the colossal wall of King Servius,
the Capitol
fifty feet broad, the huge buildings beneath
and

the

system of cloacae

had

been

an

object of

admiration

Rome

City of

The

arms

(as PUny says)

one
point, and

Circus, the Forum

of

the

had

cloacae

subterranean

main

seven

the strong fall swept all

meeting at
pressure
objectsdown ; its vaults resisted the most enormous
from
earthquakes. In Pliny's time,
above, collapses and
the most
Julius Caesar's Great
magnificent buildings were

by

him

with

of

Agrippa

till then

in the

her

later

Caracalla

Severus

third

followed

hard

the

Via

Nova,

on

the

first of the

the

other, works

visited it in the

was

the

in

last

century, edifices

second

admired

made

on

by

the

latest

the

Emperor

Con-

357 for the first time, and

year

only buildings

in this passage,

names,

which

contemporaries. Ammianus

less than
by
generations, no
describes
the impression Rome

stantius,who

Yet

street.

Rome

beautify her.

to

laid

size up
of Peace.
a

Antonines,

the

much

handsomest

first,and

each

of

Hadrian

Caracalla, did

Thermae

Rome's

of the

roof

finallyVespasian'sTemple

and

his

near

pronounced

fiftyyears from Vespasian to

greatest splendour, although

the

attained

theDiribitorium

and

Phrygian marble,
Campus Martins with
of

and

unseen,

During
and

columns

Augustus, the Basilica of Paulus, restored

of his

day.

own

As

of the
centre
the famous
to the Forum,
Emperor came
The
amazement.
dumb
with
ancient
sovereignty, he was
Temple of Jupiter on the Tarpeian Rock gleamed as with a
as huge as whole
provinces. The
present deity. The baths seem
Flavian
Amphitheatre, a mighty building of Tiburtine stone,
invisible to the eye.
That
to heights almost
bulks
did
splenround
temple of the Pantheon, with its lofty vaulting,
there
the huge commemorative
columns, to the tops of which
the

are

steps that

the

statues

Rome,
the

the

of

former

Forum

Stadium,

from

lead

all

the

inside, and

monarchs,

of Peace,
these

the

Temple

of the

Pompey's Theatre,
emulate

monuments

with

surmounted

Goddess

the
one

Odeum,
another

and

led
he was
magnificence. But when
of Trajan, and
this building, probably
to the Forum
saw
even
unparallelledon earth, and admired
by the Gods, he
stood
wander
still,and let his mind
through the gigantic
in words, unrealizable
again by man.
space, undescribable
considerable remains
The
give us, on the whole, an insight
A basilica of huge dimensions,
into the plan of imperialRome.
in

and

beauty, glory

behind

it the

hundred

the

Emperor's deeds,

for

an

open

square

foot

formed

; this

area

the

column

commemorative

background

was,

to

one

and

of

ideal centre

entering from

the

The

10

'

principal

'

marvels

the

of Rome

set out,

are

of

wonders

seven

Rome

City of

The

world.

the

poise
counter-

evidently to

marvels

seven

the

the aqueducts,
very variouslygiven) are : the cloacae,
Domitian's
Odeum,
Flavian
Amphitheatre or Colosseum,

the

Thermae

(by

the

(no doubt

visitors
But

and

that

through

her

enthrall

his

by

the

the

of the

those

the

even
filled,

marbles.

as

may

to

these

be

formed

ravages,
denizened

was

newer

objects
held

his

gaze
which
art,

late

there

generals,which
of
the

bronze

would

hundred

two

could

second

to

say,

some

up

hues
as

were

of
the

10,000.

conception

later, after

no

years
that
Rome's

walls

and

bronze.

population of stone

The

statues

than

more

fast

and

bronzes

brought

have

collections, and

private

how,

3,785

to

decorated

squares,

century,

public statues

the

the
with

still

were

Cassiodorus
with

streets

fourth

the

as

and

her

wanderer

baths, like the

Then

and
emperors
number
whole
Add

the

The
hand

every

on

saw

and

with

town

mural

of

of

labyrinthine completeness.
atria and
temples glistenedwith the varied
paintings and pictures, and their rooms,

whole

the

outstretched.

marvels.

Everywhere

elder

the

now,

Rome

and

cityof

realm

as

Janiculum
guides made

incomparable splendour

Rome

attention.

walls of the
of

made

endless

work

then

Hills
this

only

not

architecture

Seven

the

at

top of the

the

from

view

Paola), whence,

Acqua
gape
it was

the

few
were

And

everywhere the buildings were

interceptedand defined by
ing
these flourishwere
green gardens and parks, and at all seasons
and
fresh.
The
covered
by the gardens
EsquiUne was
of Maecenas,
Pallas, Epaphroditus, Torquatus, as
though
the
of
and
the
of
Lucullus
Acilii,
gardens
by a huge park :
Sallust,

occupied the

whole

surface

of Monte

Pincio

and

the

the
of the"
neighbouring valleys. And
spacious environs
palaces enclosed gardens, with splendid ancient trees, wherein
twittered
birds
favourites
in
:
especiaUy lotus-trees were
of the shade they afforded.
The
town
gardens, on account
in the garden of Crassus
six lotus-trees
the orator, which
at as high a price(3,000,000sesterces)
valued
in 92 B.C.
were
the palace itself,were
as
destroyed only 150 years later in
Nero's
from
the
roofs and
balconies
conflagration. Even
and
bushes
made
the
flowers
air odorous.
Especially on
the right shore of the Tiber, and the surrounding hills,gardens
to the
spread out.
Many were
partly imperial, were
open

The

Rome

City of

ll

of lauiels
public ; further, in tlie-Gajnpus Martius, avenues
and
planes, densely shaded, invited pleasant walks ; in the
Colonnade
of Livia
(situatedon the level between
gorgeous
the north-west
side of Trajan's Thermae
and
the church
of
Santa
Lucia
the
in Selci),
foliageof one
huge vine, trellised
for passers by. Gordian
III
up in the open, provided shadow
had
the
Monte
Pincio
the
on
designed, below
Campus
Martius
with
of
a
laurels, myrtles
plantations
large garden
and
thousand
feet long and
five hundred
feet
box-trees, one
wide, intersected lengthwise by a walk, to be paved with
of cylindricalpedestals surmosaics
and
fenced
with
rows
mounted
by statuettes. On the two sides lengthwise,columned
halls were
to finish the design, and
along its breadth, on the

'

one

side

there

the

other

side

be

to

was

winter

and

Basilica

This

baths.

baths,

summer

plan

not, however,

was

the space
filled up
was
executed, and under Constantine
private gardens and buildings.
Rome's
But
proudest decoration
perhaps ancient
the
multitude
and
beauty of her water-works, which
also

for

invaluable

the

of

health

disadvantages

many

the

of

inhabitants

site

on

and

with

was
were
pensated
com-

and

building. The
city in underground
comprising a length

conducted
into the
mountain-springs were
pipes or on mighty arches (under Nerva
in waterfalls out of artistic
of 300 miles),and
poured down
grottoes, or spread out like ponds in broad and richlydecorated
cool
fountains, whose
reservoirs, babbling up in gorgeous
air.
A
and
sideration
conpurified the summer
fragrance freshened
diverted
to public use
of the water
of the mass
for baths, ponds, canals, palaces,gardens, suburban
country-

houses, of the
the

arches,

traversed, of the

distances
bored

hills

through

Pliny, convince
says
made
had
wonderful
been
would,

among

Rome's

on

springs,the water
filthyor hard '.

of which

in

none

her
is

of the

levelled

that

man
any
earth.

principaladvantages
'

the

and

work

mason

valleys,
nothing more

Galen

also

reckoned

many

and

beautiful

harmful,
evil-smelling,
sources
provided, after

entirety of the
less than
their yield,never
doubled
almost
Frontinus
675,000
This
water
metres.
cubic
constantly increasing
supply was
down

to

the

ceaseless

century, and

third

publicresorts
a

The

not

only

addition

to

made

enjoyable and
the

numbers

recreation

in

the

great

healthy, but also induced

of the public baths and

wells, the
of

City of

The

12

^d.

Rome

being universally accessible

baths
visitor.

The

of the

Gazetteer

at

fourth

low

rate

century

says

the

swimmingMany
day 591) i,352-

besides, and

of

856 baths, eleven thermae

baths
with
well-supplies(in Nerva's
of
art
works
with
decked
of these
swimming-baths were
after
a
watersnake), and named
(such as Agrippa's, with
them
; e.g., the
spring of Orpheus, Ganymede, Prometheus
there

were

etc. ;

conical

popularly
called

the

'

called

last bath, and

the

Trofei

in

these

the

from

water

sweating pillar'. The ruin

magnificent ruin of a monumental

di Mario,

splendour '.
Gazetteer
speaks

which

with

The

luxurious
the

flooded

structure

are

sole relics of this

the

the

Further,

second

'

above,
of

this

spring,
evidently

supplement

of

well-houses,
or
Nymphaea,
doubt
flowed
water
or
richly ornamented
;
rose, no
to
realize,
of
us
so-called
help
Egeria may
grotto
of

fifteen

and
di Termini
di
Trevi
may
Acqua Paola, Fontana
of
their decorations
the swimming-baths and
pictures. The
wholly destroyed by Sixtus V)
(first
Septizonium of Severus
comer
a three-storied, architectural
glory,by the south-west
of the Palatine, resting on
consistingof three almost
pillars,
sides
both
semicircular
on
by projecting
parts, enclosed
Trevi
'.
Fontana
three-fold
seemed
been
to
have
a
wings,
has seen
the people rest from
He
who, in the hot season,
at these artificial cascades, and, in the evening,
their labours
stone
breathe
the
air among
these
freshening mountain
in and give out anew
sucked
the middayerections which have
the pride with
which
people in
glow, may well understand
Nerva's
of Rome's
day might boast they had efiaced the causes
former
leaden
and
The
pernicious atmosphere.'
crowning
of the
whole
the
feature, however,
was
system
provision
After the Water-board
of private houses with running water.'
in II B.C. became
imperial,contracting-outof enterprisesfor
the water-supply of private individuals wholly came
to an
end,
obtain
could
and every man
leave, without
any regard to the
of the consumption, of having his house supplied and, in
nature
Strabo's
lifetime already, almost
house
had
in Rome
every
reservoirs, supply through pipes and abundant
fountains '.
Every enjoyment and luxury then known
made
was
sible
accesof Rome,
through the world-wide
commerce
filled
which
her markets,
with
the most
shops and warehouses
splendid
as

'

'

'

'

and

laborious

works

of

industry

and

art

from

among

all

The
peoples. Pliny
is produced on
whole

world

calls the

could

'In

'.

earth
be

'

Tiber

had

the

wine

and

the

the

all

from

oysters

the

sea-fish from

and

Bahrein

from

islands

and

boards

of

marble

quarriedin

his

and

seas

produce, what
barbarian

hand

here

at

here

from

that

the

may

what

rivers

and

the

the

of

and

in

lakes

work

the
and

andria,
Alexcheese

In

houses
ware-

Sicily and Africa lay

the
scents, pearls from
the
Urals, fine-grained
blocks

'

and

the

of coloured

colossal
the
'

To

there

bring forth

seasons

and

during the

', says
from

comes

the climates

and

whole

toil of

So

discovery

handicraft

the

extent

you

of Hellene

therefore, wish

excess.

all lands

Sea.

Aventine,

journey through
the

Greece,

Black

Rome,

Whoever,

For

of

Atlas, and

of

the

isles

provinces ; the
be gathered from

on

Laudation

either

city.

the

farthest

make.

this, must
this

the

of marble

in

all lands

from

importation

warehouse

Arlstides

in

merchandise

from

emeralds

costlytimber

of this last

or

of all that

'

and

gentle buyer

Rome

Alps
and
shops healing herbs
in stock, and
Arabian
spices

of

13

together : Spanish work

silk, brightly-tintedglass and fine linen from

Chinese

from

City of Rome

view

to

world

other

or

folks

is

merchantmen

many
entire

stay
ever
come

and

summer

all

winter,

a
city seems
general workshop of the entire world.
So many
India
and
Felix
here to
Arabia
are
freightsfrom
almost
be seen,
that it would
as
though henceforward
appear
of those
countries
the
trees
are
stripped, and those races
to Rome
to demand
here
what
of
must
come
they need
from
their own
Babylon and
jewels
products. Costumes

from

the

number
from

depths
and

island

an

all that

with

trade

of

barbarian

greater

Asia

than

ease

here

arrive

they

would

in

more

be

shipped

short,
Archipelago
reaches
and
all that
Rome,
ships may
bring
and
mines
bring to the upper light,and all

agricultureearns
the products of

the

in

every

Athens.

to

art, all that

is born

In

and

on

grows

earth.'
In

fact, everything at

being

the

lofty tower,
farthest

centre,
the

by birds ', reaches

who
sat
the
Emperor
whole
by letter. From
were

conduced

world-state

whole

boundaries,

Rome

earth

ceaseless
the
there
the

whence,

could

seat
on

be

flow

of

'

news,

feeling of!

from

as

some;

borne

empire,

throne,

principalplaces

the'

From

surveyed.

of universal
his

the

to

could
the

as
so

it

that

rule the

Emperors

The

14

Rome

City of

day
reports from
(anyhow at times) continuous
Alexandria
in
to day ; Caligula used
from
read
those
to
the rain
in Upper Egypt
Whether
preference to all others.
had
an
earthquake,
fallen, or in Little Asia there had been
the
Parthian
mutinous
Rhine
or
whether
the legionson the
were
afterwards
such
Court had changed its tone towards
Rome
; soon
and the Campus
the Forum
discussed
on
Martius,
topics were
unheard-of
and
freak
social parties. Any rare
at feasts and
received

of Nature
Artists

instantly

was

from

came

prowess,
poets and

The

heard.

openly

of all lands

from

and

splendour of
looks of gods and
its largest scope,

enjoyment
"^

In

the

gloat

rolls ; in the
other

28)

at

were

and

erudition

the

he

could

craft.
be
in
of

be

listen

the

carried
some

nowhere

learning from

Splendid
in the imperial

else at

abroad

sius of HaUcarnassus

them,

baths

to

to

and

institutions

andin

of material

Peace

incitement

light upon

and

in

lecture

the

the

theatres
of

masters

at

were

thermae

for

in all seasons,

steam-baths,

all,doubtlesslyattracted

Diodorus,
his

baths
and

the

at

Rome,

disposal

recreation

apartments

such

every
else
and
men

DionyAugustus' days.

in

even

of every

help

researches, such

long stays

and

for his

of

discourses

papyrusthere
in
and

Teftiple of

the

as

the

literature

and

parchment

and

(put by

projectsin literature, which could nowhere

out
under
such
favouring circumstances,

cases

be

and-

unobtainable

elsewhere

Great

knowledge

learned, assembled

might

mass

to

of

such

he
a

ambition

recreation

libraries

costly

on

the

resorts

kind, and

and

numerous

devotee

will

'Trajan's
Thermae,
of every
would
as

of

circles of

public

offered

study,
glorious opportunities.

rooms

his

at

learning,to

', which

turned

men

and

wreath

'

the

most

halls

'Gazetteer
could

the

the

their

capable and enthusiastic of the youth

their provincialobscurity to the gieam
which
the
on
City of the Universe

most

flocked

of

men

exhibited.

skill and

for

great competitions

philosophersand

orators,

their

show

to

there

and

Rome

to

all countries

vie in the

to

or

sent

of
and

the

as

humblest

delectation

kind, fromswimmingof

than

royal
course
physical exercise, interThe
older
thermae
those
(of which
to have
of Nero
been
the most
seem
luxurious, as they are
as
in size
frequently taken
types of regal splendour) were,
of Caracalla
at
lejist, surpassed by those
and
Diocletian.
magnificence set aside
and
pleasure.

for

his

more

The
The

statement

seats,

whilst

double

that

that

Nero's
of

those

number,

Gazetteer

Rome

City of
thennae

Caracalla

had

and

1,600 marble

the

bath-

had

Diocletian

from,

emanates

15

almost

official

same

source

ever,
supplements. Every marvel, howof this city of marvels, was
eclipsed by her spectacles
the stage, in the circus, in the arena
on
fantasy's
; there what
wildest
stretch
actualized
into jan overwhelming
might imagine, was
reality.
Yet
the greatest of Rome's
her population,
spectacleswas
of Claudius, overflowed
which, as Seneca
says in the early years
the
the houses
of the boundless
city ; there would
be trampled down,
and
the streets
gleanings of the world
had to provide space for a stream
of men
and women,
ing
proceedour

as

and

its

three

to

separate theatres, and

foot if any Obstacle

hindered
The
for one
instant.
last
due

perhaps

51, in the
which
the
of

streets

to

of

which

weaker

The
would

Rome

sort

an

succumbed.

prae-Neronic

this

earthquake
panic flightcaused

of

the

of

made

is

recorded
the

in

year
crush
in

and

tortuous

such

accidents

narrow

have

under

mortality

of

rushing cataract

incident

recollection

course

the

crushed

were

men

catastrophes on extraordinary
strewing money
Caligula was
of the Basilica
in front
lulia, in the fight thirty-two men,
and a eunuch
came
by their death ; during
forty-seven women
the night a crowd
thronged into the circus and disturbed
had
them
his slumbers
; he
cudgelled, and twenty knights,
doubly dangerous, yet only two
occasions
are
reported. When

twenty
Further,
a

and

women

number

enormous

it from

have

we

of thirteen

boy

an

inscriptionthat

an

caught

were

besides

in

crowd

the

on

killed.

were

and

woman

Capitol and

died.

so

much

world,

mixed.

The

the

stronger

all nations.
of

the

mass

from

streets
more

the
and

with

that

of all nations

the

was

of

centre

very
the

centripetal attraction

Rome

community

to

formed

the

Constantine,

its

called

of Rome

squares
became

peoples. But the real immigration in

of the
provinces began after the overthrow
ever,
in varying force, scarcely diminishing, how-

of

until

calls Rome

and

Rome

became

Cicero

Even

fusion

Republic,
blood

in the

throng

This

Rome,

overflowed

and

of the ancient
of every
race
life is alien born, fused
city whose
;

and

Herodian

in

the

third

blended

world.
with

century

her

Lucan
the

dregs

calls her

'

The

"

City of

population variegated
Constantius
'

how

And,

'

'

; and

of

one

(inthe first half of

phrase, a multum
And
this medley
'

strangers

of

went

that

her

the

and

became

and

more

globe ', the

of the

world

additional

more

inn

in

at

of the

sophist
happy

'.

colour

from

courtesans

Roman

came.

'

the

century),called her,

second

Emperor
people:

congregates

adorers, Polemo,

Greek

derived

went

she

of the

hub

in parvo

earth

on

man

on,
'

city ', the

common

world

at

type

she

as

the
commingled, and
the sight of the Roman

and

stared

swiftly every

Rome'.
of

also

Rome

the

many

received

CiliParthians, Germans,
Martial)
cians, Cappadocians, Egs^ptians, Nubians,
Jews, Dacians,
and Alani.
At especialfunctions, such as the great spectacles,
the
number
of foreigners reached
extraordinary heights.
Even
battle (2 B.C.),Ovid
at Augustus' spectacle of a naval
visits from

(accordingto

world
was
says the whole
the Flavian
amphitheatre
from

the

in

Rome

(according

at

the

consecration

to

Martial) spectators

of

farthest

and
regions, Sarmatians
foregathered
and Aethiopians. But, ordinarily,
Sigambrians,Arabians, Sabaeans
strangers thronged in Rome, the irresistible lodestar
to all men's
passions,the
pay-mistress of virtue
generous
and
vice ', and
the most
and
promising field for adventurers
kind.
The
of every
and
righteous man
reliable,
scamps
could
find
there
no
of
security
hope
; no
making
sayB Martial,
there
for
who
his fortune was
not
were
a
pimp, or a
any one
'

toper,
or
near
as

the

earn

who

informer,

an

love-fee

would

of

royal palace,or
their claque.
the

seduce

not

ancient

his

beldames,

let himself

out

to

or

friend's

wife,

sell idle

tales

musical

the

geniuses

gabble of a hundred
speeches
the
and
be
of
heard,
rubbed
shapes
garbs
might
every race
Moorish
slaves
led
shoulders.
the
out
elephants from
There
a
Germans
of
Emperor's stables.
troop of blond
in gleaming armour.
the Emperor's Life Guards
was
exercising
Here
heads, in sweeping linen robes
Egyptians, with shaven
were
carrying the goddess Isis in procession. Behind
a
Nubian
Greek
a
was
professor young
carrying his scrolls of
in
tall
Oriental princes
books.
mitres
and
broad
motley
garments with their suite pacing silent,solemn
through the
from
crowd
Britain staring their eyes out
savages
; tattooed
In

at

this

the

wise

marvels

at

Rome

of the

new

world

all about

them.

Rome

City of

The

the scarcity of housing,

enhanced
by the Caesars
A
further
did Napoleon Ill's improvements at Paris.
as
the
in price of dwellings was
of the increase
adjutory cause
had
habit
of speculation in house
property (which Crassus
practisedin great style)and the monopoly of the proprietors,
of which
in consequence
houses, Uke
English lodging-houses
then
sub-let, and the large
let and
in the big towns, were
to be paid by the occupiers. In the
middlemen's
had
rents
of

Rome

for

Pandects,
than

more

' in

the
in

been

heavy

The

four

times

lower

class

as

greater.

profitwas

reality,no doubt,
lodging-house rents

Rome,

families

on

in

as

average,

the

other

at

per cent. ;
Caesar's time

20

In

the

have

to

seem

of

towns

Italy.

paid 2,000
i^ los.),annually for

Rome

at

seem

is reckoned

sublessee's at

the

cent., and

30 per

profit

lessee's

the

example,

to

have

(c.li\ 155. and

of
the
in Rome
homes.
Yet
their
prices under
pressure
of society,
with
the growing claims
events, as stated, and
risen even
have
must
though Juvenal'sassertion
higher, even
and garden in Sora Fabrabe exaggerated, that a house
may
the annual
than
teria or Frusino
could be bought for no more
sestertii,in Italy 500

of

rent

dark

high, and
by

prices of

the

But

the

such

poor

\ further, every

man

iof all,was

forced

high
a

ever

certain

their

by

for

did

not

belong

to

circumstance

of

ungentlemanly

for

without

many,

demanded

the

outward

be

very
had

and^

'

lowest

up

of the

class,

needlessly
less wealthy
a

beyond
appearance,
To
eartheneat off ware

business-men.
; or

nothing

keep

to

also

were

scarcelyto

was

Custom

e.

food

Rome

of
especially

means,

and

life

in

extravagance

was

and,

who

of Uf

standard

of wood

nothing

of

necessities

other

those

as
'

Rome.

at

room

to

go
retinue

out

without

of

clients

one's
and

toga,
slaves.

the
starving were
general
poverty, wasteful
and
the
of
lot ; frauds
order
the
Martial
bankruptcies
day.
You
that
there
see
man
sauntering gracefully
says (86 a.d.):
fashionable
cloak
of
violet
along, in a
purple, and with his
Pretentious

'

train

of clients

just pledged
for

to

pay
remarks
more

unknown.

ring

his

that
than

and

to

to

and
pages
at Cladus

supper
go

move

If the

'.

his
the

from

money

usurer's

Juvenal,

bankrupt, for
one

some

most

quarter

they

sedan-chair.

new

are

He

has

for

eight sestertii
later,
forty years
no
people, costs them

to

another.

squandering

Shame

before

is
theit

The
creditors'

Rome

running out, they

oysters, and are only
be

eyes

themselves

City of

19
off to

are

Baiae

to

glut

absent
they must
the Circus.
themselves
one
specious glamour
year from
of Roman
in as
life was
with
the provincial
great contrast
of the municipia, as
the
simplicity and unostentatiousness
of the towns
of Upper Italy was
sterner
moral tone
with the
on

unrestrainedness

corruption and
from

hushing
publicity,
Rome

was

her

up

one

which

city of noise
turmoil
going on
the

'

hills.

But

to

escape
during the

and

far

so

in

ofiensive

bustle.

night

from

streets

Rome,

them

continual

complained of the
and
crowding of
scurry
he hastened
and tempests
Sabine

with

orgies, celebrated

had

of the

sorry
The

Horace

and

the

day,
'

whose

torrents

into

the

chaste

first

century population !

solitude

reaching its zenith, perhaps, \

activity increased
apace,
'
and
in the days of Martial
Juvenal. Before daybreak the
the
bakers
would
be hawking their loaves, and
shepherds,
from
the
into
the
town
surrounding districts, their
coming
milk : then the infant schools would
begin intoningthe alphabet,
the rasping workshops were
with
set
hammer
and
and
saw
haul
would
huge blocks of stone
going. Creaking waggons
the weight of which
the
and
trunks
of trees, with
ground
laden
beasts
of
burden
the
footwould
jostled
quake, heavily
knocks
and
all sides jolting and
trampling,
passenger ; on
and

fine

confusion

Here,

says
bad

Nero's

which

in

(100 a.d.), the

Martial
coin

down

his

on

their advantage.-

pickpockets reap

clatters

money-changer

dirty table, and

there

workman

anvil.
A
procession of
Spanish gold on an
hammering
is shrieking uninterruptedly; a
raving priests of Bellona
wrapped
shipwrecked sailor, with a fragment of the wreck
up in his hand, is begging alms ; a Jewish lad, sent out by
the
to beg ; the call of a blear-eyed pedlar from
his mother
side of the Tiber, offeringsulphur-matches for broken
other
with
trained
animals
(Juvenal speaks
glass. Jugglers,some
of a monkey
riding a goat and swinging a spear), Marsianis

snake-eaters
for

their

snake-charmers

and
craft.

Pedlars,

what-not, carriers of
with
and

the

calling for

are

peddling

pea-flourand smoking

reeking quarter of beef, and

blood-red
lung, each, to his

proclaiming his

"

own

clothes,

old

wares.

sausages,

the
own

foot,

spectators
linen

and

butchers
the

guts,

screeching tune,

The

20

Rome

City of

nights, no less noise. In the spacious palaces,

the street, sleep
from
their sleeping apartments far removed
in the lodgings.
and quiet might be had ; so much
the worse
which
The
might not
rattling of the travelling-coaches,
the
enter
the city for the greater part of the day, awoke
of the
soundest
the sharp comers
sleeper,as they turned
And
narrow
streets.
then the roaring of troops of vagabond
(and amongst these
ruffians,and moonlighters of either sex
sometimes
as
of high rank, such
women
JuUa the daughter
of Augustus), or lovers' serenades, strivingto obtain admission
to their lady by entreaty or force.
And,

And
and

of

bolted

when

door was
every
silent, then the empty

unlit

to, every
streets

both

strange
processions

were

Funeral

and

dangerous to the soUtary walker.

might be met by night bearing the dead

closed

tavern

of the

to the

poor

pyre.

Although
of

Rome

cohorts

seven

after
of

one

6
year
thousand
men

the

had

poUce force
(which also served

a.d.

each

doubt
and
no
fire-brigade),
patrols with their torches
marched
through their districts all night long, yet thefts
and
common.
burglarieswere
Pliny says that the windows
at which
had otherwise
people of small means
put out flowers
and
shuttered
off even
of the
leaves, were
by day, because
of countless
evil robberies
multitudes
probably, after
;
in the year
the Civil War,
69 a.d., insecurity was
greatly
describes
house-owners
as
augmented.
Juvenal
using their
slaves
Dio
mentions
that
as
night-watches ; Cassius
they
carried bells and
to
so
another.
Robbers
used
one
signalled
make
from
not seldom
to
assaults,
which, according to Tibullus,^
of Venus
shielded
the grace
lovers.
threatened
Many were
with the daggers of a bribed bandit
; such
thronged to Rome,
as

'

'

when

their

pine

wood

lurking-placesin
south

of the

the

Pontine

Voltumus

marshes

and

the

occupied by soldiers.
And
further risks attended
the poor
who
man
lighted himself
with
his candle-stump, or let a single slave light him
home
he encounter
nobleman
a young
who
on, should
was
returning
from

some

To

do

of

the

late feast with

night in
gilded youth. The

mischief

path were
joke),or

held

at

up,

otherwise

tossed

were

great followingand
the

streets

wretched
on

maltreated.

was

mantles

the

torches.

standing pleasure
who

men

outspread
From

many

roofs

crossed

their

(a soldiers'
tiles would

fall ; from

upper

broken

or

the

The

City of

windows

basins

thrown

crockery

Rome
of

down,

21

be

water
crash

to

poured down,
and

shatter

on

pavement.

More

the

still were

dangers

to which

posed.
exlodgerswere
Most
of the lodging-houses
were
jerry-built
by speculators,
attractive but riskygame
an
; it might be very profitable,
but for the frequent fires that consumed
the capital. The
doubt
aimed
at building in such
a
contractors, therefore,no
a few
styleas to make
years' rental exceed or at least repay
the
capital expenditure. They exploited the ground, not
but also by
only by building as many
storeys as possible,
the size of single rooms,
and
cutting down
reducing repairs
to the
least possible; a
of building, which
manner
also,
its part, considerably increased
The
the danger of fire.
on
thin
partitions and walls of these piled-up lodging-houses
provided no sufficient protectionagainst heat or cold, and
in especial
made
of wood
were
or
was
panels ; lattice-work

serious

'

favour

seductive

it looked

answered

easily to

Seneca,

'

the

the

fabric,
'

burst

arises from

solid
or

our

split.'
roofs

outside,

all the

speculator'spurpose

the

materially warped
very

from

the

as

Part

better

it

tend

', says

picturedrooms

in the

even

but

dread

our

thus

would

walls

of

and

'.
if a crackling be heard
great palaces, panic ensues,
A
of the lodging-houses were
crumbling ; the
great many
most
neglected or scamped ; the agent
urgent repairs were
of the

totteringwall, or painted a huge rift over, and

assured
occupants they could sleep at their ease, all the
Even
time that their home
their heads.
was
crumbling over
well as fires,
in the latter days of the Republic collapses,
as
the daily fare of Rome.
Catullus jeeringlysays beggars
were
Strabo
in not
fortunate
were
having to fear either.
says
the
dread
imminent
both
of these dangers were
;
ceaselessly
propped

of

them

and

up
the

drove

nervous

later centuries

Symmachus,
that

their

lives.

in

collapsein

folks

from

presumably did
letter, adds, as
the

Via

Traiana

Rome
not
a

alter these

piece
has

of stone
Rome
fires,in the modem
in ancient
Rome,
an
impossibility,were
but
infinitelymore
dangerous on account
building, the height of the houses, and
The

Trajan's time,

in

of

the

news,

cost

and
not

of
the

conditions.

the

fact

occupants

brick

almost

only frequent,
the
style of
narrowness

of

The

22

the

streets, the

which

fed the

Throughout
little
and

the

the
old

of 7,000

set

the

hills

domestic
is

In

fires forced
; but

men

succession

of

the

the

year

Augustus

reform

rear-buildings
terrific rapidity.

and

with

spread them
history of Rome,

by

of extensive

series

raised

levels

their

a.d.,

his Fire

to institute

effected

less
number-

besides the

general conflagrations,

continually having

were

wreckages.

(themeans
shght.

of

Brigade
ing
extinguish-

Under
Tiberius
very imperfect)was
very
Caelius
in the year
was
;
great fires occurred
27 Mount
the
the
on
fire, in 37 a.d.
Aventine, and
contiguous
were

two

flames,and

Rome

fore-houses

wooden

many

fires,there

and,ruinous

City of

portion

so

of the

Circus

good

the

he could, made
amounted

Tiberius, on

to 100,000,000

damage,

both

which

occasions,

in the

second

as

far

as

instance

(;"i,o87,50o).And Caligula,
for
also, in the beginning of his reign, compensated many
the damage
wrought by fire. In the conflagrationof Nero,
besides
countless
number
of lodging-houses,niany
a
palaces
of the generals of old were
of foreign
lost, with their treasure
booty, and
temples consecrated
by the Kings, and
many
in the
Gallic and
Punic
and
Wars,
important relics
many
of antiquity '.
The
riches won
victories,the
by so many
masterpiecesof the arts of Greece, the ancient and uncorrupted
of great writers
works
these
were
irreparable,however
beautiful
the resurrected
After this devastation,
city might be.
under
fire which
Titus, there followed
a
raged for three
days and nights in the Campus Martins.
Pliny considered
these firesa retribution on luxury, though luxury, nevertheless,
continued
Martial
hoardihg its pricelessfood for the flames.
erections
in place
new
(90 A.D.),glorifyingDomitian's
says
of those
renewed
her
destroyed in this last fire, that Rome
forth
youth in the flames like the Phoenix, and prays Vulcan henceto spare
the city, which
well
as
appertained to Venus
Under
to Mars.
Antoninus
Pius a fire ravaged 340 homes.
as
Gellius states
how, whilst
once
(at this same
epoch) as a
the
orator
man
with
Julianus home
accompanying
young
his pupils,they saw
a
stories on
lodging-house of many
fire,
the
near
Mon" Cispius,and the destruction
soon
spread over
whole
the
one
neighbourhood, at which
man
remarked,
that, house-rents
being so high, he would
long since have
invested, if some
preventive against Rome's
continual
fires
sesterces

'

'

'

"

could

have

been

devised.

In

the year

191

a.d.,

under

Com^

modus,

the

the

Palatine.

sank

for

the

ground

terrible

mere
a

of further

large portion of
;

the

in

the

it

broke

out

warehouses

crossed

to

over

futile ;

it

only
levellingto
less
devouring number-

were

after

city,and
the

on

the

then

and

nourishment

great Ubraries

Palatine

burnt,

were

Sacra,

of Galen's
containing some
books.
The
Capitoline plan of the city (about 203-211)
erections
of Severus
shows
the new
and
in replaceCaracaUa
ment
restoration
of those
or
fire, abovedestroyed. The
out in the street fight of 237 or 238,
broke
m^entioned, which
of the city. Under
also laid low
Carinus
a
an
great area
store

fire in

extensive
the

and

the

(afterNero's)

restrict

to

23

annihilated

goods,

efforts

lack

Rome

fire

and

Peace,

Arabian

All

treasures

and

most
of

Temple
Egyptian and

of

City of

second

the

near

The

houses

Via

the

Forum

round

it.

fire and

Besides

the

forced

var3ring intervals, threatened

often
accompanied
years
5, 15, 51, 59
its
overflowed
banks, and

experience,too,

below

i^

of

Rome

mUes

', says

with

broad.

68

so

modem
'

the

Between

as

Tiber, too, often

'

valley of

the

quakes,
Earth-

recurred

far inland

Rome.

also, at

Rome.

The

a.d.

nowhere

Moltke,

collapse.Nature
inundations,

it

rebuild

to

overwhelm

to

and

in the

an

of

danger

Diocletian

Both

the

above

"

and

Tiber

is about

the

southern

and

Aventine

Rome,

at

as

Janiculum, where the wall to-day begins to decline,

thousand
hills are
the
high. Here there
nearly one
paces
after heavy rains in the
must
naturally be a congestion,when
hills,the Tiber, the Nera, the Velino, the Anio and the Paglia
and other tributaries
are
flowing in torrents '. The Emperors
and
of the stream
did not neglect anything in the management
its bed.
Augustus set up a department for this purpose, and
In the year
it continuously administered
had
by consulars.
foot of the

held in the
was
15, a futile discussion
fed the
of the rivers and lakes which
at
was

records

Ostia

Trajan, also, in

far

year
and

108

or

wide, and

spread

46

year

the

one

from

109,

when

further

the

use

river

the Anio
stUl.

And

An

when

inscription
harbour

the

Rome
the

sources

from
Tiber

to

the
the

reign,laid a draining
but, in spite of this, in

of his

first half
stUl in

a.d.,

the

on

Tiber.

delivered

had

digging channels

of floods, by

canal, possiblythe
the

Claudius

building there,

danger
sea.

that, in the

Senate

overflowed
also
so

was

in

the

flat

flooded, the

spring

or

country
tation
devasautumn

The

24
the

Tiber, despite all efforts and

precautions,
reached
and
higher
low-lying parts of Rome,

of the

waters

inundated

the

levels, thrust

by rain,

backwards

until

they

as

and

by storms,

were

old

they destroyed the

swollen

bridge, and

wooden

and
animals.
impetuous surges men
districts were
knee-deep in water ; only
accessible
by boats,
higher storeys emerged, and were

carried

in
away
days whole

For
the

carried

which
the

food

famine,

because

of

at

in the
Rome

to

the

6g)

Church

riverine

position

height of

the

Forum

river

has

not

the

under*

famine

rotted

followed

full stores

the

expressly says happened

also tells of a flooding
stocked
corn
belonging

from

the

Rome,

disadvantages of
the

as

low

levels

(inthe Campus Martins

by six to twelve),whilst the
risen in the
same
proportion.

naturally

contributed

in

inundations

of

frequency

when

accretions

and

circumstance

This

and

And

of Tours

modern

by the

raised

the

had

more

than

channel,

plagues

Gregory

suffered

metres,

wonted

incidentallythe
destroyed.

was

since been

occupants.

(as Plutarch

which

in

two

his

inundations

And

Rome

by

into

wharves

Ancient

have

secluded

the

anew

the

the

year

of

to

collapsed,and

houses

com

their

sank

stream

mined

Rome

City of

little

no

to

antiquity. Historians

the
have

severest
the
of them,
and
these
only recorded
under
Augustus (27, 23, 22, 13 b.c, and
imperfectly,as five
to the
theatre of Cornelius
access
new
5 A.D.). In 27 B.C.
could only be had in boats ; in 5 a.d.
for seven
Balbus
or
eight
of deaths
and
by water, and the number
days traf"c was
Under
Tiberius
there
are
collapsessomething considerable.

doubtless

two

floods

was

in March

mass

of the

even

when

road

69,
ruins

at

encumbered

Nor

covered

distance
with
no

waters

others

of

forced

the

greatest

back

by the
places,generally secure

were

loftier

twenty Roman

swept

in booths

and

away
many
bedrooms.

this

irruption,found the
miles (i8 J English mUes)

fallen

buildings. From
reign went by unmarked

Nerva

by

to
at

Marcus

least

one

inundation.
was

the

river

the

forethought on
allay deficient supply
utmost

One

a.d.

delayed by

was

of

36

highest, and

were

overtook

march

Aurelius, too,

great

and

and

the

floods

the

whose

15

when

streets, and

in the

Otho,

mentioned,

only
the

and

cause

of famine

at

Rome.

The

part of the Emperors could not

consequent appreciation in prices,

26

The
raised

were

order

by

the

render

to

defalcations

Praefect

of

Papirius Dionysius,

Corn,

been

the

principalcause,

hated

more

even

in

whose

Cleander,

Imperial Chamberlain,

the

had

Rome

City of

occurred,
people. During the years 5-8 a famine
partly through the flooding of the Tiber, partly through
bad
harvests, and the price of grain went
up to five or six
adult's monthly ration
times
the ordinary sum
(5 modii
: an
sold at
or
43-|-litres),
sellingat s denarii, was
ordinarily
slave-families
AU
27-J- denarii, an
unprecedented event.
and
bands
of gladiators,all strangers except ph3^iciansand
slaves
expelled
teachers, even
some
privately owned, were
most
of their
dismissed
others
from
the city ; Augustus and
was
domestics.
Yet
only through extraordinary exertions
In
the
a
prices again went
up.
rising averted.
19
year
maximum
a
Tiberius, yielding to popular clamour, fixed
sesterces
more
price for corn, and paid the corndealers two
caused
In the year 32, again, high prices almost
per modius.
the
at
disturbances.
was
The
Capri and
Emperor
away
fashion.
mob
vented
its complaints in unusually riotous
The
diversion
of many
transports to the building of Caligula's
bridge from Baiae to Puteoli (39 a.d.)injured shipping to the
by
extentof
againraisingpricesin4i a.d. ; and Claudius was thereof

the

forced
the

Only

broke

the

consequence

same

52.

extend

to

out,

fifteen
and

harbour
once

in

more

days' provision
Claudius

himself

Bad

Ostia.

at

his

reign, in

in

was

hand

the

year
tumult

scarcely escaped

the
and

mUd,

populace. Fortunately
given to shipping and the corn-trade
effect.
Emperor's large subsidies had a favourable

of the

winter

the

was

incitement

68

year

just before

ill-willof the

ship
Emperor's

of

terrible

Nero's

people

from

Alexandria

and

famine,

spread

over

Rome

was

food.

And,

for
the

as

time

example,

never

success

with

by

famine,

was

the

Nile-sand

In

the

furthered

destined

year
by lack

there

69
of

by

the

In

the

and

of the

news

rage
the

the

arrival
for

the

was

industry

and

From
between
already described.
Commodus
the famine
(under Hadrian
apparently
the whole
the greater part of the Empire)
or
visited at least once
of
by scarcity and dearness

general insecurity
to

there

increased

was

wrestling-school.

flood

Hadrian

death

had

harvests

of

the

as

went

on,

matters

omits, when
Praefects

in

did not arttend.

speaking
the

corn

of

Ammianus,

Rome, to note
administration, or

The
their
in

to

failure

City of

Rome

27

mostly the latter. On such occasions, even

the Early Empire (as under
Augustus),it became
customary
expel foreignersen masse, and a favourite resource, so as
lessen

to

And
in

well

the

the

this

numbers

seeds

soil.

of

The

known.

of mouths

to

ravaging epidemics

unhealthiness

The

feed.

network

of

of

the

canals

were

of old

situation
in

the

of

fostered

Rome

limestone

is

hills,

lesseningthe moistness of the soil and therewith malaria in a

in antiquityto have benefited the Campagna
great degree,seems
than
the city, where
the isolation
more
of the fever
germs
scattered
in the soil by the
foundations of
and
pavements
houses
of any
sort
been
can
only have
imperfect. There,
Ammianus
Marcellinus, as
though to signalize the
says
world's
and
all the
capital, disease wreaks
greater harm,
leechcraft
had
possible falters at the task of relief. Fever
been
adored
endemic
as
a
goddess very early,the fever ever
to Rome
the two
and
half
a
; according to Galen, it was
most
where
the
which
was
days' attack
prevalent. And,
inhabitants
were
so
closely packed together, infection must
have been easy and limitless. Medicine
found
plenty to study.
One
form of distortion of the shoulder
Hippocrates observed
four

times

Rome
had

was

and

Rome,

at

populous

more

visited.

The

nowhere
than

inhabitants

else

true,

one

of the cities
many
of the town
were

street

in

Hippocrates
uniformly

that
after
Domitius,
pale. Martial, writing to one
says
his journey in Upper Italy,his pale-facedfriends wiU scarcely
will envy
him
his rosy
cheeks
but,
recognize him, and
;

however
fresh
the

sunburnt

tourist's

city, from

he

complexion.
the

smells

the

of which
vapours
first step outside
the
reforms
the

of

mischief

the
of

Rome

return,

were

of

will

soon

his

whitewash

heavy atmosphere hung over

the many
smoking kitchens,

blent

with

clouds

of

dust

the

Frontinus'
a positiverelief.
city seemed
drainage and water-supply may have allayed
the bad
air ; it was
impossible to get rid of

it.

great epidemics
imperial Rome
followed
another, often at terriblyshprt intervals, and
one
innumerable
victims.
Under
claimed
Augustus throughout
and Italydesolatingplagues prevailedin the years 23 and
Rome
of 65 A.D., neither
At the great plague in the autumn
22
B. c.
with
nor
rank, nor
spared ; the houses teemed
sex,
age were
Both

in

republican

and

The

28
dead, and

the

streets

City of

with

Rome
Thirty

hearses.

burials

thousand

of the Temple
in the books
singleautumn
undertakers
of Libitina, the
the
goddess of death, where
had
their
storehouse
yet this can
meeting-place and
;
the proFor, not only was
only be a fraction of the whole.
vision
at
insufficient
for
this temple
great epidemics, but
been
slaves and
the
scarcely have
poverty-stricken would
when
the mortality-rate was
buried
rate
so
there, at any
high. And, on the eruption of Vesuvius
(79 a.d.)a devastating
had
disease broke
out
at Rome
.been '.
greater than
any
On many
deaths
were
ten thousand
days some
registeredon the
daily lists (ephemerides) out of which, later at least, statistics
recorded

are

in this

'

"

of

the

is not

of

ages

the

deceased

incredible,

Palermo

in

as

drawn

were

(which

This

up.
then

number

had

168,000

than
one
inhabitants) from July 3 to July 13, 1837, more
thousand
died daily, and
the loth, 1,803.
on
But
the most
that which
frightfulof these epidemics was
broke
in 162 a.d.
out in Babylonia, and
was
already ravaging
Ionia.
It was
back
from
the
East
to the West
in
brought
the train of the army
of Lucius
Verus
; it raged longer than
other, and spread the farthest, not only in Rome,
but
any
ancient
world, through a very large portion
throughout the
of the Roman
It unpeopled
Empire up to Gaul and tie Rhine.
the camps
of the legionaries,
and stripped the whole
of Italy
of her
extent
that
an
population to such
villages,cities

and

fields became

their cultivators
the

168

or

thousands,

of

masses

and

inmates

plague
few

had

wooded

or

perished.

Rome,

reached

from

ruins

and

deserts
In

the

seized

after

167

year

upon

many

the

The
highest ranks.
were
corpses
carted
of the city in heaps : Marcus
out
Aurelius
had
the
dead
buried
at the public expense.
of the poor
Galen
says
similar
to
the plague was
that
described
very
by Thucydides ;
in

no

the

both

bodies
had

pustules ; they
stank.

breath

death

died

of

it ;

on

with

its ravages
raged at Rome

have

The

for many
of Marcus

continued
the

of

been

its

the

diseased

with

black

hoarse
and
their
cough, were
plague (Petechial typhus or small-pox ?)
a

severe

years,
Aurelius

his deathbed
"

covered

were

it

under

dying

was

now

more,

at

(180 a.d.) who himself perhaps

his thoughts were
preoccupied
"

still active, and

Commodus

spasm.

less virulent

now

the

disease

(about 187-189) may

According

to

Dio,

2,000

which
well
men

The

and

women

the

rumour

died

low,

instigated
These

to

truth,

'

God

made

Rome

at

it

Rome

the

various

29

day.

one

easily

when

And
a

circulated,

by
and

golden,
country

Rome

on

so

up

spread

to

'

even

of

industriously

was

evils,

many

remind

it

springs

that

mankind
been

of

City

and

of

means

horrible,
holy,
mcin

then

plague
that

men

poisoned
served

the

laying
had

needles.
ever

'

eternal

made

is

even

of
town.'

anew

Varro's

CHAPTER

II

COURT

THE
I.

ITS

Just as the imperial

private orders, so too
the

outset, in
after

nity at Rome
the
imperial

di

establishment

the

and

fashioned

court

also

as

first

At

out

from

arose

forms,

households.

noble

MANNERS

AND

FORMS

ON

INFLUENCi

of the
itself at

in its membership,
there

little

was

later it
families
the
great Roman
distinguish it from
;
to
the
royalties.
type of ancient
gradually approximated
sometimes
The
efforts
of
several
genuine,
repeated
emperors,
it
its
civic
to restore
to
former
simplicity only delayed the
to

was

consummated

influence

of the

evolution, which

of

process

century, largely under

the

the

in

third

become

East, then

irresistible.

But,
first

the

on

the

on

even

on

the

range

other

manners

hand,
and

their

domestic

of

influence.

the

Court

formalities

reacted
of the

arrangements,
Next

and

in

ways,
ranks, and

many

upper
then

increased

opinions and
principles
of the
when
monarch,
decisively expressed, his tastes and
those of his family or favourites, set the tone
for
or
amours,
Rome
is only possible in an
unlimited
as
despotism. And not
for Rome
truth
in the well-known
a certain
only. There wrs
the
world
its ruler.
With
individual
proverb that
apes
emperors,

institutions,

customs

the

and

ceremonies

also

changed.

that
of
Marcus
Aurelius
philosophic view
as
could
eternal
see
an
similaritythrough this kaleidoscope of
incongruous epochs. For, to his eye, all had already been,
and
to-morrow
of Hadrian
and
might again be, the Court
Croesus
Antoninus;
all the
Philip, Alexander,
stage was
; the
actors
shifted.
Ever
and
the
only the
same,
anon
same
frantic, the same
transitory aims, under
a
Vespasian or a

Only

such

The
Trajan
failure

the

"

swallow

31

spring-time of exertion,

same

time

Court

obhvion

and

swallowed

the

of

autumn

same

would

all, and

soon

not steadfastly
present. Yet he who would
look away
the phenomena
of life and reality,
learned
from
ever
how
swift and
the changes, or rather
anew,
sweeping were
revolutions, induced
by each change in the highest circle.
Often
this uttered
We
are
enough was
by contemporaries.
like putty '.said Pliny the Younger in the Senate
in Trajan's
moiilded
to every shape at the Emperor's wUl, and
presence,
is to endear
ourselves
followinghis every lead : our ambition
to him, and
win
similar
disto those
his approval, a prize denied
continuous
from
him
has brought the
pliability
; our
to the pass
whole
world
of living the manners
of one
man.
The
Emperor's life is a censorship, of life-longduration ;
in his wake
after him
walk ;
we
we
steps, and
guide our
is requisite
'. And
command
even,
only an
example, no
to
Herodian
the
that
subjects hasten
adapt their
says
the

up

'

'

'

life to

the

Such
and

monarch's

transformations

Thus

which

banquets,
period from the
moderate

battle
later

morals, attributed
of

courts

of

Actium

No

of Commodus

to

is

sharp

and

height

to

Nero's

also

the

Pertinax

of

the
;

luxury
death,

stern

the

less

the

became

old-world
and

the

fear

of

between

contrast

no

in

greater purity of

Vespasian's
the Emperor

potent than

more

less

to

extravagant reigns.

more

their

at

Tacitus

was

or

result, as

by

him

emulating
punishment.

one

Subservience

life.

of

on

were

striking when

most

were

followed

Court

severe

more

'.

plicity
simdesire
law

or

the

its effect

prompt

economies, says his biographer,

general imitation of Pertinax'
And
produced a general cheapening of pricesin Rome.
Alexander
Severus'
of his manner
also, because
reign was
imitated
of life, a censorship : the grandees of Rome
him,
the

the
A

nobles'

ladies

similar

spiritof

intellectual

oratory

and

Rome

before

emulation

flourished

from

in the

and

was

provoked by

to such

teachers

themselves
the lowliest

art, which

; and

extent

to

senatorial

beginnings.

And

followed,
had

never

through their
the highest

many,

rank

before

exhibitions

for rhetoric

of the

an

twice

reign, gave

enthusiasm

with

Emperor's

the

Nero,

interests.

first year of his

tremendous

teemed

skill, raised
honours

wife.

tendencies

his accession, and

of

his

and
it may

confidently

The

32
be

assumed,

for

music

like

effect

favour

musicians, just as emperors,

produce many
of authors
or
gymnastics, add to the number
under

lovers

of

wisdom

and

increased

science

and

and

enthroned

the

AureUus,

Marcus

under
this
especiallythat speciouskind, which
loves
riches.
Lucian
to
win
position and
the
almost
to the
point of becoming tedious

Greece

there,

he

as

whom

of

mock-philosophers,swarms
tells us,

in

athletes.

"

of

manners

then
street

every
!staves and

ture
litera-

philosopher,
multipUed,
mask
hoped
portrajdng

"

these

Plutarch,

rulers, says

musical

who

And,

passion

Nero's

that

recorded,

nowhere

though

had

Court

pervaded

and

square,

shabby cloaks were

shaggy beards, scrolls, big
and
uneducated
in throngs. Rude
to be seen
men
bought
libraries in the hope of attractingthe
Emperor's attention
is the butt
and
gaining great advantages. One such man
His
of a specialsatire of Lucian's.
descriptionscan
hardly
fact narrated
be exaggerated ; and
a
by Galen speaks even
more
eloquently than all else for the influence of the imperial
cannot
be
Marcus
wise.
example, and
suspect in any
Aurelius
used
dose
to take
of theriac
a
daily, an antidote
well.
esteemed
as
a
as
During his reign,this drug
panacea
manufactured
for the rich in so huge quantitiesthat the
was
vanished
for, says
Galen, it is
ingredients in it almost
;
wonderful
how
the rich ape
doing of the Emperor,
every
After Marcus
Aurelius'
or
anyhow wish to appear so to do.
death,

the

demand

Naturally, too,
sale, such
him
in

for

the

smoke,

took

he

no

other

Aurelius'
the
also

on

ate

certain

Nero

days

became
'

wider

not

only

circles

at

ready
root, imported by

made

of

the

their courts

preserved
Velletri,

popular, because
garUc respectable',
month

oil, and

with

Probably, too,

Marcus

long hair, determined

but
(as Galen testifies),

just as the short

headache), and, later on,
;

found

grapes
those
from

to

mullet

it.

dishes

African

preferred

and

and

dish, to improve his voice.

short hair, and Lucius Verus'

custom,
in

it

he

instantlyceased.

edible

an

Germany,

year
which

formerly in vogue
Julia,his mother,
as

Tiberius,

from

every

Rome

at

Emperor's favourite

under

as,

theriac

hair

of

Charles

the curls of Don

(a preventive of
Juan of Austria, which fell behind his ears and temples, created
in their day the prevalent fashion.
Thus
in the higher sections
the conditions
o^ societymore

Court

The

34
and

forms

and

institutions

shaping

were

themselves

to absolute

and
Court
offices, partially at least,
monarchy, the House
began to be invested with the sway and importance of State
The preservafree and noble.
offices,
tion
only open to those bom
henceforth

impossible
of autocracy
and
by
undesirable ; the service
raising
the
And
so
of the humble
imperial
no
longer necessary.
the
of
freedmen
some
thrust forth from
principalCourt
were
Freedmen
were
only
posts, and the knights replaced them.
in subordinate
positions,and
employed in public business
this
alteration
After
restricted
to
personal service.
they
stUl sometimes
were
capacity.
very powerful,but in another
of their power
consisted partly
In the first century the nature
and
in the importance of their office ; in the second
third
at Court, real or imaginary.
The
in their personalinfluence
the principals
freedmen
ruled in Claudius'
who
na.me_"afere
of the Imperial Finance
Cornn^JteCof the Secretariate and
the Petition and Grievaace
Court,
Department ; at Commodus'
the aU-powerfuI freedmen
the chamberlains.
were
and
The
growing consequence
importance of the Court
service
and
House-offices
provides, therefore, an infaUible
of

the

feint

private life

of

was

the

index
with
a

for the
the

outward

stereotyped
in

the

of

advance
forms

and

autocracy, which

the
of the

Oriental

first

century

and

obedient

and

Republic,

absolutism.

The

the

started

out

concluded
State

in

ments,
depart-

external

bearing
shape of
ever
inconspicuous House-services, although their holders
Claudius
had
been
the
most
since
mighty State officials,
ambitions
for
were
century distant
already in the second
the
after long
bureaucracy of the knights, only attained
administration
of important posts, and
stages on the way
to the highest placesaccessible to them.
freedmen
the absolute
were
Up to the reign of VitelUus
possessors of the Court-offices,and, in this capacity, after
of supreme
extent
CaUgula, the holders to an
authonty.
VitelUus
the first to grant these
was
to
the
positions
knighte.
Yet
the nominations
wavered
for some
time, partly because
the Emperor's whim, and his predilection
the decisive fact was
for

submissive

rank, and
rose

to

Domitian

also

because

from

capable
lightespecially
two

of

the

three

servants

rather

amongst
and

tested

important

the

than

freedmen

individuals.
offices above

of

men

there
Under
were

^
'

The
occupied by
for
those

of

freedmen

and

Hadrian

Grievances.

; under

the

first to draw

was

the administration

35

Secretariate

Trajan,
Trajan, a

Nerva

Secretariate

the

"

and

Petitions

Court
and

But

in

knight

freedman
a

hard

and

Department
reign and

his
set

was
as

the

the

over

well.
fast line between

of the

empire and of the Royal house.formally

withdrawing from the latter its private character, and replacing/
the freedmen
by an imperial bureaucracy with magisterial!
of this order
establishment
the sole hope
was
; the
powers
of dealing with
the vast
In
problems that had grown
up.
all of the upper
administrative
men,
posts knights replaced freedwere
especiallyin the three chief departments, which
Henceforth
into departments of State.
formally converted
holders
of them
climb
the
immediately,
up, mediately or
the
universal
to
the
in
empire, such as
highest positions
the vice-royaltyof Egypt and the praefectureof the Praetorium
The
at Rome.
same
propositionholds true of the Imperial
Finance
Department ; subject to the anomaly of this post,
when
it was
so
even
lofty a step on the rungs of the imperial
such
But, apart from
service, being held
by freedmen.
the
of absolutism,
to
anomaUes
essence
being incidental
weighed
outconsiderations
of business
ability and trustworthiness
others

in

selections

the

of

these

officials,and

the

possibilityof promptly coercing any signs of disloyaltywas

It is this
of especial importance.
point that Maecenas
emphasizes (according to Dio) in his address to Augustus,
advisable
to appoint freedmen
so
a
reason
as
why it was
financial

in

After

administration.

posts, the
cubicularius) was
of these

evolution
as

the

Empire.

of

this

growth

wholly deprived
office of Lord
High Chamberlain
(a cubiculo,
of
their
means
gaining authority. The
the later Empire, just
office characterizes
the other
departments that of the Early

had

freedmen

of

Influential

times, their

outward

been

as

wholly

or

almost

chamberlains

the

dignity

was

at

had

been

low.
first very
first lent
that

at

It

all
was

high
of the Holy Chamber
{praepositussacri
to the Prefect
rank
usually
title). In the last century eunuchs
cubiculi, his new
of the perfecteasternizing
held the post, a significant
symptom
and
Men
like Eusebius
Court.
Roman
Eutropius
of the
did iiot merely enjoy a more
undisputed sway in Byzantium

the

permeation

of

Eastern

customs

36

The

and

Ravenna

they

ranked

But

than
with

Pallas

the

Court
or

Narcissus

at

before

the

service,

alterations
the

must

be

followed, which

first two

Throughout

lawfully

highest ofi"cers of State.

considering these offices more

position occupied by the imperial freedmen,
from

Rome

they

as

the

such, apart

of
sequence
during
constantly underwent

examined,

and

narrowly,
the

centuries.
this

period the East,

civilizations, Greece,

Little

as

the

countries

Asia, Sjnriaand

of ancient
almost

Egypt,

service of the
entirelysuppUed and completed the domestic
Emperor, as well as of the great Roman
palaces. The North
and
West
of the
provided most
Emperor's personal Ufeand
the East
their
favourite
was
guards ; Greece
huntingground for their service, personal and financial; and thus
of mankind
these peoples,the scum
in the view
of the proud
attained
the highest positions. The
Orientals
Roman,
were,
of them
and
one
as
more
(Herodian) remarks, shrewder
tute.
asRomans

is well known.
despised the Greeks
calls them
Caesar
servile to
deceitful, shifty,and rendered
Their
the
harshest
point of adulation.
unveracity met
to
their livelyartistic
men
blame, and, no doubt, made
unjust
were
imagination. Further, their representativesat Rome
Greece.
of ancient
often
unworthy
Juvenal, in a wellknown
them
as
quick-witted, overpassage, characterizes
to come
eloquent, everywhere at home, willing at demand
forward
as
professors,artistes, driUing-masters,soothsayers,
in the
rope-dancers, physicians or conjurers, past masters
of flattery and
arts
actors, astoundingly
hypocrisy, bom
in
and
their
choice
of
less.
means
impudent,
unscrupulous,and shamethis
sketch
of
In
a
loathing pen, the excellencies,which
the sunken
still adorned
nation, are forgotten,such as their
PhUostratus
instinctive nicety (forwhich
praisesthe lonians
their higher and
fuller civilization,their charm,
especially),
and
business
inventiveness
them
abihty, which had made
as
How

the

indispensableat
at

the

Courts

of

Persepolisand

Susa

as

then

Rome.

deemed
with tastes
clever, dowered
and
Syrians were
for
and
satire, uristable and
gifts
drollery
ready, but also
crafty and faithless. The Egyptian appeared to the Greeks
curious
mixture
Romans
of contradictory quaUties,
and
a
The

Court

The

37

'

'

mostly unpleasant and sly ;

aegyptizing to the Greeks
meant
underhand
were
especially
dealing. The Alexandrians
wit
their
noted
for their
intellect and
was
perspicacity;
said to be instant and bitter,full of obscenity and gibes ; their
considered
unmatched
for impertinence and
speeches were
The
shamelessness.
stigmatized
Egyptians in general were
conceited,

vain,

as

deeds
and

heroic,

insolent

slavish

or

thraldom.

the rack

lustful,but endured

boastful, fitted

and

They

with

for

luxurious

were

wonderful

alike

steadfastness.

and
Hot-tempifcred

greedy
tetchy, eager to pick quarrels,ever
for novelty (as their
therefore
and
carmagnoles showed)
also envious,
tumultuous
and
revolutionary. They were
made
reticent, sly and
obstinate, as was
apparent in their
Tacitus
calls Egypt
a
province torn
religious fanaticism.
account
of its superstitiousness
asunder
and
unsteady on
fellahs of to-day exhibit
and
lack
of restraint.
And
the
surprising similarities with the descriptionsof the ancients,
and stiff-neckedness,
and wiles, endurance
namely, craftiness
conceit and
quarrelsomeness, envy and mendacity, and love
of satire and
gibe.
fates

The

this

these

sometimes

rulers,were
of

of

eventful

imperial servants,

singular of

the most
Often

time.

often

their

masters'

their

the

strange

introduction

events

Rome

to

cheap slaves stood with

platform where
whitened
feet,and were
by purchasers.
inspected and handled
They passed from hand to hand, suffered every degradation
home
of slavery, before
by sale, gift
entering the monarch's
it.
transferred
into
or
inheritance, or
being as freedmen
master's
their
turned
fortune
Talent, adaptability or
eye
had

on

been

them, and

raised

promptly

some

of them

have

and

made

deeply

names
we

the

on

from

learn
of

heights
secure,

on

that

inroads
the

honourable

the world's

on

careers,

of servitude,

stage, and

history. Of
from
they rose

and

sea

of

tablets

monuments

bottomless

slowly and gradually. Many

suddenly, some

service, their

more

from

them

cut

again
humility to

others

if less brilliant, were

distinguished.

To

their

more

follow

their

ments
attainof such
uninteresting. Like instances
of splendour and
might from the lowliest origins,are
The
afforded
perhaps only by eighteenth-century Russia.
Razumovski,
had,
of the
consort
Empress Elizabeth, Count

story is

in his

not

boyhood,

herded

cattle ;

Menshikov,

Peter

the

Great's

The

38
confident, had
Paul's

favourites,

soldiers
the

the

ended

was

siege

the

to

rose

of

count,

the

from
be

to

camp

boot-black,
and

grand duke,
knight of all

the
a

the

contrived
opulent magnate, and ever
in the
Emperor's graces ; and yet the master
still shaved, used to whip him at will to the last.

he

positionof

the

he

barber

equerry,

of

one

orphan, captured by
brought

work

and

Kutaisov,

street.

Bender,

scullion's

orders, and

The

of

the

Turkish

chamberlain

remain

whom

in

tarts

by becoming

Russian

on

the

at

court, to do

then

to

sold

Court

an

the

relation to the

enjoyed as the
naturally varied

in

freedmen,

the

Emperor,

servants

of

so

his

far

as

it

respect and

house,

dependent

was

outside

power
his

they

service,

personal tastes and

Limited
of government.
though their extra-official
principles
influence
have
been
under
good governments, yet it
may
will show,
was
by no means
slight,as the following survey
under

the

with

; it must

best

monarch's

the

be

not

forgotten,moreover,

knowledge is derived from isolated facts, only

aroused
as
general attention.
as
Augustus, who
officiouslydeported himself
towards
individual,was
uncompromisingly severe
our

and

freedmen

of their
licence
former

Rome,

if

they

allowed

from

such

private

his
in

themselves,

slaves
view

positionin his house, any liberties. They had greater

in the provinces. Licinus, the Gaul, one
of Caesar's
slaves, ruled in his own
missary
country as imperial comfor

enormous

fourteen

in

that

time

some

He

sums.

months

with

absolute

is notorious

for

sway,

and

dividing

the

extorted
into
year
November

regarded monthly payments, as

and December
the ninth and tenth
were
(astheir name
shows)
and two new
had
be
to
added.
ones
(calledAugustean)
Despite
the petitionsof the Gauls, and Augustus' ill-will,
he escaped
liat
with the sacrifice of a large sum,
and
had
much
so
over
his wealth
breath
was
of Crassus
spoken of in the same
as that
and
Pallas.
His towering marble
tomb
the Via Salaria,
on
builded
for
monument
for bitter
landmark
a
a
eternity,was
for
reflections
later
it is noteworthy
generations. And
that
left Augustus
Herod,
King of the Jews, who
i,ooo
in his will, directed
talents
to
be
as
given
500
legacies to
the wife, children, friends and freedmen
of Augustus.
I

Tiberius
to
publicly,

was

allow

as

of

nature

freedmen

too

any

aristocratic,knowingly and
influence

on

his wishes.

'

His

The
slaves

his

modest,

were

is Tacitus'

comment

Court

family
the

39

contained

first half

of

few

freedmen,'

his

reign. Later,
much
else changed.
Egypt,
the
most
important imperial province, was, after Sejanus'
to
death, entrusted
a
freedman, though only temporarily.
Herod
Agrippa, the King of the Jews, almost ruined himself
after the death

with

his

presents

thus
a

purchased ;
positionto lend

of them

of

largest and

to

Tiberius'

freedmen,

of them

one

him

Thallus,
denarii

1,000,000

freedman,

another

was

freedman

valuable

most

whose

and

as

tables

the

known,

he

support

Samaritan,

in

was

yet the greatest

Euhodus.

Tiberius, Pliny cites

whilst

wood,

on

of Drusus, this and

Nomius,
of

owner

made

third

of the

one

of pure

citron-

Tiberius

only had an inlaid one.

But
the frightfulanomaly of pubUcly putting at the helm
of the world-state
a half-lawful and
despised class, and letting
them
decide
the most
momentous
issues, only really began
under
slave, was
Cahgula. CalUstus, a private individual's
became
slave of the Emperor, and, as his favourite,
sold,
a
wealth.
gained practicallyan equal autocracy and enormous
Seneca
often
his former
master
saw
vainly beg admission
at Callistus'
door.
At
his request, in the year
39, Cahgula
consented
to
abandon
the
Afer,
persecution of Domitius
consul
in 39, an
orator
he disliked.
Though a participant in
the conspiracy against Caligula,Callistus
kept his position
under
the succeeding emperor.
The

of

reign
of

of

saturnalia

at

freedmen

In

and

', made

men

themselves
with

and

even

mentions

the

civic

as

and

Narcissus,

'

and

brave

the seat of Empire,

Emperor's home
men,
participants. They, and the other freedtheir accomplice, juggled at their
as
rights, ofiices, governorships, reprieves
Besides

capital sentences.
Boter

the

the

Messalina

with

fancy

in

Seneca's

have
says, must
in the
least.
Callistus, Pallas

crafty

celebrated

were

pasquil on the deification

his entry in Elysium, all those
present, he
been
his freedmen,
no
one
as
regarded him

Claudius.

Claudius,

the

the

lover

of

these

Claudius'

Suetonius

names

first wife

Urgu-

daughter Claudia ; also Posides the

of Judaea FeUx,
eunuch, the Procurator
Polybius, the literary
of the
and
last
adviser, and
jHarpocras. Both
Myron,
and
Seneca's
in
Pheronactus,
pasquil, receive
Amphaeus
lanilla, and

their

former

father

of their

lord, in the

underworld

he

had

sent

them

in

Court

The

40
advance,

so

as

rich eunuch
very
Marcellus
Aeserninus,

the

first to
Rome

to

and

Nero's
of

one

year

6i

and

the

his

villas

procurator of that

could

HeUus,

With

of the

sway

he

could

Nero

so

62

was

sent

it

to

the

slave

of

by
that

to

of

Petitions

him

Rome

at

without

even,

Dio's

words,

the

worse,

none

in absolute

Plautus,

Pelago, a eunuch,
Of the

Grievances

with

could

train

Doryphorus

debaucheries, whom

he

reference
two

In the
say.
of a centurion,

the

heads

two

exile

subject to

was

and

and

any

the command

under

Rubellius

and

of Claudius,

freedman

in

sultan.

of
power
avictorious

and

men

stock
laughing-

the

confiscation, death

of

senators

of men,

retinue

Nero's

of

(66/67)left

were

murder

of Nero's

in

Rome,

detachment

entrusted

was

like

that

; which

Emperors
year

and

Legate
quench the

reign, administrator
in the
the province of Asia, and
Junius
Agrippina to assassinate
province. Nero, for the period

edicts

issue

against knights
to

of

the

the

and

armies

of the

in

was

to

failed to understand

beginning

imperial demesnes
employed
year 54 was
Silanus, pro-consul of
of his journey to Greece

Crete

tremendous

not

the

at

was,

also

province,and

a host
grasp how
Another
cringe to a slave.

could

was

Polycletus,

less power.
possessed no
infamous
the most
pilferersat his Court,
despatched to Britain to arbitrate between

of the barbarians, who

leader

plane-treefrom

freedmen

freedman,

he

there.

of revolt.
smouldering embers
he repaired to Britain, the terror

of Claudius

adopted by the household

transplant the ever-green

of

ambition

gratifyhis

to

names

freedman

originally a

however,

who,

Pliny

servants.

for

Thessalicus,

got himself

lack

to

never

of

direction

of halberdiers
of

the

(a

ment
depart-

panion
boon-com-

afterwards

poisoned)
and
(who
Epaphroditus, Epictetus the philosopher's master
instrumental
in Nero's suicide),we
shall speak later on.
was
Galba
had
those favourites
of Nero, for whose
punishment
hatred
clamoured
the
most, executed; namely, Polypopular
cletus,
Helius and Patrobius
in
the
66
had
conducted
(who
year
and
the gorgeous
of Tiridates,
spectacles in welcome
games
the
of the
King of Parthia, at Puteoli) Yet Halotus, one
.

most

scot

He

fiendish

of them

when

Claudius

free, but

also

was

(perhapsthe

eunuch

who

acted

as

bearer
cup-

not
poisoned), Galba
only let go
appointed to a very high procuratorship.
was

contemptibly

submissive

to

his

own

freedmen

as

Pliny

Younger praises the

the

shows

that

retained

they

of

their

counsels, their
freedmen

your

princesgo together.
can

as

dear

are

fend

them

rank, not
do
how

their

well
you may
that for them

believe
you
may
merit
For,
enough.

such

and

ears,

Most

citizens

over

guiders

the

government
'

and

tongues

the

to

your
betake
them
or

you
off, bid
and

yours

freedmen

as

and

and

rank

they

all the

honour, unsolicited '.

every
of Eurythmus, a
at the indictment

them

little
you

men,

you

their

to

is

about

good

themselves

honest

know, great freedmen

you
And, above all,if you only have
all

of

purveyors
consulates.

as

and

slaves

controllers

give honour, but

to be upright

father

of the

and

granters of Praetorships,priesthoodsand

rather

To

became

of

authority.

lords

both

were

says,
who
freedmen,

modes

newer

Uttle

no

'

princes', he

or

Court

The

42

higher
And
PUny

in that

freedman

and

also

own
we

tells

rator
procu-

Trajan, for forgery of a will, the parties dreaded

'He'
and
appearing in the case;
Trajan finely observed:
is no
'. Hadrian
I a Nero
is said not to
Polycletus,nor am
stickled
at wooing and
have
bribing Trajan's freedmen, so
of

as

to

freedmen

weight

with

had

was

severe

from
too

and
he

to

him

he

bear

used

the

to

burden

against those

him.

over

adoption.

own

remaining unknown,

had

and

his

secure

Antoninus

their

and

Pius,

too,

suffered

of his cousin

Verus

Annius

to

marry

who

afterwards

freedmen

ruled

murdered

honourable
his

son.

freedmen,

by personally
preventing them

Marcus

Aurelius

dominance
his

of

was

Geminus

co-regent'sfavour

latter

Libo

on

his

influence

courtiers

(Consul in 128, died

Syria in 176),and
deigned to be present at
so
repugnant to his principles. After Verus'
his freedmen

vices, and

of their

and

the

his

having no
previous emperors

repressed
the

at

wishes

boast

effectually
destroyed the power of
well
informed,
keeping himself
their
information.
But
selling
gentle to be able to shatter the
Agaclytus, two freedmen
high in
even

aimed

say that all

of their freedmen's
made

who

himself

He

to

the

widow

of
governor
this wedding,

as

death

he

missed
dis-

pretexts, except Eclectus,

Under

Commodus

the

under
Claudius
arbitrarilyas ever
; and
one
them, Cleander, actually was
Praefect
of the
Praetorium, the highest dignitarynext to the Emperor.
Pertinax
drew
himself
the deadly hatred
on
of the
courtiers by his
and
their venom
against their excesses,
energetic measures
of

as

The
contributed
with

not

Court

little to

his

43

fall.

Severus

also

was

the

freedmen, but, under

Caracalla, whose
all the greater. And
they shared, their power
was
of

Elagabalus heralded in fresh

Though, occasionally,after

domestic
the

most

and

all

part it
the

enabhng
of

says
that

the

life at

the

thoroughly

their

veer

who

fortunes
the

reign

saturncdia.

revolutions, the

entire

changed, for
from
on
reign to reign unaffected,
might easily acquire an
experience

went

'to

them

violent

imperial

members

Graptus,

him

of

service

freedmen's

stem

Tacitus
every wind'.
evil influence over
Nero,

an

from

was

to

course

exercised

Court

house

Tiberius

with

made

had

onwards

of Empire.
One
ways
Claudius
DomiEtruscus
had
died at the age of ninety under
tian.
His father had been taken
under Tiberius in his boyhood
conversant

Court, served

to

only, it seems,
of disgrace. Of
his sovereigns six
one
sUght intermission
had
violent
died
deaths
their
blood-stained
;
reigns had
ancient
an
wiped out many
family ; and the face of the earth
had
been
shattered
and
re-shaped : and, all this while, the
old freedman
in undisturbed
went
on
enjoyment of his position,
and

his

under

the

grew
up and rose
themselves
to one

with

emperors,

died

wealth, and

enormous

hundreds

ten

to

And

in his bed.

modating
palace, accomanother, outliving

eminence

in the

sovereign after
after another
one
; if they had
only told their tale
But
the higher they climbed, the more
unsure
foothold.

As

their

by

fall, as

avarice

(Nero

if their

power

favourites
of the

the

choice

their

in

of

that

few

could

measure

had

Narcissus
in

be

to

one

as

often

it their

was

the

their

prove

word

that

Emperor,

or

heir.

or

streamed

themselves

freedman
with

sesterces

known

main

their

them

as

in

them,

into

lent

400,000,000
man's
hands

chiefs

the

might

resolves

conspiraciesagainst

rich

to

other

the

palace revolutions

and

for

and

him

for

came

Emperor's
poisoned),or

themselves
or

deeds

vantage-ground,
time

throne

of his consort

riches

this

sum

issue

old

attached

themselves

to

the

The

side

momentous

momentous
decided

they

their

was

the

awoke

freedmen

overweening

too

when

riches

rich

indicates, many

survey

their

as

several

was

in

soon

had

defeated

sharing

historical

the

too,

so,

to

was

these

consequence

strength.

of
At

proverbial,and
servants

350,000), the
{;^4,

antiquity,and

of State.

largest*
Juvenal i

Court

The

44
! calculates

his

wealth

of

that

equivalentto

as

and

Croesus

had
(^f
3, 2 56,250),
300,000,000
king: PaUas
and
others
scarcely
iCallistus,Epaphroditus, Doryphorus
'lessimmense
one
Claudius
When
day
complained
sums.
in
said
it
was
over
the deficit in the imperial exchequer,
into partnership with Narcissus
Rome
to enter
that,if he were
and
have
a
Pallas,he would
surplus. Epictetus tells a tale
fell at his feet, and
of Epaphroditus that a petitioneronce
sesterces
had
bewailed
his
iU-luck ; he
only 6,000,000
0^65,2 50) left ; and
Epaphroditus expressed his surprise
at
one
bearing such poverty in patience. It will be
any
rich.
were
Apart
too, that less prominent men
seen,
very
in the
from
their profitableappointments, both
provinces
in Rome,
and
opportunities of augmenting
they had many
their possessions,without
directlyplundering, or extorting:
in the imperial household
for they had
of moneys
control
;
of circumstances.
and
they could skilfullyavail themselves
To
mention
point, naturally,every such employee
only one
he was
saw
paid for any assistance, real or otherwise, he might
give in order to bring a request to the Emperor's ear and exercise
On
his decision.
one
influence direct or indirect on
journey
mule-driver
of Vespasian's the
dismounted,
ostensibly to
the opportunity of
shoe his animals, in fact, to give a man
fee
the
what
petitioning the Emperor.
Vespasian asked
his share.
claimed
for the shoeing, and
was
Disseminating
moods
intentions
the
to
or
as
news
Emperor's speeches,
a
was
very good speculation ; often these costly titbits were
traffic
(fumi^ ; Martial already speaks of the
only rumours
in empty
at the Emperor's palace
business :
rumour
as
a
word
later biographers regard the
almost
and
a
mere
as
the

Persian

'

'

technical

hanged
hundred
was

for

selling

for

making

none

said
and
this

of their friends
'

did,

as

courtiers
trade

'.

had

in

the

New

in false

him

to

this

way

his

servants

soldier

sold

the custom

regulations

were

prove

herald

die

order
'

Forum

the
a

must

freedmen

tales, and

in

stake

by smoke,
kept better

been

of

one

orders, his friend Verconius

at

or

had

about

lived
Pius

Antoninus

or

at his

livelihood

'

smoke

death

to

whUe, that he who

and

'

aurei, and,

smoked

Severus

Alexander

term.

by

at
'

of the
ever

how

word

one

Turinus
of

Nerva

shouting the

smoke.
their

for

Hadrian

Court, and
of what

Emperor's

they

servants

being made
against
impossible it was

"

The

Court

45

picture of Elagabalus' time

in the
childish
wise
of
these
the
biographies describes
dealing of one of his favourites and is fairlyapplicableto the
Aurelius
Zoticus,
greater part of the history of the Empire.
all the Emperor
of
the son
said
a
Smyrnaean cook, sold
under
false pretences,hoping for boundless
wealth.
or
[did,
He
used
lavish
to threaten
one
promises on another
man,
aU.
them
deceive
On
and
leaving the Emperor's presence,
I
tell them
all singly:'
I said this of you ", or
he would
to

allaythe

permanently.

evil

'

"

heard
are

that
some

of you ",
who
men

or

"

our

"

fate will be

admitted

are

Emperor, but abuse the honour

The
folly or simplicity of the
fat on
grow
The
vast

such

decoration.

The

scandalous

that

Such

".

familiarityof the
bad
of both
and
good rulers.
purblind Emperors let them
to

swindles

the

'.

them
enabled
imperial freedmen
the Roman
to outbid
aristocracy in luxury. Their palaces
of Posides, the
the most
were
pretentiousin aU Rome
; that
the
outshone
eunuch,
Capitol, according to Juvenal, and
and
all that was
rare
squandered on its
costly on earth was

but
and

riches

the

Licinus

statues,

his

of

the

fears
man
poor
rich is all a-tremble

beryl,tortoise-shell

nothing, the
for
and

poet

says

his

Phrygian pillars
ivory in his palace-

of
by Callistus, a freedman
thirty pillarsof oriental alabaster ; four
Caligula,Pliny saw
had
been
erected
columns
of alabaster
smaller
by Cornelius
as
a
in Augustus' reign in his theatre
Balbus
great curiosity.
were
Baths
of the Freedmen
The
proverbially gorgeous,
have
been
those of the imperial
and
the most
splendid must
constructed
In the bath
freedmen.
by Etruscus, the son
in frequent use,
of an
though
imperial freedman, marbles
the
and
rarest
too
discarded
as
only
common,
costly,were
in
with
the
used in quantities
glass
ceilingsgleamed
designs
;
silver
the
into
water
silver
gushed
pipes
mosaics, and from
the
and
Their
vessels.
largestand most
gardens were
parks
palatialin the
beautiful in the city, their villas the most
menial
of Nero's
Would
environs.
(the expression with
any
and
were
hated
the
designated),
which
despised freedmen
In

rooms.

buUt

dining-room

'

'

Elder, have

with

Pliny the
a
garden

and

Epaphroditus

says

that

asks

the

of two
on

garden

acres

In

content

Rome

the

little while

parks

famous.
Esquiline were
the palace of Entellus
(a

the
in

been

ago
of Pallas
Martial

freedman

46
of

cold.

But

cities in

'

baths, and

the

imperial freedmen
great works,
out-rivalled

of

his bath-water.

importing
pomp

their

over

how

died

in

62

Senate,
years
blind

for

him

; boastful

he

(107 a.d.)
their

abhorred

would
so

immemorial
who
free-born

the

luxury
CaUgula's
with

after Posides,
it fashionable.

made

generals in
Their

interred

were

in

with

mortal
oriental

with

art, covered
every
inscriptions testified to all terity
posbeen.
Those
Pallas' grave
on
(he
honours
not

irritate

ofiered

him

by the
forty-three

accept, could
Pliny the Consular,

to

as

humour.

from
sprung
ineffaceable
stigma of

by

of

mixed

named

it, or

adorned

them

One

essences

was

other

refined

example of Alexander's
his gjminastic exercises.

freedmen,
the

having

well at Baiae

monuments,

which

Their

connoisseurs.

in

and

thermae

awarded

munificence.

great they had

a.d.),recording the

to

honours

of their famUies

those

all of

later

The
with

Nile-sand

ashes

temples,

discovered

the

colossal

hot

followed

and

remains

or

who

eunuch,

Patrobius

statues

master

houses,

of individuals

places, inscriptions record

of

voluptuous

his

other

of

erection

the

to

various

their

of

that

wealth

builders

the

or

copied

Claudius'

his

At

as

commemoration

freedmen

of

cities '.

whole

wintry

magnificent buildings of public

of
Commodus,
mighty freedman

institutions, to the advantage

other

the
and

Rome

bedecked

there

with

monarchy

utility. Cleander,
diverted
a
portion

glass, despite

also

freedmen

of Alcinous

that

above

under

ripened

these

the

exalted

be

Domitian)must
the
purple grape

and

Court

The

loathed

races

slavery, were

aristocracy of Rome,

families

of

great repute

rightly ranked

lower

beggar, the noblest

had

and

in

the

many

to pay

and

stained

despised
descendants
these

of
men,
freed-

yet

to

an

aspect than

homage

and

allegiance,
the omnipotent servants
of the
they were
Emperor.
For imperial freedmen
ranked
than
of
no
others
higher
any
the
their order, and
from
promotion some
might receive
Senate
entitled
them
at
the most
Emperor or
only to the
of
second
the
if what
rank, even
rights
was
rare
very
distinctions
added.
The
most
pertaining to the first were
honours
common
awarded, in the first century even,
were
the rank
of knight by the conferring of the Golden
Ring,
in dealing out
and
this much,
the Emperors seem
to have
been very sparing ; only the most
deserving and prominent
and

because

"

"

The
favourites

selected, and

Court
the

47

honour

not

cheapened
Thus
Nero conferred
by excessive distribution.
knighthood on
Pallas, Galba on Icelus,Vitellius
on
Asiaticus, Vespasian on Horand

mus
a

were

the

knightly

new

titled

dubbed

Narcissus

for
was

had

and

by

PaUas

the

to

of Claudius

surname

Marcianus,

Zoticus

him,

father

Etruscus.
them

given

was

At

the
thus

time,

same

Icelus

was

and

Elagabalus' chamberlain, Aurelius

Avitus
after his master's
grandfather. If
the insignia of the office of quaestor granted
those of the praetorship,this is accountable

anomalies

enable

was

of

both

to

this

dominion

sit in

of

the

Senate.

the

freedmen

When

it

Claudius

procurators jurisdictionin fiscal matters, he

who
thereby, says Tacitus, put the freedmen
superintended
his private estate
on
an
equal footing with himself and the
and Parthenius
law.
Narcissus
of Domitian)
(the chamberlain
oflScer's sword,
carried
even
an
a
privilegebelonging, not
to senatorial
even
proconsuls,only to the generals appointed
of military
by the Emperor ; it was
perhaps as evidence
Claudius
the
Palace
Guards.
deigned to
authority over
in Rome,
allow his freedman
Harpocras to use a sedan-chair
this was
to organize public spectacles,but
and
possibly a
One
right appertaining to any free and responsibleperson.
military distinction (a blunted lance) Claudius with his usual
gave

all

his

tactlessness

conferred

on

his

Posides

eunuch

at

the

British

Nicomedes,
triumph. The tutor of Lucius Verus, the freedman
before
receiving this and other honours, had been raised to
knighthood.
distinctions
Thus
(except for short periods) the outward
of the Emperor were
of the servants
quite modest
; in exteriors,
to be kept
:their subordination
sociallyand politicallywas
intact
as
against the aristocratic dignitariesof the monarchy,
In
and
show
of pomp.
with
their high-sounding names,
the
reversed
slaves, so deeply
:
reality,the relations were
receiving the admiration
despised, had the satisfaction of
and envy
of the free and the noble ', of seeing Rome's
greatest
them
treat
dared
as
they Who
cringe to them : few were
Nero
Lateranus
such
servants
one
was
(beheaded under
;
retorted
in the year
on
Epaphroditus' inquiries:
65) who
If I wished, I would
speak to your master '. For Pallas
flatterers devised
a
his smug
genealogy tracing him back to
'

'

his

namesake,

the

King

of Arcadia

and, in return

for the

The

48
condescension

wherewith

Court
descendant

this

of

the

kings

of

ancient
rank,
preferredthe good of the State to his own
and
his prince, it was
a
deigned to serve
Scipio who in the
Senate
In the year
one
proposed a vote of thanks.
52 a.d.
of the Consuls
moved
that PaUas
be granted the insigniaof
the praetorship and
the large gift of 15,000,000
sesterces ;
Pallas
accepted only the insignia. Thereupon followed a
decree, that, fiftyyears afterwards
Pliny the Younger
even,
The
with
Senate
shame
and
blushed
indignation to read.
to this worthy patriot,
had already voted
a considerable
sum
his gentle spiritrecoiled, the more
and, the more
persistently
the Emperor, the Father
of his Country, to
did they beseech

old

his

induce

the

matter

the

and

and

that,

their

to

wish, and

Senate

of desert

to-Pallas,

accede

to

Pallas'

at

Emperor,
gift; and

the

treasurer

in his name,

recorded

for their
even

wishes.

own

that

But

still declined
had

they

voted,

as

satisfaction, these honours

own

herein, they loyally would

not

will.

This

wrongfullywithstand

(probably

was

an

in

JuliusCaesar
sesterces

of mail

coat

belauded

was

as

Vitelhus, the

Lucius
a

monarch's

their

wise

publicly exhibited, engraved in bronze

office of the imperial exchequer), beside

decree
on

in any

of very

man

in

father

of

at

"

disinterestedness.
of

Emperor
rate,

any

that

name,

in his

even

day,

to
past-master
servility poured
and
PaUas, as his house-gods.
golden pictures of Narcissus
And
two
of the
Consuls.
Polybius often shared the walks

Severus

even

scandalous
of the

for

art

of

return

to

Euhodus,

the

the

with

Senate

libations

"

to

Senate
the

pass

decree

that

comment

such

votes

of honour

on

it

was

servant

Emperory-'

The
former
and

to

freedman,

his

to

had

the

the

of 300,000,000

owner

of stern

example

an

high position
in

it the

of

statue

strongp^evidence

for

slav^

could

is that

they

the

position attained
by these
the daughters of noble
marry

imperial families, and this

pride in ancient lineages was

even

when

the

law

to the

fourth

forbade

the

female

at
at

its

time

when

height, at

descendants

of

cratic
aristoa

time

senators

generation to be engaged to or marry freedmen

;
at
wiU
the
an
like
the
enactment,
dispensable
by
Emperors,
that
senators
law,
not
freedmen's
corresponding
might
marry
the
brother
of
daughters, Felix,
Pallas, the well-known
of Judaea, was
administrator
the husband
of three princesses
:

Court

The

50
of the freedmen

our

than

in his other

says, the
the

Emperor's

men

friends,

so

gentle

life,so

modest

reliable
scarcelymore
reign. Up till then, he
is

sovereign had

of the

Palatine

the

of

But

bjnvord.

and

considerate

their

No

manner.

master's

his

they,

were

this

man's
so

was

and
the

now

family-

quiet their

had

freedman

and

loathed

been

universally loved, every

were

except

of this

laudations

servile refuse

insolence

but

of Domitian,

the

viduality,
indiany
character

And
the greater the arrogance
of the
imperial court.
effective would
be their occasional
imperialfreedmen, the more
their friendliness
condescension
; Epictetusexpresslymentions
secret from
of the things likelyto wrest
a
man
as
one
every
of

the

bent

externalities.

on

"
In

the

administration

itself the

freedmen

seldom

held

high

reorganization, knights were

positions; _bpiore- Hadrian's
Thus the directors of the more
regularlyappointed to them.
important tax ofl"ces,for example, the 5 per cent, death-duty,
were
mostly knights. Still there were
exceptions,partly in
of imperial arbitrariness, partly because
the only
pursuance
standard
was
personal fitness. The
supervision of finance
the raisingof the revenue
in the imperialprovinces,and
in the
to freedmen
entrusted
more
senatorial,was
; but
frequently
subaltern
oflScers
of
their
departmental or
they were
superiors; the directors of the imperial camps
{procwatores
of"ce
because
of
its
close
relation
an
casirenses,
important
to

the

person

of the

Emperor)

systematicallyfreedmen
of

Rome,

were

as

after

also

for the
the

centuries

procurators

of

the

designated this
tion
post for the knights. In the wide and many-sided administraof the imperial estates, which, as
time
panded
proceeded, exenormously throughout the entire Empire, and gradually
of Crown
the character
assumed
retained
property, freedmen
of
after the superintendence
the direction
single parts, even
to the knights as procurators.
of the whole had been transferred
Often they managed the imperialmines
and quarries,afforestations
and estates, and the parks, villas and palaces of Italy and
the provinces,as, for example, Marcus
Ulpius Euphrates was the
procurator of Pausilypum (PosUipo near
Naples),which passed
inheritance
into the private
of the Emperor from
the estate
waterways

even

Hadrian

first two

had

The
of

Vedius

the

PoUio.

business

them

instance,
the

the

large

was

of the

offices accessible

51

who,

staff

of

men

Claudius, had

over

freedmen,

animal

devoted
to
moneys
the salaries attached

only know
the procurator of the Roman
waterways : this
sesterces
(;"i,o87los.). An
imperial freedman,
thanks
returns
(inan inscriptionat Lanuvium) to
of the place', for having enjoyed a yearly income
increase
of salary.
sesterces, presumably an
As

the

century, they remained

of which

Claudius

Petitions

Euphrates,
'

the
of

genius

100,000

in

The

century.

requisitewas

100,000

was

possession of the three posts

increased
the
importance, Finance,

so

second

that of one,

of

Grievances, and the Secretariate

and

in the

even

we

received
finance, so seldom
surprisingthat, for the whole of the

it is rather

high rank,
first

in matters

freedmen,

shows,

procurator, for

the

elephants. Of

to

after

gladiatorialand

speciallyset

maintenance

to the

freedmen

of

control

under

had^

The

Court

is

reason

and

"

intervals,

at

plainly that

what

not

personal rank
(as for governorships,
submisas
especiallyin the provinces),so much
reliability,
siveness
and
aptitude.
In the imperial Finance
Department (a rationibus)all the
receipts of all the imperial exchequers were
pooled and the
total disbursements
extensive
the operations
published, How
of this department were
is indicated
by Statins' poem, written
was

commission

the

at

of the

of Etruscus

son

life

father's
in

several

which
has
(a work
instances). Etruscus'

an

ancient

lineage, says

him
be

in
his

sunrise

for,

obey

and

exist ?
set

This

but

Of
law

no

laws, Hercules
was

have

but

may
fortune

compensated

of the

out

whose

much

of the
and

bom

father

he

need

stars, the

Phoebus
in the

use

had
second

not

crowd

high

moon

and

decade

below

or

thralls
of

the

ashamed,

on

been

could
are

be

of

lacked

liege servants

what
discipline,

or

dance

The

Etruscus

that

made

from

man

his

been

already

poet

only they

sunset.

there

were

could

No

large measure.
master,

the

to commemorate

our

the

sun

!
era

at

to Tiberius'
Court,
early age, to Rome
before 37 a.d.): under Caligula
and was
manumitted
by him (i.e.
humble
his position,and
had
he maintained
a
place in his
Claudius
his elevation
under
retinue
his journey to Gaul:
on
no
change he had steered
began : under Nero, he underwent
Pallas
his craft successfully. In the year
55 perhaps, when

Sm5n:na, came,

at

very

"

The

52

(theImperial
Holy Chamber
The
entrusted
to him.
receiptsfrom Iberian
and
Egyptian harvests,
gold-mines, African

resigned,the administration

Exchequer) was
and
the

Dalmatian

pearl fisheries

Tarentine

whatever
waft
he

of

the

the

in,he,

and

also

must

dailyfood

of corn,

transparent

ivories

the

of India

might
compass
the disbursements

point
every
And
administered.
he,
his

the erections

of

there

hands

for the

demands

Emperors, the statues of the gods

sleep,and littletime for meals, none

construction

of the
the

and

the
passes
tions
distribu-

Roman

temples, the

adornment

harbours, the

and

waterways

of

of the

from

armies, the

for

and

of Numidia,

from

revenues

manufactories

only
assign. Through

of the

Seas, the

Eastern

the

forests

winds

of the

Alexandrian

herds, and

crystal,from

Court

of

palaces of

mint.

He

the

has little

banquetings. Pleasure
is not
for him.
Under
Domitian
(84) he fell into disgrace,
but was
only punished by relegationto the coast of Campania,
In about
whither his son accompanied him.
89 or 90 he was
forgiven. Shortly after his return to Rome, he died (about
A.D.),neariy,ninety years old. His grave was
fragrant
92
with

the

flowers,
and

Painters

rarest

scented

essences

sculptors busied

for

funeral

his

perpetuate the
features
of this whilom
slave
in the most
precious materials ;
the [two most
celebrated
poets of his day wrote
elegieson
have
his
and
fate to posterity.
him, and
name
preserved
The of"ce of Petitions and Grievances
was
(alibellis)
politically
of/ far less consequence.
by Polybius, of whom
Seneca

whom
and

an

Claudius

it

repeated

mention

has

exile

nature

One

and

giving way
of men,

ground
importance
to his

decide

mind

streaming
order, you

of

on

in Corsica
the

at

for

relief Seneca

many

'

You

must

petitions.

the

in

death

of

hear

raise

made,

to

his well-known
of his younger

in the

would

fact of the

preclude

from

thousands
many
be able to lay before
so

ruler such
vast
a
supreme
from
the four
quarters of the

must

been

one

finds

To

administered

was

addressed

of his work, which

anguish
so

to

Under

undignified Consolation

brothers.

the

as

themselves

urn.

mass

of matters,

world, in proper

who
hear
so
spirits. You
must
To dry the tears of the
yourselfweep.
many
weep,
in periland
who
beseech
the mercy
are
of our
many
gracious
first dry your
own
tears '. And, besides
Emperor, you must
also Literary Counsellor
this
of"ce, Polybius was
to the
Emperor. Amongst other things he had made
paraphrases
not

your

own

The
of

Virgil and

force

of the

survive,

mighty.
the
not
ease

is to

Latin

long

so

and

Homer,
will

says, that, as
of the
the charm

Polybius

tone

53

Seneca

tongue, and

this

And

Court

live

among

dominates

the

the
entire

long

the

as

Greek, shall

spiritsof
work.

the

He

is

of the powerful courtiers

whose
only one
friendshipis
but
also pleasurable. With
his
merely advantageous,
in gaining wealth, the only profithe purposes
to himself
He
is universally respected ; his luck
despise wealth.

raises

envious

no

And

tongue.

so

on.

the

Further,

Literary Counsellorship(probably
to have
been
a
by Claudius) seems
large, constant
staffed

of"ce

director

After

at

Court.

In

the

is mentioned,
(adiutor)

the

second

fourth

with

century, it

century,
salary of 60,000

instituted
and
a

wellsecond

sesterces.

to the
regularly reserved
Martial
knights. One Sextus, whom
requested to find room
in the imperial or Palatine
for his poems
Library, was apparently
both librarian and Literary Counsellor
to Domitian.
For
he, the eloquent worshipper of the Palatine Minerva, was
mitted
perto enjoy the intimacy of the god (the Emperor), and
to watch
the beginnings of the prince'sworks, and his secluded
thoughts. In the third and forth centuries a high official,a
of the office of Literary
the principal conductor
knight, was
was

Adviser.
The

Secretariate

imperial Chancery, had

and
two
Latin, each, beyond all doubt,
departments, Greek
under
But
the supervision of the departa
separate head.
ment
in the first century was
always apparently vested in one
the
Narcissus, who
authority. For
omnipotent
supreme
held
the
Secretariate
under
Claudius, can
hardly have been
such
would
he have
held his place beside
subordinate, nor
as
CaUistus

and

{ab epistoUs),the

Pallas.

Under

Domitian

as

well, the

one

oflScial

of the whole.
Statins
describes
epistoKs had the conduct
the imperial secretary of his day, Abascantus, as being engaged
where
in correspondence with
the whole
Empire, countries
Greek
and
where
Latin
a
poetical account
prevailed even
ab

"

dared

contain

not

Yet in the second

inaccuracies.
any crude
took
place, perhaps in conjunction with

change
Hadrian's
general official reorganization. No doubt the Latin
section was
made
now
independent of the Greek, a separation
eminently desirable in view of the frightful
pressure of business,
holy.'house was
^cording to Statius no department in the
century

'

Court

The

54
as
busier,especially

would
office

augment
than

more

increased

in

And

other.

any

and

more

of

extensiveness

the

the

the

reforms

of

number

of

in
dismissing a
Apostate consisted
scribes, who perverted their office into a system
blackmailings and extortions.

the

Statins

dedicates

Abascantus

after

this

the

of

poem

his

have

Julian
useless

of scandalous

the

to

freedman
'

Priscilla,as

of his wife, Antistia

death

government
in this

work

staflE must

the

of

One

more.

of the

concentration

continual

the

the
interests
of
unrelaxing in his efforts to serve
all concerned
with the Holy House, in so far as his weakness
the gods, must
also
allowed, for he who
loyally reverenced
love their
priests'. The Emperor, with his perspicuityinto
a
even
as
character, recognized the abilities of Abascantus

he

ever

was

and

man,

young

bearable

scarce

Abascantus

laid

weight
had

now

orders, to steer

Empire, to

of the

Euphrates,

the

progress

defeat, borne
the

despatch into

to

the

receive

of

the

the

in Thule.

even

of this office of world-wide

through

of the

For

by

laurel-crowned

this titanic

his shoulders

on

currents

the

utilize the

and

tidingsof victory from

Danube

and

arms

of

Rome

never

was

the

the

Rhine,
in

the

plume,

the

consequence.
the monarch's

land

every

burden,

resources

the
the

or

farthest

the

banks

news

lands,

betokener

but
they always
messengers,
decided
lances of success.
He
on

the

of

of

brought
military

who
is to be made
centurion, or
promotions, and "announced
of a cohort, or squadron
tribune,who is to have the command
will
Nile-floods
the
of cavalry. He
must
inquire whether
in Africa the rains have fallen,
ensure
a good harvest, whether
he must
and infinite are the matters
investigate; Mercury or
Isis

never

had

view,

so
was

calm, upright and

errands.
Abascantus, in his panemany
gyrist's
still
nnmoved
he
was
by his promotion ;
modest

no

Apulian

or

Sabine

yokel more

eating or drinking. But he must have been very rich.

her
made
According to Statins, Priscilla on her deathbed
husband
he would
swear
a golden statue
put up, In her name,
of the
Emperor, on the Capitol, of lOO
pounds ("4;50o).
Her
funeral
was
royally magnificent. Every fragrance from
her dead
the East
rested on
was
body, which
poured over
pillowsof sUk, wrapped in mantles of purple : it was embalmed
and buried
the Via Appia near
the Almo.
was
Her
on
grave
her form
was
a
reproduced in the shapes of
palace, where

sober

in

The
goddesses,in

difierent
Maia

as

and

The

Venus

Court

bronze

as

55

Ceres

tlie Chaste.

Ariadne, in marble

and

Its remains

still be

can

seen.

of the

director

imperial secretariate had also to be an

educated
The
man.
Emperor's letters and the rescriptsof his
and
in a
agents had to be drawn
up in the sovereign'sname
form
worthy of his majesty. Their calligraphyhad also to be

perfect.

The

of

names

freedmen, which

some

were

no

doubt

of their
in consideration
by their masters
occupations,indicate literaryculture and scientific knowledge :
Claudius
such as Tiberius
Philologus,Titus Flavins Ihas, and
Naturally and probably such men
perhaps Flavius Hermes.
would
be made
librarians ; thus Dionysius the grammarian of
conferred

Alexandria,
school

as

them

on

and

of Glaucus, succeeded

son

imperial secretary

and
As

especiallyafter
that

assumed

with

invested

of the

known

he

for their

over-confident
But

post.
section

is

tone

manner

the

in

second

to have

seems

for the

more,

was

century,

been

the

of

brilliant

promotions.

who

held

Hadrian,

and

his

Yet

Avidius

son

how

could

highest aim,
This

Emperor
at least

enemies
but

not

not
as
was

asserted

good

according to

the

of the

ambition

Greek

Greek
rhetors

degree. They strove for

thing
their literaryfame, and for somepost with its prospects of higher

remunerative
it under

of the

control

the

remarkable

and

the

were

learned
as
a
already known
his biographies of the Emperors are
of preciseand sober exactitude
; his
the
Sabina
lost him
to the Empress
he

sophists in a quite
imperial confirmation

the

be

ture
literaof the senescent
of his age, the restorer
became
Suetonius
also wrote
Under
Hadrian
verse.

noticeable

and

imperialoffices,

the

Capito,who held it under Domitian,

reckoned
by Pliny the Younger as one

imperial secretary ;
prolificwriter,, and

and

the

knights, it may
literaryreputation

to

of

men

aU

ornaments

the

librarian

became

Titinius

it.

Trajan,

and

Nerva

of

its restriction

only

later

Chaeremon

Rome.

at

repute of this office, as

the

rose,

and

Alexandria,

at

surveyor

the Stoic

rhetor

The

obtained

the

dared

reach

Cassius

Avidius

Heliodorus

governorshipof Egypt,
out for the purple.

eloquence as man's
to be recognized by
deem
it a great advance,
if thus appointed ?
the first of livingstylists,
such

their

men

view

who

and

idolized

that

of their friends

theit

them
secretaries,
Emperor could make
and
Commodus,
Aurelius
stylists. Marcus
the rhetor
AtticistPhrynichus,had nominated

the

Court

The

56
Comelianus

the

their

principalof

Greek

chancery,

as

being

highest standing in the learned world, and the

of all. Phrynichus praiseshim as an orator of a
eminent
most
classical expression,the only professorof rhetoric,
and
pure
form ; he
who
brought his art back to its ancient and standard
Attic ; he taught
and
the imperialcourt reallyHellenic
made
not
others correctness
only in expression,but also in action,
a

of the

man

look, voice

continues

exaggeration^the Emperors
highest department of State, and

considered

"

the

vein of

in

him

worthy of
his keeping

to

Atticist

Therefore

attitude.

and

ridiculous

the

all Greek

beside

affairs,set him

entrusted

themselves

to

nominally secretary, really co-regent.

of that
day
Evidently the pride of the imperial chanceries
at the Renascence,
less than that of the papal chanceries
no
was
less by the sophiststhan by
and epistolary
no
style esteemed
of the fifteenth century. Antipater of Hierapolis,
the humanists
and
of Severus*
the tutor
the sophist,was
principalof
sons,
of him that none
wrote
remarks
his chancery, and PhUostratus
the imperial despatches better ; he spoke in a manner
worthy
eminent
actor
of the Emperor, like an
correctly interpreting
of
letters exhibited
his piece. His
clearness, a lofty range
thought, apt expression, and a proper terseness, the special
The
of a letter.
ornament
sophist Aspasius of Ravenna,
the
under
Caracalla, was
imperial secretary possibly even
the epistolaryart.
on
subject of a letter from Philostratus
too
For
his imperial despatches had
purple patches,
many
and too little preciseness. The
Emperor's letters should not
be couched
in ornate
and rounded
periods,but should declare
when
also be avoided
he sets
his purpose,
and ambiguity must
watch,

and

him

made

their

laws, in which

forth

clearness

own

should

be

the

true

interpreter.
"

began
imperial chamberlains, as has been remarked,
the palace officials of whom
later than
to be prominent much
the
heads
of a large staff, conhave
sisting
we
spoken. They were
of the
partly of slaves, partly of freedmen (but never
had. varying degrees of access
free in the Early Empire), and
be the meaning
to the Emperor's person : this may
of their
The

'

first

'

gauged

and
from

'

second
the

'

stations.

fact that

Their

great number

specialservice

for their

may

sick

be
was

The

58
'

chamber
from

he

him,

Martial

was

has

as

him

begs

been

of his fifth book

copy

receive

to

as

carrying

of

right

said, the

hand

to

favour,

in Domitian's

much

so

Court

sword.

the

to

peror
Em-

his
know
of Jupiter'sgaiety, when
the seasons
you
native geniaUty shines out, and does not rejectsuppliants'.
'

own

Parthenius

and
and

Domitian,

continued

Parthenius

time

for

over

himself

to his

poet.

Martial

him

fine

He

the

toga,

When

success.

chamberlains

his

now

would

he

says, he

and, in 93,

an

him

on

received

unfortunately
if he

anew,

Emperor

could

excellent
the

fifth

giftfrom
in 94.

out

worn

no

devoted

have
was

congratulated

was

hand

requests, that he had

many
otherwise

88

of

whom

time, to recommend

had

much

without

prospect

demanded
year 97 the Praetorians
and
killed
murderers
of Domitian,

the

refusal, he

is said

to

was

of
the

them

fallen.

have

years later, the positionof the

Already, as in
very different.

hundred

one

throne, with

the

And

murder

in the

punishment of
despite Nerva's
But,

La the

part

to

for, Martial

which

the

to

poems

year

him

Nerva

so

Burrus,

son

requested

now

his

Muse
in

of his

Muses,

own

active

an

favour.

to read

the

birthday
of

in

had

He

be idle.

not

Sigenis had
the raisingof

Emperor's
oriental

an

and
the
were
despotism, they had their ranks
omnipotent
Commodus
as
mouthpieces of their sovereigns,all the more,
accustomed
had been
by Perennis the Praefect, to Uve a life of
Hence
pleasure,and, for the most part, was away from Rome.
ruled
The first of them, Saoteros,
his freedmen
as
they liked.
his
vote
the Senate
Nicomedian,
was
a
powerful, and made
native city the right of holding a periodicfestival and building
Cleander
a temple to the Emperor.
displacedhim, and handed
him

and

others

to

over

Phrygian, brought

to

the

Rome

executioner.
slave

Cleander

was

and

porter ; he was
the palace and
sold in the open
market, entered
to be
rose
his power
chamberlain.
As
such
was
unparalleled in one
he appointed five-and-twenty consuls, and
of
by means
year
extortions
of every kind pUed up an enormous
fortune.
After,
his
the
at
Praefect
had
been
Perennis
instigation,
partly
to the
sacrificed
fury of the soldiers,he fiUed and deposed
for a time all these ofl"ces at his will
^the of"ces standing next
and
after the Emperor's
them
with
himself
finallyassumed
as

"

"

"

two

others.

As

Praefect

sign of military command,

he
a

carried

the

distinction

ofl"cer's sword, the

seldom

awarded

to

The
freedmen,
belted

and

hence

freedman
At

power.

burst

into

and

his

with

the

flame, and

of

the

by

said to have

was

time

59

nicknamed

was

'. He

last, at

Court

aimed

abandoned

the

at the

supreme

of the

populace

famine, the hatred

Commodus

'

people

(189);

him

he

carried
principal supporters fell,and his head was
about
Rome
of
the point of a lance.
The last chamberlain
on
Commodus
the Egyptian Eclectus.
that his
When
he saw
was
Ufe was
in perilfrom
his moodish
master, he plottedhis murder
raised

Praefect

Laetus

Pertinax

fight with

the

to

the

and
throne

and

died

imperialstaff,was
the

the

murdered

already

under

and

Caracalla

best

calls the

Severus,

Of

{a memoria).

Aurelius

as

of the

Probably

of Caracalla.

post under

chamberlain,

been

Besides

his side in vaUant

at

Dio

order

by

influential

same

chamberlain

favourite

Marcia,

soldiers.

Severus' chamberlain, Castor, whom

he held

concubine,

his favourite

had

Festus,

Elagabalus'
has

mention

Zoticus,

made.

these

important

ofiBicialsof the Court, the Court

actors

not
always
They were
freedmen
of the Emperor, but it is typical of our
epoch that
their role in his palace was
often by no
means
insignificant.
comedians
of the Court, the pantomimes
Amongst the numerous
took first rank, as the upper
classes were
passionatelyaddicted
to this species of scenic representation,the women
more
even
than
the
often
did its greatest professors enjoy the
men
;
The waking thought, says Epictetus,of no
Empresses' favour.
few people is to whom
in the palace shall he send
a
present,
turn
or
a
he can
with
the
himself
how
dancer,
ingratiate
The
names
slander
for another.
into a gratification
on
one
famous
of the most
and
of some
a
mimes
pantopart of the careers
branch
founded
this
have survived.
Pylades,the Cilician,

and

dancers

of the

should

ballet, and

be

credited

his

favourite
He

and

Paris, the
executed
Domitia.
at

freedman
and

and

Messalina's

Messalina
comrade

himself

mind

diverting the popular

been

mentioned.

were

of the

in the

to

the

Court

was

the

executed

stage

to

freedman.

the

year

of Nero,

who

had

of his

48.
him

paternalaunt,

so

much

control
Another

is unknown.

manumitted

have

Caligula's

in

exercised

his freedman,

Pylades, a darling of Trajan's, was

seems

Mnester,

together

freedman
who

he

lover, Tiberius'

debaucheries
a

Augustus' gratitudefor

beautiful

constrained

year 67, was

Whether
the Paris

Domitian's

with

by

Hadrian.

6o

Court

The

One

Apolaustus,

freedman,
and

also

as

Lucius

the

third

Verus.

had

name,

of Commodus,

and

Trajan's

been

AureUus

of Marcus

have

first must

Court

fall

of that

Pylades, freedman

The

the

at
personage
in Oleander's

second

been

an

important

he

was

involved

as

AgUius Septentrio,

executed.

'

the

of Commodus,
freedman
a
pantomime of his day ', was
Faustina, and, at his imperial
brought up by his mother
dancer
The
Theocritus,
patron's inducement, a public actor.
in
to
a
appointed by Caracalla
high mihtary command
first

Armenia,

had

been

slave of

Cpmmodus'

chamberlain

Saoterus.

Juvenal are said to be directed against the second

him the anger of
on
Paris, and thereby to have later on drawn
his banishment
another
:
pantomime, and, in consequence,
wiU ; it is idle
the princes cannot
what
do for you, a dancer
visit the
to
praefects, and a
palaces : a Pelopea creates
The

of

verses

'

tribunes'.^

Philomela
And

other

Court.

at

tragedian

stamp

Jewish
as

an

'

did

venture

ambassadors

of

and

Ascalon,

the

most

ential
influ-

as

celebrated

Caligula'sregular companion
all such
men
as
things in full freedom
once
on,
they attain to power'.'
of Alexandria
of opinion that
were
was

Ascalonite, would

chamberlain,

mentioned

sometimes

are

Apelles

of his time,

adviser, and
that

stage artists

be

inflame

their
the

bom

foe, after

Emperor

against

afterwards, he fell into disfavour,it is said, because

Hehkon

and

of
The

he,
the

them.

But,
,

he hesitated

in

replying to Caligula'squestion,which seemed the greater, he]

or
ferer
Jupiter. Caligulahad him flogged,and congratulated the sufhis
melodious
on
then.
shrieks, agreeable even
Through
the instrumentalityof the mime
Alityros,a Jew high in Nero's
Josephus was
presented to the Empress Poppaea at
graces,
PuteoU
the release
and, through her intercession, obtained
of some
the procurator Fehx
had
sent
Jewish priests,whom
to the Emperor
in chains.
the
in
master
mime,
Latinus,
a
his art, was
of
favourite
Domitian
and
a
proud of Rome
servant
of his Jupiter
knowing him as the
(the Emperor).
He
reported to the Emperor the day's occurrences,
and, as
'

an

informer,
Of

loves

the
at

feared.

was

host
least

'

of the

remaining servants,

deserve

suflicient to remind
1

us

mention.
of

the

The

the

name

and
boypages
of Antinous
is

importance they might

Pelopea and Philomela

are

names

of

plays.

attain.

Martial
the

Statius

and

beautiful

who,

his

was

him,

'

freedman,

Martial

as

vied

glorifying Carinus
eunuch
and
cupbearer

of

says,

thousand

'

favourite.

Emperor's
oft chosen

so

in

hand

to

Pergamus,

of

Domitian,
servants

Ganymede-like

Dear

the

of

boy ', Statius

and

nectar

addresses

touch

to

that

all-

the
Getae, Persians, Armenians
powerful right hand, which
and
When
he first wished
to have
his
Jews, long to grasp !
with
her Cupids hastened
down
to
flowing locks shorn, Venus
help him.
They enwrapped him in a silk mantle, cut his hair
with
the
them
with
arrowheads,
points of two
perfumed
in a golden bejewelled case,
fragrant scents, and placed them
and
mirror
sent this and
to Aesculapius at Pergamus.
a similar
In a room
the slope of the Palatine
towards
the Circus,
on
walls
of which
the
on
some
pupils of the Pages' school have
to the Court, inscriptions are
recorded
their
removal
found.
These
show
that
the most
were
boys from
outlying countries
here
assembled
the
Crimea
and
North
(such as
Africa).
of
these
the epoch of the AntoAmongst
scribblings (perhaps
of the
believer
Alexamenos
be traced
can
nines) the name
;
mocked
faith in a drawing roughly
his schoolmates
his Christian
scratched
into the stucco
is praying to a crucified
: he
figure
Greek
with
ass's
head
the
Alexamenos
an
legend is
;
worshipping his God.'
'

'

'

'

" 4
Of

the

mention
deserve

slaves

women,

is

made

seldom

mention.

The

freed, in

or

but

Jewess

the

palace, naturally

characteristic

some

is

(Hacma

Acme

facts

Syrian

for

the
by Herod
heavily bribed
Great's
illegitimateson Antipater, to join an intrigue against
her to Antipater was
from
A
letter
Herod's
sister Salome.
intercepted, and she paid for her action with her life. Otho,
to a close friendship with
the future
Emperor, paved his way
and
of the Emperor,
Nero
through an influential freedwoman
To
attain
his end, he pretended love
honour.
did her every
A modem
parallel
for her, in spite of her considerable
years.

clever)

was

suggests
an

old

Maintenon,

Louis

of Mme.

servant

to

slave, and

At

itself.

speak

Livia's

princesses
her

bowed

XIV's

and

Maintenon,
themselves

deemed

ministers,
to her

Court,

whilst
the

there

was

thus

of

one

Nanon,

great

quence
conse-

to
happy to chance
working
through Mme.

Duchess

du

Lude

in

1696

won

Court

The

62
her

prizeof becoming lady of

by paying
evening,
decided
the

thalers

20,000

the

which

on

King
'

disapproval.

her

the

was

one

with

remark

of

St. Simon.

de

Due

'

life

is Court

Such

of

speaking

been

had

Burgundy

this, too, after

and

Nanon,

to

of

to the Duchess

honour

be the Emperor's
powerful would
Messalina
When
was
concubines.
being effectivelyaccused
induced
two
cubines
conto ClaudiVis, Narcissus
especiallyfavourite
of the Emperor, Calpumia and
Cleopatra, by means
of promises, giftsand prospects of greater influence, to further
the concubines
sometimes
And
of the Empress.
the enemies
never
might for a while bewitch the sovereign,but there was
fact
in the Roman
attributable, perEmpire, a
a mistress-rule
haps,
relations of the sexes, so utterlydifferent
to the old-world
It follows

to such

to condescend

first Emperor

The

most

conditions.

modem

from

the

that

Acte,

Acte's

himself
liaison

with

friends

of

the

lusts

off his

slave, which

Emperor

in

her

threatened

had

it in

fashion.

Nero's

slave

to

avow

enraged

influence

encouraged

harmless

the

revolting that

Night Watch,
Empress-mother was

The

lover.

so

was

the

of

Serenus, Praefect

Annaeus

affair

Nero,

was

feU upon

his choice

year, and
the
Little-Asian, and

in his nineteenth

then

amour

an

hope

at

older

; the

of

working

passion for Acte

of
thought of marrying her; and men
to her royal pedigree from
rank were
consular
wilUng to swear
But
the Attali.
others soon
supplanted her, and, last, Poppaea.

great that he

so

was

survived

She

with

freedmen

baker,

runner,

inscribed

'

tiles
But

stamped

with

Caenis, the
manumitted

and

Acte,

Puteoli

at

life,by other

been

of his old nurses,

two

did him

his

eunuch,

Claudia

found

been

with

cost
magnificent burial, which
20,000
Some
records of her large household
of slaves and
down
have
come
; specifying two
chamberlains, a

sesterces.

her

Nero, and,

honours,

last

even

her

and

the

vocalist.

Emperor's

Velitrae
at

name

mistress

Greek

of

qualitiesthan
by Antonia,

her

in

her

been,

his

have

been

nearly forty years

wife's

Vespasian,
youth
the

death,

took

villas

', have
there, and

potteries in Sardinia.
and

held

her

old,

of

master

She

early
before

all
had

Claudius, who

remarkable

back.

as,

her

beauty.

mother

employed her as a secretary, as she was

fidelityand memory.
Vespasian, whose
after

Drain-pipes

freedwoman

both

love

She
the

she

must

death

for
had
then

of

The
Sejanus (October 31)

she

Court

63

Antonia's

was

confidant, and

pasian's
Ves-

wife, FlaviaDomitilla, died at the earliest in 52 (which

the

was
as

his

date

of Domitian's

lawful

wife.

budding insolence
to

kiss

wealth

; she
'

was

she

life, but

rather

Vespasian
for

power

Recently

received

who

held

from

'

to

so

to her

the

their

and
much

Via

Nomentana
of

manes

the

children.
sway

of

Faustina.

Marcus

Aurelius, after

receiver

to

not

her

Antoninus
that

praefectof

by

wife's

of
of her

one

Pius

even

buted
gossip attri-

the Life Guards,

of his wife Annia

his

enjoy her
Vespasian's reign.
altar was
found,

concubine,

appointment
possibly Lysistrata,the freedwoman

for

Caenis, freedwoman

And

of the

the

lation.
accumu-

in return

the

did

first year of
votive
a

Antonia

kiss

to

enormous

of

was

She

good patron ',erected

his three
under

in the

offered
her

her

to

priesthoods, even
took
Vespasian never

She

money.
to connive.'

her

Domitian's

his hand

out

all sides

For

life for

gave

the

on

sold.

treated

must

journey ; she had

Emperor gained
be Vespasian'smeans

money

she

supposed
long; she died

Emperor,

freedmen

that

was

dedicated

was

said to

Emperor

ofiices, procuratorships, commands,

imperial responses

the

the

on

even

For

The

offensive

more

seemed,

from

influence

Her

the

have

his return

on

him.

the

All

birth).

Galeria

decease, took

daughter of one of his procurators as concubine, rather than

give his children a stepmother.
Panthea
of Smyrna, a love of Lucius Verus, is indebted
for
of her celebrityto the enthusiastic
most
allegiancepaid to
of that day, during a short
her by Lucian, the wittiest author
visit of his to Smyrna in 162.
Her
beauty so runs the work
lences
to her
dedicated
can
only be described in terms of the excelbrush
chisel ;
of all the masterpieces of the Greek
or
aU ; her voice
embodied
them
she combined
was
harmony ;
tuneful
and melodious
than the nightingale's
her singing more
;
she
would
listen
her
and
hush
to
and
:
Amphion
Orpheus
intense
poetical
plays the cither with no less art ; she has an
acquaintance with the works of the
feeling,and an intimate
historians, orators and philosophers. She is an Aspasia in her
in the sharpness and
ness
quickexperienceand insightin politics,
of her intellect ; rather a greater Aspasia, in proportion
of Pericles : comparable
the Roman
Empire excelled the Athens
as
to Theano, the wife of P3rthagoras,Sappho or Diotima.
And
repeatedlyis she praised for her kind and gentlespirit,
"

"

64

The

her

Court

her
responsiveness,her true faith towards
lover.
Fortune
has not spoiledher ; with those who
frequent
her
her she moves
liness
friendand
terms
on
unconstrainedly :
equal
is the more
trace
attractive, as
coming without
any
the
of haughtiness, from
manner
one
so
highly placed. And
of her coming proves
her
lofty position; a briUiant retinue
of maidservants,
eunuchs
and
soldiers
guarded her person.
have
found
this
And, as possibly,the beauteous
lady may
fit to indite a
Lucian
libation of praise over-plenteous,
thinks
second
but
glorification,
belauding her
repeating the former
have
to
Panthea
seems
modesty as well.
gained Verus'
love
and
him
survived
And
she forms
life-long
many
years.
the motive
of Marcus
of one
Aurelius'
pessimisticreflections
the vanity of earthly gauds.
Panthea
Does
on
or
Pergamus
still sit by their master's
coffin ? It would
be perfectlyridiculous.
Chabrias
Or
and
Diotimus
?
And
if
by Hadrian's
the dead
And
did
know
of it ?
they did, would
they know
of it, would
were
they be glad ? And
they glad of it,
and
afiability

'

would

their

doom,

to suffer

their

The

old

do

masters
and

empty

an

favourites

harem

be

age, and

if their

immortal
then

loves

to

died

Was

perish ?
AU

it

And

their

not

what

is idle and

should

fleeting
;

rotting husk.'
of Commodus

comprised three hundred

women
and
three
hundred
love-boys, and the position of favourite
was
won
by Marcia for her beauty and mastery of courtesanShe maintained
said, by magic.
this rank for nine
ship,some
years.
who

She

was

executed

was

conspiracy.

Amazonius

sake,

appear

to

coin, on

of

lawful

having

as

and

accompUce

seeingher

in

arena

an

this
her

Quadratus,

as

in

the

wife,

and

all the

in front

condemned

she

Christian,

to

costume,

or

insigniaof

inclined

One

Sardinian
to

that

to

her

us

on

beautiful

the

honours

Empress, except

an

word

of

calling
for

wished,

picture is preserved

of her.

the

Lucilla's

Amazon,

an

next to the head

appears
Amazon's
shield.
She received

fire carried

183

of Ummidius

his head

Christians
was

concubine

liked

in the

which

with

woman

in

Commodus

himself

former

from

mines

faith, as

her, and the

were

had

set

been

free

her

foster-father,Hyacinthus the Eunuch, the priestin the Roman

Community, and several freedmen
of the Court, and
had
a
connexion
with
Victor, Bishop of Rome.
In vain
did she
beseech

Commodus

on

the last

day

of his

life,on

her

knees

and

66

Court

The

S5rmphorus
have
would
supphants for favours kissing his hands, passing
half the night outside
his bedroom
door, sending presents,
for praetorships and
candidates
tojgainhis support : even
But

few

dared

consulates
and

entertain

would

able

Nero's

him.

woo

A Numenius

this view.

cupbearer Pythagoras were

twenty-fiveyears after his death.
As

oriental

the

after

customs

in, the imperial household

way
in it

thousand

one

became

Libanius

to

According
'

cooks,

third

the

the

household

of the

Sultan

Aziz

Abdul

even
'

eunuchs

gardeners,etc. And
his place as
not use
not
one
pilfering
;
his own
gig,being
'

not

that

content

with

should

mask

of these

'

who

his

souls be
fabulist

to

no

less

one

hankering

in this

their

enormous

master

one

351
did

than
after

his

own,

an

esteem

throng, could

become

often

foiled,to the exultation

Phaedrus,

'

not

slavery.

few, of course,

Only a
personally known

did

wealth, but

mere

and

palace
and
defrauding,intimidation
not aim
at owning land, driving

master,

scarcely

of

means

servants

more

considered,
and
porters

viz. 5,005 officials and

servants, 409 watchmen
for the
twenty-one grandees' houses, 359 cooks
'

found

sections

some

be

their
farious.
multi-

more

Apostate

in

full

thrust

barbers,

cupbearers,and hives of table servants and

an
exaggerationif,for example, the numbers
of

and

more

thousand

one

of in Rome

century

Julian

Thalamus

barber

spoken

his

or

enough

would

bitious
am-

of their fellows.

The

at home
with
imperialfreedman, was
the servant-class,and tells the followingtale not unwillingly.
When
Tiberius on his way
to Naples was
stopping at his "Wlla
and taking a walk in the park, one
at Misenum,
of the betterclass slaves there employed ran
and leaped about
before the
ing
Emperor on all the paths he took, with his apron on, in gay clothand well-shaved.
At last Tiberius signed to him, but to tell
the joyoushastener that his painsmight have been spared : the
honour
of a box
the ears
from
on
hand
(the customary
my
at
blow
symbolic
manumissions) is not tobesoeasUy purchased '.
the
Amongst
principalslaves were the Dispensatores(accountants,
paymasters and intendants)
; not
only at Court, but
also in the many
estates in Rome
and
the provinces. The
War
at its close purchased his
dispensatorof the Armenian
for
fact
liberty of Nero
sesterces, a
13,000,000
Pliny
mentions
How
an
as
the
of
the
atrocity.
large
earnings
dispensatorsgenerallywere, may be appreciated from the fact
as

an

'

The
that
had

Otho

could

obtained

from

extort

such

67

imperial slave

an

under

post

Court

Galba,

for whom

he

sesterces.

1,000,000

formerly the property of

Drusilla, the sister of Caligula, and
dispensator in HitherSpain, possessed a silver vessel weighing 500 pounds, to make
which
of his
a
special workshop had been built,and many
In a columbarium
the Via Appia near
on
train, smaller ones.
the tomb
of the Scipios,there is a gravestone of a principal
It was
dispensatorof Gallia Lugdunensis, a slave of Tiberius.
to him
erected
who
panied
accomby sixteen of his slaves {vicarii)
to Rome,
his return
he
him
died.
on
during which
Such
retinue
a
gives a perspective of the size of the whole
slave

of

There

household.

chamberlains,
a

Rotundus,

Claudius,

wardrobe

three

were

cooks, two

two

keeper, a

of

man

be

all the

not

freedmen

slaves

physician,
one

specified.
un-

least

business, steward, and

indispensableattendants

or

butlers, two

walking attendants,

"
But

secretaries, two

of

of the

all, artists

Court
or

could

scientists.

Amongst these servants, but not slaves, of the palace,physicians,

astrologersand the tutors of the princes are the most
frequently mentioned.
The
in the imperial family were
teachers
often
eminent
Seneca

men.

was

senator, when

eight-year-oldNero

summoned

educate

to

the

and

be said of
perhaps the same
may
in charge the instruction
he took
of Marcus
Fronto, when
Annius
Aurelius (then Marcus
Verus) and Lucius Verus (then
Lucius
be assumed,
of
men
Commodus).
Generally, it may
selected ; Quintilian
were
great reputation in their branch
had

been

before
tiUa's

for

twenty

Domitian

entrusted

grandchildren.

Aurelius

of

teacher

Tiberius'

When

Atticus.

him

to

The

teachers

were

palace.

When

Verrius
philologist

Fl^ccus

the

he

taken

took

salary
Antoninus

him
of

his whole

and
100,000

Pius

chose

school

sesterces.
to

educate

rhetoric

Theodorus

Cotyaeum

of less

of

into his

of Marcus

andHerodes

made

the

famous

grandchildren,
house, with a yearly

ApoUonius
the

was

standing they would

Augustus
tutor

of Gadara

the teachers

of

Rome,

at

of his sister Domi-

care

Amongst

oratory.

the

of

the

famous

the

be

into

teacher

sophistsAlexander

the

were

years

future

his

Stoic, whom
Marcus
Aurelius,

the

The

68
and

palace
Pertinax
;

attained

Chalcis, refused

to

enter

the

Tiberian

come
pupil must
by the heir-apparent.
master, a request accorded
made
his son
frequent the public schools and gymnasia
Three
he was
tutors
royal
acting quite exceptionally.
in 143, but only
in 57, Fronto
Seneca
the Consulate:

where

the

to

from

summoned

Court

Marcus

Aurelius

lived

the

sular
Conand Herodes
Atticus, 143, with the full rank.
suffecti,
bestowed
on
Quintilian at the instance of
insignia were
Flavins
and
Domitian's
cousin
on
one
Clemens,
Titianns,
as

perhaps

the

teacher

of the

younger
part of the

Maximinus.

imperial household, and

owing to the many
numerous,
palaces and estates and
very
of the day was
servants'
apartments, and the medicine
highly
of
Nevertheless
the
selection
physicians was
specialized.
confidence
confidence
and
based
on
on
professional skill ;
of the palace would
and the medical
servants
only be employed
In the Early Empire the
occasions.
for slightand subordinate
sesterces.
a
yearly salary of 250,000
physicians received
he
considered
was
making a personal
Quintus Stertinius
this sum,
he proved that his
sacrifice in accepting double
as
His
town
brother. Gains
practice brought him in 600,000.
the same
Stertinius Xenophon, received from Claudius
amount,
and
both, after exhausting their property in great improvements
of Naples, left 30,000,000
of the town
sesterces, whilst
another imperialphysician,
After
Arruntius, alone left as much.
of Demetrius,
the physician,Marcus
the death
Aurelius, then
the Danube
War,
on
engaged in the German
inquired of the
head
of the imperial finance
doctor
was
department which
actuallyin the imperial pay, and on hearing that it was Galen,
all the
had
time
who
superintended the preparation of the
also
he should
the
make
theriac.
Under
drugs, directed
Alexander
Severus, only one Court physician received a salary,
six or
the rest, some
and
In the
seven,
only their board.
of
centuries
the
old
the
last
world,
imperialphysicians {archiatri
took a high rank, confirmed
sacri Palatii)
to them
by Theodoric.
were
Generallyspeaking, the physiciansat the Court of Rome
A

medical

staff

was

Tiberius'

Greeks, such

as

both

Andromachus,

named

physician,Crito, who
; Hadrian's

Demetrius

and

doctor, Charicles,and
the

elder

being

of Nero,

the two
Cretan

Trajan's

his German
on
paign
camaccompanied
physician,Hermogenes ; Marcus
Aurelius',
In
Galen, the physician of Commodus.
him

The
for

return

these

work,

citizenship,if

Roman
like

their

Claudius

Titus

Antonius

Musa,

Court
Court

doctors

probably received
originallypossessing the suffragium,

not

Alcimus

and

freedman,

69

Titus

Claudius

rewarded

was

Menecrates.

with

statue, and

golden rings,and exemption from taxation for himself and

for curing Augustus in 22 B.C.
his associates, in return
Gaius
Stertinius
Xenophon, an Asclepiad of Cos, the physician of
the

was

both

; he

secured

Claudius,
situation
civitas

himself
well

as

the

and

adviser

and

or
military tribunate
important military post

the

British

holder

himself, his brother

the

the
as

medical

of the wreath

distinction

his

palace

uncle, the

for
knighthood, and
of
praefectusfahrum,
of

(no doubt

Triumph 43 a.d
his campaign) ;

and

of

gold and the lance

he

at

had

accompanied
for his native
Claudius
island, exemption
His gratefulfellow-countrymen erected
from taxation
well.
as
struck
coins bearing his
to him
a statue
and, in his memory,
ef"gy. He is said to have been Agrippina's accomplice in the
in

of Claudius.

murder
not

only,as usual,

Claudius
The

His
'

the

monuments

Emperor's

', and, after Claudius'

enemies

of the

medical

record

his titles ; he was

friend ',but also the friend of
'

murder,

'

the

craft

imputed
adultery with

poisoning,of committing
to whom
their practice gave them
PUny, Vettius Valens of Ariminum
family are still extant),a famous
of

'

free

friend

of Nero

to them

wives

access.

'.

the habit
of

princes,
According to

(where monuments
physician under

of his

Claudius,

together in
Livia, the daughter-in-law of
48, also Eudemus, who attended
at her
connived
Tiberius, and
adultery with Sejanus, and
with her '. Naturally the imperialphysicians
himself cohabited
enjoyed some
higher reputationwith their colleaguesat Rome.
the
rhetor
Galen
boasts
of having restored
Diomedes, who
was

Messalina's

lived
whilst

in Sandal

the

Court

lover

he

and

she

Street, to health

in

faUed

to

doctors

were

executed

very short space of time,

understand
his illness and

wrongly.
Nor were
astrologerslikelyto be lacking at the Court ; they
True, astrologyconjured up
were
mostly Greeks or Orientals.
awake
Their prophecies would
pecuUar dangers for a throne.
sleepingpassions,stir mischief into life,and convert the dreams
Seneca, ridiculingthe
of faith into success
through fatalism.
told
every hour had been foreastrologers,
says, that every day and
Otho's courage,
by them as that of Claudius' deification.
treated

it

The

JO
after Galba

had

Court

adopted Piso,

soothsayers and Chaldaeans, who beset

especiallyhad forecast his survival of
and

claimed

now

for the

credit

The

of the

century, bring ruin

third

him

and

to

the

accession,

half

Christian

of his
writer

by fillingthe

monarchs,

on

his

of the

fulfilment

by

Ptolemaeus

; one

Nero

according

Chaldaeans,

prediction.

to falter

allowed

not

was

audacity. Hence there ever

edicts against astrology,and
ensued
new
periodicexpulsionsor
penaltiesagainstthe Chaldaeans, always in vain. Nearly all the
astrologerstheir counsellors, and an initiation
Emperors made
attained
of
into the secrets
of this superstition
was
by many
rulers with

these

fear, and

monarchs.

the ruled

Tiberius
boundless

for his

noted

was

influence

; but

reserve

his

astrologerThraVespasian
syllus,his inseparable and Ufe-long companion.
addicted
this
and
accorded
to
was
particularly
superstition,
Barbillus
an
astrologerof Ephesus, the institution of a periodical
festival at his native
in inscriptions
as
town, often mentioned
the Barhillaea, a privilegethat fell to the lot of no other town.
This same
famous
to Nero, at
advice
astrologerit was, whose
visitation by a comet
him
in 65 a.d., made
several of
have
a
the
forefend
to
the
so
as
aristocracy beheaded,
imagined
And
with
conference
secret
danger.
Poppaea, too, had much
who
had
been
her
astrologers,
many
unhappy aids to her
imperial marriage '. Often the fate of princely houses lay in
Court

ascribed

with

to

the

'

Chaldaean

hands.

Tiberius

their

of birth

and

hour

Caracalla

career.

of his court,

and,

so

as

this

on

killed,after ascertaining
many
therewith
their character
and coming

consulted

too

to gauge

choice
The

but

to

death

the

had

kindlier
but

Ill

few

THE

Knights
were

called

or

AND

senators, who
his

friends.

or

Chaldaeans

of Nerva

by Domitian
astrologerwho
days to live.

FRIENDS

death

suffer his

beforehand

by

horoscopes of the
dispositionfriendlyor

their

horoscope

honour.
read

death

own

is said

a
or

to

have

for this reason,

and

made

the

Emperor

COMPANIONS
attended

They

leaders

the

evidence, awarded

in whose

generallyno
Emperor's.

had

were

OF
the

vidual
indi-

An

throne, had
contrive
been

the

mined
deter-

only averted

beheve

THE

hostile ;

Nerva

EMPEROR

personally,
invited to
preferentially
Emperor

The
the

Court

imperial privy council,

'

Tiberius

senators.

friends

formed

requested

Augustus

under

of the

intimates, twenty of the

and

71

Senate, besides

of

out

his old

most

prominent statesmen
to act as his advisers
in pubhc business'.
Amongst the later
Emperors, the appointment of a similar council is not reported,
of Alexander

save

weight, miUtary

Severus.

But

in the

decision

of

of matters

the Emperors
political,
usually took into
counsel
eminent
senators
or
knights and naturallytheir friends
all consulars,
of rank
almost
especially. The men
(proceres,
besides the two
praefectsof the Praetorium) are repeatedly
called Domitian's
of how
friends
by Juvenal in his account
Domitian
them
to his castle at Alba
to
hurriedly summoned
or

'

advise

'

as

'

wished

though he

the

Sicambri, or some
savage
of the world
', but reallyto

dishing

a
up
But, whilst

to intimate

shocking
consult

as

of the

news

event
to

the

on

the

best

Chatti
other

or

side
of

fashion

big sea-fish.

of a specialcouncil
systematic transactions
in emergencies
seem
sadly infrequent,Augustus and all the
tradition
later Emperors respected the ancient
of not deciding
judiciallybefore gathering their friends and advisers, and
Such
convoked
an
by
hearing their views.
assembly was
Claudius
and
and
sixteen
comprised twenty-five senators
consulars.
unorganized.
Up to Trajan this council remained
such

After

Hadrian,

called

the

the

however,

consistarium

councillors

under

members

of

Diocletian, met

the

consilium,

regularlyappointed
if in this council
as

[consiliarii
Augusti),and

Emperors selected the advisers for every separate occasion,

and
panions
jurists were
naturally preferred,the friends and comof the
Emperor must
always have been numerous,
of the
especiallythose from the ranks
knights. Probably,
have
been attached
too, the palace and Court ofiicials would
from
an
century,
early date : after the end of the second
took
the praefects of the guard even
a
prominent part '.
of this political
council permanent
or
Partly as members
t
he
friends
exercise
would
provisional, partly unofficially,
influence
the changing governments
much
on
: examples are
others
^Maecenas
and Agrippa as the friends of
to mention
no
in
Nero's
earlier
Augustus, Sejanus of Tiberius, Seneca
the
as
period, and TigelUniisin his later. They were esteemed
the

'

"

"

men

and

who
very

determined
often

the

did,in fact.

matters

When,

of

the

greatest moment,

in Nero's

first year,

the

Court

The

72
Parthian

the

awaited

out, Rome

broke

War

of

names

the

Marius
judge the quaUty of Nero's friends.
said the security
Maximus.the
biographer of the Emperors, even
of the State
lay rather with the goodness of the Emperor's
man
in the Emperor's virtues : the evil-minded
friends than
evU
one
good, but against many
might be reined in by many
order

generalsin

good

to

could

man

prevail.

not

Trajan, says the

them
his sight could

they are keener

useful tongues and

world

more

hands,

his

eyes
pierceto the ends

are

of

all he need

know

could

which

of

one

ruler's truer

let him

that

ears

in

Prusa,

to

paraenetic addresses
his friends : through
the

of

Dio

with

converse

project,which could effect

much
at the
same
time, give many
synchronous counsels,
with
his
And
and be omnipresent.
he,
high powers of reward,
For
who
reUable
and
the
most
could
choose
can
capable.
honours
? who
authority the
depute with more
grant more
of a war
? From
whom
conduct
might greater distinctions flow ?
aU

and

humanity

fail of any

never

'

Whose

board

bought,

who

could

'

Pius

as

not

views'.

his

being

good friends,
And

Pliny
action

the

And

as

that

it

they

Emperor's

the

Younger
(under Titus

should

friends

says,

as

summoned
AureUus

him.

Marcus

Aurelius

peace with the optimates,

should
bend
to so many
their

respected

young

accordance

Marcus

surrender
were

consulting

to them
to

he

none

Antoninus

despatches in
drew
nigh, he

better

was

Priscus.

his

and

be

nearly induced

matter, without

war

that

so

State

them

questions of

than

friendshipto

advice

Neratius

his end

recommended

discussed

his view

but

praefects',confirmed

and

heir, and

always

Hadrian

formulating

their
friends

friends'

His

or
provincial

no

and

'

'

like ?

friends

with
his

decided

Were

greater superfluityof wealth,

the

adopt

to

honourable

more

has

return

Trajan
his

is

he

man,

wills
and

to

his !

dreaded.

undertook

an

men,
Domitian) against the mightiest statesand
of the Emperor !
the friends even
I will become
friend of the Emperor's ', says Epictetus, and
a
then no'one
will dare tread too near
'. The power
conferred
by this position
often
The
abused.
was
Severus
biographer of Alexander
or

'

'

describes

he
friends,to whom
foreign affairs,as models, because
his

catalogue
to

men

of faults

of
evil

their

and

vices and

entrusted

they

did

both

home

not

exhibit

and
his

generaJlyattributed
wrongs,
list includes
bition,
thieving,am-

standing. This
propensities,lust, cruelty,circumvention

of their

The

74

Court
'

legatesalready bore the title of Friend of

informs
that
the Emperor '. An inscription
of 163-165 a.d.
us
Abila
the two
reigning Emperors had restored a road near
through Julius Verus, praetorian legate of the province of
doubtlessly set up by the
Syria and their friend ; it was
And
the work.
conducted
during the
legionary tribune who
In the legal
there
first centuries
were
degrees of this title.
style of the fourth and fifth centuries the three highest of"cials
ipraefectuspraetorio,praefectusurbi, and magister militum)
have the title of parens ; other officials of the first rank (such as
the
comites rerum
the magister offlciorum,
and
privatarum and
such as a
sacrarum
largitionum)those of frater: lesser officials,
of Picenum,
consular
a
praefect of Egypt, are only addressed
in the documents
carissime
as
preserved. The beginnings of
these official addresses
be traced in Trajan's letters to Pliny
can
the Younger,
is always
as
imperial legate in Bith5niia,who
addressed
dearest', and inCommodus'
as
appellationof the
father
doubt
becomes
as
: and
praefect of the Praetorium
in 222
Severus
addresses
the juristUlpian as
certainty when
the praefect of Corn
his
friend ', and
as
as
praefect of the
Praetorium
in the same
(parentem). Didius
year as 'father'
Julianus,at his first reception of the Senate and the knights
distributed
the titles of
son
', brother ', father
wholesale,
Further, it would
according to the ages of the assembly.
Aurelius

all consular

'

'

'

'

'

follow

of

itself that

bestowed
individuals
the

by

The

friends

the

Emperors

often

by

on

the

invited

'

friend

third

by any

style and
were

'

title of

by

business

'

the

conferred

or

'

'

would

others

than

party,

his friends

f avour^to
those who
a

merit,

friends

taken

was

from

to

dine

abstained
in evil

fact confirmed

Marcus

AureUus

obligation of
him, and showing no

what
and

his self-esteem
in

the

the

friends

some

friends, some
a

time

staff

(a

in the
cura

of

to

whom,

dinner
even

palace, was
amicorum).

uninvited.
in

Rome,

deputed

to

The

Uved
a

dis-

of
a

the

fresh

used

to

service of the

permanently

certain

not

deemed

absence

societyand banquets of the Emperor,

Severus
aggravation given to Court pride. Alexander
have

by

Emperors to their
Antoninus
extending this

but

part,

assumed

the

by

with
:

quently
fre-

more

inscriptions.

:
repasts, as, for example, by Hadrian
to
ordinary as well as great occasions.
reckons
his father's
among
precepts, the

compelhng

be

section

or

for

of the

The
On

every
of the

some

retinue

75

journey or expedition the Emperors

friends

used

to select

them
and
this
[comites],
accompany
(cohors amicorum) is exactly similar to that of the
to

Republican proconsul.
'

Court

'

comrades

in the

Italy,and

Hence

technical

the
sense,

could

Emperors
when

only have

they journeyed
'

when

side
out'

cohort
of friends
to
a
Caligulasummoned
escort him in lightGallic carriageson his triumphal procession
the bridge of ships built from
Baiae
to Puteoli, he was
over
acting the part of the imperator returned from his campaigns.
Lucius
Verus
AureUus
with a train of
was
provided by Marcus
rank, on
imperial friends of senatorial
setting out for the
War.
Parthian
Of course
this great honour
of selection was
virtual command,
but Marcus
Aurelius
a
put no pressure on
his friends
member

in this

of the

instance,

cohort

as

he

himself

of Claudius,

enjoyed the
day since

rare

honour

as

of

he was
ill.
expedition delayed one
On
the journey the friends
lived
with
the Emperor, or
made
for their housing : Vespasian accompanied
provision was
Nero
his journey to Greece, fell into disgrace and
was
on
In the imperialcamp
banished
from the common
home.
a special
out for
staked
place in close vicinityto the imperial tent was
in
his suite.
They were
paid during their journey. Even
Cicero's day it had become
customary for a proconsul to afford
his officers and
retinue
a
largessproportioned to their rank
mark
of the parsimony of Tiberius
and length of service.
One
he
that
was
(as prince) gave his escort on his travels and
campaigns no fee, but only the daily pay in the stead of their
the means
food.
Once
only did he give a largess in money,
600,000
being found
by Augustus : the first-class received
And
the
second
sesterces
each, and
complaints
400,000.
his
friends.
to
of
raised
the
at
were
meanness
Augustus' gifts
Caligula'stravellingcompanions found their necessary expenses

having

ruinous.

the

Galba,

remarks.

retinue

The

was

weary
for

burden

for the

regions it

by the comparison Pliny

had
Domitian
no
between
and
makes
Trajan. For Trajan
the
tumults, no insubordinate
grumblings over
quarters : all
shared
the same
kept in strict
provender, and the escort was
travelled
outside
never
Pius, who
discipline'. Antoninus
that, however
sparing the prince, the retinue
Italy, remarked
the provincials
the
less a burden
on
was
none
..X,^
of the
The
work
assigned by the
Emperor's escort was
traversed

fact

vouched

'

In

Emperor.
a

Court

The

']6
successful

awarded.

the

campaign,

received

their usual

But

mihtary

service

their share

of the

field,they did
function

and, after

distinctions

sovereign

to assist their

was

matters, a privilegenot accorded

judicialand administrative
to
and quaestors,and even
to the knights but to the senators
in the Senate.
their first bow
had just made
who
men,
young
The
Emperors treated the friends to a certain extent with
like private individuals, in so
the usual social courtesies, and
real or pretended, permitted. At the
far as
their affability,
beginning of his reign Tiberius used to attend the courts on
his friends' behalf, and
frequent their sacrificial feasts : visit
delivered
his guard, and
even
them
in their illnesses without
in

the funeral

address

for

Claudius, however,

of them.

one

never

came
precedent that beGalba
the rule with few exceptions,e.g. Trajan. When
the Emperor dined with Otho, Otho, apparently to do his guest
in the cohort
on
honour, gave every man
guard a gold piece.
his friends
at the beginning of his reign bestrewed
Nero, who
with
a
corresponding extravagance,
gifts,incited in them
when
dining with them, or otherwise : such a banquet would

paid

cost
a

his visits unattended

more

doctor

Cossinus,

than

who
with

medicaments,

lay ill.

in

sesterces

4,000,000
from
summoned

readiness

Egypt

and

Severus

tend

to

alone.

roses

his friend

Caracalla

are

had

He

the

knight
praisedfor the

they supphed their friends with rare

unpurchasable by privateindividuals and stored
which

The

sociabiUty of Trajan was

ticularly
parfriends'
admired
he would
in
his
:
join
huntingand
consultations
jeste,
parties,drinking-bouts,enterprises,
when
sick
visit them
as
(emphasized by Ausonius), even,
He
without
his
guard.
was,
already said,
says Pliny, really
he
loved
denied
them
he even
loved
really
by them, as
;
in

the

by his guard,

imperial palace.

hirnself his

own

praefectof

the

and

desires, so
Praetorium

to

to

unimaginable event
wills,the Emperor gave way

thus

an

further

knights

sick among

counselled

them,

saturnalia

he

used

presents of game,
palace in and out

and

in

to the

with

of town

friend

allowed

'.

quest of popularity.
in Rome,

his friends'

exchange giftswith

drove

He

wish,
contrary to his own
flicting
occurred, that, of two con-

freedmen

and

attended

to

fulfil theirs.

retire

'

condescended
the

as

them

in fours

knight

And
He

them,

is described

visited

consoled

banquets.
and

rian
Had-

and

At

send

the

them
their

went

to

in

inscrip-

an

The

Court

77

'

tion

Hadrian
'. One
of his
guest-friend of the divine
friends, Platorius
Nepos, escaped scot-free, for refusing his
Pius and Alexander
house, when ill,to the Emperor. Antoninus
Severus
frequented their friends' banquets : the latter the
orders, but
sickbed, not only of friends in the first and second
of those humbler
even
placed. Some Emperors took a rebuke
or reproach of their friends in good part. Vespasian permitted his
friends a great deal of free expression,and brooked
astonishingly
as

from

much
asked

Licinius

Valerius

friend

his

he
visitinghim, whence
the latter replied for
imperial quarriesby the
"

be

must

The

deaf

and

Nero,

friends.

Men

of

claimed

who

palaces

Seneca

Sea

make

to

in another's

home,

one

gifts to their
generous
the first of his
said, enriched

been

villas

the

such

at

of

death

blamed

were

riches

his immense

'

"

very

attack

letter to

(55).
booty

themselves.

amongst

in this

in

Britannicus

dividing their

for

time

especiallyintended

was

defended

Red

respect

and

once

(consul in 152),whilst
in his palace,
had the porphyry pillars
from
the
they could only have come

after

friends, immediately

Pius

'.

has

as

Antoninus

HomuUus

dumb
used

Emperors

When

Mucianus.

in

62

he

a.d.

Nero, countering his

by saying he could not refuse his prince's offerings.

at the Emperor's disposal,an
ofier the
he will put them
Now
him
in a conciliatoryletter,and bade
retain all
latter refused
villas.
he had
received, gardens, rents, and
According to
distributed
the most
Pliny,Trajan, also, at his accession, freely
picturesqueestates, and regarded' nothing as his own, unless his

critics

friends
and

possessedit '.

Hadrian's

Antoninus

invariable.

munificence
made

Pius

unsolicited,

was

of his

use

largeprivate

and his friends.

in largessto the army
accession,
to the friends of his
Aurelius
was
Marcus
especiallygenerous
youth, and in inverse proportion to the offices he could bestow.
than
this,his nature,
Severus
paid his friends' debts : more
his

property, on

'

passionate in
and

palaces,of

in the

fourth

love

and

which

in

those

century the

most

other
the
him

hand

custom

demanded

notable

and

refused

the

others

were

that

the

in

them

riches

Laterani

were

on

of the Parthians

Apostate'sfriends the best

palace,silver and gold ',whilst

the

', showered

hate

Of

Rome.

giftsof

'

land, horses,

avaricious.

friends

Julian

should

On

the

remember

Emperor in their wills,especiallyas legaciesused to be

Augustus, who laid overmuch
by all propertiedmen.

left to
stress

Court

The

78
'

the

on

'

last decisions

of

took

will, and

hide

pains to

no

his

or
disappointment, in the last twenty years of his
gratification
reign,received through bequests from his friends 1,400,000,000
friends
and
several
instituted
and
sesterces
(;^i5,ooo,ooo),
heirs in the third place.
relatives
as
of courtiers was
a grievous oppression
The highest ambition
from
to
without, who
regarded the
philosophical onlookers
misfortune, constraint,
imperial friendshipas a lot of supreme
disquiet and anxiety. They had to be adaptable to the
Emperor's every whim of taste or fancy. Galen tells us that the

courtiers

Aurelius

wearing

their hair

of

extent

says

about

and
asked

not

to

like slaves
awkward

so

At

the

Who

men

baths,

in

be

would

every
And

whipping
many

instant

Lucius

had

Verus

fashion

this

them

so

of

the

And

untoward.

or

slave's
for

at

to

the

utterly

befittinga

as

not

sleep,
The
news
arouses
Emperor is
and
excitement
; fresh
perplexity. They are
dine ; more
anxiety : they are asked, and dine
master's table, fearful of saying something
a

long hair
Epictetus.

mime

short
at

stoics

Stoic, became

the

jeered
in again. They might
came

views, and

diverse

up

of Marcus

that

even

the

of this fear

cause

Is it

Nothing so good. Their risk, the danger

in high position,is the loss of their heads.
have
the gymnasium
no
they can
peace.
dull

life

his

false to

or
as

the

himself,

as

not

friend

Emperor's

to

bewail

often not only difScult,but

actually the positionwas
headlong fall of
perilous. Ever and again would the sudden
of princes.
the mighty proclaim the insecurityof the favour

Seldom,

says

Tacitus,

is the

satietyseizes the

of

power

sovereign,who

favourite

has

assured

bestowed

.hisall,

perhaps
his aU.
has received
who
the recipient,
or
Eprius Marcellus,
Senate
the
under
in
when
Vespasian with Nero's
upbraided
of tribulation to him,
repliedit had been a source
friendship,
no

less than

written
courtier

under
was

banishment

to

reminiscence

the recent

he had

it was

asked, how

grey hairs are

insults
swallowed

others.

seldom

where

so

he

with

seen

Seneca
of

in

Caligula's
sway,

attained
:

says

it was,

one

work,

that

one

old age at Court,

he said, because

Often
the
gratefulcountenance.
Emperor in his heart hated his so-called friends,and Domitian's
not unique in the
Court was
ship
paleness of the unhappy friendof the mighty
reflected on
their visages. The
ill-will
and distrust of the princeswere
easily stirred up ; slander
a

'

'

The
and

intriguehad

such

unassailable

Licinius
For

confidence

shave

his

eyes,
And
the

house.

'

remark

had

he

him

and

day

next

Court.

wished

Few

Emperors had
friends as Trajan had in
calumny was unavailing.

constant

visited

Trajan

at

79

in their

Sura, against whom

all that

anoint

time

busy

Court

unannounced,

bathe

and

him,

let Sura's

slaves

dined

Sura's

at

he

retorted

on

Sura's

foes with

to

kill me,

he

could

have

the

done

so

yesterday'. Suetonius
praisesthe constancy of Augustus in
in his relationships
friendship,as, despite occasional disturbances
Rufus
to them,
none
was
crushed, except Salvidienus
and

Cornelius

the

end.

Gallus

The

they all retained

instance

he

forgotten;
Augustus' death.
advisers

of

rewarded

those

In

of

fell into

the

pasquil of Seneca
by one of those he
greeting, HaU, murderer
'

was

mutable.

very

with
their

treated
of the

afterwards

executioner,

the

Emperor
complain of

him

to the

throne

is welcomed

had

to

sent

of all

or

their

by

own.

Constantius, says that

disgrace,maltreatment,

friends
on

in

or

Even

relatives

world
under-

with

favour

Hadrian's

his friends

overwhelm
of

and

calumny

whom

the

he

spy

raised

he

perishedat the hands

Julian,in his panegyric of

few

of his friends

none

loss

or

could

deprivation

of

among

The

Emperor's
The

ancient

the

luckless
Roman

who

others, weary

retirement.

honourable

reckoned

to

those

the

anticipatehim

he would

no

death.

in

thy friends '.

his foes, and

with

proved unworthy of their promotions

of the
not
were
punished, but only relegated. Some
a
imperial friends reached
great age, keeping their positions
and dying in harness, and leaving their property to their sons,
any

kind.

escaped. Caligula

listen to every voice

houses.
Those
own

as

is, however,

three

or

Claudius

Sometimes

sometimes
gifts,
doings in their

to

disfavour

only two
had helped

who

wealth

only a few days before

the other hand, out of all the friends and

On

Tiberius

Fabius

and

power
Maximus

Many

of

work
who

and
died

war,

young

lived
were

happy.

wrath

dire and

was

sufferer

custom,

was
on

bolt.
unfaUing as a thunderforbidden
the palace,according
of friendship: and such
breach
a

condemnation.
Decius
felt as the severest
judgment was
convicted
of adultery with
was
Augustus'
Junius Silanus
of
his
forbidden
the
prince,
granddaughter Julia,
company
himself
this
and banished
as
and acknowledged
a hint
(8 a.d.).
at the intercession
In the year 20 Tiberius permitted his return
a

Court

The

8o
of his brother

Silanus

Marcus

(consulin

informed

a.d.),but

19

him. as his father.

Silanus
towards
feelings
victims
of imperial
lived
in Rome,
but
undistinguished. The
Cornelius
GaUus
disfavour
rose
might often fare worse.
from
a
lowly walk of life to be praefect of Egypt, and then
excluded
himself
drew
on
Augustus' displeasure. He was
his supporters
from the palace and his province, and forthwith
deserted
him, prosecutorsrose up against him, and the Senate
him

he had

the

same

property ;

he had

by suicide.

The

trusted

most
to

his banishment

decreed

in all haste

Fabius

Consular

friends, betrayed

rumour

Vistilius, a

Sextus

associated
the

among

then

The

answer

the

he

with

bound

the

manifested

swift

death

and

Elder,

of Tiberius.

tried

once

The

his weak

to

had

praetorian rank,

friends

society,and
and

of

man

Drusus

with

at

hence

; this came

his
his

anger,
act.

own

been

closely
included

was

Emperor

forbade

hands

open

to

of his

judgment
Augustus'

of

one

to his wife

secret

Maximus'

attributed

of the

Maximus,

He

confiscation

the

execution

anticipatethe

to

Augustus' knowledge.

and

and

him

his

his veins,

begging for mercy.

up and wrote
unfavourable, and he again untied the bandages.

was

wound

a consular, attending Nero

Vespasian, the future Emperor, was
his journey through Greece, and
drew
Nero's
on
on
anger
for often going away
him
At
or
sleeping whilst Nero sang.

he

once

he
and

one

banished

was

out, What

cried

of the

from

Nero's

should

freedmen

he

him

drove

suite,and
do, where

Court.
should

fusedly
Congo ?

he

with a curse.
pasian,
Vesaway
in a Uttle far-ofi hamlet, and

fearingthe worst, hid away

succeeded
in evading the Emperor's further
observation.
so
the
Sometimes
relegation from
Emperor's neighbourhood
was

an

honourable

banishment.

Nero

made

Otho, the coming

of Lusitania,
friend, governor

his favoured
Emperor, once
turbed
though he had only been quaestor, and so contrived an undispossession of his wife Poppaea.
Yet, despite their bitter experiences,the atmosphere of the
attracted
of those who
Court almost
most
had Uved
irresistibly
there.
Epictetus tells us of a man, then holdingthe high office
of

praefectofcom,

from

exile, he

that
years
he
would
air of Rome.

who

had

asseverated

remained

swore,

once

banished.

his intention

to

him

change his mind,

He

been

as

should

in

peace

soon

he

of

ever

as

he
set

On

passing

returning
the

scanty

Epictetus foretold
again breathed
foot in Court

the

again,

Court

The

82

and instructed
with
of foreignprinces educated
large number
his own
grandchildren. In this way, Agrippa, the grandson
a

of Herod
and

his

the

Great,

Agrippa

son

educated

was

Tiberius'

with

of Claudius.

at the Court

Drusus,

son

Marcus

AureUus

instituted
the custom
Claudius
Court.
grew
up at Hadrian's
with
the sons
and
of his children
sittingtogether at mealtimes

daughters of noblemen
pictureis presented of
Such

been

high rank

under

was

from

Often

developed

tasted

these
;

they
the

of

and

Marcus

learnt

bowl

the

to

he

subjects

same

friends, and

that

poisoned Britannicus.
intimacies
youth life-long

of

Aurelius'
had

risen

of Narcissus

heart-whole

were

that

so

at Court.

father, Vespasian, had

comradeships

out

educated

through the favour

;

elders,

favoured

most

friends,

been

perial
fellow-pupUs. An imfreedman, Publius Aelius Epaphroditus, hygienic trainer
the
aristocratic
youth
{pueri eminentes),must have been
of the staff assigned to these Court-trained
boys.

two

one

teachers

same

their
were

of Britannicus, and

is said to have

Titus

of

Claudius

schoolmate
the

under

who

children

Titus, whose

had

the

the

feet of

the

at

senators

knights

two

'

'

IV.
The

THE

Emperors

EMPEROR'S
availed

of their friends of both

Permanently

TABLE

themselves

COMPANIONS

of the

counsel

orders, principallyin

matters

and

support

of business.

to
Court
transientlythey also summoned
of persons
without
a number
regard to origin,for their social
quaUties and talents, their learning or culture, such as philosophers,
erudites, poets, artists, according to the tastes of the
less professionaljesters.
or
reigningsovereign,as weU as more
These
friends only
imperial companions {convictores,
crvfjilSimTaL,
in a less technical
often
sense) were
foreigners,especially
Greeks
; to this class belonged, for the most
part, the physicians,
astrologers and tutors
already mentioned.
Generally they
Lucian
of
the
were
one
:
then
in greatest
paid
says
philosophers,
for
repute, accepted a salary
giving the Emperor his society,and
had to pay for it,by being obliged,despite his
pany
years, to accomhim
his journeys,like an
on
Indian
or
Sc3rthianslave.

Perhaps

the

Diadochi,
At

or

model

at

the Court

Didymus

for the

Roman

Court

had

been

that

of the

which
of

philosophers were
regularlymaintained.
Augustus, amongst other Greeks, the philosopher

Areus

of

Alexandria,

an

Eclectic,was

the most

in

The
favour:

he

the

was

Court

intimate

and

83
constant

Emperor, and his petitionafter the

the
forgivenessof the Alexandrians.
againstAugustus'
'to whom
He

is said

consort, the
decided

of

of Actium

Seneca

continual

aU the secret emotion

to have

Battle

comrade

the

secured

calls

him,

as

of her husband,

companion

of your hearts is known'.

of Caesario,
the murder
on

Augustus
the son
of Caesar and Cleopatra. The sons
of Areus, Dionysius
and Nicanor
also stayed on in a similar positionat the Court
;
them
extend
his
to
of
Greek
Augustus employed
knowledge
literature ; Nicanor
is perhaps the man
in a contemporary
glorified
inscriptionat Athens, as being approved as a new Homer
and
Themistocles
by the people, the Areopagus and the Six
Hundred, for redeeming the island of Salamis, pledged in some
hour
of need, and
for being an
epic poet. Areus introduced
a
Xenarchus,
peripatetic of Seleucia in Cilicia, and he, too,
retained
honourable
an
positionall his Ufe. And Athenodorus
in
of Tarsus,
the
had
been
Stoic, who
Augustus' teacher
his imperial pupil's Court,
at
time
ApoUonia, spent some
Augustus wishing to testifyhis faithfulness, and only acceding
condition
of one
to his desire to return
home
on
year's postponement.
There
intellectual

and
writer

and

was

Nicolaus

also

of

Damascus,

(a many-sided

Aristotelian

poet, the author

of

drama

learned

and

in Greek

prolific

the modest

on

Court on
the business
of
Susanna), who was often at the Roman
King Herod the Great, and who was said to have been the teacher
of Antony and
high in Augustus'
Cleopatra. He, too, was
favour.
Timagenes of Alexandria, the historian, had been
Seneca
in 55 B.C.
the
as
a prisoner of war.
brought to Rome
for the Emperor's favour
Elder calls him
',for his
happy save
wit
At
unrestrained
jested Augustus' friendliness
away.
full scope, directing
feasts and on his walks he gave his humour
it against the
Emperor and his consort ; Augustus at last
Pollio opened his doors to
him
his palace,and Asinius
forbade
him.
A welcome
TigelUus,the singer,
guest of Augustus' was
'

both
and

for his

mastery of his

Cleopatra had

was
capriciousness

art and

liked him
tolerated.

for the

vain.
take
He
at my

and

reasons,

same

Augustus

but in
bring Horace into his circle,
the post of a secretary, he did not
pressing his friendship on him.
terms
use
:
me, as though you sat
'

for his conversation

also

Horace

it ill,but

table

his artist's

endeavoured

When

wrote

Caesar

to

to

refused

still went
him

in

on

these

which
{convictor),

is what

for, as far

I wished

in

the

Greeks
the

amongst
each.
They

sesterces

their

asked

the

opinions ;

of the

news

will

not

'

'
"

if you

it back

pay

thorough culture,

fellow-daemons'

after

accession, who

his

Egyptian steersman,
how

and

largessdistributed

200,000
were

of wide

man

before

permitted

to

coin '.

same

Tiberius, a

health

your

as

friendship,I

haughtily reject my
you

Court

The

84

was

death

remained

as, for

before

summoned
of Pan

had

Court, and
Thamus, an

when

him,

been

and

reported

announced

Tiberius

in

they receiving

his

at

example,

circle of

event, shared

his friends,

aU

lamentations.

loud

that

had

by

his

let these erudites

verse.
Capri, to distract his mind with their conof them
One
was
Thrasyllus,the astrologer,who has
and
been already mentioned,
Charicles, the physician,whose
not officially
advice Tiberius followed, though he was
appointed.
Charicles, shortly before the Emperor's death, took his hand,
time felt
as
though to kiss it and say farewell, and at the same
noticed
his pulse. Tiberius
this,and, to conceal his weakness,
lingeredat table, seeming to do his parting friend honour '.
learned
in both
But
Tiberius, who
was
languages, found the
whom
he loved twitting at table
most
pleasure in philologists,
difficult or unanswerable
with
problems ; their learning used
half in jest: he would
to be thus
tested, half seriously,
ask,
Hecuba's
Achilles' name
Who
mother
was
was
as a girl
; what
amongst the daughters of Lycomedes ; the tune to which the
But
these
Sirens
spiteful jests often were
terribly
sang ?
he
found
earnest.
out that Seleucus,the philologist,
One
day
been
what
Tiberius
had been
had
inquiring of the domestics

him

accompany

to

'

reading, in order
banished

him

suicide.

Nero's

his

from

some

were

in advance
then

Tiberius

first

forced

him

to commit

who
versifiers,

had

to

eke out

he also used, says Tacitus, to indulgephilosophers

in
order to set rival principleswagging,
dinner,
:

found

were

pronouncements

an

who

combined

inclination

to

with
be

ascetic
the

manners

monarch's

and
fools.

honoured
especially
by Trajan, and constantly
in the Emperor's carriage. Hadrian
seen
assiduouslycultivated
of
a large circle
philosophers,philologists,
orators, musicians,
and
painters, mathematicians
astrologers,amongst whom
of
Arelate
Favorinus
was
pre-eminent. The
great Greek
Aelius Herodianus, who, for the depth and breadth
philologist
Dio

of Prusa

answers
prepare
the palace, and

favourites

efforts
poetical
after

and

to

was

The
of his

studies, has

friend

of

the

Marcus

amuse.

parasiticallife at
or

the

had

slave

to filch his wine,

well.

he,

at

at

freedman
He

he

of

Martial

'.

Augustus'

Marcus

at

his

am

Sarmentus
who

was

Gabba,

table,

at

his

and

Court.

eyes

When

wit, but

to live

extraction,

him

their

Sarmentus,

Favonius,

so

as

slave

attempted
only asleep as far as
a

is found

anecdote

praises Gabba's

wishing

man

Etruscan

This

sacrifice

to

table.

'

remarked

is concerned

had

more

of

was

witlings, jesters,

than

his wit
had
endeared
beauty and
according to Plutarch, used to close
not
to see
Maecenas
ogling his wife.

Maecenas

was
Jacob Grimm,
theory of accents

were

endure

must

Gabba

or

Philippi.

at

the

Court,

contemptible

been

killed

of

Emperor
often
figure-models,who
Juvenal says, that

harlequinsand
to

his

wrote

orders.

entertainers

person

and

85

with

compared

Aurelius,

Emperor's

Other

been

Court

in Lucilius

as

adds, elsewhere, should

from
happy in his patron, return
Elysium, and have a
bout
of jests with
be cried
down
for
Capitolinus, he would
boorishness.
have
been
of Trajan's
one
Capitolinus must
so

fools.

Plutarch

mentions

another

of

the

sort,

Battus,

and

the jests
Trajan's rough soldier's disposition found
of fools more
nobler
Claudius,
converse.
entertaining than
under
when
Tiberius, cheered
living a musty life of retirement
his idleness
of these, Julius
with
the society of jesters : one
of mind
his master,
as
Paelignus, as loathly in body and weak
accession,
yet his especial favourite, was
given, after Claudius'
of Nero
the
At
the
Court
procuratorship of Cappadocia.
obtained
rank
Vatinius
a
quite befittingthe spiritthat there
booth
at Benereigned. He had grown
up in a shoemaker's
ventum,
ungainly of form, and a farcical jester; as a mockery
endeared
him to Nero
he was
His servility
brought to Court.
;
his imputations
of honest
and slanders
men
brought him so great
says

that

'

'

influence, that

his power

the

evU

at

and

terrible

most

relentless
had

also enriched

horrible

names

some

and

impudence

; their

them

the

and

this

Court,
of

harmfulness

property and
and

Nero's

ranked

him

freedmen.

with

outdid
the

Commodus,

most

too,

uncleanly jesterswith frightfulfaces and

ghastly duties in return for their shameless

names

amount

and

have
of

come

their

down,

as

property.

Pertinax

published

86

The

V.

"
One

only

of

those

to

of the

in the

Fabius

'

with

'

perhaps attaching

privileges,though

first class, was

morning.
Augustus' answering
Caesar

Receptions

Morning

friends'

the

CEREMONIALS

THE

The

I.

Court

Maximus

his

Farewell,

wait

to

the

on

of his

learnt

salutation

usual

morning
'. Pliny

Fabius

Emperor

disfavour
of

Elder,

the

'

by
Hail,

friend

Vespasian, regularlyvisited him before daybreak, at which

hour
also a
audiences.
This
Vespasian gave
right was
the most
on
duty, and, if neglected, save
urgent grounds,
occasion
for severe
an
punishment, although all the Emperors
of having the
not
would
be equally stern.
Fronto
boasts
affection of his pupU Marcus
neither
the Caesar, though he
paid his visits at dawn, nor daily waited on him '.
Often
the
their suit to the
senators
would
Emperor
pay
in the
morning, in body or singly, as to the first in their
order.
Such
sions
receptions would take place especiallyon occaof festivities
Nero
had
a
or
congratulation. When
daughter by Poppaea in 63 a.d. at Antium, the whole Senate
only Thrasea,
repaired thither, to wish him joy. Of them
the
leader
of the
admitted
bore
not
opposition, was
; he
this rebuff, which
was
a
faU, with
warning of his imminent
unmoved
suffered
Senate
fortitude.
the
Augustus never
to wait
him
the day of session, but
on
on
greeted them in
the
them
Curia, and
ma4e
keep their seats ; and, in his
latter days, forbade
vite
such
attendances.
Tiberius
used to inthe Senate, at the beginning of his reign, to visit him in
not to have
to face the crush alone.
a body, so
as
Sometimes,
of

'

too, the wives

is said

Augustus
to

him

present

and

when
at

children
to have

of the senators
foretold

his

boy,

Claudius'

to

future

would

be

Galba, who

was

eminence.

reception, women,

presented;

presented

Amongst those
boys and girlsare

mentioned.

Occasionallythe
senators
At

such

Emperors

knights and
functions

Emperors would
jestinglyremarked
as
though he were

the third

would
estate

petitionswould
be

more

of

or

less

receive

might
be

not

only

be admitted.

even

in, and

handed

gracious. Augustus

claimant,
hesitjant

'that

to
offeringa farthing-piece

the

an

he

the
once

looked

elephant'.

The
To

induce

Tiberius

the

to

leave

87

Rome,

no

residence
one

in

the

people and

'

Sejanus

Sallustine

refused, senator

was

or

the multitude

objurgated

'.
comers
importunity
Nero, in the early years of his reign, was
conspicuous for
his memory
of all ranks
in addressing men
by name.
sian
Vespaaffable.
All
the
was
exceptionally
gate of
day long
his

of the

Court

Gardens

of the

Palace

plebeian.

stood

Alexander

open

Severus

only admit respectable persons with good credentials,

and proclaimed by a herald that no one
guiltyof any underhand
deaUng should greet the Emperor, on pain of death.
The
usually,
general reception (publica,promiscua salutatio)
it seems,
occurred
on
festival-days,including the day of
Antoninus
Pronto
letter
to
accession.
apologizes in a
Pius for absence
on
one
anniversary : he had had rheumatism.
the reception on
the first of January.
Especiallyfestive was
and gave
and
the Emperor received
decorated
The
palace was
New
Year's
kind
or
giftsin money
{strenae,
Strennes); Nero
in the
with
buried
white
was
gold used
carpets threaded
Year's
at his last New
day. Augustus utilized the money
he distributed
in buying statues, which
throughout the city.
used to return
In his early years, Tiberius
giftfourfold
every
he came
to be pesteredall through
hands
with his own
; but, as

would

January

with

people who

could

contrive

not

to

on

come

New

first
on
every
day, he ceased giving, and left Rome
of January, besides
limiting the exchange of gifts to that
day. Cahgula declared his readiness to accept by an edict,
the
himself
took
to fiU his exchequer, and
giftson
in order
mixed
a
the palace terrace, where
throng of all sorts and
in a pile. Claudius, in another
condition
were
throwing them
never
edict, prohibitedthis abuse ; but its disappearance was
quite complete.
The
receptionsopen to whole
Empresses but seldom
gave
at
ranks
once.
Only three, who took an
corporations and
at claiming a share
active part in the government, or aimed
Livia, according
said to have done so.
in the sovereignty,are

Year's

to

Dio,

attained
wait

on

and

she

was

raised

supreme
her, and
had

this

authority, did
at

the

as

reception

above
power
any

other
;

and,

others

at

wished

who

of

under

embassies

her

son

all times, let the

to

be

Claudius
and

at

she
other

had
Senate

presented;

Agrippina, in

publicly recorded.
much

after

women,

the

same

present
government

was

88

The

functions
her

she

had

house

under

her,

to

of

retinue

pretensions even

another

Court

who

Nero,
there

that

so

noble

ladies, and

asserted

in

assigned

55
be

might

a.d.
an

end

of her

entrusted
the third, was
morning-receptions. Julia Domna,
during
by her son Caracalla with a part of the government
the
his absence, and
optimates'. At all
publicly received
must
of the
times, most
necessarily have
prominent men
paid their respects to the Empresses, singly,and the women,
forbade
of
Alexander
Severus
women
beyond all doubt.
'

evil fame
in the

to

time

before
appear
of Hieronymus

his

mother

there

was

and
a

crush

his

wife.

waiting

Even
on

the

Emperor's consort.
of men
On
reception days, in front of the palace, a crowd
of every standing always assembled, waiting for the announcement
Gellius
that
the
receive.
tells of
Emperor would
of learned

conversations

some

friends,

Favorinus, Fronto,

like

And
others, during this wait.
Sulpicius Apollinaris and
seldom
be empty.
on
ordinary days the place would
Apollonius
of Tyana, according to
Philostratus, compares
the
in front
bustle
in front of the palace with
the scurry
of a
public bath : some
rushing in to do allegiance,others forcing
their
the
of the
bathed
and
out, Uke
jostlingcrowds
way
the unbathed.
there, on business, or in employ :
Many were
too, desirous of seeing the Emperor leave the Palatine
many,
drive
and
used
out, or of greeting or petitioninghim ; some
to chmb
HUl
the Sacred
ten times
a day to
give others the
idea of their having friends at Court.
The
in the early morning, the usual
hour
reception was
for visits.
in Rome
arrive at early dawn.
pasian,
VesMany would
has been
admit
as
before daybreak,
said, would
even
and

with

converse

in

them

bed,

and

spectaclesalso began very early ; and

their subjects a long journey, would
in

freedman's

some

nights before,

house

or

even,

near
as

the

whilst
the

Emperors, to save
often
stay overnight

theatre,

Hadrian,

dressing. The

on

or

such

even

for several

days give

no

audiences.
In

cohort
of Praetorians
palace there was
always a whole
(1,000men) on guard, clad in the toga or civil costume,
At least,
sentry was
generallyplaced at the entrance.

the

and

Dio

mentions

the

open

doors

it

as

of

surprisingfact, that no sentry paced

Vespasian'spalace,an exar^ple probably
a

The

go
senator
back

'

door

whilst

could

he

as

the

only

curtains

the

of

were

the

formerly

not

imperial cabinet

the

servants

be

Court
drawn

were

waited

present, who
Emperor could

be

not

the

at

greeted,

'.

seen

toga to the
observed
down
to the fourth
century.
reception; a custom
of the change to a military autocracy was
indication
One
when
Gallienus, inside the walls of Rome, gave audience,
seen,
clad
in his soldier's
costume, or chlamys, with bejeweUed
Both

buckles.
the

Aurelius

Marcus

toga

in the

even

scarcely appear
Aurelius

Marcus
to
acts
a

about

go

matters

in

in

Senate

and

tunic.

gold

not

unbecoming
senators

Ufe

in

by publicly
received

Commodus

silk and

of white

of

decencies

Yet
'

Dio, in such

for, says

of

one

Rusticus

similar

do

could

convention.

of

or

scarf

the

ungirdled

an

tunic,

his

by receiving the

muslin

violated

he

tunic

toga,

custom

in

friends

wore

Emperor

taught by Junius

the

outraged

even,

appearing

in

Severus
The

Italy.

breaches

been

had

flowery tunic

his

greatest

indoors

Nero

'.

before

in the

came

Alexander

and
cities of

other

even

Pius'

Antoninus

his visitors

and

Emperor

the

threads

with

the

sleeves.

long Celtic
he derived
his nickname,
tunic, whence
amongst the people,
him
before
in this garb. Macrinus
made
them
and
come
proposed making a similar propitiatorygiftin his son's name.
received
In Republican days friends of the first class were
during the Empire we do not
singly: how far this obtained
were
know.
On
occasion, apparently, single audiences
Alexander
abused
for the spreading of false reports ; hence
Caracalla

spread

would

Severus

the

use

receive

no

witnesses, and

without

Friends,

at

least

of his favourite

except

one

the

those

of

other
the

first

received
Emperor ; thus Otho
the morning of Galba's last day on
restricted
in under Augustus, and was

told, in the middle

disorder
women

broke

out

in

only the proceres,who

too,

fell

"T iberius'
his

motives

victim.
Anti-Scab

for

'

earth.

were

usual
This

'

assembly.
kissed by

embrace
fashion

on

came

to the

optimates. For, we
of Tiberius'
reign,an infectious facial
Rome,
attacking,so PUny says, neither

slaves, neither

nor

in

only

order,

the

praefect Ulpian

his

friends

the

are

dress,

the middle

spread

the

Even

in

Pastils

'

leaving Rome,

nor

the lower

classes, but

Tiberius,
by kisses.
existed
Galen's
day, there
Tacitus
specifies,as one of
his facial disfigurement with
disease

Court

The
ulcers

plasters:

and

which

treated

91

with

caustics

of this

perhaps,

consequence,

disease,

that

left scars,
itself. Whether

according
the edict
Pliny, uglier than the disease
of Tiberius, prohibiting the
at Court
daily kiss
receptions,
occasioned
this
was
remains
uncertain.
The
outbreak,
by
of Valerius
manner
Maximus'
of the Emperor's
justification
The
proceeding proves its unpopularity.
kings of Numidia
be blamed
not
to
for following their people's example
are
and
never
kissing. For the practices of the highly placed
was

to

'

'

'

be

must

due

reverence.'

into the
it

from

exempt

From

lower

classes.

universal, and

was

that

in

Rome

Possibly

kisses
the

from

custom

the

many

of

right

Ptolemies

carried

barbaric

of

custom

assault

made

milder

imitations

when

they

of

the

on

Rome

At

kiss

kissing the

mob,

to

preserve

inevitable.

seem

of

of the

aristocracykissing spread down

In Domitian's
time, or perhaps earUer,
Martial
is always voicing a complaint

East.

institutions

imitation

the

grandees

privileged to

were

the

the

the

derived

the

Court

King,

and

Persian

this
of

utterly new

Persia, kinsmen

Alexander

Court,

amongst

took

Seleucids
; the
King as an honour
the
Under
practice on.
Caligula
introduced, and this
prostrationwas

spiritof Roman

of

oriental
in

freedom

forms

',and

over

the

them

thus

and
'

the
last

such

hardly surprise us,

can

manners.
opposition to Roman
The
father
of the Emperor
Vitellius prayed to Caligula on
from
his return
Syria, as to a god, with veiled head, throwing
the
himself
on
ground. Caligula, a being to orientalize
free state into Persian
thraldom
a
', made
Pompeius Pennus,
the old consular, kiss his gilded left pearl-sUpper,in return
to him
for the gift of his life. This reverence
accorded
was
by others of their free will ; as, for instance, by Pomponius
murdered
the
Secundus
Consul
; and
shortly before he was
the
fact that
is evident
common
prostration had become
demanded
from Claudius'
unmanly
prohibitionof it. Domitian
reverences
; for
Pliny praises Trajan for not requiring his
not
fellow-citizens
his knees, and
to embrace
returning their
kiss with
his hand.
The
Juventius Celsus
jurist Publius
accused
in 95 of conspiracy against Domitian,
and, in
was
were

not

direct

'

the
Yet
says

secret

audience

Domitian
he

would

cannot

he asked
have

him

for,adored
gone

as

regard compulsion

far
to

as

as

Lord

and

God.

Cahgula. Epictetus
the Emperor's feet

kiss

The

92

Court

tion
Elagabalus again required the adoraabolished
of a Persian
by Alexander
king, a custom
and
Severus.
Later
on
gained more
cringing reverence
and, in the last days of tie Empire, the imperial
more
vogue,
seldom
awarded.
kiss was
a
high honour
Senators, as the Emperor's peers, also could claim the honour
of the
Trajan's entry
imperial kiss. Pliny thus describes
into Rome
that
as
glad
Emperor : Every one was
you greeted
and
the Senate
with a kiss as you had left them
;
acknowledged
of the knights with
the foremost
a
personal address, with
and
to prompt
that you
no
one
greeted your clients
you,
first of all,and added
almost
signsof confidence '. Presumably,
these differences of greeting obtained
also at the Court
tions
recepin
far
who
held
the
so
as
knights
highest offices,
; except
made
the senators.
the
honour
or
were
friends, enjoyed
same
as
Tiberius' formal
has been mentioned.
prohibitionof the custom
To
the
even
most,
senators,
Caligula 'kissed very few.
as

direct

tyranny.

'

he

his

gave

kissed

hand

thanked

hatred

to

kiss.

him

of the

their

Senate

salutations.

offensive, the
his return

from

breaches

bestowed

was

Britain,

was

Dorilitian,despite his

Pliny

embraced

censures,

converse.

Embraces

'.

Nero

day

he

refused

of

manifested

to

custom

honour

on

received
monarchical

kiss
were

became,

he
saw

his

of his return

the

the
insignificant
it

those

Senate, though they

day

on

therefore

And

the

settingout,

Such

more

commonly

more

in that

also when

Greece, and

to

foot

pubUcly in
kissing pantomimes every

him

yet

or

from
return

or

the
and

more

the

Agricola, on
designed coldness,
haughtiness, which

senators.

with

him, though he did not allow him to

doubt, bestowed
no
were,
according

individual

Aurelius
testified his regard
standing. Marcus
for his intimate
friend Junius Rusticus, whom
he twice made
consul, by kissinghim before the praefect of the Praetorium,
who
had the first claim ; Julianus, who
held this praefecture
under
and
murdered
Commodus,
often
was
by him, was
publicly embraced
by him and called Parens.
Further, no
doubt, it was
out
physically impossible to deal this honour
to all those
his
tells how
present at a reception. Pronto
imperial pupil, Lucius Verus, admitted
him
first into his

bedroom,
had

to

entrusted

be

able to

'

kiss him

acteristic
uninvidiously', and, charthe Emperor
enough, expatiates,how he, to whom
mOuth
and
speech to educate, had a peculiar

The
claim

his

to

mankind
As

to

kisses

he

eloquence.
Emperors

rule, the

the

to

kiss ;

first order

in

Court
esteemed

would

the

93

show

State

honour

an

the

due

from

greatest politeness

at

public receptions: and

would
be the more
designed disrespectto them
any
keenly
felt.
If Caesar received
the whole
Senate, offeringhim decrees
of honour,
be taken
seated, it would
as
a
discourtesy and
returned
with
loathing : it had been a primitive right of
the
Senate
to remain
the magistrate, whilst
sitting round
the other
citizens stood
Augustus was
courtesy itself,
up.
and
Tiberius
adulation
in the two
even
; the only Emperors
first centuries
Senate

were

Commodus.
there
a

was

mortal

and

whose

or

waited
with

his visitors

pleasure ;
needed.

longer

fortify himself
all his

visitors

Senate

the
his

winter

whole

day

considered
in

no

than

the

the

arrived

This

Antoninus
with

Pius

remain

at

'.

front

of the

Elagabalus

later

palace, and

indecent

the

then

in his

and

at

apology
functions
used

years

to

courteous

was

would

affably:

an

'

Alexander

meet

conversation

to
made

Severus

But
receptions'.

quarters in Nicomedia,
in

his

all

merry

made

Pertinax

crust.

seated

in

The

dared

home,

at

condescension

interlocutors

and

untroubled,

if detained

or,

gateway,

excluded.

own

much

less

the

about

none
terrifying aspect, and
But
approach him.
Trajan received
for them, devoted
much
of his busy day to

hardly

was

ill-will towards

hung

menace

admitted

had

them

their

and

terror

the

Emperor
him

showed

and
Caligula and Nero, perhaps also Domitian
According to Pliny, at Domitian's
receptions,
air of hesitation, as
an
one
were
though
running
the
salutations
done
all
with,
was
danger ;
flight

solitude

affected

behaviour

Caracalla, at

let them

wait

receive.

not

receiving the

one

Dio

senators

bed.

"

2.

The

Public

Meals

public audiences, the Emperors also instituted

to
large
frequent public banquets [conyiviapublico), open
set
at
have
to
first
Claudius
the
a
guard
was
numbers.
Severus'
to Alexander
continued
down
custom
day.
a
them,
had
executed, was
son
Caligula
A
knight Pastor, whose
and
to a public banquet
lay there as
after invited
soon
these
loved
hundredth
huge dinners.
the
guest'. Claudius
Besides

the

'

94
which

at

Circus

used

to

select

care,

and

never

and

him

had

the

whose

in

exclusion

The

after

He

the

indulgence by
risingin power

later

and

third

estate

the

would

knights. Augustus

freebirth

that

wrote

he

{ingenuitas)
asked

once

stayed, a former
Augustus points

once

freedmen

of

of

rights
he

the

eating in

the
with
utmost
persons
to his table, except Menas,

and

the

the

and

freedman

house

country

functions

assembled.

were

resembUng

as

senators

conferred.

hundred

them,

ranks

among
asked

only

been

six

these

To

theatre.

invited, besides

be

than

disliked

Severus

or

Court

more

never

Alexander

The

by

to

Emperors

class

that

man

orderly.
laxer

to
was

ever

esteem.

always sit with the knights

often by themselves.
at the Emperor's board, but
Otho, in
with
the first days of his reign, dined
eighty senators, some
wives
their
wives
generally, senators'
together. And,
often
apparently took
banquets. Caligula
part at these
Further,

used

to

send

those

the

the

invite

husbands'

who

noblest

suited

his

wife

instigation,driven

without

even

him

; she

of

letters
at

Poppaea

there

not

consort, was

not

Claudius

name.

Scipio why

did

senators

suicide.

in

in

absent
Publius

of

mother

prison and,

Pertinax,

the

asked

once

the

and

husbands,

divorce

table

Sabina,

was

their

Nero's

Messalina's

at

day of his
of the Senate
accession, invited the principalmen
{proceres)
and
the magistrates to table, a custom
{consuetudo)disused
At these
dinners, too, the Emperors would
by Commodus.
be very
courteous
to the Senate
and
the consuls
especially.
When
the

Tiberius

to

received

them,

door, and

them

personallysee them
Tiberius, on
standing up.

stand

in the

and

to

of the

each

farewell

invitation

to

bid

An

middle

the

he

the

on

would

welcome

dismissing his guests, would

triclinium

with

lictor beside

imperial board

the highest placed. Tiberius,who

honour

before

manifestly
were

and

he

to

assembled

extravagantly

and
receive

Jupiter,he

the

simultaneous

would

him,

separately.
was

loved

an

not

waver

Senate, but
servile.

him

even

minute,

to

dine.

CaUgula
showed

Martial

invitations
one

honour

lullinghis victims'
praetorship, after

Libo
to
the
suspicions, raised Drusus
deciding on his death, and repeatedly asked
Vespasian, as has been said, pubhcly thanked
the

at

too, received

Hadrian,

out.

them

from
even

for

himself

declares,
Domitian
were

the

The
of

mount

fame

Olympus

ensured
first

him

than

nearer

of Statius, who

had

Court

been

Palatine.

crowned

his invitation, and

'

the

95

he

at the

feast of

his

vented

The

poetical
Minerva,

gratitude at

his

'

in a long flowery poem.

He
beUeved
Holy Banquet
he
had
been
sipping nectar with
Jupiter ; that this day
his real day of birth, the threshold
of his existence.
was
He
could
been
scarcely realize that he had
privileged to
behold, whilst at his cup of wine, the Emperor's face, and to
sit at the
table.
same
Caligula was
apprised that a rich
provincial had bribed the slaves who carried the invitations
with
sesterces, so as to secure
a
200,000
place : and, so far
the
from
at
high price the seat fetched, made
being angry
him
next
trifle at an auction
at the same
day buy some
figure,
that
with
the message
that
dine
with
the
day he should
invitation.
Sometimes
at
Emperor at the Emperor's own
these
At

Vinius

mixed

untoward

incidents

would

occur.

rank, Titus
banquet of Claudius, a guest of Praetorian
pected
susgreat influence under
(who attained
Galba) was
of stealinga golden cup : he was
asked
next
day and
earthenware

given an
Every
used

assemblies

emperor

one.

to
differently

behaved

his

guests.

Augustus

them
to conversation
display the greatest courtesy, move
if they whispered or were
silent,and
provided distractions
in the shape of lectures, dances
and jugglers: he would
come
in late and
leave early,but never
allow the guests to be disturbed.
Titus' banquets, too, were
social and not extravagant.
two
Of
there
Domitian's
are
one
opposite deUneations
;
at the
of Statius, already mentioned,
who
intoxicated
seems
of the Younger
fun of
makes
one
honour, and
PUny, who
Statius
the haughty treatment
of the senator.
paints the
of
countless
of
rooms
costly marble, the
gorgeousness
immensity of the halls, the ceiUngs too high for the eye to
seated
the Emperor
reach, the gilded wainscoting : at which
the
and
tables.
But
for the rich
senators
knights at many
to

meal,

the

citron-wood
for these

he

tables
has

ivory feet, the

with
time

Him,

Him

of
army
he gazed

only
of his majesty. And
so
at, kindly mitigating the radiance
on.
gormandizing
Pliny draws a difiererit pictureof Domitian
his
alone before midday, and sitting
guests as spectator,
among
of
had
the dishes thrown
satedness
showing every sign
; he
rather than
placed in front of them ; with a forced semblance
servants

"

no

The

96
he

got through

Court
with

meal

common

them,

and

then

retired

his

But
noticeable
private carouses.
Trajan's feasts were
for his friendlyamiabUity than
for the ostentation
of
more
gold and silver and delicate cookery : at his table no perversions
of oriental
obscene
licence, only a kindly
superstition,no
due to knowledge.
exhortation, decent jokes and the honour
He
meals, engaged all in conversation,
deUghted in common
and
what
his affabiUtyprolongedf"his moderation
shortened.
of Trajan's virtues : he was
not "one
a
(Actually,this was
hardened
others "were
summoned
toper.) When
Pliny and
at Centumcellae,
to the imperial council
Trajaiiinvited them
times
Someday to a dinner which was
simple for a jmnce.
every
tile night was
music
might be performed, sometimes
And
at
gifts ijrere made
passed in agreeable conversation.
been liable
the parting. At Domitian's
table the guests had
to unfriendly or even
ignominious treatment/.- Once he invited
the senators
and
the first among
knighl^b a banquet, where
the hall was
draped in black, the servachts like black spectres,
the courses
served
in funeral black dishes, and by every guest
his name
inscribed
tablet Ut by a hearse-candle.
And
on
a
to

after

the

sentence

used

to

among

guests

of death,
lock

The
courses

fare
or

they

wild
of
and

have

expectancy of

up,
less

had

noble

had

their

friends

he

the

teeth
would

most

very
Tiberius, desirous

Pertinax, in

wastefulness
all

seat

simple;
of

them
almost
parsimony, made
stingy ; but the
Vespasian gave costly dinners, so as to create a
sellers of food, whilst making his own
the
meals
severe.

drawn

on

them

pricked.
provided by Augustus was
six at

given preciousgifts. Elagabalus

when
drunk, and send
they were

beasts, who

fright;

in alarmed

home

were

his friends

them

died
many
air-cushions

back

went

some

measure,

of Commodus'

diminished

banquets.

or

service, a difference

the

that

have

inculcating
economical
demand

the

scant

for
and

enormous

Severus, at

simplicity. The
of serving guests according to their
custom
general Roman
rank did not apparentlyobtain at the imperialtable,as Hadrian,
of his culinary ofi"cers,
ordered
the
to foil the embezzlements
dishes served up at the last of the tables to be given to him.
The
imperial table scarcely excelled
private banquets
in respect of the
fare, but in the dishes, the state and the
meals, great

httle, observed

Alexander

three

scarce

can

same

arisen

before

the

end

CHAPTER

THE
I.
Rome

Ancient
a

THREE

RANK
made

ESTATES

AND
between

division, which

stem

III

the

BIRTHRIGHTS

citizens, freedmen

and

evolution

Republic

of

the

strangers,
had

universal
and
her
more
already weakened
destroyed. The
did foreign elements
stream
in, first
Empire became, the more
from
the
the
Italy, and then from
provinces, and swamp
of her
aliens and
:
vanishing descendants
original founders
their
forced
their way
children, the posterity of freedmen,
and
into the
the
in even
higher ranks
highest offices. To
of dissolution
and
this process
admixture
the levellingeffect
of absolute
all subjects were,
added, in which
monarchy was
to a certain
extent, equalized. Yet, despite these tendencies,
of a better
inborn
the consciousness
is felt by
right, which
become
less keen,
but
could
all privileged classes, might
and
it always renew
never
wholly die out ; rather would
classes, nationaUties
were
no
reshape itself. Ranks,
longer
from one
sphere
; the transitions
segregated in the same
way
from
time
to time
to another
were
variously bridged over,
but
followed
alleviated
and
it
constantly
necessarily that
;
into a higher community
all new-comers
would
share
soon
of a^
with
their new
the
and
feelings of elevation
peers,
superiorityto the class out of which they had emerged. Thus,

despitethe
in

some

increase

and
in

names

the

issued

distinct

verbal

differences

an

ordinary

two,

land

the

of the

old

institutions, the

still subsisted

measure,

renovate

of

reversal

slave

between
would

freedmen

Such

them.

Empire.

directions

have
three

free and

the

probably
and

matter,

one

did

was

Very

in this
the

rather

the

name,

but

the

old
the

monarchy
new
regulation
Augustus even

name

clear

estabUshed

freed.
a

difierences,

State

Henceforth
or

imperial

of the

tribe,

The
together
from
four

The

or

below

freedman's

free-bom

the

by

into

son

Nero

their offices.

Tiberius

of

freedmen

sons

their

to the

abuse

an

sons

Senate

and

Claudius

only

excluded

them

before,

as

became

equal.
magistracies

the

admitted

even

condition

of

adoption
a
altogether
long
his
by
predecessor of
Edict, formallydeclared
to
knighthood, a rule

on

for

admitted

in 23 A.D., by
inadmissible

well,

as

grandsons

Curia

those

and

the

withdrawn
franchise, was
free-bom, who
might have

their

sons

the

knight
time,
deprived
a

but

freedmen,

promotion of their
always esteemed

was

the

the

to

99

more.

the

only

ranked

reserved

and

names

Not

Estates

certainly with

almost

them,

Three

an

infringedby Augustus (one of his friends Vedius

PoUio,
freedman's
the
a
knight, was
son) : in time
exceptions
sons
multiplied and annulled the rule. But still freedmen's
to the highest offices,
were
rarely admitted
-though instances
had occurred
in the later RepubUc
and
under
Augustus. Of
often

such

descent

who

made

beside

had

in his

the

place of

Macedo,

praetor, some

close

of

the

at the

honour

who,

year

his slaves

before

of the

father
A

sit

to

few such

first

century.

(according to Pliny)
cruellyand haughtily,

a.d.

loi

Thoranius,

theatre.

course

oblivious

descent, treated

of his servile
was

tribune, in 25 B.C., Gains

offices in the

higher

Larcius

One

the

good impression by allowing his

him

attained

been

But,

the

at

even

second

were
century, no sneers
spared at his
to
the
humble
origin,for war
always brought such scum
the consulship
son, reached
top ',when Pertinax, a freedman's
for his mihtary services.
Freedmen
might gain repute through individual
eminence
pre'

in

rank

equaUty

with

humble

bows

and

freedman,

rich

with

still

but

you,

'

slave

to

preferableto

freedwoman.

board,

and

the

first

Horace

Diodorus,

Only good looks,

could

attain

for

man,

Yet

he
a

asks

his

social
aU

his

sense

addresses
may

dine

whether

you
could

elsewhere,
says
free-bom
maiden,

then, socially,freedmen

or

had

day of Augustus: Court

from
the imperial
century precluded them
freedman's
might be stigmatizedas a

unquestionablyadvanced
in
itiquette

free-bom

The

of them,

one

freedwoman

make

never

lost
cringing flatteries,never
on
birthday ', so Martial
your
and
Senator
'the
Knighthood

not

alive'.

are

wealth, but

free-bom.

the

superiority:

of

or

since

the

'

The

100

Three

Estates

',despitethe broadmindedness

son

irrelevance

the

of

the

of

father's

to

standing

declared

who

Maecenas

of

one

Nature's

gentle-bom.
Somewhat
the

higher in the scale

conquered provincials. The

the

Roman

slave

market,

disdain

of

did

Rome

and

manumitted,

sold, and

place

brought

provincial

was

to

in his

himself
above
his
deemed
citizenship of Rome
Uable
to
were
tribute-paying fellow-countrymen, who
times
a
poll-taxes,in ancient
badge of servitude, as well as
estimation
in which
The lower
those assessed on their property
in Tacitus'
the provinces stood in comparison with Italy,is seen
Clodius
that
the
remark
QuirinaUs,
praefect of Ravenna,
and
lusts, as though he
oppressed Italy with his harshness
in a mere
were
subject land '. In his politicalwiU, Augustus
directed
a
sparing use of the citizenship,so as to conserve
and
distinction
of
citizen
decuriae
the
provincial. The
contained
to knights, and
restricted
(jury lists)were
3,000
new-bom

'

'

'

names,

of

2,000

whom

had

of

half

the

wealth

and

under
Claudius,
only admitted
then
and
later
citizens
^i.e. by
even
new
excluding
and the Usts were
grant, not by birth
prepared from amongst
of
Italians
next
out
by preference, and
Latin-speaking
No
a placard at Pompeii.
provinces.
Egyptian juries runs
the full Roman
Seneca, the Spaniard, exhibits
haughtiness
in ridiculingClaudius, who
civic
squandered
rights and the
The
Britons.
Greeks, Gauls, Spaniards and
toga amongst
Parcae cut his life'sthread short, justto preserve
a few peregrini.
When
made
wholesale
to corporations and classes,
grants were
individual
bestowal
became
an
a
distinction, rare,
except

ordinary provincials

were

'

'

"

"

'

'

Claudius,

under

the

East, where

the

prejudice.

other

wild

the

bitter

Narbonese
of whom

late

words
Gaul

was

were

the

honourable.

more

West

in

was

greater repute

than

utter

diversityof race served to foster

the Gauls, Spaniards, and
Africans, and
folks ', were
but slowly Romanized,
and
accorded
these
rights. Cicero asperses
of
credibility

against

Fonteius

Induciomarus,

barbarians, whom
no

But

barbaric

reluctantly and
with

the

provincials,the

Amongst

'

and

the

the

the
chief

cited

witnesses

Praetor,
of

the

the

from

principal

Allobroges,as

of the oath,
thought of the hallowedness
could
fear
religious
terrify from giving false testimony;
the jury to lend
rather
credit to such
foes of Rome,
no

Three

The
than
he

the

to

invested

brought
which
'

Romans
some

them

shrank

issued

Curia, and

to

Lately victims
Lately wearing
These

yet,

GalUc

the
the

his

triumph,
breeches,

senators

now

Gades,

says, of
have

got the honour

Latium
the

or

and

Senate.

the

third

regarded

and

and

more

as

its inhabitants,

senatorial

office.

as

Claudius

to

send

Vienne,

in
'

Vienne,

calls it, was

the

representativesto
of the

one

ComeUus

was

and

wealth

at

the

as

the

of Gades,

man

admission
also

Younger,
in

Garamantes

19

to

the

became
B.C.,

Narbonese

Rome.

of

inhabitants

to the

denied

in

became

Pliny the Elder

pillarof the world, to

denied

ever

and
Gaul

Italy than as a province,

the Early Empire, often attained
brave
that
colony ',
great and
first,and perhaps the only town,

portion

even

first time,

first,as

scoffed

theatre

stone

ripe;
purple stripe.

the

this

at the

nephew, Balbus
after his vittory over
the

built

Senate

the

astuteness

the

His

consul

was

always

of Tartessus,

man

whom

forefathers

was

the

blank

moreover

our

he

fill up

Civil War

foreigners,bom

the

to

way

foreigner,for

Balbus,

in the

civitas and

probably deposed by Augustus,

were

of

the

they're for
they wear

now

furthered

the

senators

new

early as 40 b.c,
consul, though only to

had

Caesar, when

with

people sang

Gallic

Spaniard

Gauls

outraged public opinion,

thought of the influx of the
very
populations. A
public request

show

as

province

'

Senate,

streets

in

loi

'

trousered

the

on

the
the

at

not

in that

half-barbaric

into

transalpine,

was

settled
'

Estates

the

of

Curia.

Valerius

greatest of his day,

was

twice

Asiaticus, of
consul, and

resignedthe office the second time (46a.d.)in the vain hope of

thus
Pompeius Vopiscus,
circumventing enmity and maUce.
of Vienne, had
conferred
him
the
consulate
on
by Otho in
69
from

A.D.

Besides

Nimes

(Toulouse)
were

for
In

(Nemausus),
have

allowed

to

visit their

names

of

Julii (Frejus) and

Forum
In

down.

come

the

Viennese,

these

the

Narbonese

Tolosa

senators
year
49 a.d.
estates without
asking

furlough.
the

year
senatorial

47 the

chiefs

of

new

Gaul

began

agitating for

Romanized
been
they had
hundred
(Lyons) had been
years, and only Lugudunum
offered.
excepted. Yet strong opposition was

the

senators

offices ;

for

one

ably
favour-

Italy,

The

I02

Estates

Three

could still provide

she was,
as
objected,poverty-stricken
Veneti
and
Insubres
not
for her
senate
a
capital. Were
remain
over
admixture
privilege would
enough ? What
of
for the scanty survivals
of the nobility or poor senators
rich scions of the tribes vanquished
true
Latin
blood
?
The
Citizens
soon
a century ago would
supplant their conquerors.
and
not
do
but
cheapen senatorial
they might become,
of
magisterial dignities. It required the outspoken wiU
Claudius
to
stifle the
protests. At Lyons, his native city,
tablet still exists,containinga fragment of the learned
a bronze
Incontestably,he said,
speech he delivered on this occasion.
Italian senators
the preferenceover
to have
were
provincials,
must
not be spumed.
whose
claims to a rank they might adorn
The Aedui
(between the Saone and the Loire), first received
the
senatorial
others
perhaps individuallyin
rights, and
of Gains
the remaining districts.
The
father
JuUus Vindex,
senator.
an
Aquitanian of royal descent ',was a Roman
Other
provincialscan only have been in the Senate
tionally,
excepSeneca
and grudgingly,as interlopers. Tacitus makes
it

was

'

of Corduba
so

to

as

in

63 send Nero
disarm
evil tongues

question, how
with the primates
growth, dare soar

to

fame.

After

decimations

further

restocked

the

and

the

of the

Rome

could

In

second

often, he

State

height

in them

Spaniard, ascended

confession

best

throne,

weighed

has

Civil

War,

from

Senate

support.
the

of

ancient

Vespasian

the

When

voice

rank

his mushroom

aristocracyof

the

of the

he

says,

he, with
an

of

his

the

how

with

of his unworthiness,

provincial,dare

and

knight

the benches

found

ever

he,

provinces,
Trajan, a

conservative

lands.
longer openly jeer at the Western
And
under j^Traj
an
(in 1 1 5) Quintus Lusius Quietus,a Gaetulian
not
in Africa, the province, but near
obscure
sheikh, bom
an
and
distant
consul.
had
He
frontier, became
distinguished
and Parthian
himself in the Dacian
Wars
as
a cavalry leader.
the

no

century

(consul in 144)
(Constantine)in
And

then

excluded

part

in the

culture.
weals

met

the

Greeks
the

latter

senators

were

Fronto

African.

were

Cirta

fellow-countrymen from

Little- Asians
held

paid

reverence

Carian

few

many
Senate.

and

to

could

in scant

are

no

longer be fairly

respect, and

Greece, the

Cicero,
says
makes
the best

Phrygians,
a

no

the

no

of Roman

mother
better

desperado ;

had

'

the

for

their

last

of

The
the

Three

Estates

103

'

Mysians

expressed supreme
comedycontempt ; Greek
made
its stock-slave
Shall a man,
a Lydian.
Juvenal makes
born
Roman
a
exclaim, impress his seal in front of me, have
the same
wind
wafted
a higher place at table, whom
to Rome
with imported Damascene
plums and Syrian figs? Is it for
Aventine
air and
on
nothing our
youth has been nurtured
Sabine
fruit ?
And
he, the son of an Aquitanian freedman,
and
saw
despised the
knights of Asia, Bithjmia and Cappa'

docia, who

had

looked

too,

come

it

on

should

to Rome

as

the

irony

as

because

he

bare-footed

starve,
or
Parthia, a knight from
native
stands, but
a
mere

out

Numa

was

'.

and

Alexander

fabricated

From

Severus

himself

fate, that
'

not

was

of

of

the

the

Martial,

'.

noble

poet
Syria

of

burgess

slave-

Cappadocian
of

people

and

Remus

of

being
family-tree.
ashamed

Roman

of

slaves

Syrian

Early Empire onwards, however, Greeks and LittleAsians

took
in the
Roman
high rank
knighthood. Vedius
from
of Augustus, came
Pollio, a rich knight and a friend
Caesarea
in Bithynia.
Titus
Vespasian and
during their
the
first to
admit
the
most
censorship (73 and 74) were
to the Senate.
prominent of these settlers in larger numbers
Tiberius Claudius
Atticus, of Athens, in Nerva's
reign became
enormously rich through a treasure-trove, and was twice consul
(thefirst time about 104) ; his son, the great sophist,Herodes
in the consular
Atticus, is recorded
fasti of 143 a.d., and
In
his grandson Tiberius
Claudius
Bradua
Atticus
in 185.
fact, in the first century, literaryfame
sure
was
a
key to
inspiringfavour, as is shown by the many
great Greek sophists
and

the

writers

who

might also
Trajan, the

be

consuls.

Scions

princelyhouses

of

distinguished,as, for example,

Gaius
Commagenian
Julius Antiochus

The

pappus.

became

under

thus

and

second

inscriptionsmentioning

third

century contain

Greek

and

Little-Asian

entered

the

Senate

PhUoof the

most

senators

or

consulars.
Few

other
The

century.
and
Phoenicia

Severus,

Orientals

consular

friend

their

of

of

numbers

was

and

increased.

(died

Zenobia, and

Boethus,

Galen,

but, after Caracalla

prince of Palmyra
husband

Flavius

in

of

before

zealous

in

born

Elagabalus
Such

251), father

was

of

third

the

telian,
Aristo-

and

Alexander

Odeinathus,

Odeinathus,

SeptimiusHeyranus.

in

Ptolemais

He

the

attained

The

104
consular

rank.

Senatorial

Palestinian

No

rank

before

Estates

Three

fourth

the

have

to

is known

Jew

Hieronymus

when

century,

reached

some
speaks of Jewish senators, though Josephus mentions
senatorial
Julius
as
knight Tiberius
being knights. The
a
Alexander, was
nephew of Philo the philosopher. PhUo,
drian
Alexanof Judaea, was
an
in Nero's
last years, the
governor
famous
of
rich
and
family, alUed
a
renegade Jew
had
rendered
to
distinguished service in the
Caesar, who
'

Parthian

War

Titus'
of

of

Dislike
of the

of Rome,
hundred

two

knights :

Caracalla

ere

and

made

all

aroused

stronger than

hatred

Alexandria

of
years
first Alexandrian,

Coeranus,

senator

in the

fifth

the

century did

of

rest

'

became

and

Praetorium,
In

the

Dio

Court-favourite.

foreignersin

testifies,when

he

naturally retained a
to the higher offices,

Romans

centuries, too,

later

preferenceover
as

praefect

Egypt
of"ce.
Juvenal's spleen was
right to senatorial
at the
nationality of Crispinus the Egyptian, who
first of the
knights ', perhaps praefect of the
Even

consul.

lack

the

in

might entitle
: seldom
might they become
subjugation had to pass by

often

nor

been

had

interval, he

the

even
Egyptians was
Only the citizenshipof

that

to

in

held

also

he

rank

the

Jews.

them

'

War

Jewish
Egypt.

general staff,

the

on

the

makes

elections
Maecenas

it

state

the

as

rock
bed-

imperial system that the curule offices and the

consulate
should
be held by Romans.
This rule was
honoured,
in the breach.
Pescennius
even
Niger,one of the rival Emperors
of Septimius Severus, said he intended
to govern
Rome
by
disdain
Romans.
Rome's
of strangers, her
contempt of
everything extra-mural, lasted to the end, and then even
the mob
made
the theatre
resound
with its loud bigotry.
of the

The
better
and

the

ItaUan,
than

his

the

children

Latian

even,

deemed

was

he was
provincial; as a senator
an
upstart,
not
for
their
were
easilyforgiven
ancestry.

Antony, the aristocrat, reproached Octavian

at Aricinum.
One
being bom
might take
of
he was
of Ephesus
woman
a
talking

for

'

And
often

how

we

are

yet how

enough

import'.

But

prized,we

of us do
many
dinned
in his

Tiberius,

as

who
not
ears.

'

And

Catilina

Claudius

says

he

Cicero,

Tralles.

or

from

come

mother

his

it ', says

'

see

somewhat

but

You

the

municipia.

had

blue

dubbed
in

his

him

blood
'an

address,

io6

The

the

as

'

Knights

titles will be
In

and

later

criminal

law

sharp
degraded

'.

of senatorial

terms

also
were
as
privileged,
in imperial cities, and

were

councillors

town

The

with.

orders

distinction

the

was

dealt

on

Estates

Senators

Lords

both

soldiers, veterans,
so

Three

that

rank

might be
flogged,tortured

of

man

plebeian. They might not be

in evidence, pressed for labour
and mines, crucified or thrown
insult from
to
in the Circus.
An
a
gladiators or animals
or
plebeian to a senator
severely punished. In
knight was
the
social intercourse
the gap
between
the knighthood and
lower
the
A

to

middle-class
first and

of

third

of

senator

the

dubious

in

the

the

raisest

meek

existed

chasm

following fact
under

was,

between

is illustrative.
accused

Domitian,

chose
transaction, and
voluntary
certain
condemnation,
and, to maui-

Sicily,had
one
day, he

lecture-room

thou

than

rather

himself

tain

classes

praetorian rank

somewhat

banishment

great, and

was

and

teach

to

On

oratory.

began declaiming,
humblest

'

entering

Fortune,

strong !

the

Thou

'.
into professors
professorsinto senators, and senators
full of bitterness
so
was
Pliny the Younger says this sentence
and
he became
gall,that he beUeved
professer,just to be
it. And
able
to
identicallywith
Phny the Senator,
say
of the two
classes
out the contrast
Juvenal the Knight made

makest

as
a

'

extreme.

consul,

or

If

thou. Fortune,

consul

II.

makest

willst, thou

rhetor

rhetor.'

THE

SENATORS

The

Empire was accepted either of the troops or the Senate ;

from
the
in either, legitimation came
also
Senate, which
To
the
Senate, the
might depose, as often happened.
only pnmi inter pares, and fellow-senators ;
Emperors were
and
Commodus,
except CaUgula, Nero, Domitian
they aU
less to
endeavoured
or
during the first two centuries more
maintain
this relation.
Herodian
cites an
apologetic letter
of OpelliusMacriaus
(217) on his election, begging no repugnance
felt
his
be
at
been
for
a mere
having
nobihty
knight,
may
of
excellence
and
the
blue
blood
was
nothing without
;
Commodus
of

Caracalla.

rulers

than

had

benefited

the

Emperors

of

humbler

men.

Senate

as

little

high

descent

Those

who

as

were

received

lawfulness

the
more

the

violent

Empire

The
from
to

the

Three

Senate, regarded themselves

acknowledge
Augustus

its favour

curule

was

nobilityor
Those

bom

into

the

granting
exceptional creation
when

the

ranks

were

line

agnate

The

ancient

the

rank

forms

held

be

might
to

of

senators

senatorial

dawn

had

such

admitted

young
of

one

of"ces.
in

the

or

men,

the

two

classes
sub-

three

used

by the Emperors,
in the
censorship fused
general imperial
creations
in the
were
ordinary prerogative.
even
hereditary,tenable
by the wives, and
to the third
degree.

authority,new
Such

order

of senatorial
of

ancestors

this

both
:
(adleciio)

at

sought

acts.

establish

families, whose

not

ways,

the

by

first to

the

its debtors, and

as

their

107

caste
legal senatorial
hereditary peerdom, by restricting competition for
oflB.ce and
the consequent seat
in the Senate
to the

and

and

Estates

were

families

have

must

few
very
the AtUii,

been

of the

Empire ; extinction
(as with
MeteUi, Curii, Fulvii),outlawry and death in the Civil Wars
the
triumvirs
and
proscribed either 130, or 300 senators
2,000
knights disappearance in the Early Empire, as with
"

"

the

Aenuhi

active

Scauri,

seedhouse

and

her
'

men

wealth
did

of

colonies

found

their

merit.

or

towns,

way
up
Rutilius

became

lineageof nobihty.
the

ennoblement.

of

the

in the

the
the

Empire,
first.

Rufus,

humble

the

could

of

man

as

of

his

had

'

new

the

and
to

third

at

even

friends

called

ship : subserviency towards

even

helped

seat

favour

or

raised

to

superiors,and

to

Salvidienus

Rufus,

Curtius

of

beginning

the

senator, to the

gladiator's
son,
his

to

dismissal.

merit

Octavian

means

command

claim

The

fsist

later, the

through fortune,

family, nor
his

be

estate,

Civil War,

and

honourable

an

Senate.

the

hard

least

knightly descent,

into
no

family

his

gave

of

retirement,

on

measure

rise

no

and

been

father

senators

some

During

Talent
so

in

of

men

Rome

of birth,

Senate, in vatae

have

must

conferred,

Senate,

the

Practically,at

Guard

And

He

not

were

of

her

out.

set

knighthood of
provinces,whence

City Praefect,

elevation

who

ing
submerg-

as

up,

were

GaUicus, who, according to Statins,

in the field under
Nero, attained the consulate,

Domitian

despite
knights

all

the

and

into

filled

were

gaps
Senate
was

the

and

long service

under

with
the Hortensii,
penury,
them
their family rights and

losing
utterly. These

causes,

them

The

or

the

ship.
consula

man

quaestor-

truculence

to

lo8
his

The
underlings,enabled
of

him

to

him

Africa.

rather

Estates

who

Tiberius,

than

his

to

to

other
many
the readiness

to

Dio,

'

such

gave

to

seems

me

'

self-made

the

excused

his

self-bom

man

their

owed

men

consulate
pro-

praetorship

competitors,

noble

birth, by saying, he

consulate, and

the

gain

to

'

smirched
And

Three

'.

eminence

the imperial will, especiallyas

fulfilling
informers
in cases
of high treason.
Through the favour of
of oratory, was
Sejanus, Junius Otho, originallya teacher
appointed senator, and his unscrupulous zeal carried him
influence
raised
through to the praetorship ; and the same
both
and
Vibius
Eprius Marcellus
Crispus from the depths
of poverty to high rank, vast wealth
and great power,
gained
unconscientious
of
their
use
by
extraordinaryability. MiUtary
service could win the low-bom
a seat in the Senate.
According
in

Maecenas

advised

officers, though
but

wood

and

Thus
have

been

(even
a

; Macrinus

become

to

post

life

Pescennius

It

is

and

forbidden

first

CaracaUa

the

who

once

had

before
the

to

Cleander, the
freedmen

the

the

without

of the

in 218

he

Prae-

resigned

senators

who

Pertinax,

Severus.
should

have

of

been

Commodus,

in all the

municipia

of Commodus,

the

was

and

senators
a

must

Emperor

time

first rank

favourite

deposition of
been

the

are

freedmen

that

Dio)

first known

of

soldier

Praefecture
:

senator.

common

to

rival of Alexander

Senate

access

make

to

The

centurions,

credible

the

to

colonies

consul.

as

City Praefect

him

Niger, the

hardly

admissible
whilst

made

the

to

hewer

Adventus

begun as
assistant, according
up

centurions

become

Oclatinius

tinguishe
dis-

most

mere

never

had

rose

the
as

file, a

and

should
of

he

of culture,

commenced
and

that

rare

very

tincture

this

Uke

of

begun

had

rank

water,

hangman's

torium

of

drawer

careers

they

of the

soldier

mere

admission

the

former

hair-curler

patricians. Under
slave, Marcius
Agrippa,

of

his

mistress, from

high knightly post to a senatorship and

praetorship was
kind
of degradation. Elagabalus used
to make
freedmen
into
and
legates,consuls
governors,
generals'. Alexander

'

Severus
make

was

them

Even
sons

the
of

stricter, and
proportionately

knights.
early Emperors,

freedmen

less

their

difficulty.Even

as

more

has

been

distant

in the

middle

would

not

even

said, admitted
descendants
of the

the

tered
encoun-

first century

The

Three

senatorial
families were
many
VitelUi came
of a freedman

by

investment

his

times

consul

ViteUius.
descent
who
a

by

sons

and

his

by

no

knight

Nero

rule.

only

son,

and

father

would

married

of the

family,

condition

the

of his

ceremonies

may

three

Emperor
of servile

was

Claudius,

senator.

cillor
coun-

was

of the

of rhetoric

Hadrian,

similar

he

of them

one

the

teacher

on

fortune

agencies ;

exclusive, conferred

means

freedman's

was

under

son

said the

was

made

imperial financial

then

and

famous
was,

State

senators

censor,

son

; his

It

the first member

and

were

Tiberius'

was

on

four

him

109

descended.

cobbler

bore

daughter, who
became
a
knight,

who

thus

and
in building-lots

baker's

Estates

purple stripe
being adopted

have

the

been

and
freedmen's
sons,
accept any
deprived those admitted
by former Emperors of their offices.
held them, if only under
Later
have
the cover
on, they may
of friendlyaristocratic competitors. Even
Valentinian, Valens
Gratianus
had
to issue rescripts,
and
men's
declaratory that freedshould

sons

The
and

upstarts
more,

Juvenal
in

not

and

be excluded

and

new

the

refers

166, to the

not

fusion

fewness

in

men

ancient
the

to

from

the

rank

Senate

the

of clarissimi.
became

more

nobility continuously died out ;

of the nobility,and
Apuleius,

of the

old

stock

but

the

old

families

all the

looked
prouder of their genealogies,and were
of the
with
hall-mark
ever-increasing respect. The
upon
the
right of setting up ancestral
pictures
aristocracy was
did
betread
houses
atrium.
in the
a
Reverently
stranger
in which
fading paintings of triumphing generals in the
became

chariots

four-horsed
of the
and

ancestors

their

covered

filled the
inscribed

deeds

the

walls, and

atrium, their
below.

'

names,

Ancestral

smoked
their

masks
honour

pictures

and

popularly admired, as in the time of Horace.

inscriptions were
were
Middle
The
epoch and ancient Rome
Ages, the modern
bore great names
in loving great lords who
at one
worthily ',
and
proud to share in the radiance of their native
they were
aristocracy. Juvenal's rhymed platitudeson the true merit
in
hot
lies in virtue
and
blood, provide a needless
that
of the generalityof the opinion he was
reminder
combating.
esteemed
How
by
by the people is shown
highly they were
of the trial of Aemilia
Tacitus'
account
Lepida in the year
'

'

20.

Her

late

husband,
1

Publius

Theodonis

SulpiciusQuirinius,was

of Gadara,

The

no

Three

Estates

introducmg a changeling and other serious

offences.
Despite her evil repute and her guilt,the splendour
of her descent
and
from
and
SuUa
the Aemilii
Pompey won
her the general sympathy.
retinue
of
When
a
she, with
noble
for
ancestors
ladies, prayed her
protection in the
the
theatre
of Pompey,
people burst into sobs and curses,
of Lucius
that
had
been
the intended
Caesar,
a
lady, who
and
the
prospective daughter-in-law of Augustus, should

accusing her

of

be

to

sacrificed

owing

man

so

humble

his childless

old age.
does
not

to

of

influential

birth, but

Seneca, moraliziag in the

same

that
in
Juvenal,
only absolutely admit
competitions for the high offices the nobles secured them for
in preferenceto meritorious
but
new
profligates
men,
many
his ancestors.
not without
'. Thus
adds this happened
reason
Verrucosus
AUobrogicus and the three hundred
Fabii,obtained
for Fabius
Persicus
(consulin 32) his election to the highest
vices ; and
Scaurus,
priesthoods, in spite of his notorious
who
had
been
consul
ia 115 B.C., and
the princeps of the
his descendant
Scaurus
Mamercus
Senate, assured
(who died
in 34), a man
of like iU-fame, the consulate.
Tacitus
praises
Tiberius
for regarding the nobles
in the
early part of his
and
reign in distributingthe honours
;
Pliny Trajan for
out of fear and mistrust
not having
preferringthem, Domitian
to
ventured
select them.
tively,
Officiallythen, and administraand everywhere, noble
descent
was
a great advantage,
and
if possessions,on
which
rank
and
an
asset, even
eminence
prewere
based, might be actuallyvalued at a higher rate.
And
the
families
that
flourished
even
history of many
under
the Empire was
venerable.
left in
True, few were
the first century of those who
coidd
point to eight hundred
tone

as

'

'

'

of

years
there

senatorial
have

must

close of the
both

rank

Romulus

or

been, for fiftyfamilies

Repubhc,

pre-Roman.

from

In

who
a

claimed

manual

of

Brutus

were

some

known

at

the

Trojan or Alban
lineage,
Greek dialoguesfor teaching
'

there occurs
the sentence
I will visit a senator
:
purposes,
who can trace his descent
back
'.
to Romulus
and the Aeneadae
Such
the

above

were,

images

carried

in

Varus,

who

descent.

of

the

The

feU

all, the
Aeneas,

Julii,who
Romulus

in
and

their
the

procession. The
Quintihi (of
in the
Teutoberg forest)were

Antonii

and

Fabii

made

Hercules

had

funerals

kings

Alban
whom
of

came

Alban

their

first

The
ancestor, the
The

aUow
as

Aelii Lamiae,

Calpumii

Piso, the
of

Pisones

head
the

fables

of the

Lamus,

of the

king

derived

their

house

under

in

from

race

not

rare

looked

them.

work

erudites

dedicated

Gnaeus

Tiberius, would

Greek

Laestrygones.

Numa

Generally, pedigrees extending

were

elaborate

Estates

Emperor's precedence, and

inferiors.

of

Three

scarcely
his

on

into

the

would

sons

world

willingly

to

Quintus
Emperor,
originwas
according to others
his race
to Faunus,
so
low, ascribes
king of the Aborigines,
and
Vitellia, a goddess locallyworshipped. It was
perfectly
well known
that
from
come
Vespasian's grandfather had

the uncle

of the

and

Reate,
father

whose

had

had

ViteUius,

been

been

centurion

tax-farmer

the

trace

the

other.

back

the

but

Civil

attempt

an

and

War,

his

made

was

pasian
companion of Hercules ; Veshimself
was
laughed at it. The Emperor Galba, who
of the ancient
and noble house
of the Sulpicii,
had an ancestral
tablet put up in his atrium, recording his paternal ancestry
line to Pasiphae, the daughter
up to Jupiter,and his maternal
of Minos.
Even
those
who, with the incredulous,abandoned
bemocked
these pedigrees,or themselves
them, at other times
found
them
serviceable, and could use
them, without
being
funeral
ridiculous.
Thus
Caesar
in
his
oration
for
Julius
from
his aunt
her descent
Ancus
Marcius
Julia celebrated
the one
hand
and
on
Venus, the grandmother of lulus, on

to

Flavii

in

AciUus

Manius

designed as his successor

in i86),traced his descent
Aurelius

Numa.

to

Regilla,the
that
whilst

she

of the

Herodes'

own

Glabrio,

(he was
to

Herodes

sister of

was

to

too,

consul

Aeneas,

for the

did the

as

Atticus

boasts

Appius Annius
princely blood

Bradua

tree

remounted

of

whom

second

time

family of

Marcus

of his wife

Annia

(consul in i6o),

Anchises
to

Pertinax

the

and
Aeacidae

Venus,
:

in

frequently ascribed to heroic founders.

of the
Arval
The
acta
priestsgives very splendid lists of the
sacrifice
who
constituted
the College. At one
noble names
made
by Caligula in the end of May, 39, only three members
Statilius
by Augustus, Taurus
present had been ennobled
Caecina
Corvinus, Gaius
Largus (consul in 42) and Annius
Greece

families

Vinicianus.

The
Piso

Calpumius
('the
and

last

Scion

Gnaeus

were

others

were

Paulus

Fabius

Persicus, Gaius

Furius
Camillus
(alreadymentioned), Marcus
of Veil's conqueror
'),Appius Junius Silanus,

Domitius

Ahenobarbus,

the

father

of

Nero

The

112

the

of the

ancestors

purple'. During
six

counted
and

Estates

Three

last two
the

had

under

two

of fame

Republican

Domitii

Ahenobarbi
two

Augustus,

Claudii

the

triumphs. No gens could rival

lost in
; their beginnings were

two

the

worn

the

Republic

consuls, and

'

often

censors

for tales

early Republic ;
they had twenty-two consulates, five dictatorships,seven
censorships, seven
great and five petty triumphs to their
besides
and
illustrious men
score,
women,
mighty
many
for good or for evil ; their measureless
and
pride
unbending
sternness
valued
was
hereditary. Further, old pedigrees were
highly to the last days of the Empire.
The
of adding new
custom
to the original,besides
names
retainingboth the originaland the adoptive, under the Julian
and Claudian
Flavian
rare
: after the
reigns was
epoch, when
and new
into power
new
men
came
', frequent. Adoptions
ways
the
and
of
maternal
besides
quasi-adoptions,the use
the paternal names,
from
for other
sheer family vanity, and
the

'

swelled

reasons,

Trajan

under
than

ten

the

like

men

names

and

rank

than

the

Roman

nobles

Quintus Pompeius Falco had more

his son,
Quintus Pompeius Senecio
than
thirty-eight.

(consul in 169) no less

But princely wealth
was
f amiUes

of

nomenclature

ancient

more

of

ornament

common

lineage. Opulence

torial
sena-

ajid senatorial

Gnaeus
Lentulus
the augur,
interchangeableterms.
under
sesterces, the largest
Augustus, possessed 400,000,000
in antiquity. Two
hundred
million
private capital known
even
was
enormous
; Vibius
Crispus possessed this amount,
and Martial uses
richer than Vibius Crispus as a superlative.
were

'

But

fortunes

the

senators.

who

was

died

as

of three

very

wealthier,

'

as,

City

hundred

Tacitus

mentions

rich, that
for

or

many,

more
a

in

56,

letter

at

Volusius
the

age

amongst

rare

of Nero

his inferiors

example, Lucius

Praefect

not

were

in

to

Seneca,

desert,were

Satuminus,

who

to
95 ; not
his poor
from

of

speak of freedmen.
Eprius Marcellus, too,
less. The
of such
no
annual
income
beginnings ama.ssed
have
been
the revenues
properties would
as
nearly as much
families
assigned by Olympiodorus to the richest Roman
at the beginning of the fifth century, viz. : ;"243,6oo. Capital
landbore, as above
remarked,
even
high interest, and
investments
of
than
6 per cent.
A capital
brought in more
at 7 percent, yielded^228,396 yearly.
300,000,000 (;"3,26a,8oo)

'^^^ Three

114
belonged
Africa

six

in
Domitian,
great landowners, and, under
elsewhere, private property not only equalled but

to

and

often excelled

villagesand
these
not

by

slaves

containing peasants'
municipalities,

in size the
a

little town

wealthy

did

Estates

around
must

owners

exaggerate

in

manor-house

the

been

have

of

speaking

vast

fetters, cattle-ranches

in

Seneca

senators.

stretches

wider

of

; some

cultivated

than

kingdoms

their
speaks of realms
ride
lake
round.
no
sovereigns could never
Everywhere
waters
whose
did not
reflect some
gulf by
great palace, no
which
their villas did not stand ; from
lofty height over
every
their
and
land
roofs glittered. Their
sea,
palaces in Rome
had royal forecourts, high atria, rich baths, Ubraries, galleries,
of laurels
and
peristyles,groves
planes, fountains, drives
and

provinces ;

atnd

walks

cities

'

; were

; if as

Columella

when

or

as

large as

extensive
the

as

whole

county-estates,

property

'

were

of Cincinnatus

like

(four

deemed
calls
his
too
acres) they were
petty. Martial
patron Sparsus' Petilian palace a kingdom : from the ground
view
floor there was
down
the highest peaks of Rome
a
on
:
it was
and
in
the
than
from
a
rus
urhe,
a
vintage greater
hiU.
Falemian
Inside
the portals there
room
was
enough
to drive in lightcarriages: no noisy streets, no too importunate
daylight could disturb sleep.
A great house
of old, then, with its thousands
of slaves and
fteedmen

of

sufficient

state

and

all

nationalities,was

the

furthered

inmates

little

consumed

and

almost

its resources,

selftained
main-

its

prosperity : they also suppUed some

of the needs
furnished nowadays by industry : the ennoblement
and beautifyingof life in art they also supplied,as well
of the advantages of applied science.
some
as
There
were
also many
there
wholly or partiallydependent, who
were
nourished
owed
to their patron'smunificence
; many,
too, who
their stay and help in life,and many
who saw
their better days
renewed.
their manumission,
Slaves, on
generally received
a

donation

more

The

10,000,000.

less generous.
Martial
instances
of
one
families,too, of dependents and clients received
or

gratuitiesand protection.
a

friend

Appia,

And

freedman

of Tiberius, celebrates,on
how

his patron

often

gave

of Cotta

his tombstone
him

sums

Messalina,
in the

amounting

Via
to

educated
his children,
knightlycensus
(400,000sesterces),
provided paternallyfor his sons, conferred a militarytribunate
the

Three

The
his

on

and

Cottanus,

son

About

paid the

115
of that

expenses

tombstone.

highestplace and the greatest influence

nobilityhad fallen to Gaius Calpurnius Piso,
amongst
who
headed
the conspiracy of 65 against Nero, to win
the
throne, and lost his hfe. Caligula had banished and Claudius
recalled
him
in his property and
him
made
him, reinstated
consul

the year
the old

Estates

Every

mother's

his

50 the

for

aptitude

handsom.e

features

and

to

of

ready
joy even

skilled
balls and
whom
of

dice and

of

in

of pomp
poetry and

made

third

his.

He

poor,
estate
in

and

and

to extravagance,
generous
the cither, in games
with
helped knights and senators

aided

annually a number
knighthood. For

a
gaining the
the poets'theme.
generation after his death, his generositywas
After
Nero's
reign, the position of the aristocracyaltered.
In
replacement of the old families, partly ruined, partly
and
extinct, a new
increasing generation of Italians and
remembered
their
days of poverty
provincialsarose, who
and
practised a parsimony, which
Vespasian initiated.
to the grandees
Domitian, too, by himself served as a reminder
to
excel
in splendour, generosity or
not
retinues ; it was
only under Trajan they dared
again freely give, increase
little incomes
and
distribute
their
Martial
surplus '. And
was
right in wishing back the days of the Pisos and Crispuses,
men

the

fond

in combat.

misfortune

increased

possessed,stateliness and
he was
to strangers,eloquent
affable,even
the oppressed, not sternly moral, a lover

excess,

alike

still further

popularity he

defend

to

inheritance

'

Senecas
who

would

now

confer

them

give

the

happy

But,

on

he says, many
their client the golden

Then,

and

sesterces
or
400,000
is he whom
a
knight of his

one.

second

revenue

At
class

friends there

were

ring (inother words,

knightly census) ; not so

then, the

even

gorgeous,
small
no
of the

Memmii.

and

the

had

life of the

senators

befriends.

house

brilliant

was

and

for a senator
would
be
insignificant
beginning of the fifth century houses
an

average

income

of

1,000

to

1,500

of

gold {"4.5,625to ;"68,5io). Pliny the Younger,

who
could
scarcely support his state, gives us some
inklings
of the balance-sheet
of a senator
in Trajan's time, neither
rich nor
His family came
of the municipal
very
very noble.
at the age of twenty-seven, he climbed
:
nobility of Comum

pounds

the

first rung,

and

was

quaestor, and

quickly,at thirty-eight,100

a.d.,

ascended

being appointed

the

ladder

consul

by

ii6

The

for

which

much

his

three

of his uncle, his work

him

Estates

marriages probably augmented

considerable ; the
municipal was

His

Trajan.

Three

heir administrator,

as

indirectly,e.g. by legacy,

wealth

inheritance

doubt

no

wealth,

brought

he

as

refused

in the spectacles.
gifts. As praetor, he economized
His property was
mostly highly profitablevineyards, but he
the
diminished
income
by his, solicitude for his agents and
Near
Tifemum
interest.
on
purchasers. He also lent money
at more
in Etruria, he
Tiberinum,
possessed lands rented
rewards

and

than

900,000

also several

villas

for 700,000
the Lacus

on

About

comfortably.
mother-in-law.
be

to

to

sum

letters in

little estate
a

relation

he remitted

debts

from

him
advanced

was

Martial

obtained

Tifemum

temple

from

built
:

at
a

his

building

with

expense,
pf Ceres
templfe-

pillars,and
of

Comenses

marble

the

the

of

columns
adorn

to

be

sesterces,
the

at

was

Feast

of

the

man
country-

schoolfellow,

for

In

knighthood
his
the

city of
had

built
he

and

new

ordered
and

made.

His

father

to

for

the

pay

Neptune

of his

beautiful

marble

four

walls

at the

banquet
collapsingin one
a

gave

floor, and
had

left the

distribution

in all the

return

Pliny

patron,

was

repairingit,he

goddess to

40,000

annually

oil

of

hall

qualifyhim

own

estates, and, instead

another,

and

same

received
centurionship,

he

he

nurse

the

fellow

eulogisticpoem.

need, and

travelling-moneyon

where

Tiberinum,

dedication

statue

him

his

apparently large

death.

obtained

buy
him

presented his

whose

and

from

sesterces, and

outfit, and

for

return

He

in

and

to

enabled

friends

and

sesterces, to

300,000

Spain, in

to

his

as

40,000

borrow

management

father's

he

intending

to

marriage,

after her

Como),
modestly

says,

was

had

200,000

her

of his, for whom

he

testimony.

worth
on

10

clients

towards

generous
collected no few

with

the

he

of

(Lake

as

up,

year
and
3,000,000,
His
economical

for

estate

an

Larius

inherited

an

at Beneventum

sesterces, and

all fitted

by Laurentum,

one

he sold

where

Comum,

; at

sesterces

400,000
estate worth

thermae

of

and

to
Pliny, imitating him, gave large simis
his native city,eloquent of his 'ItaUan
local patriotism'. He
with
a
presented the city of Comum
libraryworth 1,000,000

in

and
a

theatre

invested

third

again

of
he

to

100,000

the

gave

fee

of

500,000

maintain
a

it ;

rhetorician

sesterces

to

and
in

offered
that

provide

to

town.
for

pay
And

free-bom

The
boys

and

derived
then

girls;

on

200,000

sesterces

evidently the
have
be

per
the

cent),was
community

in his will he
of

for

left the

thermae, and

their

upkeep
to
capital amounting

as

for

hundred

for

to pay

then, the

were,

could

erection

to

117

freedmen
annual

an

and
town

for their

the

interest

i,866,666f

of the

testator,

for the

carouse

to be

whole

of Comum.

community

must

the

300,000,

provide

and, in remainder,
Such

And

well

as

to

least

(at 6

transferred

heirs.

for

sum

furnishing at

be

to

the

acquired by

Estates

interest, 30,000

froni land,

unknown

an

the

Three

senatorial

been

maintained
well

Rome

makes

; Martial

census

by
have

of

disposalof

of

minimum

the

propertiesmay

at the

means

sum

been

poor senator

1,000,000

(about ;^io,875)

at which

single individual

found

in the

suitable

state

only. Larger
middle

classes

at

braggart boEist of an annual income

lodging-houses and properties,600,000

one

from
his
3,000,000
from
his herds
from
Parma,

besides

out

money

at

interest.

and
Prosperous municipals even
possessed (as their legacies and

provincials often obviously

than
the
giftsprove) more
senatorial census.
The
father
of Apuleius left two
millions,
the father of Herennius
Rufinus
in Oea
(accordingto Apuleius)
at Oea,
three, the widow
Pudentilla, whom
Apuleius married
four.
In the colony of Petronius, one
of the
honoratiores
inherits thirty from
his father, and
Trimalchio
is made
to
leave
for he lost three
miUons
in a shipwreck,
as
much,
fortunate
and
gained ten on a more
hoped to marry
voyage,
much
scattered
as
amongst
again. Nero
needy senators,
and
Vespasian gave indigent consuls 500,000, the half of the
senatorial

census.

of this

Members

aristocracywere

aU alike

made

on

all eyes, unable

to evade
from
them
all sides, without

short

of

the

scanned

the

by

his humble

standard

of

birth, which

their

reheved

loftyeminence,

manifold

opprobrium

rank.
him

on

Horace
of

was

wearisome

claims
or

falling
glad of
burden.

busy himself with money-making and visiting,

trains of horses and waggons
and could travel by land without
with
and
only five slaves,
livery-men. A praetor at Tibur
himself
lous.
supremely ridicucarrying culinary articles,had made
than
comfortable
The
far more
the
poet was
poor
dress
to
And
have
senators
glorious senator.
up to their
He

had

rank,

not

to

hd late

as

Hadrian

when

broad

cloaks

and
{lacernae)

The

ii8
sandals

usually

were

Three

Estates

in

worn

the

streets,

might

senators

only decently have the cumbrous

ioga and high-laced shoes.
Tiberius
deprived one senator of the purple for having moved
to a garden-house before July i (the general time of moving),
to rent
vho
so
as
an
cheaply. A man
empty dwelling more
only pays 6,000 sesterces for rent, Velleius then wrote, hardly
counts
senator.
As
as
a
a
fact, the comparatively simple
of the day is shown
standard
in that a senator
in so expensive
Rome
could
house
town
at
rent
a
as
a
"65 55., at a time
when
of the palaces were
the acreages
complained of. But,
after Tiberius, luxury became
the Emperors inciting
frightful,
Senatorial
and
heading it. Vespasian restored
economy.
in palaces,decorafamilies vying in extravagance
and
tions
pomp,
and
and

retinues, exhausted

few

no

To

sank

into debt

career

especiallythe
Games

the

cost

then

even

might

Should

him

the

the

to

Martial,

and

her

than

friend

be

to

the

census,

able

draw

to

such

not

were

cautious

husband

and, in

an

senators

in

hampered
and

Business

the

travels

admit

be, he

wanted

would

be

purse-stringsin. But,
outlay better than for horses

The

he
'

hindered

her

before

divorce

weU

might

remarks

ruin

himself,

his horses'

of

means

author

same

obtain

constrained

were

census.

his

became

the

would

of

year

to

100,000,

his charioteers, and

would

woman

for

reply

praetor, as
Juvenal'sphrase, become

Whilst
were

him

approach

saffron-sprinkledstage
a

the
:
20,000
games
half of the senatorial

other

Scorpus and Thallus,

asks

properties,

and

more

knightly

glad enough

that

cost

poor

for

sum

scanted

were

honour

boundless

most

poverty.
their rank
was
expensive enough ; an o""cial
still more
The
so.
outlay was
enormous,
The
pubUc games.
Megalensian
necessary
of
the
first
century) 100,000, and
praetor (end

maintain

curule

the

to

prey '.
such expenses,

increasing

the

their

wealth.
of

administration

they
their

career.

high rank, says Epictetus,could pay Uttle

their own
afiairs ; they must
travel afar, as commanders
wield
in subservience, to defend
of justice,
the arms
or
of war
they had been sent to the most
; without
attain
the
lands, they might never
prizes in their
the official life of JuliusAgricola,the fatherSuch was

in-law

of

estates.

heed

to
or

the

arms

diverse

of

Men

there grew

Tacitus.

up

He

at the age

was

bom

at

Marseilles

of nineteen served

in

39,

and

his first campaign

The
in Britain

Three

in the

quaestorshiphe

year
entered

of Asia.

and

In

66

61

tribune

was

Vespasian

gave

which

quartered in Britain

was

made

him

the

and

Clyde. After
refusing,in view

the

him,

would

governorship of

have

fallen to him

exceptionally full
for their

Further,

they

JuliusCaesar
of

had

the second

might own
centner).
name

old

of

vicissitude

legally

were

re-enacted

ship

of

Hadrian

otherwise, should

or

Lex

Claudia,

speculation: at

the

and

other

for

racing, only

But

these

business

votive

to

interdictions
under

or

make

another's

name,

by conducting

were

these

could

be

senators

(12tons
in

or

his

renewal

mere

time

senator's

or

senator,

no

business.

of the

law

amphorae

taxes,

of Mars

from

senator

300

that

they

wise,

no

left to

leisure

Claudian

no

prohibiting them
Games,

in

was,

which

all

farm

Games

career

of

one

debarred

than

enacted

retired

Jae imagined.

that

more

the

requirements can

the old

War,

Punic

the

to

up

perilousjealousy

Africa,

His

time

third

seven

and

lot.

by

for the

of Domitian's
Asia

legion,

in 73 he was
In 77 he became

years,
recall, he Uved

his

affairs after of"cial

own

on

conquest, in

the

life at Rome,
of

its

His

his return

Aquitania for three years.

78, as consular legate,went

Britain, achieved

Forth

married.

twentieth

the

of

governor
consul, and in
to

of

command

and

5, 63, in the province

and praetor at Rome.

December

he

119

to Rome

came

on

68

Estates

son

240
own

of the

and
public contracts
the ApoUinarian
Ultor and
to provide horses
allowed
more
reputable.
games
all

by conducting
easily evaded
commercial
prises,
enteror
by joint

financial

in

businesses

the

names

commerce,
Vespasian embraced
means
after his proconsulshipin Africa, to gain the necessary
for his social standing, and
in Liguria similarlyused
Pertinax
his slaves.
allowed, but these
Money-loans at interest were
the
failed to satisfy most
of the
senators
33, a
; in
year
financial crisis obliged the government to intervene, and the
and aU concerned
whole
Senate was
one
perturbed,as they were
in
transactions
were
usurious
mostly in
dealings. These
the provinces,where
of interest was
the rate
higher than in
Seneca
had to
Thus
Italy,generallyat about 8 to 9 per cent.

of freedmen

force

it caused

and

slaves.

loan

of 4,000,000
the revolt of 60

agents,he was
brought him

Thus

on

Britain, and

his

sudden

call for

his last years, through his

negotiatingin Egypt, and the corn-fleet regularly

news

of his

a.d.

In

monetary

affairs.

When

Antoninus

The

I20

Pius,
it

as

his

Estates

senator, lent his money

help

to

was

Three

as

many

of 4 per cent.,
and a mark
of

rate

of his peers

could

he

as

low

at the

unselfishness.

But

of the

most

labour

could

be

profitable;

very

handicrafts, and

and

in land

invested

senators

they could

would

they

be

slaves.

and

do
And

let out.

Slavebusiness

land, too,

industriallyfor such purposes as sandstone, minerals,

other
manufactures.
The
manufactory
tiles, potteries and
owners,
the
of large dry-goods was
common
amongst
great landtheir
families
and
noble
the
ladies
Emperors and
used

was

derived

Gnaeus

brothers

two

Lucanus,
often

found

to

her

Marcus
were

of

on

was

their

adopted by
and

daughter (ofthe
AureUus

same

inherited

carried

expanded

tiles ; tiles,too, of

on

on

great

felt-factoryin

Gnaeus

his childless

Domitius

Domitian,

quite
the

LucUla,

of the

names

under

senators

Domitia

estates

The

Tullus, and

richest

the

fabrics.

who

tile-factories.

Domitius

stamped

independent
both

of

two

Lucanus,

from

income

much

are

difierent and
of

daughter

brother, inherited

manufactories, and left them

the Emperor
name), from whom

the

them.

And

estates.

Liguria

manufactories

other

Pertinax,
he

had

as

consular,

inherited

from

bu3dng further land and erecting new

buildings:
and
himself
spent three years there, using his slaves to sell
whose
the
products. Landowners
adjacent
property was
the Senate
the
to the
highways built inns, and got from
there.
right of holding fairs and markets
of industry, senators
these
kinds
had
the
Apart from
advantage of paid posts,often very remunerative, in the army,
and
the provinces. A young
the administration
nobleman
his whole
had
raced
ancestral
inheritance
who
might
away
tribune
still hope for a cohort
:
a
was
paid 25,000 sesterces
governed the imperial provinces,
(over "2'jo). Legates, who
consuls
and
had
been
and
praetors, and
proconsuls, the
of the senatorial
provinces, also had fixed salaries :
governors
the proconsulof Africa receivingi ,000,000.
the Republic,
Extortion, too, though not as gross as under
enriched
The
Senate
often
itself a
provincial governors.
its own
and
members,
body too predisposedto condone
very
the
Court
before
to
which
to
had
was
bribery,
they
open
Seneca
The
provinces were
says in bitter irony :
appear.
his father, by

"

'

plundered,

and

judgments

knocked

down

to

tht? highest

The

122

little estates
the

and

suite of the

the

Estates

Three

house-gods. Should
blameless, should no curly-locked
of

statues
be

governor

the

debt ; if
his wife free from
legal decisions, were
she did not, harpy-like, tear
through the cities and carry
the circuits by storm, this much
merit
might outweigh the
most
Avidius
ancient
lineage. Poor State ',the claimant
Cassius writes : the prey to the greed of aU its rich !
For the
over-gentleEmperor should execute
freely,and restore order :
who beheved
were
men
provinceswere
given to them by Senate
and Emperor, as the only source
of carousals and gold-mines,to
be appointed proconsulsand legates?
Yet, be their riches ever
so
great, if the gods are just,the fisc will absorb them !
Less
in the
wealthy senators, unwilling to serve
army,
unable
to bear
the expenses
of public life, might serve
as
advocates
the
for
defence
had
been
fees
:
successively
reduced
to 10,000
were
sesterces, but these enactments
easily
But the
earned
evaded, and popular advocates
large sums.
especiallyin the first century, who abused their talents
many,
in trials for high treason, were
still more
as
accusers
highly
thus
did
Vibius
Marcellus,
paid ;
Regulus,
Crispus, Eprius
their
immense
fortunes.
gain
Regulus received, as his reward,
the
Nero, a
consulship from
priesthood and
7,000,000
;
under
Domitian
he had
prospects of continuing the business
and
of
Vibius
realizinga sum
Crispus, the
120,000,000.
Croesus
of his day (under Domitian), had
and
200,000,000
Eprius Marcellus
300,000,000.
It is hardly possible that
the legal lore of senators, to
whose
ranks
the great jurists
of the first and second
centuries
direct
of income.
a
source
belonged, was
Indirectly,the
of it advanced
and
them
esteem
to highly
influence, honour
of imperial councillor
advantageous posts, such as those
the
a paid and
(afterHadrian
permanent
ofiice),
City Praeheld by the great juristsPegasus (under
was
fecture, which
Vespasian and Domitian) andSalvius
JuUanus (under Hadrian).
fell
lot
to
consulate
the
of no few great jurisconsults
The
even

boy

barter

'

'

'

'

'

first two

of the
been
also

of

and
pliable,
22

independent

too

Aulus

Cascellius.
consul

was

A.p., Gaius

died in

centuries.

56) at

Cassius
an

unknown

Antistius
a

mind

Ateius

to

Labeo

is said

receive

Longinus
date,

as

Marcus

in 30,
Caelius

have

accept it, as
more
rival,was

or

Capito,Labeo's

in 5 a.d.,

to

Cocceius

Caninius

Sabinus

Nerva

RebUus
in

in

(who

69, Pegasus

Three

The
perhaps

Vespasian, Neratius

under

Publius

Juventius

under

Celsus

Salvius Julianus twice under

Marcus

Vindius

Often

Estates

in

Varus
lawful

then

Prisons

Trajan

about

and

83

again

Hadrian, Pactumeius

a.d.,

in

129,

Clemens

and

could

not

138.

and

honourable

earnings
might be

great social

the

1-2

outlay, and, as
expected,
forced
senators
Some
were
were
constantly in direst need.
to sell themselves
as
performers in the public games, especially
under
Nero.
When
Vitellius was
sent to Germany
by Galba
consular
hard
as
so
legate, he was
pressed that he had to
in her earring, let his palace
wore
pledge a pearl his mother
meet

for the

of the

rest

year,

and

leave

lodging-house : hardly

common

creditors.

Nero's

At

death,

liable

such

to

ennobled.

burdensome
Surdinius

One
the

to

he

and
blufE

owed

Otho

or

Gallus

in 47
honour
;

his

200,000,000.

than

be

to

repaired

to

ordered

was

thronging

rather

had

in

children

over

knights

honours,

infliction of the

escape
to sit in
Claudius

could

remained

possible senators

Many

his wife

be

forcibly
Carthage
home
by

'

golden chains '. Other knights who refused

Claudius
degraded.
beseech
And
imperial aid,
constantly did senators
very
their own
or
degradation. Generally,the Emperors willingly
afforded" relief to their former
colleagues,and gladly took
fame
of families of ancient
: but,
thought for the conservation
whilst their efforts could not wholly supplement, their readiness
in this respect, and
would
Augustus was
very generous
vary.
in4A.D. brought the property of eightysenators
up to 1,200,000
sesterces

and

paid off,

had

informs

Tacitus

one

wrote
us

whose

senator

complaining
that

of

4,000,000
he was
that

passed
the

retained

Tiberius

he

debt

over.

of

virtue

generosityto the last,and as his last : yet the superabundance

of poverty
to grant help only in cases
of requests obliged him
proved to the satisfaction of the Senate : he thus scared
to
Thus
claimants.
already
Propertius Celer, who
many
praetor, he

been

had

gave
inherited

in

15

a.d.

he

as

1,000,000,

was

another

Nepos,
poverty. Marius
Tiberius
debts:
of his
senator,
requested the payment
but added
his creditors,then paid the amount,
him
made
name

known

severe

orator,
to

have

to

found

reprimand.

Hortensius

enabled, by

was

family

and

Hortalus,

Augustus
prevent

the

giving
famous

grandson
him

of the

1,000,000,
name

dying

The

124
out.

Tiberius
each

sank

i6

and

son,

and

would

begged
; offensively doled

hear

no

either

Spendthriftshe

vanished.

out

of them.

more

four

relief of his

for

and

refused

brusquely

his

accompanied by

a.d.,

Senate

in the

appeared
to

in

Hortalus,

Estates

Three

The

sons,

penury.
200,000

family

expelled from

Senate, or he accepted their resignations. One notorious

to turn
used
night into day,
Buta, who
evil-liver,AcUius

the

himself
announced
as
drinking his huge fortune
up,
woken
had
too
late
impoverished : Tiberius told him he
up
Nero
in the day.
In the beginning of his reign,
scattered
families ;
broadcast
giftsof half a million to poverty-stricken
for example, to Valerius
Cotta, his fellow-consul in 59, and to
Aurelius
Cotta
and
Haterius
Antoninus,
though they had
after

consumed

their
made

generous,
consulars

inheritance.
up the
incomes

annual

to senators, when

their

to

Not

of half

for

the

even

curule

probably only
Trajan, had received
Pius, following the
his scant

oflSces

the

aedUeship
to

and
the

meet

of the

expenses
close friend
a

Verus, says

he,

him

to

meet

assist their
rank

such

undertaken

praetorship,funds

purse
in fijll.Fronto,
that

the

his senatorial

aided

for Ufe.
received
women,

as

Gavins

Clarus, who,

the
out

quaestorship,

of the

praetorship,and

was

imperial

repaid

of

Clarus, writing to Lucius

better off, would
willinglyhelp

he

were

often

praetor,under
spectacles. Antoninus

practice,lent

same

the

also

very

proportionate

evil fame

Hadrian,

for

2,000,000

he

rank.

inheritance, had

net

of most

men

was

gave needy
distributed

Hadrian

moneys
and
state

for their

of senatorial

on

and

census

million.

too,

innocently bankrupt,

his friends, but

subsidies

of the

amount

families, sufiScient

only

Vespasian,

dues.

Customarily senators would

of their
impoverished colleagues for the honour
had been the royal generosity of Gaius
Calpumius

Piso.
The

first order

of the

State

to

seems

have

acknowledged

assistance
friends and
obhgation of mutual
; thus
distant colleagueswould
even
more
give and take contributions
for the games.
who
JuUus Graecinus
(the father of Agricola),
executed
under
was
sent to him
Caligula,refused the moneys
with this objectby the consulars Fabius Persicus
and Caninius
a

Umited

Rebilus
others

If

on
:

account

Seneca

notable

of their

regards
man's

evU

this

house

was

name,

shght

as

burned

acceptingfrom
kind of censorship.
down, Juvenal says

whilst
a

The
the

Three

Estates

125

whole

be
in mourning, the
aristocracywould
praetor
would
would
flow in so
suspend public business, contributions
fires almost
richly as to make
profitable speculations: but
the poor man,
whom
a fire deprived of all his goods, got shelter
and
help from no one.
custom
The
of many
scattered
so
legacies was
general
be
to
of revenue
for most
as
a regular source
senators.
Pliny
the Younger congratulates himself
often being named
on
so
Unless
the
testator
was
a
together with Tacitus.
special
of one
of them,
connexion
would
be
named
they
jointly
for equal sums,
in
the
will
of
Dasumius
as
probably
(109 a.d.).
Further
and
wife
man
were
gifts between
exceptionally
of maintenance
or
legahzed, if for the purpose
gain of rank,
and the ease
with which
senators, and noble senators
especially,
married
is illustrated
His
by a tale of Suetonius.
money,
beautiful

second

and

rich

wife

father, despite his

ungainly

purple stripewas

woman's

There
the

of

great

one

sense

might

dazzled

the

wretched

of

old

In

tottering nonage,
called

JuUan
when

it

good,

was

the

it
a

'

had

the
and

the

greatest honour

In

feature

is

end

become
'

honour

of

man's

it had

in the

it ranked,

name,

world

in the

'.

consulate

the

as

of
and

the

Agricola'scareer
consulship ;

could

thus
Fate

'

He

sixth
'

as

by

century,

the

supreme
less surprising

the

looked

even

it
the

He

concludes

had

attained
him

all

arouse

feeling
all, surviving
highest prize.
a
mere
gaud,

All

tenures

vouchsafe

centuries

This

Empire, a Tacitus
young
the
loftiest ambition, when

altogether functionless, and when its

ever
were
making it more
splendid.

later
this

how

for

is it if, in the
on

the

could

fascination.

very
remained

when

supreme
senseless

best.

away,

the

to

monopoly

their

was

greatness could

resistless

the

mere

this

stripped of all their

glamour of these ofiSces

passed

consulate

herself,the

remarkable

down

Rome
her

rule,

even,

keenest

and

reverence,

ineradicable

was

Then

bygone

reality that

replace the

senatorship,outweighing

the world

most

one

shadow

the

meaning,

of the

world,

Roman

the

and

eyes

as

the

ofSces.

Republican

ancient

And,

ambition.

great
in

Galba's

on

delicate restrictions, which

many
of their high dignity and
consciousness

and

being the aristocracyof

the

herself

dwarfishness.

lure

great

one

burdens

many

lent
of

was

forced

had

more

not

was

Emperors
his
a

mary
sum-

triumph
?

'

The

126
And

how

itself

far the

that

Estates

Three

functionaries

these

giftedminds

of less

vanity

all

were

foolish

of them

of this honour

tenure

which

tribune

was

"

Courts
stand

and

that

and

way

all others

interrupted by
and

leave

first

The

or

not

it

sit,before

whom

can

waterclock,

act

all must

command

office, the

fiction,

mere

power,
When
I

believed

he

that
stand

he, whom

that

should

and

give
be

none

; speeches he must
seem

in the

silence, should

hear

senatorial

year's
all the

advocate

as

unseeming

and

It makes

but

"

most

his

possessor.

wrong

Pliny

and

inviolable

the

even

been

who

least

as

an

as

insultingspeeches
unavenged : or strong and

contradict, should
weak

is valued,

I deemed

he,

the

advocate.

would

thus

first,because

honour,
have

may
and

somebody,

was

as

limit, not

should

one

no

act

tribunate

of real

devoid

name

the

what

at
difference,

to

'

and

in which

incompatiblewith

it

found

He

all.

seemed

they

by the way
portended, is strikinglymanifested
the Younger
speaks of the tribunate, the

persuade

could

may
be

contumacious.'

quaestorship,was,

after

the
as
complex of offices, known
rank
had
aspirant to curule
every
to do officer's services, the lowest age being eighteen : originally,
sometimes
after ;_ which
before
entering the vigintiviratus,

Augustus, preceded by
vigintiviratus.Further,

became

the

was

year,

general rule.
required.

After

of

term

Tiberius

service, for at least

they

served

only as
including

Emperors, up to and
Gordian, insisted on this preliminary service.
Thp obligatorysuccession of Republican offices had been the
the first and
quaestorship,praetorship and consulate ; between
second
Augustus inserted another, comprising the two aediles

legionary tribunes.

and

six

new

ones,

All

One

and

the

the

ten

tribunes

hence

there

were

four

of senators, consulars, praetorians,tribunicii

clegrees
(among
aedlHcii are
whom
included) and quaestorii.Each
rung had to
the patricians,who
be ascended
could
; but
only hold the
curule
allowed
direct from
two
to
aedileships,were
pass
quaestorshipto praetorship. The twenty vigintiviribecame
the twenty quaestors, out
of whom
the sixteen
aediles and
selected ; after passing patricians over,
the
tribunes
were
and
tribunes
became
aediles
were
there
praetors, of whom
to eighteen, eighteen being assigned under
sixteen
Claudius
and
until Hadrian.
These
remaining the normal
figures

prove

the

double

tendency

to make

every

senatorial

aspirant

The
least once,

praetor at
fin

to

vacancies,

Three

and

127

to

present only sufficient candidates

other ""'v^ords,
make
the
senatorial

in

or,

Estates

selection

the Emperors used to dispense

illusory. In practice,
from
the vigintiviratus
and
nominate
to the
senators
ranks
of tribunicii and
praetorians without
holding office. The
capriceof the Emperor dictated the Senate's freedom of choice.
The
at least,
consulate, the highest ambition, after Nero
in the gift of the emperor
consuls
increased
was
were
; the
in

number.

After

2, if

a.d.

before, the

not

consulate

was

of office a distinction
generally for only six months
; the year
of the reigning family,
to members
very rarely granted, save
the last instance
being a. p. 52. Augustus and Nero generally
at will.
appointed four consuls a year : Caligula and Claudius
In the year
69 there ""rere three Emperors, Galba, /Jtho and
fifteen

Vitellius, and
of

heard

no

more

the

of Commodus,

The

for
thirty'

and

seven,

the

third

to release

one

besides

the

right

accorded

of the

year

the

by

interval

The
or

also

The

of these

promotion carried

Besides

over

Augustus
for every

living child

an

from
for

simply

later on,

the

promotions,

very

mird

the

of

qualified

rank, irrespective

prerogative
any

the

l"wer

three

ample supply

and

Senate,

enabled

the

in these

three

of the

three

offices.

great.

This

adlectio

more

pre-eminences
magistracies, namely, the right of

real

the

higher posts.

confer

the

with it all political

rightsand

the

this real

of

to .confer the

censorial

were,

twenty-

exceptions,

were

in their further

to

competing

for

tribunate

of patriciansfrom
dispensation

Office.

the

numbers

derived

fifteen

to

moro
range the senatoijs
not 'served
of officials who had

orders

the

numbers

doubtlessly often be
used
candida^JS,
as the Emperors
Emperors

Cleander,

one

praetorship,for

wduld

of

century

year nominated
of honours
stood
firm

competitor iaight have.

The
correspcajdence of tl"e
grades assured quaeStorsof success
there

tlfearbitrary

was

There
the/:onsulship;thirty-three.

especiallythe'

and

months

are

every tenure there had to be an .interval. The

for the quaestorship was, after Augustus, twenty-

age

five, and

two

in

con"flates

months'

years.

Between
lowest

order

Augustan

hundred

two

mostly in

months

chamberlain

consuls.

four months,

duration, two

Six

consuls.

promotion by the Emperor the Senate could

the insignia. Such
grants plainlygave

The

128

form

outward

mere

those

who

rank

whose

seair in

neither

semblance,

and

compete higher, nor

Estates

Three

Senate;

the

the

right to
only qualifying

already vote in the Senate, to vote with the

insignia he bore, and, at public festivals,to appear

could

insignia had a merely

titular
dignity : those appointed by the Emperor, or holders
the
of office,had
real privileges. Claudius, in vain, begged
the consular
Tiberius
f"r the
consulate, and
only received
told
insignia, i He sent in a second
urgent request, and was
Tiberius
would
give him fiftygold pieces to spend at the
saturnalia.
When
Nero
blamed
was
by his friends for
with
be content
her
neglecting Octavia, he said she must
insigniaas consort.
Sejanys was the first knight to receive such a grant (a.d.19)
his kjkpointment as
These
on
praefect of the Praetorium.
the
consular
same
regularly received
praefects^enceforth
insignia (afterNero), a^ did the praefectsof the Nightwatch,
and
other
knights, and also
m^uential favourites, who were
Claudius, even
imperial produrators, and, under
imperial
freedmen.
Such
decorations
also conferred
were
on
dent
indepenfor
of
the
princes, as,
example, Agrippa, King
Jews,
under
received
under
Claudius,
CaUgula,
praetorian, and,"
consular
and
his
brother
Herod
insignia,
(linderClaudius)
the
modem
praetorian. As with
decorations, the higher
to supplant the lower!
grants tended
The
three
lower
offices were
also filled by me
Emperors,
in
would
advise
Senate
:
the
though originally part only they
what appointments would
be legallyvaUd
rest were
the
; the
After
of
the
Senate.
N^ro, the Ejaperors appointed
noDpnees
in

their

all of the

theiA

to

consuls,

spread

'assure the

ana

The

company.

mdnths

was

year.
the censorial

increase

practice which
Opellius Macrinus,
second

could

not

distinction

or

third

go,
was

shorteningof

for_ merit

grew
of an
in

nor
rare

honour

the

senators

more

consulate

than

and

of

titular

in

the

often

grant
could

of

after

enabled

anK

for the

for later

nuinber of the annual,

in

tenure

servility
more^ibroadly,

or

the

i;ip,

came

of
as

appointment

the

submissiveness

more

The

and

rewards

distinctionof rank

of the

holders

periods of

consulars

third

superfluous,
century, first under

Diocletian.

the

and

the

consuls rendered

But

consulship imperial
ambition
hanker
higher ;

Hadrian

new

first two

his two

beyond
favour
such

predecessorswere

The

130

Estates

Three

ambition
of guiding the
the
gradations,answered
purpose
The
of subjects in a direction
profitableto the monarch.
to
all
of it is shown
success
by the importance attributed

honours, and

of the

and

festivities

at

would

themselves

insigniaby

The

titular ranks

to the

Thus

ths'curule

unquiet

efiort ;

offices
one

tiibunate
no

the

For

honours.

goal

of restless

the

of their lifeto have

hst

the

to

name

one

of

consuls, and

then

hankers
then

the

for the
years
add one

To

rule

to

the

all the

after them.

named

year

Uve

and

wish.

made

were

"

Seneca,

says
keenest

had

ipraetorshipand
The
consulate
Ijgain.
greatest exertions
consulat^. Many, says Seneca elsewhere,
after

desire

^been the
j every tribune
is grateful
the consulate,and
then

one

out

showed

only

Ambition,

for it.

longing
mak^s unsatisfying what

nejrt, and'iroused the

ever

curule

climbed

once

rung

exceptionally,
Alexander

his intention

carried

the

were

active.

only

ceremonies.

Court

"

the

as

conferred

be

contemplated ^but never

designing robes for all imperialand
Severus

well

as

Numidia

and

Cappadocia, says Martial, a senator will in the early morning

To
become
visit sixty houses.
consul, says
Epictetus, you
about
oS your
must
cut
everywhere, kiss hands,
sleep, run
wait

strange doors, do
give presents daily even.

about

would,
The

and

at

acquisition of
by the candidate

free

no

man

involved

Similar

pains,

tions.
supporters and recommendaSextus
Clarus the Younger was
When
Erucius
fighting
in great commotion,
for the tribunate, Pliny the Younger was
in some
of the
as
danger. He had won
hip own
repute was
and
the
right
Emperor Clarus' senatorship, quaestorship-'
of competing for the tribunate,and, if Clarus
failed, he would
deceived
the
Hence
house
seem*, to have
froni
Emperor.

visits

and

what
'

office

every

say

his

to

h^usedid

he

go,

and! from

office to

his
office,beseechikg

friends, endeiavouring all he

enlist

to

support. When
begged his friend

PUny
to

hasten

seemed
Naso

Rome

to

to him

would

and

would

be

his

write

own.

Tacitus

recommendation

he

work

to be his election

from
that

rank
or
coul4 through favour
candidate,
a
JuUus Naso became
Minucius Fundanus
(consul in 108)

over

was

letters ?

to

again, and

Acknowledging
out
(who was

of Naso

further

him

with

the
To

same

this
a

letter
of
as

exhaust

end.

It

rejectionof
of

mendation
recom-

town), he says
one

of himself ;

every

legal

The
means

was

Avitus

praises

candidate's

Estates

and

died

131

When

glory.

aedUe

named

was

Three

the

before

Julius

young

taking ofiSce,Pliny

the
indefatigable electioneering. But
honour
of office would
often conduce
to humiliating intrigues
and
servility. Columella, a knight -in Nero's day, preferred
the modest
lot of a country gentleman to the loftiest official
roads
of cringing and
eminence, if gained by the tortuous
shamelessness
waste.
and
Ambition, says Seneca, through
to worship.
leads
Promotion
but
too
was
unworthy ways
often
the guerdon of the informer
its price the blood
of
;
innocents
and
the
fall of families.
In the year
27 a plot
ruin
made
three
Sabinus
the
Titius
was
ex-praetors to
by
knight ; they were
striving for the consulate, the keys of
held in Ssjanus' favour, and
that could, be won
which
were
and
in the
Bribery was
only by crime'.
rampant at Court
him

for

his

'

Messalina

Senate.
in

offices.

claim

Fabricius
Nero

on

In

107,

not

'

treat

agents,

public :
limited

and
last

stickle

not

orally

deemed

was

the

in

the

to

important

an

election', Pliny the

shocked

and

and

the

imperial displeasure. What

could
play such pranks on

who
time
were

elect
with
and
would

was

the

of

first

century
Trajan, secretly,

after

act.

so

the

been

Senate, legally

At- the

voltingfound

were

malefactors
do

man

serious

'

some

obscenities

would

election

at

occasion

an

to

home,
and

proud as the disappointed

made
to
16 a proposition was
In the year
envious.
magistrates for five years, and rejected by Tiberius :
the one
hardly consolable,
year's term, the defeated were
with
flushed
the victors
triumph ; a five years' term
Seneca
often
!
both
evils unendurable
make
speaks

of the

'

The

fortunate

were

of sating
impossibility

rejoicesas much
with
the sight of
'

the

consigned

Senate

should

treating had

of

even

dignities.
to

money

earnest

even

the

and

writes, 'on

Younger

jokes

all mannef^of

and

But

candidates

nor

end

Senate

sellinghis

grants.

that

practice hitherto clandestine

and
Trajan, at the instance
the allowable expenses.
itself down

62 of

sellingoffices

at

announced

consultum

in

similar

or

delivered

tablets

accused

was

', give dinners, banquets,

election

The
was

senatus

Veiento

formallytrafficked

freedmen

promotion

for

did

Vespasian

Claudius'

and

to
one

see

as

desire :
every
behind
him,

many
in advance.

'

no
as

Ambition

one

he

is

errs

',he says,

oppressed
in

never

The

132
looking
honour

backwards
attained

would

be

'

embraced

illuminated

the

men

new

The

epoch-making.
by his friends,

was

slaves, his house

'

For

'.

Estates

Three

; he

hands

ascended

the

thanksgiving,and this,too,
attained
who
a
higher rank

Any one
family and.

left his

honours, and

the

heirs

only praetorian; he

Tacitus

of

says

ancient

by

Capitol to

'

If the

in his home.
his
and

of Lucius

son

his

offer

whole

greater
Volusius

lineage,his family

it consular.

made

of fortune

ennobled
newer

curule-

kissed

done

was

prospect of

rightto them.

that, though

Satuminus,

favoured

his

sacrifice of

of

day

of

was

consular,

thrice
triumphal insignia, be made
it is no
consul ', ^ays Pliny the Younger,
elevation, only his
to aim
at the Empire
induced
family riiht'. Vitellius was
by the legate Fabius Valens, who poiated out that his father
and colleagueof an Emperor;
had been thrice consul and censor
such a lineage laid on
him
the sovereign'sdignity,and robbed
him
of a subject'ssecurity.
evidences
of the
exist
There
other
reputed importance
recommends
Minucius
of these oflScial ranks.
Fundanus
Pliny
to select as his quaestor during his consulship young
Asinius
Bassus, with
a
praetorian father and severjal consular kin.
of doubtful
Calvia
woman
a
famq, according to
Crispinilla,
esteem.
a
consular, and gained the \ cit5r's
Tacitus, married
Quintilianlost his ten-year-oldson, a boy of great promise,
had
whose
adoption by a consular
paved h3|way to the
destined
to marry
had
been
the ,1
honours
daughter of
; he
his maternal
uncle, a praetor. Writers, whether
senators,
and
like )Pliny the Younger, Seneca
Tacitus, or not, carefully
who

received

has

the

'

point

of

Sequence

of

rank

painful

senators

in

the

out

tenure,

an

the

to

lowest,

statuette
his
to

so

and
In

do

set

are

put up in

he

full titles
'.

In

consulars

Greek
is

'

at

On

of

monuments

in

inscribingtheir ofiEices
quite irrelevant^Thus
after the death
of Pliny

when

even

up

friends.

is shown

accuracy

inscriptionset
the
Younger, besides
legacies to his native
in

their

Comum

and
catalogue of his endowments
the highest
city,all his ofl"ces,from
and
the pedestal of a bronze
down,
the local temple of Jupiter was
to contain
a

should

his

friend

and

agent think

inscriptions,relationshipwith

expressly set

good

senators

out

Republican da5rs,senators had

broad
purple stripeon the tunic,and

the
the

privilegesof wearing
senatorial

shoe

laced

The
halfway up to the knee,
imperial legislationand
in

addition,

of

36 B.C.
garment
first used

In
of

the
a

boys

gave

the

Thus

an

of"cers

the

they
the

of the

time,

same

senators

girls,all

after

seats

at

spectacles:

times

conferred,

edict

right of

of

Augustus
wearing a purple

had

been

carriages
forbidden

of
privilege

second

century
used

was

members

of this

having
the

into

came

and

silvered

usual

use

Alexander
coaches.

courtesy title

designate men, women,

aristocracy,in a shortened
to

the

name.
proper
of his censorial
powers,

In virtue
senators.

various

rights.

senator, clarissimus,

form

at

to then

course

and

tradition

front

organizers of spectacles. The covered sedan-chair,

by Claudius, was, in the third century, a consular
up

Severus

133

the

senatorial

privilege.About
at Rome

Estates

having

of

other

some

gave
as

Three

Reason

of

property,

to

the

might

Emperor

condemnation,

could

evil

degrade

fame,

loss

motives.
specificand occasional
Tiberius
in 25 erased
from
the roll,
Apidius Gallus Merula
for not
complying to the Augustan regulations,and, in ^2,
Guards
should
Junius Gallic, for proposing that the Praetorian
after dismissal
the
have
knights' seats assigned to them ;
it was
but
Tiberius
mere
servility,
imagined it an efiort to
win
the army
In 53 the
Senate
over.
expelled a member,
incited
by Agrippina to bring a false accusation
against a
who
suicide.
More
often
committed
distinguished'man,
in a speech
be voluntary. In 52 Claudius
resignationwould
into willing resignation,
praised those whom
poverty drove
and expelled some
whose
lingeringadded the vice of impudence

crime

as

of

well

be

the

as

more

penury.

blow : seldom
Generally expulsion was regarded as a severe
borne
with
the
SUio.
He
in the
equanimity of Umbonius
recalled from
the governorship of Baetica
(|South
year 44 was
Spain) by Claudius and degraded from the Senate, on the
in
in
Mauretania,
pretext of having neglected the army
Umbonius
freedmen.
of the animosity of some
fact, because
forthwith
and
had
all his possessions collected
exhibited,
as
though for sale ; he actually would
only sell his senatorial
robes, thus showing he had lost nothing of any consequence.
their rank
under
Further
members
expelled could recover
had
been
a new
Emperor : 'Galba in 70 reinstated three who
Marcus
and
Nero
for extortion, and
degraded by Claudius
thus punished by Nero for forgery.
Antonius
Primus
"

The

134

Three

III.

Every

senator

his release

and

all liabilityto

his

his

native

regard Italy as their

sojourning : hence the regulations of
Trajan as to investingone third or fourth

senators, too,
mere

KNIGHTS

purely Roman

was

from

THE

Estates

were

to

creation

implied
Foreign

town.

home

Marcus

not

as

Aurelius

of their

property
in Italian
land.
On
the other
hand, the knighthood was
rate
after
cosmopolitan, at any
Caligula, though many
settled in Rome
members
of
the
as
jury ; that monarch, to
stay the
every

diminution

eminent

man

in numbers

of that

rank, included

in it

in every
province, an example followed
in the municipia, the
the provinces, as

by Vespasian. In
be understood
the aristocracy,
and their esteem
knights were
may
Manila
from
Secuninscriptions,
e.g. that of one
many
dilla in a city of Mauretania,
and
avunculi
whose
brothers
Roman
set up by her husband
were
Quintus
knights : it was
Herennius
Provincials
also a knight.
and
Rufus, who
was
would
be as proud
thus dignified,
were
municipals whose sons
of
could
boast
senators.
as
having fathered
knights who
to Quintusi
Censorinus
CaereUius
(238
says in his dedication
t
hat
raised
him
his
had
above
mereprovincials.
A.D.),
knighthood
Of
became
the
\ wholly civic
knighthood
militaryorigin,
rank.
In the later Repubhc even
Uttle
a
knighthood Xsignified
than the qualification
for service in the cavalry,and was
more
practicallyhereditary. In 67 B.C. the Lex Rosoia legalized
at 400,000
the ci;istomary
census
sesterces, at which it remained
in the Empire.
Innocent
this sum
or
not, any fallingbelow
forfeited
the gold ring,
the rank, togetherwith its privUeges'bf
the purple stripe on
the tunic, and
the seats at the theatre.
The
father
of Herennius
Rufinus
became
bankrupt at Oea
he lays
relative of Quintus, or the same
a
(possibly,
man) :
aside the gold ring and
the S5rmbols of his rank, and makes
his creditors '. The
a
composition with
grandparents of
Statins the poet (atNaples) could not muster
up the necessary
and
his father, as a chUd, had
to give up
the purple
sum,
and the golden capsula,which
children of knights and senators
You
have
necklaces.
for so
wore
as
long ', says Martial
to one
left
Macer,
given rings to girls,that you have none
must
for yourself'. Spendthriftslose their ring,and
PoUio
beg with bare fingers.
'

'

'

The
In

the

Three

Estates

Empire, too, knighthood

135

hereditary : the
and
and more
the Emperor, used regularly
ever
more
censors,
to grant the equestrian horse, though seldom
to boys, save
after the second
of life-long
grants was
century. The number
limitless.
Even
under
the
at
annual
Augustus
parade of the
maintained
into the fourth
knights (a custom
century) on
sand
all entitled
not
would
attend, five thouJuly 15, at which
took
The

also

part in the ceremony.

equestrian

families

not

was

with

have

it,

an
as

horse

ancient
Tiberius'

generally

was

title

but

men

only

bestowed
of

birth

no

stringent exclusion

of

on

could

freedmen's

it is not
relaxed
soon
:
(23 A.D.) was
strange then that
of
sons
pandars, gladiators, fencing-masters (who might
be free-born) in Trajan's day sat among
the knights. But
even
freedmen, subject to a fictitious adoption, might receive
from
the Emperor the golden ring and
The
the full rank.
first Emperors were
sparing of these grants, according them
in
of theirs most
only to those freedmen
deserving or most
favour.
Of
these
Thus
said.
Augustus
enough has been
honoured
sheltered
Titus
Vinius
who
had
PhUopoemen,
his proscribed patron, and
Sextus
Menas, the deserter from
after
his
Soon
Musa.
Pompeius, and
physician Antonius
of these
stirred at seeing one
was
PhUippi, Horace's
anger
freedmen
struttingabout on the Via Sacra with a toga six
yards long, and driving on the Via Appia with ponies, sitting
the knights' benches
in the theatre, and being a legionary
on
sons

tribune.

More

lavish

were

such

grants under

the

Flavian

who
piiny says that, under
Vespasian, men
were
yesterdayslaves,to-day might have leapt into the second
rank
a
thing unprecedented : the sign, whereby knights
;
them
confused
the free-born, now
were
distinguished from
with
Later
before
the
the unfree.
beginning 6f the
on,
third century, perhaps soon
the golden ring
after Commodus,
did
not, except under
special imperial Ucense, carry with
standard
it fuU rights of knighthood, nor
fuU ingenuitas. The
of honour
exacted
varied.
One claimant, presumably rebuffed
in consequence
of an action for calumny, on a second application,
told by Hadrian
desire the ring must
that those who
was
be above
suspicion.
incompatiblewith the
Although a seat in the Senate was
regularlyset out with
equestrian horse, the senatorial career
emperors

The

136

Three

Estates

sons,
knightly services and of"ces, both for senators'
Both
and
for young
men
adopted into senatorial families.
classes of future
the distinguishingsenatorial
senators
wore
a
special division
mark, the broad
purple stripe, and were
included.
of the knighthood, provisionally
in the army,"
The
knighthood had ceased long ago to serve
out
but were
stUl organized in tUrmae,
and, as such, turned

the

on
on

of
out

the

solemn

occasions, such

as

funerals

and

of

the

senatorial

but
toga virilis,

did

annual

the

seviri

July 15. The

tiiese squadrons, were

the

six

parade
leaders

equitum Romanorum,
appointed by the Emperor, mainly
knights,and the princes, who wore
not

as

yet sit

in the

Senate, led them

the knights
To this limited extent
principesiuventutis.
were
an
organized corporation,but the essential unity of the
it ever
ascribed
to them.
Senate
was
had, nor
they never
the
Gracchus
Gains
on
knights
(122 B.C.) had conferred
the only
the exclusive
right of being indices : thus they were
to the end of the Republic (except from
jury down
80-70),
the
and
in matters
criminal
under
civU and
Empire : from
drawn.
their
ranks
the
lists were
Augustus released the
senators
from
the obligatory service
on
juries, enacted
by
the Lex Aurelia (70 b.c.)and by Caesar
a
nd
(46 B.C.),
assigned
to the knights the first three
decuriae
of jurors (about one
in each). Augustus added
thousand
a
fourth, apd Caligula
a
fifth, consisting of specially competent men,\ possessing
half of the knightly census.
The
lowest
fixed
age limit was
at
thirty ; by Augustus at twenty-five. Under
Augustus
were
admissible, later on, Latin-speakingprovinonly Italians
cials
(numerous instances are found in inscriptionsfor Africa,
countries
and still
Spain and Gaul, very few for the Danubian
fewer for the East) : and, further, only citizens by birthright.
Such were
the jurorsfor the first two hundred
years.
for service as commissioned
The legalqualification
officers
the proof of the conference
of knighthood by the Emperor.
was
In the cavalry service {militiaequestris)
at least,
there
were,
three regular ranks : the praefecture of an
auxiliary division,
the tribunate
in a legion or
cohort
(both ranking equally),
and the praefecture of an
Under
this head
auxiliarycohort.
there also comes
the stationarycommand
{praefecturacastrorum)
and
other ordinary and
perhaps many
extraordinary officers'
no
posts. There were
age-limits,and militaryservice was
as

the

The

138

Three

Estates

often enough
and
personal|life-giiards,

of his

unmakers

of

their

masters

besides, they

the

makers
and

more

and
more

civU

and
jurisdiction.
represented the Emperor in criminal
viewed
Thus
this praefecture became
was
a vice-Empire, and
the second
as
greatest earthly power
by the writers of the
third

century.

high positionsnaturally only fell to the lot of the

small
to attain
no
few, and
a
honour,
procuratorship was
whith
raised the holder's family into the equestrian nobility.
The career
and the high salaries determined
was
very profitable,
recommends
the Greek
the ranks of this hierarchy. Fronto
at
historian
then
Appian, who was
engaged in legal work
These

Rome,

Antoninus

to

he

Appian,
desire

of

says,

Pius

nomination

for

desired

the

post, not

into

civil service

of

out

ambition

invest

his

or

old

high procuratorship, but to

age
with
The
a
position of honour.
legionary tribunate could
be held at eighteen, and
was
generally entered on by young
sesterces
knights at or about this age : the salary was
25,000
of Hadrian's
reforms
of army
(jfi^o). One
disciplinewas
the forbidding of beardless
Salaries qf procurators
tribunes.
were
proportioned to their rank and importance'. The largest
of the chief of the Finance
was
Department,
300,000, the income
the
chiefs of the Secretariate
the
Petiflions
and
receiving
also the director of inheritances
that fell in
as
only 200,000,
to the Emperor.
The principalprovincialprocurators received
200,000

the

the

salary

Roman

of

others
the

waterways,

100,000

directors
the

or

of

even

30,000.

100,000

was

also

the

Privy Purse, the Mint,

of gladiators,pubUc
great school

buildings,the Food Commission, and the postmaster-general.

Assistants,sub-procurators,and sub-praefectsreceived 60,000,
and
of

also

the

clerks of the

State

Council, the under

directors

the

Imperial Literary Department, provincialpostmasterssecond

at Ostia, and (in the
general,the procurator of corn
century) the professionaldirector of aU the imperial libraries.
The
have
been
salaries of praefects must
gradated similarly
to those of the procurators.
A
An
varied
the senatorial.
was
as
as
equestrian career
tablet
dedicated
to
Lucius
Valerius
at
Proculus
Malaga

(perhaps
he

his

native

city) describes

his

career

somewhere

praefect of the cohorts and legionarytribune, then

of the
praefect of the flotilla of coastguards at the mouths
was

The

Three

Estates

139

Nile, then

procurator of the province of the maritime

Alps
(from Genoa to the Varus), and, at the same
time, charged
with the log of the-legionaryreserves,
and then, in succession,
procurator of Baetica, Cappadocia, Asia, and the three Gauls :
of the Finance
and, after serving at Rome
as head
Department
and praefectof Corn (under Antoninus
Pius),praefectof Eg5rpt.
Seneca's

friend

Lucilius,
with

correspondence
in the

in service

North

Africa.

known

he

was

time

of

Seneca's

him, procurator of Sicily: he

Graian

The

the

at

was,

of

career

born

Pennine

and

in

Pliny
at

23

Alps, in

the

Elder

Comum,

Dalmatia

is

in 45

been

had

and

incompletely

led

division

cavalry in Germany ; then, perhaps, became

procurator
in Spain ; in 52 was
in Rome
amongst Vespasian's Friends ;
then
held
several
procuratorships,one
perhaps in Africa ;
in 79
died
commander
as
during the eruption of Vesuvius
His long career
at Misenum.
of the fleet stationed
advocate
as
his literaryoccupations must
have
and
precluded him from
despite his Emperor's
higher posts at the age of fifty-six,
officials might be very
enthusiastic
:
one
friendship. These
dismissed
his
Gains
was
Turranius, who
by Caligula from
procuratorship at the age of ninety,lay prone on his bed, and
conclamaiio
his servants
raise
bade
a
as
though for a
of

dead

He

man.

old harness.
SimiUs
from
his

As

satisfied, until

not

was

contrast

to

such

put

back

into

his

Sulpicius
indefatigabUity,

serve
Hadrian, requested dismissal
;
may
lived
his unwilling praefecture of the Praetorium, and

he, under

remaining years

seven

in

country retirement

years of his life as seven.

The
centuriones primipilares,as

; and

inscribed

the

and

officer's commission,
there

and,

were

none

after

enter

immediately

him, instances

are

has
on

admitted

been
the

said, could

get

official career;

before

Marcus

an

but

Aurelius,

rare.

and
during the second century, more
laid on
stress was
more
mihtary service, and, in the third,
the civil service was
an
epilogue to a long military career,
administrature
treated
and
the
a
as
provision for officers
past service ; on the other hand, a purely civil service grew
posts of procurators and praefects.'
up, leading to the same
increased
the
numbers
in the
Hadrian's
thorough reforms
'

On

various

the

one

hand,

branches

principle,excluded

of

the

from

service

subordinate

freedmen

posts :

were

hence

now.

the

on

larger

The

140
demaad

necessitated

officers who
created
with

it

had

would

their time

service, independent

officialdom

an

the

as
vigorous qualification,

less

served

civU

Estates

Three

with

conversant

be
of
the

too

Hadrian

few.

military, and

the

facts

and

the

rote

various
: subordinate
apprentice stages were
posts in the Food Commission, the Highways, the Inheritanceduty, the Imperial Fencing-schools, the levying of recruits,
A legal
the
Roman
Literary Office.
public libraries and
to promotion, considering
trainingwas a great recommendation
the
praefects.
expanding jurisdiction of procurators and
Hadrian
Council
principis)principally
(^consilium
organized his
of professional jurists, especially of knights, for legal
out
of business.

purposes

The

aU

of

sorts, and

praefectureof

the

the

Praetorium

'

foremost
a
totally changed, for
jurisprudence took
place, no longer the counterpart and complement of military
before the third century,
Even
service, but its fuU equivalent
knowledge of law had been the principal requisite for the
had
been
the
praefecture of the Praetqrium ; its holders
great jurists Paulus, Ulpian and Papinian, and Herennius
Volusius
Modestinus
had been praefect of Pohce.
Maecianus,
was

'

the

counsellor

Aurelius
or

judge

dus, had

and

of Antoninus
Lucius

in Alexandria
been

Pius, and

Verus,
;

the

Friend

of Marcus

probably praefect of Egypt,

was

Tarrutenius

praefect of

the

Paternus,

Praetorium.

under

Commo-

Equestrian jurists

to provincial
paid assessors
in
pleaders to Praetorian
'_ assistants
praefects,
governors,
the Council
of State, lower
ia the
officials,or
Attorney
General's
Office (advocatus fisci),
established
by Hadrian, to aid
the
cases
relating to the fisc.
procurators in contentious
of a knightly family at Leptis in
came
Septimius Severus
entrusted
with
this office by Marcus
Aurelius,
Africa, was
and
made
senator
advocatus
a
soon
as
fisci
; his successor
in the same
was
was
Papinian, who
reign promoted to be
head
of Petitions
of the Department
and
Grievances, and
afterwards
and
made
Paulus
praefect of the Praetorium
; he
Ulpian his assessors.
OpelliusMacrinus, after his knighthood,
also became
the
advocatus
fisci,and
apparently ascended
official ladder
in the usual way
up to the praefecture of the
Praetorium
had
been
; previously he
procurator of the Privy
Purse.
Probably in tiie second
century, amongst juristsof
of the
equestrian rank, members
imperial council could be

commenced

their

official

career

as

The
chosen
and

from
then

amongst
further

[us that

informs

imperial councillor
;

and,

after

Three

Estates

141

former

distinguishedAttorneys General,
A
promoted.
fragmentary inscription
juristof the
at

third

salary of

century

60,000, then

that, received

first became
held

sesterces

100,000

hood
priest-

he

was

afterwards

of Food
for the
Via
appointed Commissioner
Flaminia
to Rimini), postmaster-general,and,
(from Rome
at the last, imperial councillor
at a salary of 200,000.
Law
the
to
the
Senate
might pave
knights' way
;
e.g. Lucius
Fulvius
Aburnius
this must
Valens :
have
been
frequent
in the second
century.
An

edict

of

Marcus

Aurelius

equestrian ofi"cials into three

praefecture of the Praetorium,
eminentissimus
the

heads

of

the

title

vir

viri

egregii.

the

the

second,

Finance

and

and

Lucius

classes

them

first

divided
was

the

its holder
all

other

Petitions

perfectissimus; thirdly, aU
Beneath

the

Verus

procurators, called

knights not in the

eminent
of whom
were
service, the more
styled splendidi
and
illustres.
Viri
eminentissimi
to
or
perfectissimidown
the
third generation were
privilegedin criminal procedure, in
the clarissimate,
action and in penalty. These
titles, unlike
seldom, if ever, were
hereditary.
held
the
often
principal subordinate
post,
Knights
of
scriba
to
influential
and
the
or
book-keeper
well-paid,
had
aedUes
and
who
been
legionary
quaestors. Horace,
such
did
a position,
as
Sarmentus, who,
tribune, bought himself
under
Non-equestrian
Augustus, played a knight's role.
officials of this class were
often made
knights.
By the Augustan regulationsthe priesthoodsof the Curiones
tenable
and
:
knights and senators
Luperci were
by both
the
right to the lesser Flaminatus,
knights had exclusive
all Latin
tuhicinatus
and
priesthoods, of
poniificatusand
the
most
which
Caeninense
the
the
was
important and
Laurentiiium
the least ; this last knights of no
standing, and
These
freedmen
even
might often hold.
(after Commodus)
esteemed
as
imperial favours, and valuable
priesthoods were
as
conferring certain immunities.
often preferred to remain
Knights entitled to be senators
in their
order, so as to enjoy either the leisure of an
own
unofficial life,the large profitsof business, or the realityof
were

the

being styled vif

praefects (including
Departments) with

Three

The

142
in office
power
and
burdensome

Quintus

Sextius

Court, rather

at

or

Estates

of

pomp

the

have

tinsel

glory

senatorial

the

declined

Niger

than

dignities. Thus
broad
purple stripeoffered
the philosophic life. The

the

him

by Julius Caesar, to live

rank
a
sore
rejection of senatorial
and]precedence was
Tacitus
the
senator
point with these haughty aristocrats.
reflects on Lucius
Annaeus
Mela, the brother
characteristically
of Seneca
the
philosopher and father of Lucan, that his
him
ambition
withheld
from
competing for the Curia,
perverse
to have
so
as
equal influence, as a knight, with consulars ;
cut
to a fortune.
his imperial office a shorter
also, to make
CorneUus
his senatorial
Fuscus, in earlyyouth, had abandoned
for pelf'. On
rank
the
other
hand,
Pliny the Younger
praises some
knights,unambitious, money-loving, or perhaps
raised
Macrinus
was
merely idle. Minucius
by Vespasian
to the rank
of praetoriansenator
against his wiU ; he preferred
the leisure of the knight to the troublesome
dignity of senator.
Maturius
Arrianus
and
of the same
Terentius
Junior were
ennobled
opinion. How
knights were
(the first instance
being 19 a.d.) has been described.
these
in
Apart from
gradations, knights differed much
and
social
position, income
family. All self-made
men,
risen through favour
looked
down
or
were
merit,
military
those
who
if not
had,
by
long knightly lineage, at
upon
least an inherited rank.
Roman
knight and son of a Roman
Lucius
AemiUus
an
on
knight ',so runs
inscriptionat Misenum
Pertinax
Acceianus.
Ovid
gloried in his ancestral
dignity;
his knighthood was
no
mere
personal desert of war or fortune ;
Persius
it no
for boastfulness
in being
reason
pronounces
to

'

'

able

to

past the

strut

(the knight's robe)

Etruscan
family.
The

station,

He)was

toga

poems

he

this

last

chamberlain,
celebrate

at

to

begging

from

and

he

its newness,

Parade

sang
and

from
his
mourn

in. the

thousandth

for

work,

favour
them
a

or

good

are

to

of

with

dealt

his

an

for theic

poor

tribunate.

of rich
the

patricians,
Emperor : his

cloak

Parthenius,

gratitude

Trahea

scion

too

elevation

the

requested

received

he

his

owed

referred

modest, he

were

the

incompetent

or
:

stickled

being

the

of knights
indignities

always being

never

wishes

idle

too

or

in Martial's

and

and

difficulties and

at

censor

in

and
the

two

its shabbiness.

fine

imperial

poems,
To

to
earn

Three

The
his

daily bread, year

lowest
cringings of

every

man
never

also

wrote

sesterces

would
and

no

more

suflSce,then

not

Some

not.

wine

sour

the

there

other

Roman

143

condescended

Muse

Juvenal

knights

treble

or

had

live

to

turion,
cen-

Martial

were

the

a
sum

Narcissus

or
on

to

400,000

they

Croesus

The

says

but, if double
of

the

knighthood

of

the

suborned

was

centurions.

life.

to

friends, Pudens

aim

wealth

bran-bread

and

the many,
who
under
the Julian Emperors
order
by public acting and combats, can

disgraced their
scarcely have so done, save
amongst those knights who
a few
were
reputable and
But

his

epitaphs
scarcely supported
and

His

belauded

for

living wage
did

client.

attained

even

out, he

in, year

of his most

; one

Estates

also

was

under

hardest

appeared

of need ;
pressure
in Nero's spectacles,
only

rich.

great wealth, in the

provinces, the

Persius the poet, of a Roman

municipia and in Rome
; thus
equestrian family at Volaterrae, left 2,000,000
; Columella,
of
at
land
Cadiz,
possessed
Caere, Ardea,
probably a knight,
Carseoli
and
Alba.
Vedius
PoUio, the friend of Augustus,
and
of the great estate
of PausUypum
owner
(TlavtrCKunov^
descended
of freedmen
now
PosUippo, was
palace
; his vast
cities ', was,
at
after his death,
Rome,
larger than many
demohshed
the Colonnade
to construct
of Livia.
Generally,
the
friends
were
Emperor's equestrian
very wealthy. The
bankers
also belonged to this class
as
censor
Augustus once
admonished
them
for borrowing at low
rates
and
lending
also merchants
at high
and
(mostly engaged in sea-trade
directors
shipping), manufacturers, tax-farmers, purveyors,
and
partners in companies and mercantile
enterprises(e.g.
the providing horses
for the
Seneca
Circus).
speaks of a
splendid knight, Cornelius Senecio, whose abilityin business
'

"

"

'

had

'

enriched

his money
amiss, and
in

land.

landowners.

was

invested

also

The

land

on

farmed

According

whose

to

death
and

taxes.

sea

But

cut

his

; he

found

investment

Quintilian,most

advocate

must

not

career

of
seek

the

short

industry
was
mostly
jurors were
no

terseness

at

the

or
intelligibility,
they would not foUow his arguments.
Men
unqualified often posed as knights. At the Court
of Augustus one
or
a slave
Sarmentus, an Etruscan, a freedman
(accordingto Horace, of a lady,according to others of Marcus
favour with
Favonius, who died at Philippi),gained so much

cost

of

and

him,

The

144

Three

Estates

sitting
knight. Once, when
at the games
ia the equestrian benches, the
populace sang
A
trial for unlawful
assumption of
jeering songs at him.
the title,
to his supporters,in an
ended, thanks
acquittal. In
Gains
Sulpicius Galba, as aedile, complained in the
23 A.D.
that
Senate
the golden ring ; this was
even
publicans wore
forthwith
and
the prohibitionsharpened next
forbidden
year
(47
by the Lex Visellia. During the censorship of Claudius
A.D.)the knight Titus Flavins Proculus prosecuted no less than
freedmen
four hundred
fiscated
having their property conpersons,
his wit

that

he

could

well.

as

appear

Under

Nero

Trimalchio, in Petronius,
and

the

on

few

wears

with

set

gold

as

freedmen
a

iron

dared

so

presume

ring half-gildedon
Martial

stars.

side,

one

mentions

never

Edict
speaks of Domitian's
(circa89),prohibifdngunqualifieduse of the equestrianbenches,
then.
But
to
a
richly dressed men,
practice condoned
up
these
still intrude
ordinances, would
in
loudly commending
these seats ; they were
recognized, and removed, and
knights
and
ia their proper
at last sit at ease,
could
dignity, free
the pressure
of the vulgar '. Martial
and
from
Juvenal use
the expression vernae
equitesfor such false pretenders, and
have
been
Martial
a
standing feature of Rome.
they must
wrote
decked
an
epigram on a barber who was
by his mistress
with
and
fled
a
accused, condemned
knight's feather, was
to Sicily.
such

proceedings

often

but

'

IV.

"

the

third estate
mainly peopled by the
the
proletariateformed
majority ; it

panem
ever

was

gave

corn

et cir censes

poverty

thus

well

be

as

dark
man's

broken
was

and

need.

their furniture

in this

lived

on

of which

great distributingof

The

hundred

two

Their

stature.

handle,

distribution

man,
poor
his
life
despise
; it

Stoic, and
rooms,

'

the barest
majority of the male freemen
in the over-big over-rich
city,there was

the

only

also

', the

generous
The
inflatingits numbers.

livelihood,and

Their

Poverty

and

was

the
'

Riches

I.

ESTATE

'

Rome
class

THIRD

THE

mat,
;

a-

hearth

heap

short

steps
of

says
was

up,

was

straw,

toga by day and

merit

no

not

were

cold,
an

Martial, may

jug

of his.
as

high

with

empty bedstead,
night their only

The

i/j.6

Three

Estates

gladiatorial1touring companies

in
to

gladiatokial
games,

give

shoemaker

luck

few

were

make

often

a
foi!'

sufficed

but

wrought,

wool-making).
dirty dealers

his way

to

and

simple, two

(This
poverty

something.

strong

Circus, and

the

for

to

seems

Juvenal's
silver, not finely

Moesian

slaves, to

skilful artisans, to

two

would

auctioneers

one.

little

or

(Modena
pieces of

Such

sesterces

24,000
livelihood

20,000,

too

not

Modena.

at

came

Domitian,

did

modest

wishes'foi*

Naevolus

clear

but

and

thd'n advocates.

more

have

him

foi?fulling

centre

was

fuUer

themselves

did, under

also

as

and

Bologna,

at

often

earn

be bearable.

\
I

"
There

^ Crafts
INDUSTRY

2.

"unemplo5rment

no

was

worker,
union

the

alid

calls

'

Rome

gentlest be^-rer of

warehouses
thousands

wares

the

export

the

willing

trade, and

militaryarticles :
of.
The
imports

some

on

principal exchange of
the river, which
PHny

world's

staff, the
tl^eir

traffic ',

stevedores,

middlemen,
employed
sailor's,divers, weighers, clerks, agents, commissioners

and
as

no

the

was

of
Transporters

world.

was

for

is,known
cij-tapult-makers

of such

enormous,

were

Rome

at

except perhaps of

little manufacture*
a

There

|poor.

however

Trade

and

pofters;

and

many

in

the

exchange, besides the

little money-lenders.
were
tJiere
bankers,
many
great
Ambrosius'
flourisJied in Rome.
The
usurer
description
in
antedated
:
him, usurers
well literally
be;
systematically
may
fleeced
rich young
jmen; either by loans, or by inducing
lend on
them 'to purchase vtalueless goods : they would
old
hard, if necessary, exacting newer
and
family estates, and c(un
and

severer

The

terms.

iri trades

and

crafts

mostly slaves
and
freedmen
master, possibly on
mission.
comof their own
needs
The
rich siipplied
many
through
Yorkshire inscription in a tavern
their
slaves.
A
runs
:
slave
be
oh
thiP
place
at
of
zealous
;
HaU,
(servule),
god
in
this
'.
inn
But
the need of providing
your goldsmith's work
the necessary
the huge population -v'ith
living wage, and the
the
various and exigentlu^^uriesof rich,kept many
independent
underlings

worklpg for

were

their

'

handicraftsmen
even

must

have

and
beei

dealers
^

"

at

freedmen,

work.
as

But
the

most

slaves

of
would

these
live

for

themselves

and

the

as

Scanty

on

poor
the

The

Three

what

they

had

free contemned

reconstructed.

147

learnt

such

for

their

masters,

emplojrment.

are,

the

The

gazetteers of the

sources

as

Estates

crafts

and

trades

of Rome

early fourth
(fifteento twenty per yegio,
century mention
254 bakeries
and
oil-shops. Foodstuffs
twenty-four in one) and\ 2,300
and
there
:
were
emplo3rment to thousands
special
gave
markets
for cattle, pigs,corn, vegetables,fish and
delicacies ;
also amply catered
dwellings,furniture were
clothing-trades,
be

may

for.

complex

The

entailed

industrialism
and

the

crafts.

guilds. From
back

division

the

incident

to

highly developed

large populace engaged

Many

such

of

workers

ancient

there

Numa,

to

of labour

guild

had

of

singlearticles

trades
formed

shoemakers,

the

seceded

in the

the

bootmakers'

dating
guild,

there
reorganized. Sandal-makers
sufficient to name
also were
a
street, slipper-makers,ladies
shoemakers
and
other
specialistsin this craft, all similarly
bakers'
union, arid,
reorganized the
organized. Trajan
had
their
besides
this,many
special pastries
guild.
proper
into
The
makers
specialized
potters,
copper-smelters were
helmets
and
of
shields : the
candelabra, lanterns, weights,
which

Alexander

ironmakers

Severus

of locks, knives,

fabricants

into

Augustus

swords.
Under
sc5rthes and
had
and
stepmakers (scalarii)
of works

of art

in metal

been

busied

and

axes
a

formed.

guild
The

hatchets,
of

ladder

restoration

modellers, founders, polishers,

machine-workers
; jewelry
gUders, sculptors,chisellers and
the guUds of gold and
workers
in pearlsand diamonds
; besides
ringmakers',goldbeaters'and gilders'
silversmiths, there were
the lesser gods, with
their
\inions.
St. Augustine compares
in the Streets
craftsmen
of the
to the
limited power,
completed work has passed through
Silversmiths, where
every
is hard to learn,
the mastery of the whole
hands, where
many
very

the

and

colonies
in

of similar

Italy
The

in

of

manufacture
also

which

labour

for

demand

Pompeii, as
guilds,in

century,
elsewhere

special districts.

division

enormous

large

As
in the' nineteenth
easy.
and
workers
congregated at Rome

special part

at

complex
unique products

was

the

of

them.

Rome

and

most

The

mural

in

art

resulted

decorations

the
in

of

elsewhere, point to decorators'

painters of houses,

of

flowers.
ara;besques,

The

148
animals

and

Three
worked

scenery

Estates

together. In
between
ninth regio,

yards of Rome
(mostiy m the
Europae, the Circus Agonalis and the Via
the
near
were
marble-wharves) statues
a

heads

new

even

of

legacy

substituted

on

in the

held

statue

before

the

of

work

special branch
worker,

put

Trimalchio

of whom

perhaps

transformed,

it is observed

death.

orders

Porticus

; also

often

Pandects

an

that

had

arm

Tombstones

Petronius

in

sculptors'
the

Recta

good, though

testator's

the

Habinnas

been
were

is

stone-

In

his monuments.

the

partnership for restoringgravestones is mentioned,

member
one
giving the capital, and the other his ability.
workers
Some
specializedon genii,their yards stood behind
others in eyes of some
coloured
the Temple of Castor
; and
This
of production, together with
material.
the
manner
frequent emplo5mient of slaves, led to a great cheapness of
sesterces.
statues, portraitsranging up from
Similarly,
3,000
thus, lupine-sellers
:
specialization
expanding trade caused
a
were
specialbranch of vegetable-dealers: in drugs, colours,
toilette accessories, there
were
salts, essences,
special
many
and
the
tailors
for
too,
cloaks,
mantles,
amongst
so,
guilds ;
Pandects

garments, etc.
very heterogeneous

summer

These

industries

frequented parts : at
of the shops which
nuisance

the

Streets

were

most

had

to be inhibited.

e.g.

the

of

streets

sandal-makers,

carried

were

end

of the

projected from

the

named

first
the

in the

century the
house-fronts

after their

corn-merchants,

on

occupants,

harness-makers,

wood-traders,

glaziers,salve-dealers, scythedoubt
involved
no
congregation was
by the
The
Via Sacra,
speciaUzed labour, as St. Augustine observed.
of Rome's
the Bond
Street of
one
principal highways, was
besides purveyors
Rome, containing,according to inscriptions,
of luxury, jewellers,metal
founders, and sculptors,a dealer
in colours, a flute-maker, and
a
writing-teacher. Ivory dice
Caietan
cord (really
from Gaul),
might there be bought, and
crystal balls, peacock feather fans, and other ladies' articles,
Such

makers.

'

fruit

for

dessert

and

crowns

'

for

the

topers

at

banquets.

in the
100
were
shops, jiowever,at about
a.d.,
Martius.
markets, surrounding the Saepta of the Campus
There
fine slaves we^^eto be had, largecitron-wood
table-tops,
inlaid
ancient
with
couphes
tortoise-shell,
ivory, banquet

Rome's

bronze

best

statues,

and
crys|al

murrha

vessels, silver beakers

of

The

Three

Estates

149

antique design, collars of gold set with emeralds, big pearl

less expensive wares.
Other
as
earrings, as weU
shops for
in the regioTusca, and in the arcades
luxury were
surrounding
the

Circus.

The
the

to

with

and

shops

street, and

or

On

tombstones.

ranged

in with

ham-dealer's

Two

arow.

tailor's firm
or

closed

were

for

of

these

and

men

aad

woman

the

their

mistress

and
other
'

for

women

retinue

of the

execution

much

show
such

examples,

how

hnen

advertise

opened

on

curtains, covered

shop
the

wild

and

both

Thus

workmen

from

their

would
lives

have

there

boars, and

several

young

in modern

of Greece, like
which

days,

the

need

record

testify
in later

even

of

and

beautit3dng

remembrance

depicted

with

well-known

relief, a

one

girlbargaining
ing
figures'costume, bear-

tombstones

is

of

design is a man
proffered articles.

monuments,

antiquity and the lower ranks, was

life by art, and leavingposteritysome

hams

branches

refininginfluence

general than

more

two

funeral

as

the

five

are

two

examining

sign represents a hare,

large birds hanging on the wall ;
with

breadth

sign, there

such

One

their

or

in

signs,

all

paintings: they also had signboards. Some

relief have
been
either
were
preserved, which
have
decorated
the
they may
shopkeepers'

notices

tablets

in

taverns

'.

scenes

group

dress
fully clothed,
her head
drawn
the inscriptionis to the four sisters
over
:
;
it must
have
been
the sign of a
shop or inn, or, maybe,
the
A Greek-Latin
book
of dialogues contains
bawdy-house.
this
much
does
foUowing : I am
going to the tailor. How
proof
is the waterdenarii.
How
much
pair cost ? One hundred
the

of

three

Graces,

and

her

matron

'

'

'

Two

hundred

denarii.

Impossible;

hundred.

I have

That

to pay

so

is too

much

dear

take

for it wholesale.

like.
[To the slave
you
Shall we go to the linenor
attendant] Give him 125 denarii.
merchant
? ' Bargaining was
customary, as Juvenal witnesses :
What

shall

schoolteacher

like

dealer

on

It is almost

get
in
a

us

how

give

must

What

expect

deduction

his

salary,

little

the
we

lives
know

inscriptionsthat we
workers.
of these many
They
one
:
inscriptionat HierapoUs

third
or
Phrygia of the second
society of purple-workers founded]for

Great

from

his rugs and bed-linen.

only from such reliefs and

insight into

some

remind

then

century, records
mutual

support.

The

150
another

in

Sardes,459a.d.,
Mauri

the
among
and
masters
a

which

in

their

lost,and

than

contempt

who,

day by day,

these

interest

tucked

in

in apron
and
cap
nothing noble could

for

the

their

by
be

made,

men

tinued
discon-

had
and

mimi

atellanae,
tunately
unfor-

social strata, are

South

Italian

only.

which

sphere

had

orders, the

lower

the

behind

tunics

their

between

"

former

bourgeoisaxe
entirely from a

stood

earned

Empire

as

Petronius'

more

where

Eastern

from

scene

literature is

extant

or

such

"

the

frequently arose

quarrel

koX ipyoKa^oi)
the
(ifryoSoToi
:
building-operation. The Roman

borrowed

The

Estates

Three

in the

bench

only

the

where

men

counter,

workshop,
daily bread
cent,
profit,

sold at 50 per
cheap goods were
be they hides or fragrances; for them
the best of
profitwas
connected
scents.
more
no
People of higher standing were
the uncleanest
with
business
even
(e.g.the letting of houses
and
Russian
property for brothels) than are
grandees with
the
afEairs by
the
transaction
of such
cheap spirit-stiUs
;
"

slaves

and

freedmen

taunted

were

for

tailors watched

left them
their

untainted

little tradesmen

cupidity. Pliny

innocent

that

says

the

sinkingof the Pleiades, on thei ith November,

if it were
to see
or
bright a
cloudy a sign of a rainy winter
of
to
whether
raise the
a
sign
rough winter ; and to judge
price of cloaks or underclothing : he sees in this a cheating
extra
a small
received, if satisfactory,
disposition. Workmen
"

"

called
wage
Workmen

class, as

and

every

small

tradesmen

innkeepers

peace.

what

desire

which
and

in

happened

spelt their

war

'

Most
says :
livelihood
depends

Their
calm

every

time

they

ruin.

of the
their

on

are

closed,

'

This
down
?
was
they are burnt
between
street
fights. In the combat
Praetorians, 237-8, the latter,peltedfrom
if

the

people

the

It
roofs, set fire to- the closed doors of inns and houses.
usual to see
offices badly
in inns, shops, workshops and

was

executed
On

the

honour,
and

and

civil

conservative

most

sempiternaltruth,

involves
what

the

were

revolution, riot, or
a

they lose,

coroUarium.

Cicero, enouncing
custom,

"

busts, almost

caricatures, of the

imperial birthdays
and

other

lighted up

closed.
The

the

and

festivals

occasions, taverns

days

on

of

were

reigning Emperors.
in

the

Emperor's
with

decked

imperial mourning

laurels

they

were

"

medieval

had
guiljis

their

patron saints

the

Roman

The

Three

their

tutelary gods with

at

per

Estates

151

their

holy days. Most

general was
the 19th March, the foundation
day of the Temple of Muierva,
art
the
Aventine
protectress of all craft and
guUds, on
:
later on,
the festival was
till
the
of
the
evening
prolonged
March.
to
fullers,
23rd
Ovid, spinstresses,
According
weavers,
painters, shoemakers, sculptors,doctors, schoolmasters
(and
their pupils had holidays)took part in it. The
9th of June
celebrated
and
bakers
(the Day of Vesta) was
by mOlers
;
wreathed
with
flowers
and
loaves, and
donkeys were
mills were
garlanded. The
guild of musicians
(especially
of
at
acts
who
flautists),
public worship, had their
played
feast in the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol,and, on the 13th
in masks
and disguised(generally
in female
June, crossed Rome
tunes.
garb), intoxicated, singing parodies set to ancient
At such
industrial
festivals processions were
common
one
:
picture at Pompeii represents a procession of carpenters,
carried
and
figures of men
sawing, and others similar were
At Rome
and elsewhere
the guilds
about
by the younger men.
had a regular part in great processions,such as triumphs and
imperial arrivals, and flaunted their flagsbravely : no doubt
A
marble
tablet found
banner
bearers.
they had their own
of an association
at Ostia contains
a
monthly list of members
(one a woman), and their contributions, the interest on which,
12

I
an

s) was

the

orchard

from

the

day
at

the

Porta

of ancient

of Anna

of the

Perenna,

first mile-stone
del

origin;

Popolo).
and

men

celebration

common

generalfestival

One

birthdays.

towards

went

cent,

on

The

women

of aU

their

people (March

common

year, held in
Flaminia
(not far

goddess of the
the

Via

girlssang
lay down

very

free satires

together

on

the

open, or in huts, or
There
their togas.

improvised
covered
with
of reeds
tents
they had
as
they drew
years
drinking-bouts,and prayed for as many
theatrical
ditties, capered
from
the bran-pie ; sang
spoons
another,
home, riotouslysupporting one
about, and returned
their way
the mockery of all who
came
The
guUds also provided for funerals : but most of the
grassy

shores

poor, who
contributed

of the Tiber, in the

could

freedmen

monthly
and

the

raise

not

to

death-funds,

slaves, and

exsequies, generally
vaulted buildingswith

in
rows

money

the
of

assured

Columbayia

for
which
the
:

their

own

admitted
members
these

pigeon-hples.Such

were

burial,
men,,
freeproper

huge

associations

The

152

Estates

Three

standing festivals,and celebrated the birthday

of their patron deity (the dedication-day of his idol) with
a banquet.
Amongst the extant statutes of such associations,
also had

those

their

'

of the

Adorers

{CittaLavigna)
the

of

nature

festivals.

of
these

sesterces

sesterces

300

fee
paid an entrance
of good wine : the annual
of
paid in monthly sums

was

allowed

were

for individual

except for suicides, fiftybeing reserved

and

distributed

with

at

the

'

year ; they had

and
couches, hot water

the

wine, and

loaf of two

The

of

expenses
interest
of a

the

slaves
There

was

had

to

or

four

given by

met

had

the

end

of his term,
a

to

half

offer wine

times

if he
his

and
had

incense

give

an

two

the

all feast

at

administered

share.

Any

the
wine

initial

received
double
for five years, and
before
distribute
oil at the public bath
the

also

of

out

besides
to

good

member.

benefactor

insufficient,as

at

of

for every

some

had

dealt

carouse

amphorae

probably

were

manumission

be

appointed
piUows for

elected

He

and

covers

drinking-bouts a year ; at the

and
Antinous,
birthda37s of Diana

the

who

members

four sardines

and

procession

to

six

were

ones,

on

and

dishes

meals

capitalsum
scarcely have been

could

one

asses

provide

to

every

the

were

organized by four

were

funerals,

feast-days to

on

as

so

for

Grievances

pjn-e.

general meetings,
Carousals

ease'.

for

at

to encumber

not

members

amphora

an

of fifteen

asses.

New

heed

have

statutes, and

heirs '.

thy

contribiition
five

glimpse into
give an interesting]
mortuary guilds, and an idea of their
of preface is the
thou,
warning : Do

sesterces, and

100

Lanuvium

at

'

way
novice, first read the

of

'

Antinous

and

a.d.

133

By

thyself or

of Diana

tributions,
con-

amphora.
principal
president,
portions,
banquet.
days. At

well, he received
who,

one,

at

feast,

four

sconced
sest^j-ces; any
quarrelled and left his seat, was
one
guiltyof abusive language, twelve ; any one who insulted
the president,
When
Christianitymade inroads among
twenty.
these
the

small

tradesmen, many

benefits

of

these

would

In

associations.
Martialis

C5rprianusof

immediately renounce

not

the

letters

is accused

of

of

Bishop
frequenting
by its means
'

Carthage, one
and
disgustingbanquets of an association
burying his children in heathen fashion in unhallowed
intellectual
to i,and of social and
Indications
are
the

in this
and

class, naturally not

spellingof their

over

great

; as

show.
inscriptions

In

the

bad

graves
culture

grammar

Gellius, a gram-

'.

The

154

Estates

Three

training birds, though necessarilyin competition

the town

with

sparrow.
several

In

caged birds,
these

few

they

as

owners.

as

fessional
protraversed

possessionsbeing

all their

accounts,

mentioned

times

trainers

mentions

Manilius

rearers.

who

with

workmen

are

shoemaker

had

are,

poor

one

congratulate Augustus : the purcheisewas

declined, as Augustus had sycophants enough already : but
his master's
the bird repeated at the right time
complaint :
trouble's gone
for nothing ', and
was
All my
bought at a
had
a
magpie, which
high price. A barber on the Forum
trained

to

raven

'

imitated

sounds

musical

and

animals'

and

men's

tones

one

statelyfuneral processionstopped in front of the barber's

house, and the tuba blowers played a long piece. The magpie
sUent
awhile ; envious
was
magic was
suspected: then
the whole
music
from
she sang
of the funeral
beginning to
flew out of a nest in the
end.
In the reign of Tiberius a raven
opposite,and the master
Temple of Castor into a shoemaker's
to fly every
learned
morning
taught it speech. The raven
day

to

by

the

to address

rostrum,

greet other

to

name,

The

Rome.

to

him.

wreaths.
on

"

Pliny,on

the

3.

was

the

wonder

of all

bird
Via

28th

the

The
the

on

pyre

and

shop near
by killed it (on the pretext
dirtied a pair of new
shoes),and the enraged
of

owner

of anger, as it had
people drove the murderer
murdered

passers,

Germanicus

and

Tiberius, Drusus

March,

out
was

district and

of the

solemnly

Appia, followed
authority of the

borne

by
Acta

by

afterwards
two

multitude

Moors
with

diurna, dates this

35.

Crafts,

Miscellaneous

Arts,

and

Pursuits

(i)General
Not

only handwork
profitable,businesses
poor
of

men

free-born
who

bathhouses,
works, the

man

grew
the

other, often
shopkeeping, but many
considered
were
ungentlemanly. The
of liberal education
spoke contemptuously
rich by the undertaking of funerals, bakeries,
dues, pubUc
farming of river and harbour

clearingof

and

the

cloacae,or

as

auctioneers

of rubbish

pricelesswares, and through other businesses.

Two
vile as to disqualify(by a law of
so
employments were
of undertakers
Caesar's) for election to city offices : those
and
for all
used
were
pubhc criers (praecones).Praecones

or

Three

The
of

purposes

slaves

publicity,e.g.

but

their

the close connexion

to

main
of this

Estates

proclaim

function

lost articles,runaway

was

business

155

and

auctioneering, and
that of the public

jestersmay have caused their disrepute. But this fact made

it very
in Rome
included, in
profitable: for public auction
commission-agencies, which effected the sale of the
part, our
superfluitiesof an inheritance, or the raising of a sudden
loan.
man
middleIn the stead of the business-man, a professional
came
in, the coactor argentaHus or exactionum, so called
from
his having to dun
for single demands
a
:
profession
in general disesteem.
For
his trouble
and
risk he received
cent, on the price : and the quantity of the work
I per
explains
some
the lowness of the rate ; it might be more
in especiallytroublebusiness.
Horace's
father had been a coactor, and profits
then as low as those of a public crier ; but by about
were
50
and
in
of
promptitude
greater facility
A.D.,
consequence
houses
made
Strabo
in transfers, both
larger profits.
says
Arruntius
Euarestus, an
were
constantly changing hands.
waters
who
auctioneer
angled successfullyin the troubled
murder
of Caligula, was
after Mhe
(according to Josephus)
In Martial
rich as the richest, and powerful then and after.
as
is wooed
lawyers, four tribunes
a maiden
by ten poets, seven
further
two
and
thought, espoused to
praetors, and, without
Nor
auctioneer.
an
foolishly. A boy, if he is to make
he
his way,
ought not to study or poetize ; rather should
or
ply the cither or flute, or, if long-headed, the hammer
architect's

rule.

Architecture

Cicero

collocates

with

medicine

as

useful

also the most

respectable: it was
(according to Vitruvius) even
Augustus
profitable.Under
that they had to advertise
overcrowded
the profession
was
so
demand
The
and
were
themselves,
incompetent.
many
of erections,pubUc and private,
increased owing to the numbers
necessitated in part by fire and coUapse, in part by the building
of the city was
of the rich : the smallness
mania
compensated
of the country.
by the endless possibilities
and
famous
highly paid artists,little
Excepting for some
of the despised sculptorsand
painters. Musicians
is known
the economical
much
:
Vespasian paid Terpnus
might make
for their performances
citharists
the
Diodorus
and
200,000
of Marcellus.
of the Theatre
rededication
Teaching
at the

art, and

of all arts

the

most

:
profitable

was

citharists

make

to

for

above, and
to

Rome,

he

going

and

Pollio

will tear

you

Martial
from

wrote

Forum

as

Comehi

paid well,

music,

Art, too, Uke

citharist.

return

', says

patronized music

Domitian

Domitian
to

Learn

Chrysogonus
cither, and

the

Under

was

fee

and

'

learned.

the

the

Nero

others.

any
that

'

singers and
distinguished

of

children
'.

manual

as

of

envy

rich

Estates

salaries

rhetorician,

teaching

than

the

the

the

Theodorus'

more

and

awoke

Juvenal
up

Three

The

156

if

popular, especiallyacting and dancing, and also fencing and

circus-driving.
The
learned
relegated,like the arts and
professionswere
to slaves.
Galen
their apphances, to the third
estate, or
noble
rhetoric, music,
selects, as
departments, mediciae,
geometry,

accountantship,astronomy,

arithmetic,

grammar,
be added.

sculpture and painting may

The last two, as employments, brought in the quickest returns :
hence
Lucian
was
apprenticed to his uncle, the sculptor.
The learned professionsrequired laborious
and unremunerative
hard it was, for men
in poor circumstances,
preparationfor years, and
is some
to rise'
information
as
(Juvenal). There
to their position in life.
and

law

which

to

'

(ii)Teachers,
no

assured

Education

first centuries,

the

During

was

and

the

esteem
the
position,nor
in the Early Empire
was

of State, and, in the

being,

Rhetoricians

second

Advocates

teaching profession had

of an
official security.
not

century,

to

regarded
a

if

anything, municipalized. Up
and
only fostered
private concern,

of teachers

from

town

This

rates.

matter

very shght extent,

to then
education

by

is confirmed

decree, recently discovered, in South

as

the

by

Portugal

immvinity
communal

there

school

being proposed. Elementary schools must

have
existed even
in small provincialtowns
; only the larger
cities had secondary schools in the sciences, or in the highest
children
sent
to a larger
were
subject,viz. oratory. Hence
for a good education.
to Rome
town
The
or
school, kept
by the elder Statins at Naples, received pupils from Lucania
was

maintained

and

Apulia ;

the

big boys

slates

and

Horace's

or

the

school

of

of influential

one

Flavius

in

Venusia,

to

which

centurions

with
their
daily went
of
satisfy the paternal care

not
could
pencases,
father : despitehis poverty, he

sent

his

son

to

Rome

The
be

to

educated

contribute

so

as

consent

to

a.

157

teacher

promise
schools

committees.

In
the
knights and senators.
having no teachers of rhetoric,
Milan, until Pliny the Younger proposed

third, together with

one

to pay

Estates

along with
Trajan, Como,

first years
of
had to betake
itself to
to

Three

the

were

As

at his native

in

whole

this

in

case,

families

Como.

amount

often

the

to

interested,

He

could

the

town,

not
as

quite
cipalized
muni-

the

gift of electioneering
applicants used to go to

with letters from

the great
gain practice,and, armed
of Rome,
of their
men
give public exhibitions
abiUty to
speak and to teach, in competition for the post. Gellius was
Rome

to

present

at such

Roman-trained

probationaryrecitation

orator.

He

read

out

of

at Brundusium

from

passage

Virgil

asked
the listeners to question him.
very badly, and
of Gellius' questions completely nonplussed him.

One

assigned salaries,payable by the communes,

and
to rhetoricians
philosophers in all of the provinces,and
their
civic burdens
in a
decree ;
enacted
immunity from
nominally applying to the League of Cities in Asia, but really
whole
to the
Empire. In the largercities there might be ten
five rhetors, and five grammarians ; in the smaller,
physicians,
four,and four respectively,and in the smallest five of the
seven,
was
first,and three of the two last. This allowance
obviously
marginal, and wholly insufficient for cities,like Ephesus and
Smyrna, two of the largestin the Empire ; hence in rhetoric
Antoninus

and

Pius

alone, these

grammar

few

official teachers

largelyprivatelysupplemented.
grammarians, in great repute at Rome
been

refers

to

the

official teachers

were

Gellius
as

often

speaks

teachers, and

there

any
have

have

must

such

of

never

in

the

been incomby Hadrian, they must

And
mensurably few in comparison with the private tutors.
other
cities were
much
the pubhc positions in the
sought
Tritium
of a
at
Latin
The
tombstone
after.
grammarian
mentions
in Tarragonese Spain
as
an
extraordinary
MagaUum
at
the age of twentyfact his official appointment by the city
did
a
Teachers
decorations, as
five.
might also receive
Latin
given the
grammarian at Verona, a knight who was
insignia of a decurio.
The
grammarians, or teachers of the two languages and the
of each, often took singlepupils and resident
poeticalcontents
prominent of them
posts, or kept privateschools, as the more
Athenaeum

founded

The

158

Three

Estates

themselves
Quintilian says, they deemed
left mere
of a larger theatre, and
pedagogy to the
also take
weaker
brethren.
But, for high fees, they would
ever
gratefulto his greatgrandfath
privatepupils. Marcus Aurelius was
to
for his never
been
and
school,
a
public
having
calculation
for having had such a tutor, on
the true
that, for
this purpose,
could
be too great. It was
no
always
expense
of lower
men
standing who took up the teaching profession;
and at Rome,
who, consequent
freedmen, peyegrini,
provincials,
on
Julius Caesar's grant of the franchise to teachers, flocked
from
and
the East, as
thither.
Greece
came
Many of them
Greek
was
eagerly learnt at Rome.
of the teachers
followed
inner
Most
no
call, but only the
need
of bread, as may
the fact that, of the
be gathered from
most
learned
and
famous
grammarians or philologistsof
Rome
in the
first century, several
(on the authority of
to it as
this occupation, or came
on
Suetonius)only chanced
makeshift.
a
Many built up their knowledge, as slaves or
freedmen
in the service of erudites, or as pedagogues accompanying
The
famous
Orbilius had been servant
a boy to school.
to a
magistrate, and then served in the foot and the horse.
Marcus
Valerius
Probus
of Berjrtus, who
was
even
more
renowned,
only took to linguisticsafter losing every chance
of a subaltern's
post. A third had begun as a prize-fighter,
a fourth
as
a clown.
Pertinax, the future Emperor, however,
the son
wood-dealer, exchanged this profession,
o^ a freedman
unsuitable to him, for militaryservice.
It was
universallyheld that a teacher's bread was
hardly
Ausonius
that
won.
no
ever
grammarian was
happy,
says
and that an exception to this rule would
be an offender against
The
work
and
conditions
the gain
were
severe,
grammar.
those consolable
by the feelingthat it was a
scanty ; few were
loftyand royal calling to instruct the witless in good manners
and
holy knowledge '. The lessons began at or before daybreak
had
to
the
teacher
be
and
before
the
smith
about, long
:
up
the weaver,
air sullied by the boys' lamps, which
to breathe
or
and
begrimed the busts of Horace
Virgil in the schoolroom.
The
of school hours varied, but, with the authorityof
number
Ausonius, was
usuallysix. Galen tells a tale of a grammarian
was
Diodorus, who
subject to epilepticfits,unless he took
nourishment
during this time, and, on his advice, took, at the

usually
worthy

did ;

as

'

The
third
him.

home

afternoon.

and

usual

rules

pupils

more

West,

in the

and

six

was

or

at

exercises.

severer

moral

education

restored

at

midday
back

came

for

entering age, according to Paul

less define the practice in
or

The
the

keep disciplineamong

whose

wine, which

twelve
gymnastics begun
twenty given to higher mathematics

to

the

159

schools, the

and

grammar
fourteen

in

early meal, changed

The

and

Estates

soaked

Greek-Latin

for their

Aegina, whose
early centuries

to

hour, bread

in

But,

went

the

fourth

or

Three

he had

philosophy
task

worst

and

supervisehke

from

years

and

the

geometry,

the

teacher's
excitable

to

seven

of

was

fidgety boys,
a

father.

St.

Augustine repents,in his Confessions, his schoolboy sins : his

fear of making a mistake
to
was
greater than his endeavour
of those of superior social standing. He
rid himself
of envy
and parents,
was
always deceiving his pedagogues, teachers
loved
playing with nuts, balls and birds, seeing pantomimes
and
acting them.
Many schoolboy scrawls have been found on the walls in
have
also
a
Pompieii. We
schoolboy's Will of Sir Jack
Porker
(Marcus Grannius
Corocotta), a great favourite with
the
at
curly-haired legions ; the victim before immolation
knife-blade
the
cook's
leaves
his father
Sir Boar-Larding
of acorns,
his bristles to
(VerrinusLardinus) thirty measures
'

'

the

his

shoemakers,

ears

to

the

doves, his tongue

babblers, and so on : his tombstone

golden letters, Sir Jack Porker lived

is to

and

'

more

would

school-wit

have

made

him

is the

same,

the

999J

Millenarian'.

same

little

wars

be

to

advocates

engraved

half

years ;
As now,

one

between

boy

so

in

then

and

boyish gibes. A Greek collection of anecdotes

An
has preserved us the followingschoolboy story.
tary
elementeacher tells one
boy : Dionysius,attention ! No foohng !
The boy repUes he wasn't
rejoins,
doing anything : the master
the
of
take
time
it for next
'. Quintilian says one
reasons
of the preferability
of school to home
teaching is the formation
of equal rivalry. Others
the
of friendships and
incentive
that
maintained
school-life
corrupted morals, though boys
of good family were
accompanied there by their pedagogues :
the
also often
was
impugned.
reputation of the teachers
enforced
the whip : only a
and
DiscipUne was
by the cane
demning
view, conminority (one of them
Quintilian)took a humane
corporal punishment. The hardships of the teacher
master, the

same

'

'

'

l6o

The
often

were
over

OrbiUus

whole

from

which

they taught in spaces

open

least, was

curse

of

book

of

the

boys

plaints. School-dust,

teachers

in Rome

were

at

free, as

flat roofs,

half-open,on

or

parents,

of their

over-fondness

and

unreasonableness

wrote

pretensions

the

aggravated by

whose

Estates

Three

or

courtyard adjoining the street, separated from it by a

curtain.
The
summer
hoUdays lasted three to four months,
Martial
for, in the summer.
says, boys, if healthy, could learn

in

the

of

enough

festival
besides, many
tutors, especially
Greeks, complained, often not

themselves.

There

were,

days. Private
of all kinds
of maltreatment
unjustifiably,
and
that they scarcely earned
enough
tailor

whilst

rich, these
and

Romans

wormed

themselves

humiliations,
shoemaker

to

pay
that, in the

asserted

foreignerswere

and

houses

or

of

the

preferred to them, and intrigued

to the efiective
sovereignty of the

home.
Grammatical

at Rome

instruction

was

poorly paid.

(5 gold pieces)as the fee for

gave 500 sesterces
work
months'
but even
thus the earnings for
:
15,000 sesterces
Good
teachers
rent, etc.
was

may

only

have

had

petitionthe

for

Emperor

instead

of Three

fees for

reading and

no

were,

Children.

the
In

doubt,
less

fixed at

deductions

better

paid

Martial

makes

Privilege of
Diocletian's

year

thirty scholars

("i("^2s. 6d.),without

pupils, some

more

Juvenal
of eight

Three

tariff the

for

: some
one

Scholars,

monthly

for arithmetic
fifty,

or
writing
f
or
Greek
and
Latin
and
Mathematics
seventy-five,
denarii
less than 45.). The competition was
200
(then worth
great ; at the close of the Republic, there were
twenty schools
in partnership,and older
held
at Rome.
Many schools were
the friend of St. Augustine, Verecundus
at Milan)
teachersj(e.g.
Schoolmasters, generally,as Ovid says,
employed assistants.
but
for a few
small
incomes.
great exceptions, drew
very
and his whole
Verrius
Flaccus
Marcus
school was
in by
taken
sesterces
Augustus into the Palatium, and he received 100,000
(or ^"1,0873s. od.) for teaching his grandchildren. Remmius
are

shorthand

Palaemon
less from

derived

of 400,000
from his school, and no
his private property, built in the first instance on his

and
profession,

an

income

increased

profits. Thus he, with

vineyard at Momentum
in less than
eight years

by a tailor's business and agricultural

the help of an expert, made
a neglected
(which he bought for 600,000) realize
400,000

on

the

vintage,and

sold the

1 62

The

Nero's
of

avowed

rank

and

passion

rise from

to

oratory

the

Estates

Three

oratory enabled

for

the

teachers

to

senatorial

beginnings

lowliest

first

the

In

honours.

highest

many

century

even,

become

might
imperial
offices.
One
higher
thereupon
anecdote
makes
an
astrologersoothsay of a boy he would
become
a provincialgovernor.
a rhetor, a praefect and
Hence,
embraced
this professionwould
be
by knights : Blandus,
under
having, up to
Augustus, is the first instance, freedmen
the
deemed
that
time, been
only givers of an instruction
in highest repute.
in
dishonourable
an
acquisition held
often be knighted by the
would
Rhetors
Emperors : thus,
Dionysius of Miletus was knighted by Hadrian, made procurator
the honour
of the pubhc
in several
provinces, and awarded
and

yet

in

more

second,

the

hold

secretaries, and

meal

mentions
the

civitas

in

Museum

the

at

all the

nearly

and

rhetors,

the

famous

official

posts in

Tacitus

to

in-law

select from

Aufidius
the

Aquila
cities of

time

held

of

could

both,

be
or

professionof
age.

The

an

such

century,

cities and

towns

Rome

at

tales

are

not

only
appointed
increased

Rome,

they could most

easilygain
provinces. Pliny requests

and

the

for

recommendations

admirers

young

Fronto
a

from

suitable

men

applies

recommendation

his

to

son-

for Antonius

public professorshipin Gaul, in the

of Greek
rhetoric held pubhc appointments
Lucian

highlypaid post.
Justice afforded
than

No

given

was

with

his many
Comum.

sons

also

armed

of Strabo.

rhetorician

combined

old

teachers

Courts

teacher

the

to

his

second

students

of

Victorinus

which

those, who
to the

at

rhetor

at the

The

Italy

rhetoric

teach

of

teachers

the

other

number

considerably; for, being

to

PhUostratus

sophist,HeUodorus, who with

by the Emperor (? Severus).

but

Rome,

the

Alexandria.

ofjgrammarians.After

told

the

some

the

more

lecture-room

advocate,
from

passed
teaching

boasts

as

but
the

more

many,
to

one

of

of

being one

profitabletheatre
not
capable
every
like QuintUian,
the

other, selecting

peaceful occupation

for
great qualification

advocates

was

for

then

special object of the jurist'sambition, to

which
the
of the
subservient.
Most
study of the law was
professionaladvocati were
simply rhetoricians,and employed
both
these
sides.
Of
pragmafici, or legal advisers, on
will be made.
pragmatici mention
eloquence,

the

Three

The

Advocacy
brains
and

and

road

obvious

the

was

'

ambitions

Estates

the

toga

and

of

the

plebeians with

to

success

was

clients

163
of advance

means

',

Quintilian is called by
Martial
of togati. In Italy and
the
the ornament
provinces
this was
the professionof the talented
and
ambitious
(e.g.
Lucian
and Apuleius) : in Petronius
the freedman
will make
his
if
not
auctioneer.
son
an
an
advocate,
Advocacy and law
the
honourable
civil
most
the
were
callings,and
only
accessible
to the third
estate
and
ones
reputable to knights
and
the only ladder
for
to success
senators
was
; the former
and
low-bom
talent
fortune
and
; by it Eprius Marcellus
Vibius
Crispus attained the Consulate, the Friendship of the
The authors
of this epoch, Seneca,
Emperor, and great power.
Suetonius, and the elder Phny, were
knights and began at the
bar : Pliny the Younger, who
pleaded in his nineteenth
year,
and
true to advocacy.
Fronto, as senators, still remained
advocates

by

worn

Famous

lived in

advocates
atria

no

by

rich

names

and decorated
roomy
in every one's mouth,

of course,

were,

speeches

for

matifd, scarce

paid

in kind.

; hams

piece

would

and

olives

for

the

these

ones,
a

their rents.
of

be the

sends

Picenian

Saturnalia,
red

fish

set

too

great advocates

glad to

commission

Country

jars of fruit
giftof some

of salted

casks

client ; in Martial

Besides

small
many
of gold,with

able to pay
The rows

great advocate

the

fashion.

dishonourable

there

and

; their

mighty, sought for by strangers

from
districts whither
their fame
had
penetrated. In their
their
statues
houses
and
the vestibules
stood
ed
(mostly erectand
even
by gratefulclients),
equestrian figuresof them.
Their
their
decked
with
laurels
portals were
steps and
of forensic victory. A
commemorative
would
great crowd
follow
the
the triumphant pleader home, whilst
acquitted
their
of
a danger escaped, and
heads, as a sign
partiesshaved
repairedto a temple to thank the gods. And what if advocates
gained neither rank nor office ? Their doors were
besieged by
parties,and guarded by janitors,and they gained wealth, in
courted

the

great state
their

daily crowded,

in the

clients

of
a

prag-

generally

storeroom

recollection

seven

the

fat Umbrian

his advocate
of

to

devil four

of

ant
defenda

Marsian

little box

glasses in coarse
Juvenal mentions

of

striped napkin :
On
the other
fee five bottles of country wine, and so on.
as
hand. Martial implores clients to spare his friend Restitutus
Saguntine work,

and

164
the

The

advocate

Three

Estates

giftson his birthday ; for a boastful shopman

the
send
him
cloaks
Porticus
would
by
purple
Agrippae
;
dinner
defendant
costumes
in a suit for a drunken
a
;
fight,
the young
would
divorced
her
who
has just
husband,
woman,
herself bring genuine jewels,and
fine
the old connoisseur
a
piece of marble.

professionwas

The
to

resort

to

clients

put

on

with

of

and

their

did

not

to

phrase)
sesterces

show

would

hen

mouth

attract

had

attention

many
Gaul

at

instant

very
much

with

thus,
had

to

Africa.

much

Philostratus

undertook

an

For

measure

Mithridates,
They

alleviation.
secured

fine escort

could

not

be

and
betake
selves
themsuspend payment
No
few prostitutedtheir eloquence
piratically(in Quintilian's
; many,

such

mentions

action

terms.

pressed

seem

and

sometimes

cause
every
settled their fees in advance.

(J[,2i
3s.)as

rings

assistant,

generous

Carthage

fortune

slaves

irrelevance, in an
and
gesticulateabout

intone

involve

to

with

perspicuity'.

hiring applause, and

even

or

of

with

wars

to their

hearing, thus

and

would

hoarseness

of

demand

afield

and

any

Sulla, the

Yet,

bought

day

far

lost

stickle

home.

the

make

to

wander

for

and

lost.

only on

or

water,

Marius

to

'

speeches they

action

To

bid their clients retail the facts

work,

their

of all sorts.

advocates

about
prosperity they always walked
of documents,
richlydressed, with retinues of
their sedan-chair
round
; they hired valuable
during the interview, so as to extort higher

them

meet

and

overcrowded,

air of

would

They
or

very
advertisement

to

through an
big bundles
and

such

Martial

fee, the
that

in Sardes,

on

the

client

to

famous

which

the

specifies2,000
pay

half

sophist
entire

if he

Polemo

property

Lydian depended, and exacted two talents {"472 2s.)

his fee. But the judges,too, occasionallysold their decision ;
as
actions might be prolonged even
as
twenty years, and survive
the originalparties,besides consuming their property. Martial
recommends
payment as cheaper than litigation.(Dften,too,
bribed by their opponents
advocates
prevaricated', i.e. were
to present a bad
case
^thoughthe penalty,if discovered, was
;
advocates
abused
venal race
were
as
a
',
disbarring. Hence
said to derive from
their husband's
and their wives
greed for
A further cause
of disesteem
their
was
pelf,a greed for food.
habit
of abusing not
only their opponents (often at their
but their opponent advocate
well.
Lucian
clients' request),
as
of

rich

'

"

'

The

Three

Estates

165

pudence,
stigmatizes advocacy as indissociable from deceit, lying, imThe
and pushfulness.
Marcellinus
pictureAmmianus
draws
of all who
live by litigation
is even
lurid.
foggers
Pettimore
and

that their enemies

so
pared
comwranglers were
many
their oratory to the yelping of dogs. Their livelygestures
mocked
dumb
at:
a
boasts, in his
jester of Tiberius

were

of having
inscription,

been

the

first imitator

of the advocates.

(iii)
Jurisconsulti
The

jurisconsultiranked

high as the advocates ; Quintilian

favourite
of the two,
as
mentions,
a
school-essay, which
But
a lawyer or
a soldier,is of higher standing ?
law, whilst
offeringknights and senators a road to the highest positions,
offered lesser folks something inferior to advocacy.
Quintilian
was
jurisprudence
practised mainly by disappointed
says
barristers ; Libanius
took to poring
says only the slow-witted
the heavy parchments of juristic
over
lore. But it was
able
profitas

'

'

enough
Petronius'
books

to

attract

many
bourgeoisgives his

of
son

the
a

third

collection

estate.

of

One

of

red-backed

little law
for home
to 'learn
use', as 'it
a
{codices),
spelled money'. Juvenal says that in the lowest classes men
found
were
capable of unravelling knotty points of law : in
of his satires, a father, goading his son
to work
and
one
on
earn,
gives him a choice of advocacy, study of law and a
centurionship.
as teachers, as
/MmcoMSMfe' also made money
only few young
have
been introduced
to the law by high professorsof
men
can
able to dispense with
it, and been
paid instructors.
Very
flocked
took
many
up this study ; provincials,Greeks even,
to Rome
for this purpose.
of the great juristswere
Most
Little
from
Asia, Papinian from
came
provincials. Gains
Scaevola, Modestinus,
Syria, Ulpian from Tyre ; Cervidius
the Greek
all from
Callistratus, Marcianus, Tryphoninus, were
Orient ; Salvius Julianus, and
perhaps Tertullian, from Africa.
; but Masurius
Juristsof lower rank took fees for their courses
Sabinus
(under Tiberius),who
knighted
began poor, and was
the
of
but
let
at
w
ould
his
not accept fees,
only
fifty,
pupils
age
him.
the
usual thing :
support
Ulpian mentions
pa5mient as
it was
preliminary to the course, as it could not be legally
enforced
afterwards.
In
Rome
jurists were
exempt from
and other burdens, but not in the provinces.
becoming Mores

1 66

The

Three

In the first half of the

scattered

were

century, if not

second

at which

throughout Rome,

instruction

and

abandoned

the

advice

question

could

summoned

in

GelUus

law.

for the

school

favourite
be

Estates

these

at

by
'

juristsgave
i6o)

he
that

says

whether

was

public

when

(it was

law, about

stations

earlier,stationes

the

quaestor

Pompeius Auctus,

praetor.

had

who,
'

Temple of Mars Ultor

i.e. had
his
station
there
^was
deeply versed in law and
skilled in the use
of the toga
^i.e.both
a
pragmaticus and
advocate
and
remained
The
an
right of
up to ten o'clock.
first hmited
giving iuris responsa was
by Augustus to imperial
nominees, and their written and sealed opinions were
binding
in Court.
Other
had
scientific
a
jurists'opinions
merely
But
and
theoretic
could
significance.
ordinary juristseven
cUents, as soon
as
hardly fail to have
they attained
many
according to Martial,
'

sat in front

of the
'

'

"

"

'

"

"

fame

some

pay

for the

juristsof
matricide

these

his

arrive

at

cock-crow

who
opinion. Ammianus,
day, says they charged even

venial

essential

was

would

to

if their
any

client

were

and
litigation,

and,

doubt,

no

severely censured
for yawns
; and
rich enough.
A

he,

not

the

the
made

jurist

advocate,

was

'

principal person :
legend, may
and juristsavoid this monument',
so much
might
pettifoggers
liked
Claudius
they tamper with testamentary directions.
rather
than
giving responsa, and his reliance on advocates
jurisconsultsproved his incompetence. In Seneca's
pasquil
the

the

tombstones

advocates

saturnalia, and

bewailed

his death

bear

as

the

the

termination

of their

pragmaticicrept forth again,like resurrected

thin and
ghastly.
corpses,
Sometimes
jurisconsults(e.g.Paulus) acted as advocates,
but
to advise.
was
only exceptionally,their usual function
to
QuintUian, anxious
degrade jurisprudence and
uplift
of
the
these
of
oratory, speaks
pragmatici as mere
onhangers
to
the
combatants.
real
advocates, the powder monkeys
Libanius
says, that in the good old days, before lawyers were
so
unduly esteemed, they had to wait humbly on the advocate's
command
to recite the law.
This occupation was
only taken
at low fees, from
jurists,
up by smaller
country clients,often
in kind

; such

Jurists also

the

as

sack

earned

of com,

imUet

or

beans.

by drafting notarial or other written

documents, such as petitions,
deeds, contracts and guarantees.
They could be punished (inthe provinces by the governors)

The

Three

by exclusion from the Forum

specificallythey might not

Estates
inhibition

167
of

legalpractice;
positions
or
petitions or detheir
have
or
of
;
registerin the public archives
draft
or
original documents,
or
wills, a large
sign,witness
Nero
confiscated
the goods of those
part of their business.
of his who
freedmen
did not
testifytheir gratitude to the
Emperor, and punished the lawyers who drew up the offending
wills.
would
draft wills, as it was
a profitable
Non-juristseven
business.

having

scribe

made

assistance, and

will-making.
Litera,

seems

Finally

derived

juristsoften

decisions

influence

at

; and

; Seneca

to

these

says
This

by their clerks.
bureaucracy, ever

her

that

of

his tombstone

on

Gades,

Praetors

often
gave

of

from

his business.

be
the

judicial
Republican
in making
determining
to

assessors

provinces,were, from
associate
legal persons
would

of

jurist's
proficiency in
Quintus Valerius

without

years
Padua

his cognomen
the post of

held

and
who, in Rome
officers,
times downwards, bound
their

fourteen

iestameniarius
have

to

for

deeds

boasts

schoolmaster

draft

Venafrum

at

wills

out

or

the

sentences

dictated

Empire, together with the

took
defined
more
shape, and long before
the third century, judicialmagistrates (inRome
the Praefectus
and Praetors, in the prothe Consuls
Urbi, Praetorio, Vigilibus,
vinces
the governors) were
bound
have
to
or
more
one
legally
in
his polemic against Apio,
judicialassessors.
Josephus says
of the early second
century, that the holders of highest posts
showed
their
custom.
ignorance of law in this universal
The
fee (acknowledged as early
to some
right of the assessors
as
Trajan) was
expressly legalizedin a rescriptof Antoninus
Pius.
Up to the end of the second century, these fees were
their
between
the
and
agreed upon
provincial governors
assessors
: after the third
were
directlypaid from the Treasury.
In Rome
there were
agencies for placing young
lawyers, after
their apprenticeship, as
At
the end
magistrates' assessors.
of the second
to appoint
usual
century, if not before, it was
to judicialoffices,only men
and
with
experience as assessors,
candidates

in the

custom

learnt in the

courts

from

the lowest

upwards.

(iv) Medicine
Medicine
and

was,

slaves

up

to

the

last, largelyin the hands

Justinian
(sixty gold-pieces)for slaves
;

authorized
thus

the

maximum

trained, eunuchs

of freedmen

price
fetching

The

1 68

Estates

Three

only fifty. Juristsconstantly speak of the services due from

to visit their
physicians'trained freedmen
; thus, they had
could
also
prevent
patrons' friends gratuitously. Patrons
their freedmen
from
a
competing practice,and,
setting up
them
their
on
to accompany
with
this object,compel them
visits.

own

were
mostly foreigners.
physicians at Rome
enfranchised
If permanent residents, JuliusCaesar
them, as also
this by conferringcivic immunity.
teachers : Augustus extended
this profession.
Romans,
according to Pliny, rarely learned
Most
of them
Greeks
and Orientals, especiallyEgyptians,
were

Free-bom

and

summoned

men

Rome

to

to

cure

principal of

diseases
these

endemic

in

eruptive
boils and blains
Egypt '): Galen
(the Bible speaks of the
Tiberius
of elephantiasis. Under
speaks of the commonness
there
Asia, and
was
a
Egyptian
plague, imported from
only this disease :
physicians were
brought to Rome, to cure
an
Egyptian
they returned with great profits. Nero summoned
tion
recollecA
friend
of
to
a
cure
a
herpetic eruption.
physician
of this condition
of things is preserved in an Arabian legend
of modem
Alexandria, of a spring that cured leprosy,and the
for it. At Rome
searched
patients
King of the Rumi, who
felt more
confidence
in foreign physicians,though, especially
in the Early Empire, there
few
were
no
good Roman
titioners
pracScribonius
at
Court.
Largus, Claudius'
physician,
Vettius
to Britain.
accompanied, as he says, our God Caesar
Valens, another of his doctors, was
a knight, a dignityconferred
other Court
Antonius
Musa,
on
physicians,e.g. the freedman
cured
after all other
who
treatment,
Augustus by cold-water
several
the case.
Galen
mentions
physicians had abandoned
medical
who
invented
such as
men
are
Roman,
drugs ; some
Valerius
Such
Paulinus, Pompeius Sabinus, Flavins Clemens.
oculists' stamps, and, in the Western
names
are
common
on
not Greeks.
provinces,most of the doctors were
Strabo
is the first authority for the communal
appointment
their

The

country.

own

'

of doctors
cities

of

for cities outside

Gaul.

Asia, the

enjoy immunity,
ones,

and

Vespasian

five
and

'

Rome

Antoninus
of

number
as

in the
Hadrian

Pius

communal

ten

were

of

'

for the

smallest.
to

the

; such

as

Massilia, and

defined, for the

other

Province

of

to
were
physicians, who
for smaller
large cities,seven
This
immunity, extended
by
to
allured
provinces,
many

Three

The

170
the

imperial judgment '. A

election valid only with the
order

the

ofi"cer

new

Estates
of 370
of the

decree
assent

seniors

seven

all

last, and

ranked

such

makes

a.d.

an

of the

promoted

were

degree.

one

From
with

medical

much

other

detail

more

work

medicine
161-2

at
was

three

years
On

Asia.

Aquileia

Rome,

the

summons

the

serious

his
one

at

at

128

of
of
on

he

or

refused

168-9,

died

(probablyat Rome)

beds,

of his free
about

was

la-^ntiquity there

were

no

he

passed

repaired

Marcus
weis

many
lucrative

to

Aurehus'

physician

in

he

had

patients,who

three

to

four

examinations

four

hundred
not

were

thousand
and

Uttle

fined
con-

year.

bility
responsi-

unqualifiedpractitionersthrust

hence

Little

to

198 or 199. How

be'^timated
from
the fact

and

boy at Rome,
practice was, may
number

then

returned

campaign,

his German

the

129, he studied
from
156-7 and

Emperors,

both

for

comprehensive
prolificwriters

most

the

about

The

to their

into

of

one

recorded

extant

is the

these

162-6, when

from

him

summer

cases.

of

Pergamus

winter

offer to accompany
to Commodus
as

in

chief

information

and Alexandria,
Smyrna, Corinth
gladiatorialphysician at Pergamus,

in

extensive

the

Galen,

Bom

of all times.

that

the

professions:
of (?) Claudius

than

practiceare

of

methods

writings the

selves
them-

such as shoemakers, carpenters,

profession,
doctors
became
dyers or smiths, just as unsuccessful
corpseMartial
bearers
at
rate.
or
:
professionalgladiators
any
scofis at such, who
in their new
occupation practised the
old one
still. Amongst
of salves and
these
quacks, makers
ofiicinal wares
so-called
most
rank
that
high. Galen
says
his colleagues
physiciansof his day could hardly read, and warns
of the necessity of good grammar
in addressing patients
:
of rhetoric
such physiciansalso would
know
nothing whatsoever
and
philosophy. Thessalus, an
apprentice of his father, a
doctor
under
Nero
as
a
weaver,
gained great vogue, and said
in six months.
all his knowledge had been won
His example
inspired others.
Physicians were
accompanied
by their
he was
when
pupils on sick visits. Martial says that, once
attended
with
hundred
students
him,
one
ill, Symmachus
and

their

Philostratus
of

two

hundred

ice-cold

hands

that
Philiscus
says
of Sidon
and Stratocles

Cyzicus
Perhaps, too,

the

large number

gave him
attended

fever

as

well.

by Seleucus
and over
thirtypupils.
of practitionersnecessitated
was

The

Three

Estates

171

in Egypt) apart from

tants,
assisspecialists(who abounded
who
plucked healing roots, concocted
drugs, bandaged,
clystered,bled and cupped. No one, says Philostratus, can be
universal physician ; there must
a
be specialists
for wounds,
and
Most
of
fevers, and eyes, and consumption.
numerous

many

these
and

the

were

there

oculists

was

branch

over

hundred

one

of

seals

are

extant,

operators. Caligula'sfreedman

Gaius

than
Julius Callistus owned
amongst his slaves more
Galen
boasts
of having cured
accomplished oculist.
eye-trouble by ordinary treatment, despite the existence

one
an

'

of many

too,

Martial
:

95

known

are

of

who

draws

doctor

for

There

erases

in the year
specialists
or
stops teeth ; Hyginus bums
Fannius
treats
dripping uvulae

slaves'

brands

; Hermes

is the

best

physicians;

these

fractures.
women's

were

mostly midwives,
One

fractures, fistulae, uvulae.

of Roman

over-long eyelashes;
Eros

Ear-doctors, dentists and others,

treated

number

Cascellius

innocuously;

'

oculists.

of

speaks

thus

away

were

'

so-called

Valeria

first medical

doctors, and

though they

Verecunda's

also treated

tombstone

women's

preserves

eases.
dis-

her title of

regio'. According to Soranus,

went
a
good midwife
training.
through a complete medical
She had to be able to read, so as to learn the theory as well ;
must
of abortion,
not be avaricious, that she might not sell means
should
make
lest some
dream
nor
or
omen
superstitious,
her careless.
Galen observes that hysterical
called themselves
women
doctors'
thus
from
their female
on
hearing the word
treat sterile women
a fat Lydian woman
Ups. Juvenal makes
Antiochian
with
a
an
drug ; and Galen mentions
savoury
woman's
plastersfor the spleen,dropsy and gout.
tarch
than
Surgeons speciahzed more
According to Pluany.
with physicians without
impinging on the
they worked
but
other's
none
territory. According to Galen, at Rome
He
operated : a rule he himself there followed.
surgeons
in all interestingcases
also says
he was
consulted
by the
and
Ostia
and
Portus, so that he saw
ph3raiciansof Rome
But
of distortion
of the shoulder.
extraordinary case
every
Galen
more
specifies
too, was
minutely subdivided.
surgery,
the operationsfor fractures and stone, and the sewing together
the surgeon, put by Martial
of the eyelids. Alcon
along with
and
Dasius, the principal physiciansof Rome,
Symmachus
wetnurse

of her

female

The

172

Three

Estates

mercilesslycut incarcerated
ruptures, skilfully treated the
others
have
bones '. Implements for fistulae operations,and
Anaesthetics
been
and
were
found
elsewhere.
at Pompeii
in the
form
administered
of mandragora
juice or
atropin
(also used as a sleeping-draught). A tablespoonful {2^ per
cubic inch) was
to produce sleep ; the
mere
a sufficient dose
of couching
For the purpose
smell was
men.
enough with some
cataract, the pupil was
enlarged by anagallis.
drawn
between
No
line
could
be
exact
theory and practice
between
in medicine, but a distinction wasl'qgognized
empirical
medicinal
advanced
and
professOTSsst^fe^sw^Ued
study, when
sophists', sitting on high chairs and overwftRlming their
hearers with abstruse
lore', but quiteincompetent practically.
curatives
who
dealt with
People generally reckoned
any one
theoreticallyfrom a book a sophjst.
Roman
physicians, at the top of their profession,made
had
their own
large salaries.
Wealthy men
family doctors.
with an estate near
According to one tale of Galen, a rich man
Rome
going
requested him to treat one of his stewards, who was
adherent
of Erasistratus,
blind, as the family doctor, as an
fixed
would
received
not
consent
to bleed.
Family doctors
salaries.
Quintus Stertinius (the brother of Gains Stertinius
from
Xenophon), in reply to Claudius, proved his income
private practice as amounting to 600,000 (;"6,525
los.). In the
Pandects
a
legacy is noticed for future annual payment to a
doctor
after his patient's death.
Such
fees were
paid on
the first of January.
But
specialhigh fees were
charged for
individual
Manilius
cures.
Comutus,
ex-praetor and legate
of Aquitania, agreed to a fee of 200,000
for scab ; the same
of Massilia
to a rich provincial
sum
was
charged by Charmis
'

'

for

'

second
later

consular,

on

(1^435)^or

curing

(likeother

famous

by
he

letter ; from
answered

restored

on

consultation

Massiha

His

to

many

the

Court

left

whom

he

from

Palestine,
income

was

consultations
Thrace

pertinent questions, sent

advice

of

of

doctors') by

to health

of

governor
his wife.

received

Asia, Gaul, Spain and

his

salaries

Galen

treatment.

never

the
saw.

Boethus,

gold pieces
400
also increased
outside
for

:
eye-troubles

drugs,
We

Rome,

and

thus

still possess

framed
of one
CaecUianus,
epilepticson
the
with
family doctor, Dionysius. The

Crinas
physicians have been mentioned.
10,000,000
^"108,750),after spending an

The
equivalent amount
projects. Claudius
of

the

during

however,
two

for

1800

Heim

and

A Icon

earned

higher.

consultation
made

back

and

12,000

in

the
in

of his return

years
fees are

modem

of Brodie

he

Estates

1851

173

of his native

condemned

first few

guineas

about

the walls

on

which

10,000,000,

Three

In

city and

1787

four

thalers

for
a

to

surgeon
exile in

Possibly,
Hunter

even

fine

Gaul, and

Rome.

to

similar

took

visit ; in Berlin
;

year

the

incomes

about

^10,000,and Billroth's
at Vienna, in his first year, 12,000,
or
15,000 gulden. In little
proportionatelyremunerative,
places in antiquitypracticewas
of
freedman
the
the
Publius Decimius
Eros Morula
as
inscription
and
atAssisi, 'clinical doctor
operatorof the eye '.shows. He
paid 4,000 for his manumission.for his appointment as sevir to the
cityexchequer 2,000 ; 30,000 on statues in the Temple of Hercules,
to the paving of the streets 37,000, and owned
the
on
520,000
One
Heraclitus
of Rhodiapolis in Lycia
day before his death.
had been built up by
gave his services free there ; his fortune
and Athens
a temple
; he erected
practicein Alexandria, Rhodes
in
his
native
and
to Aesculapius
city,gave the statues
Hygieia
and
spent 60,000 on the Feast of Aesculapius in doles and
bouts.
competition, and not delicacy,reduced
Pliny says
and
medical
fees, which
they demanded
got at the bedside,
and
calls it
taking rapacious advantage of the imminence
oculist
of
death
'. Ulpian says : if an
by using harmful
him
to sell him
remedies nearly blinds his patient,and induces
the proper
his property under
value, the provincial governor
Wright

were

'

is to
370

decree

allow

recommends

A.D.

to

restitution

relieve

them

to

the

for this
the

poor,

accept

what

incivile

communal

than
the

factum.

archiatri

slavishlyserve
restored

offer

'

decree

rather
the

ably
honour-

rich.

them,

of

but

We
not

macopoei
promise in desperation'. The author of a pharin
the
first
half
of
the
fourth
century
compiled
ill
fared
Natural
had
his
at
travels
on
from
Pliny's
History
them
of his various
doctors.
Their
the hands
greed made
undertake
what
they could not effect, and sell the cheapest
in short
stuffs at famine
prices, prolong illnesses, curable
himself
to arm
againsttheir
time, to secure
large fees. It was
usual medicaments.
of the most
like, that he put together many
to medical
relations
Galen
as
gives very definite counsel
be long or short, as his
with the patient. His visits should
Some
doctors clumsily
he must
not irk.
patient wished, whom
what

the

sick

The

174
awake
such
out
a

and

irritate

things must
the

be

truth, Uke

patient by long speeches or noisy

avoided.

Callianax

patient'scomplaint

died

'.

Some

made

Estates

Three

at

He
the

tact,

HerophUean,^who

his imminent

themselves

show

must

odious

death

'

not

blurt

answered

Patroclus

for rudeness,

tread

some

also
temptible
con-

servility. The doctor must avoid both extremes,

for conversation
be affable, sensible and
dignified. A suitable theme
that
the cure
is Hippocrates' maxim,
depends on
and
the
his sickness
three
factors, the sick man,
physician.
the
would
If the patient aided
the doctor, both
overcome
anecdotes.
with
sickness.
Some
be enlivened
patients must
The
must
doctor
deport himself properly, not be pompous,
must
be
followed,
affected, or
cringing. The golden mean
if he
dislikes in
has
but
the patient should
be humoured,
at the Court
dress or style of hair : thus short hair was
worn
of Antoninus
Verus.
Doctors
should
and long at that of Lucius
One fellow-countryman of Galen
not reek of garlicor onions.
who
had
fever.
His
smelt
of wine, when
visitinga rich man
powering.
overpatient bade him stand further away, as the smell was
that
had
to stand
he
Quintus brusquely replied
the far worse
smells of the sick-room.
Many doctors acceded
to their patient'severy
cold water, snowwish, giving them
cooled
wine, baths, whenever
requested. True, they thus
found
doors.
a ready key to many
They grew rich, had much
and
often had
as
given them
pupils. The rich
power,
pages
the most
rebellious
were
patients ; best avoided
altogether,
with their
to put up
doctors
had, willy-nilly,
; but
says Galen
whims.
Whilst
in
submissiveness,
disapproving of mere
specialcircumstances, the physician might, against his better
knowledge, indulge the patient in some
comparatively harmless
not
trifle ; doctors, if loathed, are
obeyed.
The
is
said
docile,
patient
Hippocrates, if he regard his
doctor
At
miracle
as
a
or
demi-god.
Pergamus, patients
consigned to Aesculapius'Temple would undergo the severest
from
for a fortnight,and
all drink
do what
orders, abstain
induced.
doctor
could
have
And
his best spellwas
no
mere
correct
to teU the
used
diagnosis and true prediction. Galen
of the disease, wherever
nature
possible,without
questioning
the
had
like
felt
he,
Erasistratus,
patient. Often,
by the
for

quickening of

pulse that

the
1

Follower

love

was

at

the

of Herophilus o( Cbalcedoa.

bottom

of the

Three

The
trouble, if the

beloved

Estates
into

came

the

175
and

room,

the

same

of a rich
magic helped Galen to discover the bad conscience
patient,who, contrary to orders, had taken certain remedies,
and
in pills,so as not
to discolour
the tongue, but stoutly
denied
the
tales
charge. These
gratify Galen
exceedingly,
and

he

diagnosis
that

the

he

laid

God

thank

prediction'.

or

physicianshould

he, at

says

'

claims that,

least,

much

He

took

never

made

once

false

discusses

help, or

never

not

the

Hippocrates' saying
retard the patient,and

latter

But

course.

whilst

his

diagnosis,others thought they

doctors, did they not, immediately after entering
were
no
the sick-room, gird themselves, lay a plaster on, or make
a
Such
should
bethink
fomentation, or a clyster,or bleed.
themselves
of the
of Hippocrates, not
to bare
maxim
their
elbows

weight

he had

advocates, and

; even

appearing
Medical
frown

prize-fighters.
quackery occurred in
in trivial cases,
Celsus

service, but

people
hearing were
poor
usual
publicity was
out

shops opening
came

all the more,

should

avoid

shapes, from the thoughtful

to the theatrical
operation before a
selves
only playactors should prank them-

says
observes

Galen

out.

dealt

doctors

like

multitude.

and

on

who
mere

all

that

theriac

was

often

it for weak

recommended
hawkers.

certain

of

sight and
amount

advice,
antiquity. Doctors
gave
remedies, performed operations,in booths
on

in

to

the

street, and

treated

in, put-out shoulders, swelling,headaches

cases

and

great

as

what

of

sold
and

they
not.

zealous to deck their offices with

incompetent were
ivory boxes, silver cupping-glasses,and knives with golden
went
handles.
so
far, that the doctors
Epictetus says matters
asked
their patients to step in.
Probably, too, physicians often gave public lectures, as
Galen
in the Temple of Peace
at Rome
; disputationsmight
take
place there.
Shortly after his first arrival at Rome,
Galen
quarrelled with several elder doctors of the school of
when
Erasistratus
to him essential ;
on
a case
bleedingseemed
the next
on
day, his fellow-countryman and pupil Teuthras
all the philosophers',and
read Erasistratus' books out before
death
often caused
unnecessarily,
proved that his treatment
and
challengedthe old school to a public disputation. Their
let them
not
a
of dignity,however, would
sense
argue with
used to give daily lectures on
man.
But, as Galen
younger
The

most

'

The

176
questionsput

him.

to

sistratus' contention.

wish,

to

slave

and

converted

tells

us

it

off,

to

avoid

his

without

views.

his

to

knowledge,
Galen

also

sophist,after maintaining aii

a
lecture, and being publiclyapplauded,
Next
Galen's
refutation.
day Galen

it

it in, and

handed

published

was

Erasistrateans

impossible positionin
slunk

Eraauditors, he had to debate

dictated this discourse, at Teuthras'

theoretician

Estates

his

by
He

the

of how

Three

or

charlatans

Even

unanswerable.

was

public dissertations on the organs and functions of

them
the body, and their pretended knowledge won
patients.
No
epoch lacked its distinguished doctors, and of them
took

to

the Greeks, were

especially
many,
in seventy-seven years
of Smyrna
(seventy-two on
medicine). A
Claudius

logic

Menecrates,

of

medicine.

times,

wrote

verse,

and

and

bore

works

Rhodes

awarded

wrote

One

Hennogenes
seventy-seven books

Court-physician,
in

156 books

support

Tiberius

of

new

Rhodiapolis in Lycia,
his inscriptionas the first of physicians of aU
medical
and
in prose
and
philosophical books

in

celebrated

left his

wrote

authors.

Heraclitus

the

his

to

in

statue

name

of

city,
besides

TTJi irmBfias

of

Homer

the

native

RhodiapoUs,
ra

of

to

medicine

Alexandria,

other

honours,

; he

Athens
he

was

avSpiavri,

Up to the twelfth century, north of the Alps, and, in ancient

days, south of them, the pharmacopoeia had an altogether
different
meaning, as apothecaries, who
regularly prepared
existed.
In
Germany,
drugs, scarcely
they were
hardly
before the end of the eighteenth century :
found
in little towns
Hufeland
in Weimar
thus
(1783), as then usual ', himself
and
made
In
dispensed his pills and powders.
antiquity
in salves, drugs and
dealers
groceries also sold medicines :
aromatarii
the
were
a
besides,
guild at Rome
; there were,
and
swindlers.
From
such
travellinghucksters
shops, Pliny
doctors
often
Elder
the
complains,
bought the remedies,
their
of
instead
exercising
professionof making them.
proper
The
ingredientsthey scarcely knew, and, should they desire
to make
would
be cheated
prescriptions,
by the
up written
salesmen.
Many doctors bought plasters and drugs ready'

made.

Galen

also groans

at the

frauds

of those

'

cursed

dealers ',

iimocent
victims
of the collectors of
says they, too, were
herbs, who
brought saps and flowers and fruits and sprouts
But
the ingenious make-ups of these
into the towns.
men
and

The

178

Three

Estates

Physicians, in so far as climate permitted,cultivated the

medicinal
century Germany)
plants (as also in the sixteenth
withheld
who
their
of
his
of
the
day,
Pliny complains
experts
spiritof old,
knowledge, contrasting it with the unstinted
the
that
and
searched
peak, marked
every
every
cranny
.

of every
browse
on.

root, and

nature
not

inaccurate,

In

utilized
Greek

some

what

descriptionsonly,

or

the

works

mere

or

kine

the

even

would

be
pictures would
be given :
names
eyes, nearly aU the

Pliny, however, had seen, with his own

botanical
Castor's
medicinal
garden
plants in Antonius
Marcus
of
of
freedman
a
Antonius), the
daughter
(perhaps a
great botanist of his day, a writer on plants and cultivator.
He had
reached
the age of a hundred
without
a singleillness,
and
showed
no
signs of senUity.
had
At Rome
the imperial house
ample private stores of
of the best quality. Sicily
the curatives
from
all countries
sent her suppUes, as did Africa and Crete (where
every summer
the collectors, who
sent their medicithe Emperors subsidized
nal
stuffs carefully
packed and labelled ) : wicker baskets were
there
filled with
herbs, partly for the imperial apothecaries,
Galen
mentions
partly for sale in Rome.
imperial slaves who
All the resources
made.
caught adders, whence
drugs were
at Galen's
of this store were
service, as Court-physician. He
'

'

could

select

the

old

Fal,emian

of the

proper

year,

from

the

of clay bottles, each

long row
duly labelled, or similarlythe
of cinnamon
dated
cases
honey from Hymettus. The wooden
and Antoninus
back to Trajan, Hadrian
them
Pius, and among
four
and
box
half yards long, containing a whole
was
a
a
Other

cinnamon-tree.

quantity (such

the

as

mentions

salves,

sent

that
to

stufis must
balsam
the

have

of

been

Engaddi)

valuable

oil of

there
:

in

similar

Pausanias

Thitorea, used

dentally
incifor

the

Emperors.
Besides
being able to get drugs, physicians had to know
how
to prepare
an
them, and a good collection of recipeswas
the
often
Scribonius
indispensablequalification,
only one.
Largus, the Court-physician under Claudius, compiled such a
of his patron Gains
at the instance
book
Julius Callistus the
was

freedman, who
The
means

bad

author
of

cured

gave

it into

the

'

divine

hands

'

of his master.

imagined the giftof healingto be knowledge of the

healing. Even if Asclepiades as falsel}'
reported
"

"

illnesseswithout

the

use

of

drugs;

doctor who

The

Three

Estates

179

did

not

stood
and

two

possess

in
to

or

three

medicines

for every evil

defined medicine,

For
medicaments
very bad way.
efifort should
excel
in this knowledge, no
a

consulted, who,

and

persons
study, often

succeeded, where

got

one

successful

and

very

remedy

carried

essential

in

unconnected
doctors

for snake-bites

their

from

His

belts.

failed.
an

Thus
old

hag

stuff Sicilian

teacher

shirked,

the

with

of colic from

cure

be

scientific
Scribonius
in Africa,
huntsmen

Celsus

Apuleius

sent it every
up a remedy against hydrophobia, and
where
there were
his native
place Centuripae in Sicily,

mad

but

it

alleviated.

But

made
to

year
many

Scribonius

was
dogs ;
only
from
barbarian
land
some
apprised that in Crete an old man
had
been
shipwrecked, and received a fee for a thoroughly
effective
remedy : he learned from Zopyrus, a physician from
to Rome
Gordium
on
an
(who came
embassy and stayed with
him) that it consisted in a piece of hyaena-skin wrapped up :
he
instantly got it ; but, he remarks, had fortunatelynot
,

had

occasion

to

it.

use

stone

remedy against
pestlethat had no

iron

for.

of his

vouch
used

by

Most

Messalina

"

he

Ambrosius

of Puteoli

stuff that

mentions

be

must

as

with

a
pounded
he does not
a superstitious
cure
of them
remedies
one
a toothpowder
through personal use, and
approves

in it

"

"

only on the oath of his friends.

A great part of Galen's writings,too, deal with the preparation
of drugs. He
wanted
enable
to
the
practitioner to
for the requisitedrug, as many
substitute, if necessary,
were
without
stores.
their
medicaments
were
helpless
Many
very
much
theriac
used
until the
compounded, e.g.
(which was
nineteenth
made
of sixty-one constituents,
century) was
dried
of them.
adders
The
number
of supposed
being one
medicinal
stuffs was
incalculable
were
; some
loathly,such as
at the recommendation
bugs and centipedes. Galen is amazed
of Aphrodisias (circa60 a.d.) of human
brains
by Xenocrates
and flesh and liver and blood
as
cures,
consideringthe formal
The
same
prohibition of cannibalism.
authority prescribed
certain secretions from the human
and
from hippopotami
body,
"ind elephants. Roman
Sammonicus
doctors, like Serenus
very

few

"

and
Galen

Germans
loathes

in the seventeenth
such

means,

but

dangerous swellingsof the

externally applied,provided
for

century
says
throat
the

"

they
the

excrements.
^prescribe
may

work

excrement

patient

was

not

well, e.g.
of

boy

informed

i8o

The

of what
reserved
were

being

was

no

Three

done.

And

for sextons, mowers,

better

Medical

than

books

people

of

should

be

standing,who

no

similarly treated.
poisons and magic drinks,

and

touched

remedies

such

further
and

donkeys

also

Estates

be

might

on

of
or
means
an
tying up
love-philtres,dream-inducers
These
Galen
disregards,as also
adversary'stongue in Court.
One
had
man
experiment is crime.
deathly drugs, in which
who
offered honey fbt^sale,tasted
doctors
two
it,and fled
Some
thus
to die.
drugs also emptied the'Tjt)(i^H)iblo5tfand
induced
death.
According to a story Galen tells;in his youth,
from
man
a
Bithynian Thrace
(near Byzantium) accidentally
"

discovered

and,

on

liver, and
and

herb, which

his trial, stated

many
he had

others, and

and

had

first

he
out

the

on

antidotes

experiment.

inventor

of

arrested,

experimentedion
to the

aU.

aiSjTone

ihan

next

,On

but

the

it

was

pig's

he met

rack, he

growing

led blindfold to execution, for fear he

was

medical

it to

wks

He

effect.

killed them

so

disclosed

not

ever5rwhere,and
might point it
Poisons

he

this

successfullyapplied it

then

on

said

had

way.

largelyused and a large part of

Nero's
the
physician Andromachus,
exalts it as a panacea
a
long poem
were

theriac, in

against all poisons and for the most various disesises. Hence
took it every day as a preservative,for example Marcus
many
Scribonius
men.
Aurelius, but
especially all well-hated
of the well-known
catalogues the effects of most
poisons,such
hemlock, opium, henbane, gypsum,
whitelead, and
as
litharge,
their

antidotes,

Augustus by
Many

abused

one

of

which

was

invented

panacea

for

Marcianus.
their

science

and

dealt

in

cosmetics

such

the
on
Court-physician,Crito, who wrote four books
subject : Galen only retails the prescriptionsfor the retention
of beauty. It were
unworthy of him to detail depilatories,
fragrancesfor clothes or rooms.
the
that
the
dearest
stuffs were
As the opinion obtained
was

most

the

efficacious,and

the

rich, therefore, would

have

nothing

to
extremely profitable
cheap, his apothecary'sbusiness was
had
rich
whose
slave
Galen
the
man,
practitioner. One
that
of a dangerous tumour,
asked
for the recipe,saw
cured
its ingredientswere
cheap, and demanded
something not fit
for beggars. Galen
taught him a more
expensive one, and
he

then

experimented on

free

men

and

slaves, and

acknow-

Three

The
ledged
the

his indebtedness

two

and

kinds

cheaper

of
as

Galen

storax

rule, and

for

Galen

to

l8i

Estates
his

great

recommended

the

the

for

rarer

Laxatives
plutocrats of medicine.
costly and expensive.
The processes of popular drugs were

commoner

and

emperors
made

were

Of

successes.

the

needlessly

kept secret. Claudianus,

of Galen, found
in an inheritance, a parchment book
a friend
containing a remedy for premature baldness, which, he knew,
had been highly successful ; but it was
expressed in symbolic
Galen
could
language, which
scarcelypuzzle through. Scribonius
wonderful
Largus gives a
remedy for pains in the
breast
but
; it was
long known
popularized by Paccius
Antiochus
Galen
often
(a physician whom
mentions) : it was
for a doctor.
efficacious
and
He
a
good investment
very
prepared it with locked doors, and mystified his assistants
by tellingthem to pound many
powders. After
unnecessary
his death, the
recipe was
given, at his wish, to Tiberius,
who
deposited it in the public libraries, just as, later on,
Hadrian
and
the
Antoninus
Pius
ordered
like publication
'

'

of the

works
used

Drugs
and
it

of MarceUus
to be

intended,

was

or

on
'

instances.

some

labelled

objects,or

their

for

Berytus
tried by

Florus

doctors

had

of

name

whom

it had

drug

of

worked

mother

safe

"

(called the
(perhaps the

for
cure.'

'

'

as

',

'

Pamphilus
the

gout, made

for

Patroclus,

by

Pompeius

Ointment,

',

'

the

'

over

them

Galen

'

mentions

that

was

imperial
Sabinus

bling
hip, gout, tremwould
be
given,

anicetum

'

chin

Valens

Abumius

Phosphoros, Isis,Galene (the name

given by both
their
to
theriac), parrot ', phoenix ', swan
the
written
on
colour). The labels were
packets
drawn

Eye-salve

or

'

nectarium

of

of Drusus, after the other

'

ambrosia

gives

Strato

by
'

expensive
ointment) for
famous
jurist)for diseases of
Or
nerves.'
euphonious names

and

used

whom

Galen

well.

'

Instantaneous

eyes.

patient for

Berytus,

inventors,

their

her'.
'For
scab.
nearly blinded
profitableat Rome, when scab on

it very
raging.' 'Ointment

such

the

Antonia,

on

their names,

with

even

watery

found

freedman,

of Side.

'

{avUriTov),

Andromachi
'

adders'

(from
or

the

its

skin

poison

if

kept in a tin box ferments and bursts ; or on a string attached.

Only collyriaor eye-salveswere
stamped, and sent out dry, in
1

The

text

of Galea

must

be wrong

Antonia

was

the wife,not the mother, of Drusus.

l82

The

Three

Estates

sticks.
and
hundred
About
one
fiftystone seals of
square
oculists have
been
preserved,in England, France, Germany,
Austria

'

Italy only three, containing

the
of
the
names
physician, the object, the drugs, the
of dissolving(ineggs, water
or
ingredients,and mode
wine) '.
This
profession,unreservedly open, exposed to such temptation,
and

the

steal

ascribed

were

included

have

must

physician

Netherlands,

the

bad

'

or

Martial

characters.

medicine-spoon.

doctors,

to

in

Poisoning

feverless

'

makes

and

adultery

of

murder

the

hus-

the many
Greed, extortion, the spiritof rivalrybetween
schools, mutual
animosity leading to abuse at disputations

bgnd.
and

the

:
frequent accusations
said to be too cocksure, even
as
they were
against an Apollo
or
Aesculapius,and envious to the point of slander, persecution
fostered
in Rome
or
murder, especiallyas envy
was
by the
hugeness of the profits. His colleagues'hatred drove Galen
from Rome
in proportionwith his patients'admiration
; it grew

at

of him

bedside,

Lucius

to

or

Martius,

melancholy,
says

his voice

fights,were

sounded

Pneumaticists

others, named
many
Erasistrateans.
Tiberius
were

physician,wrote
for

which

him

'

and

'

an

and

illuminative

the

besides

Empiricists,
such

Menecrates,

the

work

on

there

them

founders,

their

Claudius

of

the

Eclectics

after

cured

from the
priestess's
general vices of the
practicalcontempt of

Uke

and
worst
most
golden tripod. The
professionwere
quackery, ignorance,and
theoretical
training.
chief schools
The
the
were
Dogmatics,

Methodics,

Galen

fine character, whom

as

the

Court-

logic in 156 books,

of
great cities passed decrees
many
his Roman
adherents
put a monument

honour

on

up.
method

Or

of
themselves
after their
might name
or
cure,
water-physicians : hydroe.g. olvoSorai (wine-givers),
the fashion
in Rome
under
therapia became
Augustus through
Nero
Antonius
of MassUia.
Musa, and under
through Charmis
Charmis
to
in the winter,
used
prescribe cold bathing even
treated
and dip his patientsin largebaths : aged consulars
were
of their
made
affectation
an
by him, who, as Seneca
says,
veighs
and
were
severe
torpidity'. Feuds
vituperative; Galen infrom
and
the asses
againstthe
simpleton Thessalos
these

schools

'

'

'

his

herd

', against

science, says Pliny,is

physician,founded

'

the

more

his

new

'

'.

No

wooden-headed

methodists

variable

Valens, the Court-

school,

; Vettius

to be

succeeded

by Thessalos

The
with

his

former

absolute

doctors

medicine

'.

Three

Estates
and

innovations,

He

mad

his tombstone

on

the

was

of his

polemics against
'

calls himself

profession;

no

all

tsnrant of

charioteer

larger retinue ; yet Crinas of Massilia

dethroned
medicine
him, throwing on
a
specious semblance
of truer
and
care
honesty, by associatingit with astrology,
and settlingmeal-times
by the planets. And he too gave way
to Charmis,
that three incompatible theories
of medicine
so
in succession
ruled Rome.
Beyond all doubt ',PUny continues,
their craze
for novelty was
simply ambition
patients
; the
their pawns
of their independent
the scene
were
; the sickbed
to
death
due
was
quarrellings: the tombstone, which
says
the too many
doctors, tells the truth.
Daily a new-fangled
science ; daily are
at
blown
about
the wa3rward mercy
we
of the talents
of Greece.
Any voluble person has powers of
life and
death
of peoples
over
though thousands
us, just as
did not live on without
did for six hundred
doctoring,as Rome
no
inapt pupil in the sciences and
years ; though she was
her of it '.
until experience sickened
hungered after medicine
in the latter days
Asclepiades of Bithynia, a talented man,
of the Republic, took up the teaching of rhetoric, and, finding
it unprofitable,
all at once
turned
He inculcated
to medicine.
diet, mainly based on expediency, but very adaptable
a
new
and what
with the grossest quackery
to the patient'smood,
the dead
he revived
^broughtit about that nearly all obeyed,
as
Phny says, his laws, to fill his coffers, as though he were
reached
descended
from
on
even
King
high. His fame
summoned
him
to his Court.
Mithridates, who
Asclepiades

or

had

head

he

183

pantomime

'

'

"

"

declined, but
He

his

won

sent
bet

with

longer deem

no

of

age,

success.

rivers and

provide
Magic

himself

faU

from

He

asserted

of

copy
Fate

of his

one

that,

he

were

physician, and
ladder.
Magic was

he

locked

lakes, open

of

knew

works

herbs

died,

ripe
great part of

that

doors, put armies

of Fortunatus.
purse
and medicine
had much

ill,he would

ever

medicine.

on

at

could
to

old
his

dry up

flightand

doctors

by
antiquity

in

good

welded
The

faith.

into
most

in common,

medicine

amongst physicians) was

throughout all Nature

in
'

in

was

employed

prodigious superstitionwhich

The

universal

and

infected
beUef
an

the

most

amongst

of

the

all

(not only
sympathy

and

antipathy
friendships and

titioners.
prac-

hostilities

of

things

medicine
had

Three

The

184
dumb

and

the

was

created

hundred

discovery

of

been

but

begotten

obtained

for sixteen
this

to

as

recommends

too

medicine,

Nature

abundant

had

mixtures

Pliny,

Thus

and

greed. Dioscorides
his pharmacopoeia

the oracle
as
years
He also tells of how

to

According

antinomies.

of these

easy of
and
their

expensive rarities
fraud
and
by human
sympathetic remedies

'.

unconscious

science

remedies

Estates

day

in

digging up hellebore,
for use
in such diseases
as
epilepsy and madness, ought to
stand
pray to Apollo and Aesculapius, and take heed
up and
not
to be overlooked
by a passing eagle, for this spelt the
serviceable
as
an
digger's death.
Jasper in any form was
woman's
a
loins, quickened birth.
amulet, and, tied round
be given to women,
birth and should
But eagle-stoneretarded
Turkey.

who

desired

and

bound
that

says

it,

with
the

that

was

the

to

thigh, birth
for

a
cure
jasper was
of Nechepsos, King

snake

necklace

the left

this, to be tied round

on

so

charm

made

of

of

wreath
worked

that

the

when

men,

would

Egypt,

or
on

the

the

entered

seven

Mouths

seventh
on

For

nonsense.

the

day,

of the

engrave

Galen's

touched
been

the

what

stage ?

to

of

the

do with

of the
It

the

on

experience
;

he

had

pylorus, and
imibeliever

theory

should

Nile, have

the
an

whereas

inflammation

critical

some

well, unengraved
stones

thence,

pangless. Galen
pains. A prescription

made
But

stars.

He
had
proved successful.
converted,
spells,but had been
mystical numbers, as appUed to
to him

be

abdominal

this

seemed

; if taken

arm

in

Pythagorean
critical days,

seven

the

Pleiades,
fact that,

lungs or the
happened just as

chest
often

Ulpian says that enchanters, or exorcizers,

be deemed
must
not
physicians,though many
proclaim the
ancient
was
an
good effects. Exorcizing of demons
practice
in Egypt, and
practised by the Jews as well.
Scepticsof
not
easUy doubt the astrology which, especially
magic would
of therapeutics,and
the foundation
esteemed
in Egypt, was
One physician,
doctors, or non-doctors.
indispensableby many
Servilius ApoUonius, who, according to his tombstone,
Decius
died at the age of ninety-three,had prophesied this astrologically
the phases of the moon
beheved
too
Galen
exercised
much
the things of earth
influence
and
on
approved the discovery
that the positions of the moon
of the Egyptian astrologers,
in regard to the good and evil planetsdetermined
the condition
on

the

other

days.

86

The

art

created

he

was

him

Three

Estates
in the

friendships:

many

relegated to an island, and there

questions,and a yearly grant from the

and

Anteius.

Another

Pammenes'

relegate

the

to

in

Consular

island

same

and

documents

secret

years of Nero
received
messages

latter

Pubhus

got hold

Publius

denounced

66

of

correspondence with
him : both
Astrology
by suicide.
like
aristocratic
form
of prophesying,
the
was
psychical
research
nowadays, in comparison with fortune-tellingfrom
saying
cards.
the
Artemidorus,
dream-interpreter,despised soothOstorius

Scapula for
anticipated condemnation

and

Anteius

from

the

sieves, cheese

the form

countenance,

or

the hand, dice, dishes,

only acknowledge dreams,

ghosts, as vulgar, and would

entrails,the flightof birds and the

constellations

modes

But

of

the

were

pamphlet.

would

turn

out,

and

low
were

made

out

the

would

merchant

'

the

starbook

weather,

days,

as

fact

tell the

'

makers,

especially

vulgar price.
certain
changes in
Columella
disproves

horoscopes

what

horoscopes.
prophecy in all
holy pretentious

species of

besides

many

certain

on

They
or

; he also doubted

favourite

also forecast

occurred

even

the

there

Circus, who

wind

the

authorized

Rome

would

They
in

as

society,high

prophets,in
in

and

horoscopes

ranks

fire,and

their

at

farmer

chance

his

how

his business

crops

stood,

rich testator
would
die.
The
a
heir-in-waitingwhen
be the most
last would
frequent inquiry, and the answers
suited the askers' books
Galen
:
says the rich only troubled
about
astrology as a forecast of legacies. Engaged couples
would
be
a
inquired of astrologers what
lucky day for
a
wedding, builders for the laying of the foundation-stone,
and
travellers
when
they should start ; the fee for such a
consultation
occasion was
denarii ("^ 7s.) To
on
one
a hundred
demonstrate
remove
possible doubt, astrologerswould
every
their absolute
knowledge of their clients' past. Trimalchio
recalled
himself
gotten,
forthings he had
says his astrologerhad
or

the

and
one
an

told him

than

will
friendships

your
Your
grateful.

will be

adder

'

to

your

bosom

thirty years

wealth

'

to

is

but, adds

Uve, and

not

great. You
Trimalchio,
fortune

No

prosper.
are
'

taking

I have

still

waiting '.
in his work
Firmicus
Matemus
stance
on
astrology(writtenat the inof Mavortius
Lollianusthe
proconsul and dedicated to him
354 A.D.)is at pains to present his science as innocent, elevating
and one
that none
and enlightening,
but those pure and holy as

more

The
priestsshould

Holy teaching, he
be

like unto

truth.

He

modest,

His

pursue.
their
faults

illustrate

Three

be

must

the

of

God,

not

the

Moon

dishonour
and

aim

the

end

187
budding astrologers

The

of the

and

affable, and

ever

initiate
second

little,that

book,

the
must

of

crown

dread

without

pelf love

mere

divine

art.

He, the priestof the

other

gods,

who

guide the

into

the

wear

approached

with

sober, frugal,content

may

to

dangers.

at

image

the

admonitions

and

says

Estates

and

Sun

plot

of

earth,

His
answers
behaving worthily of his model.
should
be publicly made
; the
questioner should be warned
of
to ask
nothing unseemly. Questions as to the condition
and
the life of the Emperor
he must
the State
pass by : both
criminal
latter impossible, for the Emperor's fate
are
; the
depends not on the zodiac : the lord of the world, his doom
God
of the gods set by the One
is supremely guided ; he is one
all things. So the haruspices confessed
to perfectand maintain
that no
godhead they could invoke could explain the superior
godhead of the Emperor. The master of all ranks and conditions
thus
Should
and
station.
is himself
a
god in power
any
inquire,he should not be objurgated,but gently reproved and
But
inform
not
corrected.
he
need
impious
against an
he might be
implicated in the guilt of
inquirer; otherwise
He should
the priestmust
be pure.
treason, and of bloodshed
must

have

at

wife,

and

house, many

friends, not

true

be

hermit,

wrongful acts, and be

careless of gain, a stranger to savage
passion,have no joy in
flee from
should
in all things. He
others' enmities, moderate
seek
sedition and
friendship,and always be blameless ; not
perjure himself, or practiseusury, or make others' loss his gain.
to beseech
not accept or promise on
He must
oath, not seem
his friends,
the gods for paltry things. To those astray, and
he must
point the right way, and save them from evil. Never
he
should
partake of offeringsat night, speak to any one
In his
secretly,but in full daylight exercise his godly art.
men's
vices, but
not
dwell too closelyon
horoscopes he must
yet abstain

show

from

all dissension

reason

some

reproach.

He

must

and

make

not

hold

the

himself

to avoid

hostile

aloof

seeming a
not be fond of pleasure
must
Arrayed
let him
proceed,and, thus only,study
of the

shows,

so

as

from

stars

the

personal

temptations
priests

partisan ; God's
in this

armour

of virtue,

the

stars

and

the

lot of

man.

No

soul

the

following books

and
prejudiced

on

seared

Three

The

88

Estates

lore ; an
the Divine
embrace
impious
passions can
true
he
mind
injures itself thereby. Spotless, pure, and
than
do his holy work,
must
and
purity avaUs him more
makes
to the fifth book, Firmicus
knowledge. In the proem
an
impassioned prayer to God the Almighty, the Father and
in one
Son
and
of
Mother
all beings, Father
kinship'.
moved
the
it
is
author
by a higher
kindly, if
May God regard
the
of
stars
impulse and a pure will to explain the courses
I written
these
For
and
have
their influence :
Thy Romans
rendered
in their
all things have
been
books, so that, when
he prays
not be the only exception'. Then
tongue, this may
into
the stars, the Sun
to forgive his intrusion
and the Moon
villainous
their secrets ; for no
curiosity or spiritof impiety
impelled him ; only a spiritstrong in the Divine inspiration,
whereby he had to upliftto the Temples on the Tarpeian Rock
what
of Egypt had brought to light.
seers

with

evil

'

'

"

4.

Agriculture

"

The

Marine

"

Subordinate

Offices

"

Service

Military

(i)Agriculture
This
or

the

occupation
marine,

commerce,

Italy only paid

Augustus sank to 4

in

favourite

higher

cent.

per

mihtary service
advocacy, clientship. Land

over

hence, when

interest

under

prices rose and land became

a
little poultry, vegetable or fruitreadily saleable at Rome, were

cent.,

per

But

of which
some

exalts

usury,

investment.

farms, the crops

rented

Columella

were

fruit-trees

near

Rome

earned

2,000

["21 gs. bd.) and flowers also paid well. In

the road
to Ostia paid 26,000
a vegetable gardener on
227 A.D.
Such
rent.
sesterces
as
investors,
high prices induced
many
including most of the landowners, to draw ground-rents in the
shape of interest on small holdings : the coloni under the
Empire throughout the realm formed a considerable part of the
(astheir inscriptions
population,and sometimes
prove) reached
great prosperity.
Small holdings,were
then, as now, in Italy,almost universal,
and large holdings were
of small
ones.
only a mass
But, in
of time, small
the course
rent-holders
supplanted both small
and
even
proprietary management
properties
Pliny the
;
he said that the large estates had
ruined
Elder, when
Italy

sesterces

year

The
and

the

provinces,can

of

children

times

At

have

only

in

been

on

of the

thinkingof

free poor,

for whom

and

lands
in the

mortgaged,

Placentia, and

ment
replace-

is shown
the

He

was

by

two

education

of

(at about twelve

neighbourhood of
Beneventum.

near

still

ownership

peasant

the

leaseholders.

point, as usual, as
Trajan's provisions for

value) were
(near Parma)

Beneventum,

189

this

their

Veleia

Estates

peasant proprietors
by peasant

exaggerating even
bonds, touching
the

Three

prevailed:
are
only two

of

out

of mortgaged
lands
there
fifty owners
large
and
owners
(their estates
amounting to 451,000
501,000
nine owners
of lands worth
from
to 400,000
sesterces),
100,000
rest all having smaller
estates
sesterces, the
(the Roman
of -252 hectares
of cultivable
acre
at
ground being valued
far greater proportion of the
a
sesterces). In Aemilia
1,000
former
small
holdings had been monopolized, as the rich
the
Po
attracted
than
did
the
country on
capital, more
half only possessed
Hirpine Hills '. There out of 52 owners,
'

lands

less

worth

var5dng

from

three

this

in

than

to

100,000

last

and

100,000,

about

and

400,000,

fifth

lands

category owning

as

estates

many

larger estates,

worth

than

more

million.
Vines

the

were

profitableform

most

of cultivation.

Seven

and
with
the slave
service, vine-stocks
iugera of vine-lands
the inventory, together with
interest
for the two
of
years
waiting, cost 32,480 sesterces
(;"353ids.),and Columella
says
this capital yielded 18 per cent., if well cultivated, not
to
mention
the
the
vines, so that despite bad
cuttings from
of management
and
accidents, the capital
years,
expenses
Palaemon
the earnings of Remmius
as
yielded a good profit,''

show.

(ii)The
Less

certain, but
marine,

initiated

and

constellation

favoured

country, looked
and

trusted

their

vendor

sunrises

their
and

served

their

them

accidental
to

purchaser
and

born

mercial
com-

the
;

their

unknown
needs.

The
lands

Crab
this

city

and

of

com,

world

was

destruction

winds.

sea.

under

goods through

over-sea

the

fortunes

their

Those

sea-trade.

for

out

Roman

in every
was
seen
flag of which
Astrology (circa 14 a.d.),the

the

spread

the

profitablewas

more

ManiUus'

to

According

Marine

and

Trimalchio.

unseen

whose

wealth

had

his luck

gained, ascribes

been

thus

Estates

Three

The

igo

(from an inscriptionon
well
at Praeneste
by his son) was
136 a.d.
and
respected for his honesty : he made
used
but
and
Umbria,
partly in Etruria
A

corn-merchant

erected

statue

Crab.

the

to

in

known

Rome

his

purchases
eagerly to visit
and
The
extent
variety
boundaries
the
beyond
winnings, will be later
'

the

of Roman
of

'.

mariners
of weary
went
which
commerce,

safe havens

the

Empire,

dangers

its

far

and

its

in detail.

examined

Subordinate
(iii)

Offices

the subordinate
posts under
sought after were
to freedmen,
the magistrates and
were
priests. These
open
and by them
filled. They were
almost entirely
paid,and could
of their superiors.
be permanent,
despite the yearly tenure
These
apparitores,on retirement, might sell their position
to a successor.
in the RepubUc, these
Hence, even
practically
officials had
rights of corporation into decuriae,
permanent
and, under
good imperial government, this system of protection
of power.
Almost
their guild a certain amount
won
Trithe aristocracy of the freedmen.
exclusivelythey were
The

most

malchio

wishes

that, had
Roman

most

and

wished,

inscribed

could

he

of

and

reputed

the

were

curule

best

the

treasurers,

quaestors

those

his

on

entered

have

tombstone,
of

any

the

in

the

substantial

would

control

officials ; and
the

accounts

paid

scribae

the

unfrequently lay

them

but

the

were

only

administration

Record

magistracies of
be

the

under

of

office)and
one

with

they could, through

and

of

the

taries
secre-

scribae

of

incorporated (into three decuriae) and

aediles
(into one) : both bodies being

principally engaged
(the Treasury and
book-keeping. With

of

it

have

decuriae.

The

the

he

to

their

archives, and

obligation

the

aerarium

pubUc
naturally,the

with

year,

the

the

the

permanent

under-

knowledge of the law,

office regulations,
not
cities of Italy and

of the

returned
of
the favour
in the form
provinces,which
civil rights and
decrees
of honour.
But
this high service
hands
was
: though they
comparatively seldom in freedmen's
excluded
their sons
not
were
:
were
admissible, but knights
also aspired to these posts. Just as the corpse
of Augustus
was

borne

on

the

knights' shoulders,

the

body

of

Drusus

Three

The
the

Elder

was

mentions

house

of

peristyUa the

Next

with

by

the

in whose

of the

the

various

scribe

walls

were

191

of the scribae.

Faberius

the

among

Vitruvius

the

on

covered

with

Aventine

cinnabar.

apparitores ranked

who
magistracies,

of

committee

decuriae

scribae

the

to

Uctores

carried

Estates

formed

three

the

decuriae

Sometimes

ential.
they might be influTo
consular
lictor of the guild of the Divers
one
and
Fishermen
of the Tiber
ment
(whose patron he was) a monuset up, as he inaugurated a service of boats.
Sons
was
of over-lictors
often
{lictoresproximi) are
knights. More
and
their fellow-oflScer
stitute,
subpowerful than the lictors was
the magistrate selected out of his
the accensus,
whom
to
be his
own
freedmen,
personal companion or intimate
a

To

even.

Lucius

one

post under

his

Trajan, during

Licinius

his

three

statues

Sura, the

consulates
set up

were

who

Secundus,

patron, Licinius

at least thirteen

and

ten.

held

and

Tarraco, by

at

friend

powerful

(g8, 102

this
of

107 a.d.),
individuals

by corporations.

Lower

than

lictors

the

in

progression

this

stood

the

and
meaner
folk, but
(messengers),mostly freedmen
some
quaestorianviatores were knights. The lowest of these were
the praecones (criers),
whose
their opprounesteem
sprang from
brious
freedmen
and
office. The inscriptionsmention
only
bastard
Manilius'
Astrology assigns an especial
praecones.
to the talents requisite
constellation
for these various
dignities.
bom
under
it
knows
his
and
Any one
city,
as_ praeco, acts as
viatores

broker

to the state

auctioneers

scriba cites State

; as

viator

; as

lictor arrests

or

Further, apparitoresof low

debtors.

standing often had a trade or handicraft, such

oU-seUing, pearl-dealing,or metal-founding.

the occupation most

Military service was
which
people. The
garrison of Rome,
of

or

four

nine

Cohorts

City

solely from

the

(who

were

the

from

freedmen.

had

higher

Service

in

pay

the

(in

all

tailoring,

preferredby
under
of

Cohorts, later

Praetorian

as

Army

(iv) The

consisted

doers
wrong-

Vespasian

ten, and

men),

13,000-14,000

the

was

three

drafted

free,but the militarilyorganized Fire Brigade

night-watch
The

rank

and

standing

City

police, about

and
and

Cohorts

file of
than
was

the
for

in

all)
garrison
legionary privates.

the

7,000
Roman

twenty

years,

at

The

192
denarius

day, the
Largess was
a

day.

Claudius

initiated

Three

the

of

receiving two denarii

right on specialoccasions.

of

purchasing their support,

Guards

Praetorian
a

Estates

matter
custom

by promising them, at his accession, 15,000

other emperors
yearly,or at intervals of five

sesterces

man

six years, used

or

distributions.

to make

only these advantages, the prospects of promotion

into
men
and
pension, the pleasure of soldiering induced
the
also
ranks
there
the
was
:
increasinglyhigh social
exempt from
position. Like the higher ranks, soldiers were
In a poem
written
the rack.
or
relegationto the mines
about
the beginning of the second
century in praise of the
mentioned.
the excesses
are
permitted to the Guard
army,
be warded
off
might neither
Any assault by a Praetorian
of the
nor
judiciallypunished, and, in the court-martial
Perregiment, no witness or evidence would be obtainable.
tinax
made
the Praetorians
furious, by forbidding robbery
But

not

violence.

and

less arrogant. The

no
provinces, the troops were
entered voluntarily,
mainly raised by levies, but many
legionswere
induced
able
by poverty and hatred of a regularlife : preferof
to them
was
twenty years
rough camp-Ufe (from 17
under
Hadrian
until
to 37,
42), unmarried, and often in the
This long period of service no
doubt
wilds on the frontiers.
uncivilized
the
hardened
and
them
and
:
stinting of their
to rob.
them
the advocate
Quintilianwarns
pay emboldened
In

not

the

to

whole

censure

something in
naturally do
more

familiar

classes

extenuation.
not

with

of Pescennius

rate

at

Soldiers

their

life

militarythan
awards

once,

him

or,

may

at

be

cheaply ;

civil Ufe.

least,

to

add

greedy, but
impudent, as

The

biographer

Niger
repressing
of
labour.
A
wood
or
oU,
forcing gifts
illustrates their arbitrariness.
tale in Apuleius' romance
A,
in
Macedonia
met
a
legionary private
gardener riding an
him
and
brusquely addressed
unintelligiblyin Latin.
ass,
No
answer
was
returned, and the soldier characteristically
knocked
him off his mount, and despitethe victim's apologies,
Entreaties
was
going to appropriatethe animal with violence.
met
with threats : the gardener simulates death, is robbed,
are
the
and
flew to a neighbouring town
and
shelter.
Thither
soldier follows him, and conspiresrevenge
he and his comrades
:
of
the gardener of stealinga silver ornament
accuse
his

soldiers

from

specialpraise for

The

194
little their barbarous
lies Laudator',
'

Guard,

Three

nature

runs

Praetorian

to

Cohort

who

started

ex

centurion

accessible

caliga {from

the

The

in the

service

and

Here

the

; whom

century

rank

'

of

bore

legion'.

barbarian

from
the
Italy, debarred
turned
gladiators and bandits.
man

faithfully led

who

of

polished.

Sassina

whom

man,

of

not

or

inscription of

one

rest

affected

was

simple, honest

Aquileia lays

Estates

of

youth
City,

file)could

command.
position of considerable
The
only gained
primipilatus,or highest centurionate, was
different
under
long military career
by few, by those whose
the fortresses
of the
Moors
and
assailingthe camps
suns,
of the
them, unkempt,
Brigantes (in Britain), had earned
this point
At
this right in then: sixtieth
unwashed,
year.
formed
called primipilares,and
retired.
veterans
They were
a
ally
specialclass, speciallyprivilegedand respected, and gener; if they were
enjoying a fair competence on retirement
made
not
; and, if veteran
always were
knights, their sons
centurions
in the cities of Italy and
provinces set the tone,
be even
eminent.
ferred
more
Augustus conprimipilares would
rise to

centurion,

be

all centurions

on

with

the

purple
primipilareswould
be

stripe and
hold

patrons of the

the

selected

as

in

honourable
the

Decurio.

of"ces

and

communes,

civil ofl"cers and

of

rank

highest

the

retirement

by

the

commissaries

to

toga

Generally

the

in

the

cities,and

Emperors be
city adniinithey would

(curatores).Further, as trustworthy men,

be employed on important messages
and services.
the
centurionate
Moreover,
might be the stepping-stone
in a two-fold
to further
advancement,
fashion.
Young men
of the third, or second
order even, began their militarycareer,
by imperial permission,as centurions, and, after serving three
equestrian ranks (thepraefectureof the cavalry,the tribunate
of a legion or
the praefecture of an
cohort, and
auxiliary
under
Severus
fourth position as well),either
cohort, and
a
strators

left the
or,

as

service with

the

title of

procuratorsentered

the

iribus

or

quatuor militiis,

administration, there

to advance

stiU.

this
higher
Knights, beginning service with
nonequestrian centurionate, temporarily lost knighthood, hoping
to
and
gain the honourable
well-paid ofBcers' command,
and
the highly salaried
procuratorsMps.

Besides

this,soldiers who

had

risen to the

primipilatuswere

The
encouraged,

in the

Three

Estates

Early Empire

195
the

enter

to

even,

officers'

legionary tribunate
being the next step, and
after that the praefectus
Often they were
casirorum.
appointed
tribunes
of the
City Cohorts, but seldom
praefects of the
the militiae equestrispetttores,
Later
on
auxihary cohorts.
called under
formed
as
Commodus,
a specialclass,
they were
to which
but
which
knights might belong,
gradually
young
to consist only of veterans, and these mainly Praetorian.
came
This
class, too, if knighted at a comparatively early age,
the
might attain the highest posts of knighthood or even
Senate
the
this ennoblement
is not
found
before
; though
career

the

of the

end

second

of whom

century.

it is known

that

No

few

names

they

rose

in

come

down,

other

of these

have
one

or

ways.
Clients

" 5.

of
During all epochs in the history of Rome, the number
must
have
been
men
livingby clientship,wholly or partially,
great. Tacitus, in describing the feeling at Nero's
very
of the Circus
murder, emphasizes only two
classes, the mob
and
the theatre, and
the uncorrupted adherents
of the great
the

houses,

clients

This
the
old

of

of

and

master

patron, who

his

be

may

banished

incomplete, but

The

servant.

faithful

testifies, the

Ennius

of the

significanceof clientela.
pietas,a sacred obligation ; its

relation

division

freedmen

and

extent
was

and

protected

him

Horace's

in

description of

the

Consular

had

'

mere

was,

as

confident

even

in his lord's or
Ul-paid attendant
scurvy,
In
the
later Republic, the
old
relation
as

echo

client

he

now

of

cUentela

later

and

demned.
con-

it illustrates

The

ancient

follower

and

become
'

king's

retinue.

might

survive,

Lucius

Marcius

Menas.
Philippus takes Volteius,
Philippus, and Volteius
for his personal quaUties,into his house, acting on information
that

he

and

that

was

man

of small

society would
companion, he

his

estate, but

blameless

relieve the

overstrained

him

merry,
business

his

daily associate, and

to
wherewithal
live.
But
this personal
soon
a
gives him
of the
to an
relation
came
end, with the increasing number
of their
the
ceremoniousness
clients, and
position. The
having a
Republican tradition of every distinguishedman
man

retinue

as

commensurate

morning,

to

accompany

with

makes

and

his rank,
him

on

all

to

fill his atrium

public

every
occasions, and

196
generally to
more

invest

common,

of

men

their

the

had

eminent

or

Cottae

generallypaid in kind
competition was
always
complained
day, clients

And

affabilityof

Senecas

and

aristocratic

condition

of clients

occasional

benefits, such

or

as

patron'stable, a

place at the

spiritof
and,

money,
casual

and

rare

cUents
invitation
valued

long service ; or, perhaps, presents : a worn-out

thousand
a
sesterces, or
shabby toga, sometimes
of land, as a final requital of lifelong attachment
mentions

friends,

he

is

one

thinking

his friend

cucumber

shell, its must

old

clients

the

to

It

was

cricket

the

the

he

indulges

of

smaller

than

the

few

it with

acres

(wherever
their

poor
Martial's

was

property.

in comic

given

flower

an

cloak,

to

estate

an

to

recognition

of Seneca's

out

poems,
size

could

rich

clients). Such

perhaps

diminutive

Lupus.

his window
for

of

of his last Roman

of the

of

meanness

of Nomentum,

little estate
In

the

at

received

of

Martial

even

one.

in kind

regular fee

the

Besides

Pisones,

The

changed

gazes

by regretfulmemory,
and Juvenal did find

Martial

miserable

had

enhanced

of

contemporary

one

empty

been

and

times.

olden

the

envious

cast

Mummii

the

patronage

have

antiquity may

other

of

and

pomp

of the

or

man,

its fee,

food.

buy

to

less

wealthy
clients, surrounding
merce
imputation of petty comthe
at
was
cheap
needy men

rich

service

generosityand

the

least

of

and

more

their

have

In
Martial's
pay.
of the
close-fistedness
great, and

of the

if

more

all must

train

Each

money
lowering the

the

splendour, became
on
exacting,even

with

and

Estates

sedan-chairs, refuting any

of
a
; and
great number

in

on

him

more

business

disposal of
Emperor.
or

Three

The

bed

exaggerations
him
by
outside

its

wing, too short

to he straightin, its harvest
might fiU a snailOthers
found
nut-shell.
it wiser to appoint
a
the

cover

supervisionof

Columella,

'

too

old

their

estates,

'

fee'd

men
hench-

do

to

daily service ', and

times
conducting
whoUy
they superintend. Somefreedmen
the patron gave his clients and
free lodgings;
but
loans, guarantees, legal help and
general protection
been
to have
Paetus
seem
regularly expected and received.
time to the private
Thrasea
was
impugned for devoting more
the public affairs of State.
interests of his clients than
But,
made
fed on great
a poor
as
a rule, clients
were
living; many
', says

incapableof

expectations;

'

few

what

', says

Martial,

'

got much

in

the

atria

The

Three

of the

the

Roman

In

toga

Martial's

6|- sesterces
to

The

the

on

arduous

lord

the

first and

if

anything,
to

soon

for
the

as

in

moving

the

who

way,

and

had

supply

to

in

be

punctual,

be

far they
dark

had
visit

to

having

call ; often

the

wait

to

would

to

the

in

return

of

sum

advantages,

help

to

however

started

did not

other

This

clients

admission,

generally they

wretched

essential, was

most

But

for

stupidity

laboriously earned.

full atrium.

again

many

much

how

be

to

morning,

hours.

wait

to

the

on

time

no

second

come

friends

had

task, and

king every
requirement of

social

men

Yet

'

this

or

the

had

up
clients

cUent, and

most

of poor

'.

hunger
'

197

were
day,
paid the
with
day, barely sufficient,

support

covers

for

pale

great ; most were

sought the service, even

Estates

'

sleep or digestion. According to Juvenal, as

is still
stars begin to dim, or whilst tardy Bootes

the

the

heavens,

rises

client

poor

his

from

bed,

of
lest the host
forgets to lace his shoes, anxious
visitors
have
their
orbit'.
And
Martial, too,
already run
he
for his Uttle
bitterlycomplains, that, in return
poems,
he
demands
little more
than
to have
his sleep out ; and
service drove
not ; these
endless troubles
in this ill-paid
may
in

haste

him
A

of Rome,

out

further

himself

his
it

ceremony
and
more

and

to

was

hot, cumbersome

Rome

be

the

streets

goods,
to

empty,

their

school,

feast.

Wind

others, might

toga, the

after

four

they
for

save

or

them.

present
and

cloak, disused

beginning of the Empire,

clients only, and
no
slight

more

went

even

would

be

bakers,

before
daybreak,
ways,
who
were
hawking their
in hand

being boys, going lamp

Add

out.

worn

their

meeting roysterers coming home

hail or snow,
or
no
inclemency
deter

to

of state

costume

cloth

more.

once

repose
client had

the

garb of the

first customers
or

the

found
the

in

in summer
as
expense,
In this accursed
toga
in

this

was

patron
at

more

he

home,

at

inconvenience

to

soon

and,

to

this

the

from
that

late

deterred

dirty streets,

the

had
several
to pay
visits,and,
long distances, for many
the
the
of
obstruction
the growing traffic,
as
day advanced,
from
and
the
the
tortuous
streets
dangers in the narrow
in themselves
overladen
These
daily inconveniences
waggons.
made

this mode

of Ufe

intolerable

Martial

makes

himself
from
the daily visit.
plead gout to excuse
This early call, being their principalobhgation,

one

gave

client

them

the

of salutatores

names

had

but

togati;

and

many
long, in

work

to

the cortigeof
all day
day, or even
ing
lords,followingor preceding his sedan-chair, accompanyof the

most

on

Estates

Three

The

198

their

all of his
with

him

to

take

their

baths

They

had

If

their

had

to

Were

the

the

at

lord

in readiness

be

country or abroad, they

an
empty place in his chariot.
they had to give,by gestures
the

travellinginto

was

to

crowd.

the

forcibly through

to

distance.

half-hour's

had

they

whilst

of Titus,

Baths

themselves

elbow

to

Agrippa

of

thermae

repairing

hour

tenth

the

at

visits whatsoever,

take

reciting his poems,

;
or
otherwise, the signal for the applause of his audience
of the togati
he pleading in Court, the collective bravoes
were
manifested, as Martial says, the eloquence, not of the orator,
but
of his scullions.
Once
an
especiallypatient client was
CaeUus
Rufus, and
dining with the hot-tempered orator
At
last the continual
still found
to keep the peace.
it hard
he

wearied

assents

least ;

at

once

here

'.

Nor

that

so

people

their

was

know

may

in

her

Iturius

cUents

Nero's

in an
eyes
failed
and

conspiracy
relegation to the
the city elections
of

great house
of their patron
Not
had

only
to

from

who

swarm

how

their

the

to

set

king

clients

in

up

his

Silana, and

agitated

clients

the
atrium

in

statue

from

his- slaves

humiliations.

slept.

reply ;

must

he

For

be

of
and

often

'

the
learn
the

well, cUents
calls

Columella
'

threshold

as

their

paid visitors ',

from
hearsay

slaves

vouchsafe

repulsed by a chained
porter
and lie outside like a dog. If they had some
urgent business,
off
and
could
afEord
be
usual
to
not
by
put
pretexts,of the
master
being out, or being shaved, or busy in preserving
the
first hair
from
favourite
shorn
some
slave, then
they
must
bribe the haughty slaves, who
much
tribute
thus derived
from
the scant
earnings of these poorer clients. And, after
inside, they stiU
getting through the half-opened door, once

no

often

has

people

two

honour.

'

the

to

Sometimes

patrons.

lying bird-catching
about

no,

55

banishment

Pompeii

In

lord, but

bitter

year

to

on

brought
their

the

endure

professionthe

attempt

his

in

are

say

Junia Silana
implicate Agrippina
sovereignty. The

the

Calvisius

and

combined,

we

Do

Sometimes
always innocuous.
in plots, the
discovery of which

clients.
of

work

they had to be the tools

spelled ruin to all participators.In
used

'

exclaimed

he

and

CaeUus,

Three

The
had

to

the

chamberlain

'

face

the

', and

admission.
in

', says

many

debauch,

will

the

men,

poor

humble

king,

desired

not

fall

showed

wait

to

to

'

his

to

answer

on

the

meet

his

as

lord

him

disfavour, and

into

patron

had

address

to

How

remember

to

client

reverence,

to

The

reward.

the

'

yesterday's

half-heard

But

greatest
he

were

from

out

condescension

gain
greetings

the

salutation.

return

name.

the

no

of

still,to

received

still wearied

was

visitor's

patron with
and

It

made

frown

the

greater efforts

great

yawn

who

stranger ?

and

haughty
interrupt their night's rest,

only

'

199

announcer

man

and
'

Seneca,

the

make

the

Usually,
preordained order,

of

pride

Estates

the

lose
'

friendship

at

from
restraint
in his client's presence.
by freedom
Often
lifelongservice would
change nothing in this respect.
The
being enraged, and
only understood
happy friends
is cheaper than
generosity:
thereby profited, for hatred
the Roman
grandees easilyput up with the loss of a client ;
to their patrons.
and clients were
often burdensomely of"cious

most,

'

But

'

exacted
patron who
greatest humiliation

the

Their

fifth
his

deals

satire

description
houses

many

is

clients

very

his guests, in

this ;

confirmed
and

food

and

Martial

humbler

other

the

Pliny

at

lower

nal's
Juveof

accuracy

In

others.
were

of the

masters

love.

no

table.

and

diners

Their

drink.

expect

general

the

by

differentlyfrom

could

however,

was,

with

painfullyevident.

made

slavishness

modated
accom-

and

house

standing

was

the

a
Younger warns
young
friend against such
combination
of luxury and
meanness
a
;
the
where
he had
at
house
one
recently been entertained
freedmen
the
for the guests, the
wines
lesser friends
and
of distinct brands.
of conversation,
were
Pliny, in the course
fared
remarked
that at his table, all, including the freedmen,
be costly : Pliny
alike : his neighbour remarked
that it must
his
not
the same
his freedmen,
as
rejoined that he drank
the
freedmen
the
himself.
Martial
makes
same
as
patron
'

'

flounder,
a
oysters, the finest mushrooms,
fat dove
or
a
thrush, whilst the cUent had watery mussels,
bad
a
mushrooms,
magpie that had died in
poor fish, and
dine

off Lucrine

its cage
master

;
an

the

old

client

vintage

Martial, being opaque

the

rich

marvel

drank

that

out

new

of

Sabine
murrha

of

out

vessel

murrha,

hquor.
obscuring
friendshipsno longer exist,
and

the

glass,the
And

like

says

yet
those

The

200

of

Py lades

Orestes

and

Estates

Three

have

follow
love, they must
Hecaton, mentioned
by Seneca

the

shared

^who

"

advice

piece of

food.

same

of

To
Stoic

the

love themselves.
show
they must
Juvenal paints a similar picture. The patron drank
out of costly vessels : but if such
given to a client,
a glasswere
the
he was
and
jewels counted, or he was
closely watched
jar. The fairest youth of Little
given a broken earthenware
Asia

waited

lord

the

on

client

the

on

African

some

runner,

nights. Slaves
bony-handed Moor, an
old cUent, and were
to obeying or tending an
demurred
jealous
him
hand
stale
of his sittingwhile
They would
they stood.
the
and
for the master,
bread
bread
was
; the
good white
it. The
lord
to touch
client was
repulsed if he ventured
ill feUowto

or

had

fish, with
toast

lamp-oil.

; dare

not

open
in
acquiesce
being the
The

author

of

the

had

thus

to

cUents
his

laughter

Bishop

in

dishes

to

Gaul,

chent

dare

his

mouth,

earn

their

scant
'

there

In

expresses

Piso

fight,so
Epictetus

hubbub

as

fifth

the

lord

insult

would

century,

facts

though
of the

are

centuries, the

the

to the

and,

no

tq

invited

cUentela

the

riches

and

clients had

reign, and
In

families

senator, from

the

paid
and

was

same

duties.

dear

in

flattery.

expect

be

to

kiss his hands.

second

the

rise of
and

derived
their

new

third

ished,
undiminno

fewer

aristocratic

Fronto

youth onwards,

century,

vanishing

probably

than

feast, or

second

senators

influence
the

of the

the

Rome.

for, despite the

doubt, these mushroom

advantages from
predecessors. The
Clarus

of noble

giving
being plucked, their
their being provoked

if not

provincial families.
number

arouse

of broken

of

change need be looked

old aristocracy after Nero's
and

of

says

Valerianus,

characteristic

no

municipal

Gavius

as

poor

descriptions, mentioning

these

known

guests.

the

that

few
The
honoured
being given a back seat.
morning visits, bearing the patron company,
rich
to
must
a
man
Any one
seeking access
repulsedor shown the front door, or to have to
Few

his

or

host.

morning visits as
show
equanimity,

should

lord's

ejectment, must

Uvehhood,

indignation at

Tiber

his

and

nobody's

their

amuse

confirms

and

client

to

of

says

guests, at their beards

poor
being taken from under them, and

chairs

drink

not

for fear

on

client

the

laughing-stockof hig

Eiicomium

'.

oil ;

fine

The

that

patron's house

general

to

and

lobster, asparagus,

of

meet

says that
showed
the

Three
Tlife

202

Martial,
Piso.

on

knight,and

scientific

or

For

Piso

only

offer

and

make

was

not

men

latter

clients

as

had

for their

room

the

houses

had

fortunate

in

of

literary
his

boors, who

his house

could

to

the

lot.

precede
friend

poor

downtrodden.

client not

But, especiallyin earlier

Encomium

only wit enough

In

lord.

and

contemned,

was

crowds

had

service, and

mere

few

only

he

in

pleasure

no

of the

the youthful author

to the

According

Estates

cUents

times, when

were

more

had

some
responsibility
paid footmen, patrons, too,
of
and
grievance. Many had no leisure from their crowds
to slip out
clients, or, as Horace
by a back door,
says, had
Seneca
deemed
whilst
they waited in the atrium ; a course

than

crueller

than

Their

refusal.

requests he had to Usten to ;

ever5rwhere of his family secrets.

they gossiped anywhere and

at his table and
They brawled

At
fought with his freedmen.
the Saturnalia, on
Year's
New
Day and his birthday, they
lights,paper,
brought little presents,serviettes, spoons, wax
baskets
of Damascene
plums, angling thus for larger returns.

Martial, is most
man,
poor
says
he
friend, when
nothing.
gives him
The

'

generous
But
the

his

to

rich

speculation

client

seldom
always come
patron's gold
of his expected rent
the
rattling'. Instead
money,
might receive a flask of wine, a hare or game.
Every

slave

also

did

off

not

heard

he

claimed

his

share,

the

or

was

commission

on

the

present

carried.

the
Eight brawny porters, says Martial, on
of articles into
his house,
Saturnalia, dragged a number
scarcelyworth thirty sesterces in all ; one slave could far easier
carried five pounds of silver.
And
then
have
the poor man
had
to extol the giftto the skies, whilst his was
ously
contemptucast

clients

were

aside.

the

entertained

at

all

reiterates

table, but adds

that

as
or

well

as

thousands

must

freed

population

the

tombs

of

and

Rome

line

out

both

Saturnalia,

Lucian
at

often

their

all the

literally

almost

treatment

at

it.
justified

Freedmen
be

again

masses

beyond,

were

the

The

6.

slaves in

from

that

the

and

once,

their behaviour

it

conclusion

importationof

of

Juvenal's complaints

"
In

feasts

At

from
of

pointed out, that the

every part of the Empire,

whom

entered

the

every
third

year

hundreds

estate, rendered

extraordinarilycosmopoUtan. Of
sides of the miUtary roads
from

The
Rome,

more

citizens

whom

Caesar
been

in Corinth.
be

may

immigrating
East,

and

and

Rome,

said

them

Romans

of the

from

not

the

of

far

as

might
always

he

as

the

"

the
even

nationahty.

century,
Little

but

Greece,

Lucan

of every

second

and

South

out.

scum

sea,

fact

testamentary

provincials were

especiallyfrom
original Romans
with

80,000

of inanumissions

extent

restriction

free

The

places beyond the

was
certainlythe

as

of the

limited

masses,

the

the

in various

Further,

in

populated

East

he

-203

freedmen.

to

Augustus'

thrusting the
a
city filled

calls Rome

but

settled

from

hundred.

one

belong

indication

gathered
"

Estates

mostly freedmen,

Some

manumissions
to

half

than

have

to

seem

Three

Greek,

was

Asia

and

the

(the chief river of Ssrria)had flowed into

the
Tiber.
Athenaeus
(circ.300 a.d.) says that the cities
in Rome
innumerable
were
; whole
provinces,such as CappaThe huge number
there settled.
docia, Sc5rthia,Pontus, were
of Orientals
of the
be gauged by the numbers
Jews.
may
An
of
Herod
to Augustus was
embassy
accompanied by 8,000
Roman
of military age were
Jews : in 19 a.d., 4,000 freedmen
deported to Sardinia for infection with Jewish and Egyptian
true
of immigration increased
: the
superstition'. The volume
Roman
free-born decreased
by commixture
; in 24 a.d., a revolt
of slaves was
felt serious apprehensions
anticipated,and Rome
of the
at the limitless growth of her
decline
slave-class, and
and
free-bom
phbs. Augustus limited
legal manumission
;

Orontes

'

recommended

advice,
but

'

so

which

Greeks

part derived
and

secrets.

In

Oriental

industry

and

the
and

freedman,

pierced lobes
tribunes

a
400,000
from
Asia

darUng,

dreaded

to

and

'

geneous
hetero-

and
very

was

Their
wealthy.
great houses, in

in

made

or

acquainted

as

opulence

came

from

Juvenal

commerce.

Euphratian

Trimalchio

Rome
on

skill

of his ears,
for he had

year.

their

part

his

very
service in

ingratiatedthemselves,

indispensable or

rich

same

conditions

population was

often

'from

Orientals

shameful

one

aU sorts and

Rome's

foreigners were

in

themselves

citywith

the

successors

chaotic.

freedmen
were

his

and

multiplied and

and

riches

Senate

to fillthe

not

as

freedmen

The

the

to

birth-mark

with
their

makes

betrayed by

demand

praetors
precedence over
five shops that
brought him in
tells of how
he, as a boy, came
for fourteen

good footing with

his master's
years
his mistress ; and

The

204
he
the

in the

not

was

he

gods,

co-heir

with

him.

the

But

and

weight in
Neptune drank
its

deterred

him

with

them

he

and

Emperor,

human

he

with
ships,freighted them
gold. Unfortunately they
sesterces.
30,000,000
bigger and stouter

up
built

beans, perfumes and

wine, bacon,

made

was

left to
into

went

he

so

of

grace

fortune

senatorial

not

is

house

the

of

master

five

the

boasting. Thus, by

of

contentment

business, buUt
worth

habit

became

Estates

Three

wine, then

all stranded,
But

nothing

ships ;

loaded

slaves

in

one

bought back all the property of

a
palace at Naples ; at last owned
city ; retired from business, and now

made
10,000,000,
voyage
master
his former
; built

let

his

than

more

his

freedmen
:

another's
a

life.

as

credit

million.

"Freedmen's

Didymus

as

great

of

time

wealth

Early Empire,
yand ostentation.
his

as

does

have

left

an

be

to

estate

not

freedman,

(^"943,050)
; and
in the

heard

never

Petronius

Demetrius,

at Rome

was

'

'

nothing,

tombstone

His

philosopher '. His fellow

of them
began
people to be respected : one
has
of
and
carrier
800,000
now
a
;
faggots,
worth
been
but
has
is momentarily shaken,

and

30,000,000
freedmen
are

him.

millionaire

self-made

of

for

earn

'

inscribed

on

native

also
Of

is said

and

at

started

and

Sabinus, whose
was

in 26

consul

from

draws

left 4,000 talents

the richest men

Rome,

tastelessness

Calvisius

ignorance (he

have

have

must

proverbial
their

to

PhUomelus,

Domitian,

was

as

exaggerate, he

as

slaves.
in

even

the

impertinence
riches

were

a.d.),Seneca

properties and
proprieties.
On
freedmen's
tables
vessels
which
whole
a
ghttered, on
had
silver mine
been
expended '. In their baths, statues,
columns, waterfalls
abounded, all decoratively useless. The
mirrors
the
than
for their daughters' vanity cost
more
of old.
In sybaritic
dowries of the daughters of the statesmen
in all the greater
eminent
:
luxury they excelled the most
their
stood
contrast
vulgarity and ignorance. They, who
feared
the
had
once
now
whip, who
plastered weals and
bribed
brands
or
over,
physicians to silence, to take the
marks
to be seen
in snow-white
now
out,
^they were
togas,
scarlet
of
shoes
the
finest
their
leather,
Tyrian purple,
fingers
their
hair
with
the front
scented, and
on
jewels,
gleaming
of MarceUus.
of the
Theatre
benches
Their
predilection
remarks

he

had

freedman's

'

"

was

to

treat

their

betters

with

disdain.

The

rich

freedman

The
the

was

Zoilus

t5rpeof
in

the

Three

Estates

205

upstart, shameless

common

and

boastful.

he
:
wears
represents him, like Trimalchio
heavy rings, almost
as
heavy as his former
leg-irons; uses
sedan-chair
a
to
show
off his
:
monstrously big
maUngers
Egyptian bolsters with purple coverlets and scarlet quilts:
and
foods himself, whilst
enjoys the costliest wines
giving
his guests common
stufi and
leavings : his snoring at table
must
be respectfullyUstened
to, in silence : any one
happy
at such
feast the poet deems
of
his
bread.
a
worthy
beggar's
The
of
this
class
increased
was
self-complacency
by the
of their peers at Court, and the reflection
sight of the power
of that Court-glory on themselves
and
: their
sons
grandsons
often attained
in
high posts as knights and senators ; even
Nero's
such famiUes
of servile descent.
were
reign many

But

Martial

beside

showed

this

nobler

ostentation

of these

pride, the

pride

against the fainSant rich.

aristocracy,dared only hint at
class

outdo

the

nobles

in

their

of the

slaves,

low-bom

Cicero, in

as

'

former

the

but

the

of

and

good

able,

heyday

superiorityof

excess

few

no

the

of

middle-

evil

quite

'. Two
hundred
later, when
potentialities
years
had
the nobles
been
tuates
depressed by monarchy, Juvenal accenthe value
of the lower
orders.
CatiUna
and Cethegus,
with
all their blue
in attempting to
blood, aped the Gauls
fire the
Capitol and had to be curbed
by the ignoble new
of Arpinum, who, at Rome,
had
been
man
only an obscure
hailed
him
knight before ; free Rome
pater patriae. And
another
of Arpinum
it was
who
had
earned
his daily
man
in the
bread
when
of working
Volscian
mountains,
weary
the centurion's
others'
soil ; and he later swung
on
whip on
to a soldier entrenching but idly. And
he, as consul, checked
his
and
the
Cimbri
saved
the
panic-stricken city. Hence
the
second
noble
laurels, when
colleague was
only awarded
the gigantic
the ravens
and
fed on
flew over
the battlefield,
the
The
Cimbri.
and
soul
Decii, in name
plebeian, were
The
last good King
Gods.
accepted sacrifice of the Nether
our

'

of Rome

was

the

son

traitorously opened
were

tree

who

of

the

loyally betrayed by

gates
a

first ancestor

go, your
found
refuge in

indecent

slave

Andalusian

; the

was

and

banished

shepherd

camp.
dances

the

In
are

or

consul

t5n:ants,and

far your

However

slave.

Romulus'
songs

the

to

of Brutus

sons

family-

robber,

one

splendid palaces
found
seemly.

2o6

The

Dice
of

and
the

adultery

great

From

the

depths

nobiUty,
youth

who

Rhine

the

with

Hermes,

solve

the

only

and

glory

and

as

the

of, and

boast

noble.

ignorant

the

armless
devoid

sport

the

the

Euphrates

the

the
of

defend

law,

guard

to

humble,

the

useless

as

ancestry

an

of

the

who

eloquent,

eagles,

are

of

cobbler

riddles

the

nobles

the

the

emerge

Estates

shame

of

guilt

under

who,

the

are

the

Three

martial
and

the

busts
of

of
sound

sense.'

But
the

weaker

orders
in
and

how

of

constant

scattered

strength
upper

societies,

orders
to

sank
certain
this

succession,
sources

from

arose

can

give

the

out

and

decayed

extent,

how

regularly

fragmentary
no

ranks,

lower

sufllcient

account

idea.

the

and

three

interchanged
from

few

CHAPTER

IV

ROMAN
The

interaction

has

already been
in

of

SOCIETY

Society

Court

on

mentioned, but

Court

Society-

on

scribed,
only be imperfectlydeconjectured. Clientela corresponds

only

part

and

can

of visits.
And
the
closely to the Court ceremonial
social obligationswere
various
and
could
not
or
ofjicia
very
be disregardedby any one
in Society,and least by the prominent
members
and
became
extended,
: ceremony,
developed
stricter
subject to
regulations.
held
in the
I. As ia great houses, receptions were
early
hours
of the morning.
The
Roman
day assigned all business
to
the daylight, and
in the afternoon
brought it to an end
the
dawn
at the
left for
principal meal ; hence
only was
most
social obligations. Every morning, then, the
Roman
of many
to the
sound
feet ; the
clients,
palaces re-echoed
in dirty togas and
cobbled
shoes, clatteringup even
earlier,
most

in such

numbers

Sedan-chair

even

to

all around

him.

obstruction
like

mantles,
he

curtains, and

well-known
for

room

the

an

along ;

man

drawn
The

audible, making

fasces and

rich

cause

red

carriers, in

hurriedly carry a
some
sleep behind

their

as

servants

cry

of

in the

soldiers, would

would

be

knocked

enjoying
walking

his

clients

the

lictor would

consul, and, to the

who

street.

at

the

be

lictors with

doors, preceding

high dignitariesin purple togas, the crowd would

Or
a
give way.
appl5^g for the position of
needy Greek
teacher
in a
overdressed
noble
house, and
beyond his
of his patron, would
income
and tastes
imitatingthe costume
AureUus, a Greek
come
by ; or, in the days of Marcus
sopher
philoand
in a rough cloak
long beard, anxiously trying
to the table ; or
invitation
an
a
through a slave to secure
the

"

"

senator,

ambitious

for

consulate,
207

a
knight soliciting

2o8

Society

Roman
tribunate

legionary

of flies round

the

all,

"

coveted

Plutarch

as

says

swarm

remarks,

Seneca

honey.

like

"

doubt

no

whom
to
visited
seldom
men
experience, that many
they owed gratitude,and, to avoid seeming clients, succeeded
the
in being ungracious. At
stood
the door
porter with a
long stick ; his goodwill generallyhad to be bought ; sensible
men,
says Seneca, regarded him as a toll-collector on a bridge ;
him
their
others forciblybroke
in, answered
gruffly,or
way
to give him
a
whipping. People of lesser
begged his master
simply shut out.
standing were
columned
The
a
held, was
atrium, where
receptions were
hall with
houses,
an
aperture in the ceiling, and, in noble
who
had
for those
to
benches
were
capacious. There
very
New
Year's Day, 31 a.d., a sofa in Sejanus' palace
wait : on
that
the weight of the
broke
down
under
came
multitude
taken
his consulship ; it was
to congratulate him
as
an
on

from

of

omen

imminent

his

fall.

The

rooms

gorgeous,

were

ancestral

portraits
the
walls ; the
covered
lackeys in magnificent Uvery : a
of splendour,Ukely to dazzle the unsophisticatedstranger.
mass
to
had
be managed
or
The
principal slaves and freedmen
bribed
Nomenclator
or
announcer
: the
required long written
at Court,
As
lists, despite his selection as a good memorist.
visitors

there

favourites
at

be

divided

were

were

levee

the

rest,
shut

was

into

in

says
is

that

deemed

were

followed

his face, but

he

very
the
be

not

courted

who

one

as

has

of

seeing the

the

reception was

the

palaces.

over,

the

similar.

inside

freedmen

no

friends

lafet door

desired
door
one

before
:

this

impression.
of Sejanus
feared

he

paid homage

to

but

porters. Plutarch
him
to greet and attend
Seneca, to disarm Nero's
and

splendid
Great

the

The

When

atrium.

senators

In 62 a.d.,

morning-receptions.

satisfaction

secured

palace :

the

his
to

great crowd
his

in

them

seen

his

rich in friends.

suspicions,abandoned
the

greeted
says) summoned

most

Coeranus

clients, and

second-class

but
the
to
or
few, friends
open,
still could enter the reception-bedroom and

Court-receptions were
as
was
thickly beset
late or
might come
his

first-class and

(Cassius Dio
one

marble

doors

many
; fewer

Plautianus
the

with

huge, shining

lofty, and

of

manner

advocates

most

eminent

great

wave

hving,
enjoyed

visit them.
seemed

to

and
this

When

roll out

of

Roman

2IO

Society

for his absence

Pliny formally apologizesto Valerius Pauhnus
the
the day of his consulate
on
:
letting of his estates was
letter shows
what
This
occup5dng his personal attention.
considered.
a
was
Many, too, says
slight non-appearance
in the
seen
Martial, took pleasure in these duties, and were
consul
of any and every new
or tribune
; and Ammianus
MarceUinus
observes
that pedantic critics of history thought

retinue

all the
the

City

new

multitudinous

Other

later

place

of persons
should
Praetor's
retinue.

names

found

in

these

fulfil all
of any

or

better

by

another,

Martial

offer

had

had

of

Diana,

was

e.g.
be

to

witness

to

had

claimed

about

before
of

effusions

aU

the

addresses

the

tenth

consul

day long.
of

friends

m.any

assistance

an

dawn

the
which

document

appointments

by

the

advocate,

as

or

wedding or
time.
same
or
knowledge
than
praetermission of one
duty
necessary
sick-bed
visit
for
a
a
neglecting
banquet.

congratulations,none

he

social ties
many
of time, whilst to

at
presence
Want
of memory

excuse

took

funerals,

as

with

persons

each demand
may
commercial
advice
or

funeral, all at the

a

day, and

such

man

assessor,

is

functions,

obUgations very consumptive

impossible. Plutarch
says,

was

one

the

formed

catalogued, who

be

with
for

praetor, or

or

And

advocate

no
or

one

visits and

pay

returned.

were

his

the

to

seal

at

first and
had

Temple

fifth

Usten

to

dared

the

Then

hours,

to

poets'

refuse

to

or

rhetor.

grammarian

attend
At

hour

tired to
(the second before sunset) he came
to compose.
the bath, having no
time
It is curious ',
over
in Rome
one's
account
to
Pliny the Younger, how
says
oneself
of every
out
on
day seems
fully made
day,
every
but never
after that day.
The
ordinary day is filled up with
such
functions
the taking of the toga vivilis by a friend,
as
betrothal
a
or
wedding, a sealingof a will, assistance in Court
Session ; all inevitable
that day : aU seeming a waste
or
on
of time
'.
on
consideration, especiallyafter leaving Rome
These
sessions
are
judicial: magistrates,praefects,aediles,
used to invite their friends to sit as honorary assessors.
Pliny
'

'

'

also

'

mentions

social

sufficient to

engagements

and
day. Plutarch
exacting stUl, such
Pliny tells of how one

as

will,and

Regulus actually asked

one

witness

Martial
the
AureUa

specify other
witnessing of
put

on

her

occupy

promises,
wiUs

best

on

for

and

the
more

deeds.

making her
her garments

Roman
'

legacy.

as

to

seal the

of

what

he

In

that

order

received

has

'

',asks Seneca,

Why

wiU

Society

'.

these

are

man

The

211

dandies
not

may

deny receipt
of

legal making

wills

manumissions
who
A

of
required the presence
many
in
order
of
their
social
ranged
standing,
rigorous itiquette
governed the order

were

most

table.

Seneca

calls those

being given

seat

Birthday
weU-hated

him
be

also

as

sick

loss

of

his

candidate
the

most

or

summer

them

in

and

semicircular

with

official had

to

escorted.

governor

canvassing for a
weeks.
But
recitations
whole
were
by authors
wearisome
and
prolonged obligations : in spring
:
they might take weeks or months
Juvenal puts
the same
category as fires and collapses. On such
last

had

that

to

attend.
least

Cicero

says

considerable

men

to

From

the

distant

afar, and
a

connexions
the

accompany
forum
to

the

would
from
come
toga virilis,men
tions obtained, though perhaps in

Empire.

at

lower

condole

to

new

provincial
for days, and

most

the

at

the

his heels

on

the

of

guests

frequent social
condolences
:
Regulus,

occasions, cUents, friends and

to

of

Ages.

So, too,

new

of

personal.

another

were

visits

son.
a

order

and

witnesses,
and

get angry

Middle

all Rome

congratulated, or
assessorshipmight

An

into the

had

man,

the

on

down

who

This

congratulations

engagement,
a

them.

to

lasted
dining-sofas

fools

invited

less

sons

the

assume

similar

degree,

obUga-

under

the

of

desire

at such
assembUng very many
festive occasions, and
showing proper gratitude,the custom
of making
established
arose
was
gifts,which
monetary
by
the beginning of the second
century.
In this social whirlpool,self-Ufe became
impossible : deeper
natures

fled into

but

all might thus

not

the

country

on

unprofitable and

No

one,

says

Martial, has
of

vain

life he

control

hfe

hfe

must

of his

own

freedom

and

solitude

themselves

rescue

the

have

to

Seneca

is

lead
time

eloquent

at

Rome.

in the

ward
way-

is

fruitlessly
passed away.
But
busy leisure here found its greatest joy. In the Early
monials
Empire even,
passed their lives in useless cerevery
many
of
name
a
; as
conspicuous class receiving the new
In
II
ardeliones.
his
Astroloi^y,Book
(temp. Tiberius),
currents

ManiUus
be

says

that

City

those

born

under

certain

constellation

lively,nimble, indefatigable in rendering services,

fillingthe city Uke a people,crossing thresholds, friends
will

Roman

212

Society

everybody, ceaselesslycongratulating in

of

Another

speaks of the Roman

out
idly busy, ever profitlessly

poet under

nuisance

busybodies, a

others.

Seneca

nation

Tiberius

of the ardeliones, ever

useless

words.

identical

these

compares
the walls

of

down
up and
life is one
restless

themselves

to

and

bore

to

running aimlessly

to ants

men

of breath,

and

houses, theatres

Their

iora.

of business, devoid
inactivity,a semblance
the streets
of purpose, out of doors by every new
dawn, to make
more
they want
;
impassable. What
they do not know
pa3ring calls, or doing something. One
they only propose
must
compassionate them, running about, as though there
others'
And
arms.
a
fire, and
were
tumbling into each
To
unretumed
their object ?
visits, to follow a funeral
pay
the
last suit of a litigiousperson,
of a stranger, to attend
of a
last engagement
much-married
the
or
lady. After
these
futile scamperings, they come
home, not knowing why
da capo.
Even
they have been out, or where ; and to-morrow
old

tottered

men

kisses

of the

day, mouthing

'

Emperor.
old

Young

have

ones

no

visiting every

one

pantomimes

nor

her

up

the

names

excuse'.

One

his

day

who

II. At

not

serious ;

Rome

there

for

the

pass

Palatine

favourites

in

the

ten

of the

morning

every
law-courts
in

round

profit,material

the

the

day flirting,
gambling,
evenings,banquets, not for
breaks

ardeliones, but

many

one

and

charioteers

only for carousals, till dawn

were

circuit

tribune,

new

the

crowded

baths, toping, and, in the

and

the

grace ', says Martial,

hundred
years later Galen

hangers-on

fewer

made

some

the

next,

down

with

sweating

chair, every
of

have

of

daily

and

ran

tumultuous

the

forum,

who

ardeliones

Rome

the

describes

in the

and

and

weary

consul,

new

every
times

music

Rome,

hoary old men,

City,greeted every lady in

Rome's

'

about

also

anew.

many

was
genuinely busy
the
genius of the noisy, restless striving which
daily filled
universal
the streets and
chase
after money
palaces ; one
whence
the
derived
as
were
original good,
rank, respect
The
honour.
and
the
was
complaint was
just,that wealth

and

the

aim

sole

criterion

sank

inextricablydeeper (otherwise,says

they
a

the

would

aU

have

one

Rome

otherwise.

for

Pelf

the

Umbricius

emigrated); and, further,

rigid plutocracy. Hence,

downfall

of

or

of all that

lends

Pliny the
says
life real value :

ever
poor
in Martial,

Rome

Elder,

was
came

turpitudewas

Roman
the

best

of

Society

213

goddess served in many

individual fashions : but one
and
all agreed in strivingafter
riches alone : the most
honour
distinguishedeven
paid more
to foreignvices than
native virtues.
Be it ', says Juvenal,
that
to Gold
the Fiend
have
no
we
temples erected, no
altars to the jingUng coin, yet Mammon
is enthroned
supreme
God
'. Galen, too, complains of the loss of all ideals.
No
not blind
or
purbUnd, could not see how, under
one,
selfishness and
materialism.
specious shapes, there lay mere
means

advancement,

'

'

It

was

and

an

secret

open

zealous

at

Rome

that

the

most

wide-awake

of the

or dandies, were
officiosi,
ghoulsprofessional
their
in-waiting, flattering
expected testators, anticipating
to hasten
their decease, bribing doctors
death
astrologically
on
a
reproach hurled by Pliny the Elder against medicine.
The
extent
of this professionalfore-measuring of dead
men's
shoes
casts
lurid light on
the mendacity of the Rome
of
a
that
and
day. Not only adventurers
speculators trod this
path to fortune, for the upper classes were
unnaturally barren.
Even
in the
a
burden, undertaken
Republic, marriage was
Civil Wars
undermined
The
only from
patriotic motives.
the
crumbling moralities
permanently : and the remedies
of Augustus could
not
radical, and failed.
only be superficial,
In vain
and
to matrimony,
he fulminated
rewards
ments
punishto
barrenness.
and
For
the
had
childless
celibacy
of ceding an
too
much
inheritance
:
advantage in the power
comfort
could
add
of
to
and
cabn
the pleasure
they
envy
"

and

adulation.

As
had

early
become

Seneca

Augustus' reign, this reversionary speculation

systematic art, with its adepts and novices.

as
a

includes

Arruntius.and

in this class the

Quintus

Haterius.

two

senatorial

Satire

dwelt

orators
on

the

Lucius
relations

One
grabbers of inheritances.
of Horace's
wittiest
makes
Ulysses ask the shade
poems
of Tiresias how
he might make
by
up for the damage done
dead
the wooers,
to quaUfy to put on
and
is advised
how
men's
shoes.
here, and
Every feature of the art is found
afterwards
is only reiterated, how
the huntsman
ingenuously
his
tracks
the
and
down,
cunningly offers
quarry
quarry
false baits of hope.
Little attentions, great personalservices
there was
nothing they might not exact, presents of deUcacies,
wine ; it was
an
fruit, pastry, fish, game,
expensivespeculabetween

the

holders-on

and

"

Roman

214
tion.
of

advises

Martial

Fabius

one

leave

Bithynicusto

Society
to

not

anjrthing,as

him

grieve at

the

failure

amounted

his death

annuity of the 6,000 sesterces he had been every year

of the
rich
him.
The
health
weis
narrowly
spending on
kindliest
of the
observed.
If ill, they were
sure
nursing,
If
blown.
of being washed
and
even
having their noses
the temple
and
ex-votos
on
offerings,
they recovered,i.prayers
cast, and, says Juvenal, sacrifices
walls, horoscopes that were
suited
If a friend's house
of elephants and
men.
them, it
their
losses through
to
them
was
;
promptly given away
rushed
in to defend
fire were
amply compensated. Advocates
their cause
have
them
in need, and
been,
desperate must
if they lost.
In 58 a.d.,
Pompeius Silvanus, the proconsul,
in Africa.
indicted
for maladministration
was
Despite his
his wealth
and
childlessness
an
bought
rdany accusers,
The
verses
acquittal,but he survived his interested friends.
of rich old men
:
were
paneg3?rized: their recitals crowded
Annaeus
Comutus
such
as
(banished by Nero in 68),whose
of his material
packed by students
philosophy lectures were
most
wealth.
Their
;
credulously swallowed
patent Ues were
their
subserved.
at dice they always won
;
frailtywas
every
Ladies
refused
their ofiers.
Their
atria every
never
morning
hummed
Martial
most
with
the
prominent men.
specifies
to

an

as

one

old

of the
A

crones.

his Uctors
Modia's

clients' duties

on,

rivals

and

harder

to

his rounds

accompany

to

ten

praetor,says Juvenal, in earlymorning hurries

to forestall any
competing colleague at Lady
Albina's.

Mme.

or

to

vouchsafe

Difficult

rich

man's

as

every

it

was

outbid

to

it

whim,

all

still

was

Keen
were
specious disinterestedness.
for a happy return
and
the wishes
a
long Ufe, for the birth
of an
heir ; legacieswere
given, in the expectation of similar
of these provisions provoking a law
bequests ; the number
for their
factions,
invaUdity. Many
suddenly stopped their beneafter ascertaining,from
the wiQ, that
their object
had
been
boar
gained ; but, as Martial says, the meshed-in
withdrawn.
might burst his thongs, if the fodder were
All these
despicable serviUties might be frustrated
by
the schemers'
their
outwitted.
The
own
being
predeceaseor
without
to feed the hopes of the
hankerers
wanted
owners

keep

up

them,
satisf3dng
the

booty.

Ever

to

prey
and

on

their

again,

the

officiousness,and

promise

of

withhold

will

wills

Roman

Society

made

twenty or thirty times

pretend illness, cough ; Phny tells
the man
who
ably undertook
very
were

who

drug

a
'

did

has

and

not

hesitate

for

artificial

to

other
every
and simulates
thirsty,
and

barbel

Falemian

and

one

to

rid

Julius Vindex
Rome

his would-be

of

heirs

Nero

"

"

by using

paleness. Tongihus ', says Martial,

day : but he really is only hungry

be

to

of

would

They

year.

'

fever

pike

attract

215

diseases,so
able

to

'.

Caecuban

as

to hook

reckon

on

in fat thrushes,

supplies of good

past master,

even

if poor
of the

these
himself, might sometimes
secure
advantages
chUdless
and
make
show
of
a great
rich,
huge estates in Africa,
in

ships coming
sanctioned
other

the

hand,

hunting
and,

any

cast

on

from

else.
Many
Carthage or somewhere
On
the
morality of seeing the biter bit.
one
unwilling to have the slur of fortune-

him,

had

almost

to

avoid

the

childless

rich,

Phny, must not offer them gifts.

of
epoch portray the frightfulextent
this industry, incredible
but
for reiteration.
Only in one
is childlessness
deplored, in a congratulatory poem
passage
of Statius
to Vibius
Maximus
the knight on
birth
of
the
a
son
childlessness, assailed
:
by hostile heirs' avarice,
unmourned'.
and
buried
But
the
numerous
pictures of
aU tainted
with
rhetorical
are
happy barrenness
tion,
exaggerahabitual.
then often
In
this
merely
city ', Petronius
to Croton, writes
(under Nero) transferringthe habits of Rome
neither
science
nor
can
honesty
oratory is practised,nor
but
dJl
of
whatsoever
or
men
purity flourish,
belong to one
the angled. In this city,no
two
one
sets, the anglers and
who
has
heirs is ostracized,
acknowledges children ; a man
and
without
and
leads a shamed
lonely life. But bachelors
honoured
and
deemed
kin
model
It is a city,like
are
men.
and
carrion-birds
field during a plague : corpses
', The
a
wiU is read out, in which
a
story breaks off at the point when
made
conditional
the legatees'publicly
the legacies are
on
testator's
And
that this condition was
body up.
carving the
not
by a fragment of a speech, for, if
impossibleis shown
at

any rate, says

Writers
of every

'

'

'

close one's eyes, it is easy to see, not the himian

And
often ate human
millions.
beleaguered men
one

this

incentive.

facts, is shown
Senate

(a.d.63)

by
at

That

flesh,but

ten

out
flesh, with-

only caricaturing
contemporary complaints before the
Active
the childless
adoptions by which

the

Petronius

was

2i6

Roman

Society
'

rights of fathers : for the childless already

and
from
cares
burdens,
gained enough by their freedom
often attacked
who
this
and their popularity'.
Seneca
even,
of it),could
accused
write
often
legacy-hunting (and was
One consolation
to a mother
who
had just lost a promising son
:
secured

the

'

bold

but

childlessness
confers

sons,

says
and

old

and
that
that

which

power

age,

whilst

will

make

abjure or
fortune-hunting was
even

childless

in

have

you

gives more

on

influence

true

the

fact

it takes

than

depriving
many
disown
the

condition

that

with

away,
it of its

and

us

that

sohtude

support,

an

hostilityto their
'. Pliny the
them
Elder
most
profitableoccupation,
simulate

was

great

honour.

Tacitus

equally influential in times good and evil,

this view
did not
held
obtain, as
Germany, where
up
an
Pliny the Younger
example of uncorrupted morals.
testifies to one
of his friends' great civic virtue in having many
when
most
deem
and
sons
one
being a grandfather even,
tages
advansingleson a burden '. Plutarch witnesses to the same
of his satires written
of barrenness.
Juvenal, in one
of a friend
under
Hadrian, expresses
livelyjoy at the rescue
from
the sea,
and
orders
a
thank-offering: this might, he
not
the man
the father
of three
suspicious,were
says, seem
and unlikelyto be offered a sick hen or a quail. Under
sons,
Marcus
of Rome's
one
too, this profession was
AureUus,
most
obvious
describes
Severus, Tertullian
perversities.Under
of the kinds of patience the Devil taught the
heathen
one
in
(incompetition with Christian
endurance), as that which
snaring the childless endures with
pretended affection the
labour
of a forced complaisance '.
This
how
the practice impressed all contemporaries
long Ust shows
in aU epochs, and
characterized
and
illuminated
existent social conditions, ceremonies
and their object.
ItaUan
custom
Modem
is paralleled by the ancient
habit
of meeting in public places,for amusement
business
or
even,
in the
and
stations', pubhc squares
walks, baths, temples,
and
libraries, book-shops, or barbers'
apothecaries' shops ;
in
ancient
Rome
this
fashion
only
more,
prevailed much
says
and

that

it

was

'

'

'

in

of

consequence

splendour
and
over,

all.
men

of
In

the
the

went

the

mode

of Ufe

and

pubhc buildings,which
later
for

hours

of

walks, into

the
the

the
were

multitude
to
open
business

day, after
pubhc paths, lined

and
one
was

with

21

Roman

8
Plutarch

also

mentions

Society
entertainments

unusual

few

artists
dialogues, instantaneous
moulders
of Uttle figures as
or
presents for the Saturnalia.
tainment.
of enterforms
In cultivated
various
Society,too, there were
Andalusian
At carousals
girlsused to dance
gay
to the tune
of castagnettes and
flutes, and
accompanied by
doubtful
fools indulged in obscenities
and
;
songs ; clowns
such

actions

as

children

of

from

that

would

their

trained

and

Alexandria,

guests with

the

Platonic

impertinences ;

dishonour

the

at

Rome,

mimes

acted

of the

slaves

amused
in

parts
Where

honourable.

from
more
decency was
regarded,pantomimes danced, scenes
school, were
tragedies and comedies, especiallyof the newer
need
acted.
to join in
there
Plutarch
that
no
was
says
the applause at a banquet if the citharist sang
badly, or an
usual
most
The
his Menander.
expensive actor murdered
entertainment
solos

consisted

and

nauseam

the

But

music

the

There

common.

dote-teUers.

existed

One

without

one

have
banquets would
recitals from
Virgil or Homer
and
professional declaimers

modest

most

declamation

or

musical

flute-playing,often

party, says Martial, is

best

and

recitals, Uterary

chorus-singing,Ijnreand
:

music.

in

Tiberius

Claudius

Tiberinus,

an

ad
loud
their
were

anec-

imperial

inscription(which he composed) mentions

that
his jests made
the
life of long-drawn banquets, and
that he was
an
expert reciter of the epic poets, and performed
dramatic
of Augustus.
That
the
pubUcly in the Forum
recitation
in
of scenes
from
Homer
by so-called Homerists
Homer's
often took
verses
place at feasts,is fairly certain.
Often
the host recited his own
compositions.
After
habit
the
the
meal, gambling usually followed
:
often
amounted
to a dangerous vice, (according to Juvenal)
in Trajan's reign,especiallyin the ranks
of the aristocracy,
he aimed
his barbs.
There, in front of the
against which
freedman,

in his

of

statues

night long
sounded

august

and

went

the

won

to

bed,
Battles

dealt

by the

and

tunics

for

says

Galen,

devoted

science, and

out

lost ;

new

to

sires, the

rSveUle.

being

weapons
were

the

the

100,000

showed

much

Stoic

gambled

all

father's

trumpets
were
formally waged, the
fortunes
croupiers; enormous

when

their

sesterces

freezing slaves
as

descendants

zeal

were

to

endurance

disappeared, whilst
forgotten. Many,
dice,
in

as

earnest
this

men

pleasure-

Roman
seeking. St. Ambrose
and
the
applause and
There

estates.

paints
laments

unfalteringlyobeyed

feared

than

wrote

the

219

aleatorum

of honour

judgment

conventicula,

lost

men

as

specialcode

was

Society

of the

or

whole

won

in these
aleonum

circles,

consilium

records
Suetonius
judicialsentence.
letter to Julia, the
a
daughter of Augustus, enclosing 250
denarii : Augustus was
ardent
lover of dice and played, not
an
only on the Saturnalia, but on other feast days and ordinary
days as well : he says he had given each guest so much, in
to
order
Evens.
or
Claudius, too, adored
play at Odds

was

more

dice, and
The

conversation

indifference

itself.

shaped
to

to the

Senate

the

banquets

and

measures

of

had

'

book

them.

on

banquets and in societywas no matter of

Emperors, for it was here that publicopinion
know
in a speech
very well ', says Tiberius

in
in

at

'

22

a.d.,

society

restriciion

at

are

that

complaiats

prevalence
being clamoured
the

are

raised

at

luxury, and
for'.
Society

of

in
importance in many
respects in ancient than
modem
and
largely
Europe, as the only vent for publicity,
There
replacingour written and printeddivulgationof news.
is in Rome
', Count
(1804-1882) writes, a sort
Champagny
of pubUcity, unknown
to
Northern
our
sedentary habits ;
which
loses power
with
greater distance, filters but slowly
through the provinces, but operates very speedily in the
of
better informed
was
City. Perhaps Rome
every minute
its own
Paris
of to-day. The
doings and thinkings than
not subject to stamps or censors,
were
journalsof conversation
written
it
had
or
a
poUce or arrest '. Rome
paper ; but
more

'

'

was

government

organ

the

acta

diurna

published what

Emperor thought fit, and no more

; disguisingfact and
abridging reports : Court news,
family events in the highest
PubUc
also included.
circles, and City reports were
opinion,
in
in
modem
formd
as
Rome,
occasionally
expression placards
the statues or the walls : or in quick apprehension of the
on
bold insinuations
strations
of actors on the stage : or in popular demonat the Circus, where
greater licence prevailed. But
satiate ;
not
coidd
these
desire and
scanty inklings roused
the
forcible suppression in the one
and
news
spot, whither
the

'

of the
was

whole

world

decided, could

surmises

and

flowed

in, and

only augment

fiction in this

'

where

the

guesses,
talkative and

fate of the
and

rumours

world
and

interpretingcity

'

Roman

220

Society

only foster curiosity and conjecture. Tacitus, even,

worthy of inclusion in history. Thus,
thought city rumours
could

in 54 A.D.,

mentions

he

that,

the

on

of

eve

War,

Parthian

instabilityof the seventeen-year-old

Nero
filled some
with
anxiety, whilst others trusted to his
and
Seneca
: or
counsellors, Burrus
again, in 70 a. d., that
Galba
legions under
reports of the revolt of the German
of
and
became
more
more
frequent, and, in consequence
the Senate
the
popular acceptance of all melancholy news,
the
In
northwards.
same
year
Embassy
despatched an
versary
the i8th July, the annihis pontificate
Vitellius entered
on
on
inexperience and

the

of the
to the

omen

conversation

newsmaker,
Palace

of

tell the

facts.

who

knows

Arsacidae,
forces

the

before

sees

the

laurel

rain

has

fallen in

from

Africa, and

thy

craft ', the

the

condition

knows

unsealed

it has

thou

tell

no

He

how

'

'.

news

exact

Danube,

can

Dacia,

from

and
often

how

knows

ships have sailed

Capitol. Spare
with
me
to-day : on

many
the
on
dine

and

the

man

the

and

arrived.

closes,

poem

last

despatch

laureate

next

the

Rhine

Upper Egypt,
the

evil

an

Vitellius'

to

the

on

of the

contents

AlUa,

the

and

Cremera

prohibitionof
it, and
spread more
only increased
have
allayed and
publicity would
Martial
has depicted the professional
is doing in the
what
King Pacorus

war

the

the
of

strength

the

rumours

forth

the

on

all-interpreting
city'.
on

disquieting
shown

defeats

'

'

too, there

Women,

were,

everything that was

going on : caught the last
at the City gates, or set them
in circulation
rumours
; were
the
to the
first to see
adverse
(November, 115) the comet
King of Parthia, and could detail all the floods and earthquakes
who

in

knew

farthest

the

East.

Conversation
of Rome

In

one

meal

even

the

friends

are

lutism
abso-

the

but

cautious

most

foreign poUtics.

or

asked

to

frugal

to

and
talk of
the
Blues
guests may
in the Circus, and
not
to bring any
are
my
cups

the

day,

my

defendant's

dock'.

This
to

'

in

regrettable next

'

pubhshed UHjder Trajan,

is stiU despotic :
freedom
realized

was

avoided

the

allowed

any mention, save

touched
home
on

of Martial's, six
poem
at which
freedom,
any

Greens
to

topics was

prevented

distant, that

and

be

these

on

imperial Rome.

is included
poem
show
that
the best

of

thought
This

and

enables

was

to

book

government
'

word
us

in

one

gauge

never

the

Roman
frightfuloppressions
only

the

look
every
filched from
death.

well

lost
as

then

Eavesdroppers
'

impossible :
been

imperial Terrors,

when

not

malice
in the
phrase, uttered without
of wine, might testifyagainst the speaker, but
victims
surrounded
with
were
spies,and their
noted
or
down, their thoughts
sigh or murmur
trustfulness
them, so as to punish their guiltless

destined

with

the

221

confidential

exhilaration
the

in

Soeiety

memory

with

could

tongues '.

our

treason, which

to

In

facts

brand

'

silenced

picture

of

of this

almost

converse

Tacitus,

have

we

his

the

connect

condescended

', says

even

speech,

made

would
our

have

mind

trials for

the

period, Tacitus

as

high
only

obvious
delatores,
higher and more
their
shameless
at pre-eminence :
who, by
profession,aimed
the
baleful
secret
spies and eavesdroppers he passes over
with
contempt.
secret
of the
of the
scheme
Only scattered indications
down.
tutions,
police have come
Perhaps, as in other imperial instithe Persian
According
monarchy provided the model.
he
advised
to Dio, Maecenas
should
have
Augustus
throughout
the whole
should
be averted
Empire spies to report what
or
prevented, but should be cautious in his credence of them.
the
ascribes
Dio
same
warning to Livia ; for spies often
appointed
denounce
the innocent
from
spite or for bribes, or being disof their
or

intentions,but

of

feeling.
accurately as

the

blackmail

words,

mere

Claudius

often

and

silences,

mere

instructed

for

not

his

spies

overt

acts

expressions

or

inform

to

him

family circumstances
(presumably amongst
For
the
remiss.
been
knights and
senators): they had
or
people, informed
against as being childless, unmarried
accused
man
frequently proved the contrary. One
poor,
of an
he
unwas
attempted suicide, stripped and showed
wounded.
to

to

Nero

discover

manner,

who

says

filled with

the

utilized
the

were

that

the

ghosts

police are
they frequented the
as

the

secret

visitors

result
of

the

was

PUny,

victims.

of

the

in

his

barbarous,
Soldiers

first mentioned
houses

their

and

brothels

under
noble

and
in

Otho
and

the

inmates,
bombastic
the

City

civil dress

(69 a.d.);
rich

and

spread a general panic. Precipitate confidence ', says

soldiers.
A
the
to
over
Epictetus, gives the incautious
'

'

soldier

Emperor

civil dress

in
:

his

sits

simpUcity

and
you,
allures
you

by

begins to abuse the

to
equal frankness.

Society

Roman

222

organized a special
tained
as
spies,and maincorps, the
In
his reign,
houses.
in his friends'
surveillance
a
fearful
this
vicious
a
height. Aristides,
system reached
in his eulogy on
his successor,
says that the entire Empire
had
been
oppressed with servile fear ; everywhere spies
and

prison follow '. Hadrian

as
frumentarii,
policeand then

chains

on

were

and

the

alert ;

no

dared

one

utter

his

thoughts
feared

dumb

freedom,

his shadow

one
:
justicewere
; every
horror
and restored
but the reigningEmperor had banished
this
in the capital
in full and
It was
freedom
ample measure.
that spies abounded
most.
Tigellinus caused Apollonius of
with the Argus eyes of Empire, standing
Tyana to be watched
with
or
sitting,silent or speaking, or eating; and noted
he ate, and when
he made
sacrifice.
whom
Apolloniushimself
of itatemight
calls Rome
reform
a city aU
: no
eyes and ears
be dreamed
of, unless by a man
yearning for death : even

intellect,and

in

things licit the wise

on

self-made

Marcus

deceiving
upper

the

soldiers

the

by

himself

The

who

man,

Aurelius

the

classes

not

were

wished

to

purchase
Emperor
the

were

free.

too

most

recommend
a

had

himself
he

librai,y,
says
many

surveyed.

to
was

and
ears.
eyes
Caracalla
made

himself
to
alone ;
employed
him
them
:
only he had jurisdictionover
they informed
the
The
senators.
thoroughly and tyrannized over
very
he
Severus
that
biographer of Alexander
appointed
says
competent secret spies,for the hope of the spoilsdepraved
society. In the fourth Century, Diocletian
reorganized the
secret
the entire
police over
Empire : they, intent only on
their
concealed
own
ends, persecuted the
innocent, and
false coining. The
crimes, such
as
comparison Libanius
makes
of these informers
to dogs who
have
an
understanding
with
the wolves, and
the many
and
passionate complaints
of the writers
of the day apply equally to the first century.
The evil was
true to its vile nature, and
new
only as ramified.
The
of these
spies in the milder reigns, as under
power
the

thus

of

Lucian, in his satire

Antonines, may

Rome,

answerable

have

been

less

but

never,

in

imperial

politicalconversation, in assembUes
or
of the
places, permitted. Dread
lurking informers
caution

was

in conversation

in

which

of

dangerous

essential

all is learnt
secrets

was

and

nothing

not

Tacitus

calls Rome

hushed

The

up.

always evillyintended

public
made

city
spread
a

impor-

Roman

Society

tunity, curiosity,incaution
Seneca
'

attributes

Hence

',

public

and

be

heard

huge

he

says,

this

with

told
he

this

the

to

private,and

refers

gossip;

chatterers.

cUents

blurt

To

greater delightthan

of

out

and

drink

harm.

of

Rome.

words

are

elsewhere.

The

great houses

slaves

of their

secret

reticent

of the

domestics

of

spying on affairs
things, neither to

subject

and, stillmore,

steal

to

of

Seneca's
the

to

idlers

busy

frightfulvice
the knowledge

safety'.

never

great deal

many

of the clients and

numbers

furthered
be

'

nor

noticeable

this

caused

223

said to

were

master

his Falemian

was

there

attribute
not
to them, out of spite
they would
at some
Even
punishment.
though his slaves keep silence ',
his
horses
and
Juvenal,
dogs and lintels and walls
says
will speak : closed
windows,
stuffed-up chinks, extinguished
nearest
lights, solitary sleep, ^nothing will prevent the
tial
he did at cock-crow
'. MarpubUcan from knowing what
coachman
received
one
sesterces, for being
20,000
says
110

was

crime

'

'

"

deaf.

Hence,
and

furnished

experience

active.

were

full of evil talk

the

personal doings quickly spread abroad

for gossip. Besides
matter
informers,

new

scandal-mongers
so

of

knowledge

of

Cicero

even

said that

'

could
hardly any one
St. Jerome five hundred

escape

sexes

thus

were

treated.

'

city
calumny ;
a

later, who
years
his character
and

each
absent
guest in turn had
says that
habits
puUed to pieces. Especially relations
two

in

Propertius called

between
this

the

the

fee

other
plain
poets of his day compay for beauty : he and
at this persistentgossip. Statius, in his poem
the
on
at
can
marriage of Stella and ViolentiUa, says that Rome
women

last

In
this
talking about.
branch
the
women
were
especiallyhappy. And, beyond
the
these topics,all these busybodies knew
faults of
secret
man
man
one
paid for his mistress, and how
; what
every
owed
another
feasted
till daybreak, that
Titus
man
Lupus
loved having their luxury common
700,000 ; and the luxurious
talk.
or
great banquet
Any intestate death of a rich man,
of a poor man,
provided the banquets and thermae and theatres
with endless matter.
and
stations
PUny the Younger tells
a

see

friend

outwitted
than

the

the

embrace

of the

death

she

has

and

will of Domitius

expectation by
leeches

who

were

been

Tullus, who

thinking of his relatives

awaiting his decease, and

had
rather

gives

Roman

224
the

various

his
is

how

opinions held,
iiatterers

expectant
all that

Society

Rome

is

admired

some

after

Or

'.

talking about

new

evading
'

concludes

He

all.

his
:

This

palaces

and

tragedy with bold passages,

topic, a new
celebrated
all, the
or
a
pantomime's last dance, and, above
The
Circus.
Emperors made every effort to divert the people,
and the
greater the preparations, the greater the success.
villas

be

might

the

for the

Passion

stage,the

and
Rome

time

no

and

weather

the

of

stopgaps

(the

athletes, food

These

were

in Martial's

upon

good

good

smells
of

the

of

balsam

Alexandrian

an

well

as

loo

So

Cotilus.

One

who

and

cinnamon

has

Circus

the

on

the
beginning) were
Epictetus recommends
on
gladiators,chariot-

talk

drink, and, least of aU,

and

gladiators
a.d.) left

about

endemic

of

even.

small

no

was

Remarks

method

fop's interests
descriptionof

fellow,

fellow

usual

and

author

culture.

cultivated

the

little conversation,
races,

of

think

to

Circus

the

classes

affecting the upper

racehorses
(according to an

Rome,

at

are

and

arena

of

some

the

dandies

they
his

and

of his

on
are

persons.
touched

day.

'

You

what
all say.
But
is
hair nicely curled, and

who

them

can

hum

the

tunes

Spanish dances, and sits aU day long

the
between
ladies, whispering, writing and
reading billets
doux ; who
also hates being jogged by his neighbour, and knows
also
one's
who
from
runs
one
lady-love; one
party
every
knows
the
to another, and
pedigree of the best racehorse
Is this right, Cotilus ?
Then
it is no
matter
by heart.
easy
to be a good fellow.'
The
to
to the
see
principalduty of a host was
guests
talk
interest
to
about.
having pleasant topics of current
Plutarch
has
enlarged on this art of leading conversation,
the
main
constituent
of social
intercourse.
He
as
gives
of
where
ofl"ce
has
been
an
fully
successexamples
questions,
proper
audience
had
of the Emperor, or the sons
of
held, an
have
been
a
man
progressing well, or in unpleasant things,
of a guest's personal foes.
the
defeats
He thought that
on
from
the megalomania
of retailing
explorers suffered most
their
own
experiences; Epictetus cites the boring iterations
old campaigner in Moesia
of an
I said, I was
as
:
climbing
the
when
Sportsmen loved
escarpment,
questions
to their hounds, athletes
the
on
as
on
athletics,religiousmen
obtained
sacrifices by the grace
success
or
through dreams
'

'

Society-

Roman

226
the

stood

refining of

of intellect to
chios

had

good

the

taste

pleasures.
almost

were

talks

was

universal
for

Trimal-

society of

art

tion
educa-

literature

and

satisfied

felt and

extras

the

: even

science,

on

Plutarch,

rude, says

cultured

These

pleasant dessert

The

them.

and
even

feast

its

this

want

Plutarch's
conversations,
by propounding and solvingriddles.
at Rome,
Sossius Senecio
partly at the board of the Consular
wide
field ; some
circles, cover
a
partly in his Greek
very
should
the
host
assign
dealing with the banquet, whether
free to select, whether
his guests their places,or leave them
the
so-caUed
consular
the
place is the highest ; whether
the land
or
simple food or
sea
give better food ; whether
Or in phUosophic circles, acutemade-up dishes are better.
the first
tested
was
ness
by such questions as, why A was
Or they
the egg.
letter ; or which
or
first,the hen
came
long-sighted,why
might be scientific : why the aged are
diseases
blankets
and chaff ; whether
is kept under
new
snow
cussed
how.
Or
arise and
can
literary problems might be disHomer
calls salt divine, and
: why
only the liquid
of Venus
wounded
oil liquid: which
hand
was
by Diomede.
Or in aesthetics
and
the stage afford
on
sorrow
: why
anger
of them
the news
pain ; how to
pleasure, and in life even
the
Or
notable
avoid
degrading effect of ignoble music.
facts might be handled
the
or
:
birthdays of great men,
Pythagoras' prohibitionof eating fish ; whether
Jews forbade
the god
was
eating swine out of respect or disgust; who
after the planets were
of the Jews ; why the days named
in

order

reverse

the

withstand

effect

of the

evil

Learned

eye.

men

the

tive
temptation of giving an over-exhausdissertation on their subject. LucUius, a Greek poet under
Nero, complains of the philologistsof the dinner-table, and
begs his host not to inmiolate him to the pedants and wordnot

might

of

sticklers

to-day

from
with

would,
their

craft

of

hearing
their

trivial.

with

had

could
and

could

aeiSe flea ?

severely abstract

songs,

Varro

Aristarchus

fhrpiw

who
fellow-guests,

themselves
and

the

not

he

excused

Philosophers,too,
speculations,torture

follow them,

anecdotes, and

deprecated

be

such

and

things

reUeved
common

table-manners.

to
appropriate some
people, too, wanted
impressive
for exhibition
at
the
philosophic snack
Emperor's table,
and studied philosophyand attended
lectures,so as to impose

Some

Society

Roman

dazzle
on

the

have

been

now

ideas
of

banquets

many

session.

academic

place

to

be

here,

in

considered.

where

been

they

intellectual
of

objects

the
of

exchanges

have
than

and

culture

society,
than

usual

more

of

would

they

or

monograph-writers

syllogism.

then

may

neighbours

catalogue

of

form

habits

their

with

guests

particular

Such

be

might

who

senators

on

227

and

only

are

gay

companionship
and

the
the

philosophy

consideration
nature

'

',

and

ancient

more

in

living

thus

were

cultured

must

far

were

of
of

in

For,

now.

intercourse

personal

but

at,

advancement

learning
But

laughed

them

the

kind
is

society

of
not

has

CHAPTER

POSITION

THE

dissertations

these

All

the

as

life of

information

of

women

also, and
Uttle

was

reached,

with

modem

then

did

betrothal
times

necessarily been fragmentary,

are
only occasional : of the
only of those of the upper

is known.

maidenhood

Roman

WOMEN

OF

have

sources

classes, very

last

and
the

were

of

long
marriage

anxious

care

as

soon

as

followed.

puberty
Identical

of mothers,

relatives

(such as birdie, Uttle

little mother,
Uttle lady) and
the Usping
dove, httle crow,
childish language and the lullabies ('sleep,my
child, or suck '),
of soothing (such as
other
rattles and
means
beating the
hit the child),
and
the many
at
stone that had
superstitions,
aU ages : such
as
binding on teeth of horses and boars to
the teething, and
old wives'
aUeviate
simples and amulets
As
a
preservative against the sirigae,
against the evil eye.
or
wrapt up in the swaddling-clotties
vampires, garUc was
and

nurses,

and

the

hawthorn

words

not

planted

in

endearment

windows.

the

of Venus,

mother,

who

would

mumble
for
a
passing a temple
prayer
make
The
her daughter's beauty and
a
vow.
figure of the
made
artificiaUyperfect. They wore
girls was
tight stays
from
early childhood, so as to raise the hips into reUef, and
often produced rounded
backs
nurses' carelessness
or
unequal
could
not
This
have
been
confined
shoulders.
to
practice
Galen
it most.
observed
Terence, in a
Pergamus, where
the
mothers
customs, blames
pointing at Roman
passage
made
who
breasts.
girlsweak, with low shoulders and narrow
thus
not
caU
a
Any one
crippledthe matrons
pugiUst, and
the finest natural
her : thus
starve
even
figures are all as
was

like

as

Many

peas.
mothers

gave

the

whole
228

care

of

their

children

to

The
slaves

nurses,

the

and

229
Wet-nursing

Italy, however

Favorinus

as

and

was

deplored by

Plutarch

Plutarch's

give suck to her own

daughter (who
died
in infancy). Physicians wrote,
giving full directions
to the selection
of a nurse
her milk
as
:
ought to be tested
And
of Ephesus, a physician in
Soranus
by three senses.
Rome
under
Trajan and Hadrian, advises the employment
of
of

certainly did

barbarians.

Greece

in

philosophers,such
wife

often

and

rule

general

Position of Women

Greeks,

not

that

so

languages, and
often

so

caused

Little

children

receive

the

the

beautiful

most

attention, lack

utmost

of which

bow-leggedness.

girls had,

amber, baUs

learn

may

and

toys, flowers, coloured

as

shells,

stones,

in modem
(with which
Italy many
still played), and
thus
often
are
are
represented by
games
artists : and
movable
dolls, of ivory and
terracotta, with
limbs ; examples have
found
in the tombs.
been
Plutarch,
in a letter to his wife on the death of their daughter Timoxena
of
instance
an
(she had already lost four sons), mentions
her
sweetness, that she used to bring her toys to her nurse
to give suck
to.
sated
of play,little girlswould
sit at their nurses'
When
feet, and listen to fairy-tales. Roman
fairy-talesbegan like
.'
There
ours
:
once
a
was,
day, a king and queen
upon
and led the child's mind
into the same
bright realm of wonder.
Roman
beautiful
for words
too
:
princesses,too, were
the
fairest
of three
sisters
envied
and
was
pursued by
nuts

'

'

intrigue;

in

and,

the

prince,whilst

the two

death.

too,

when

sigh

We,
the

of

the millet
the ants
to

her

Next

work.

as

to

know

the

how

to

sheep,
from

did the

and

the

came

mistress's

pullout

consigned to

on

three

the

dragon's

of

behest,

fairest
shameful

child's

the

face,

labours, and

the

for her.

from

eagle

the

wool

fetched

aid.

pick out
morning to evening,
The reeds whispered
of the wild golden-

she

grain from

work

tufts

the

the years

the

accomplishment by supernatural

huge heap

and

married

too

suspense

perform

their

evil

from

came

fleeced
water

the

at

she

ugly sisters were

princess must

relief at

When,

end,

'

her

had

to

the

miraculous

well.

of lessons.

They

were

taught womanly

man's
a
Embroidery, as a general rule, was
tion.
occupaVarro
only requires girls to be taught painting, so

be

able

to

judge carpets

and

curtains.

Spinning

and

weaving
houses,

the

was

work

for, in

principal subject :

clothes

.daughters and
the

Position of Women

The

230

Augustus'

Even

home-made.

still

were

old-fashioned

and
and
wove,
spun
sisters.
and
his wife

of

hands

the

Vespillo (consul 19 B.C.)in the

tombstone
of his wife Turia praises her above
for. her especialvirtues as a spinner. Naturally
less in the aristocracy,and
in the lower
more
the
classes ; even
Cynthia of Propertius, and
who

ponsoles himself,
'how
to

DeUa,

the

fallen

not

were

on

late

tales

of

at

asleep, but

up,

with

bare

that

most

women

matrons,

and

spun

other

nurse

she, at the

feet

loose

and

were

too

how

aU

sound

the

women

this obtained
and

middle
Delia

the

of

Tibullus

wove.

parting,by imagining the next

night, by lamplight, will be
old

an

wore

Quintus
inscription on the

of

Lucretius

TibuUus,

he

granddaughters

maids

meeting,
listening
will have

of his

step, wiU spring

Columella's
grievance

hair.

luxurious

and

idle to

look

to

the

that the custom

spinning and weaving of the home, shows
Rufus
was
obligatory,though already in decay. Musonius
and TertuUian
both specifythis duty of women.
Inscriptions,
as
good spinners, or
depicting a loom
belauding women
as

their

very

emblem,

late

evidence

prove
of

the

continuance

it is found.

of this

Ausonius

custom,
in

his

nephew's wife did not pass over

thanks
his daughter
busy spindle : Symmachus
from
dress sent
Baiae, a fine example of her homely

on

his mother

'

and

and

his

'

her

and

poems
their
for

work

affection.

Daughters in the higher ranks received learned instruction

at home
; only the smaller people sent their girlsevery morning
to early school, to be disciplinedby the master,
hated
so
both
of boys and
girls ; and both sexes
were
(perhaps up
instructed
to
certain
asks :
a
only)
together. Martial
age
to be read out by a hoarse
is it a poet'sambition
and pompous
to an
schoolmaster
unsympathetic crowd of boys and girls?
at
The
tomb
of a schoolmaster
Capua depicts an elderly
man
on
a
high seat, on his right a boy, on his left a girl.
According to Paul of Aegina, reading and writing should
classes at the age of six or seven.
be taught in mixed
The
mentioned, but seems
higher instruction of girlsis seldom
been
the same
the boys',reading and
to have
as
explaining
in
both
languages. Boys and girls,says Ovid, read
poets
Martial
Menander, though he is nothing but love-stories.
'

'

'

'

The
mentions

Position of Women

epics and

tragedies as

read in such schools

poems
bride Maria
for going on
with

Claudianus

praises Honorius'
and
poets (such as Homer
her
mother's
guidance.

Greek
under
that
and

Christian
Terence

231

teachers

be read

Caecihus

instead

late

fault

at

are

Sappho)
for

of St. Paul

freedman

Roman

Christian

poets

poet

says
Horace
lettingVirgil,

and

Solomon.

Quintus

and
a
Epirota,
learned
man,
taught his patron's daughter after her marriage
with Marcus
Agrippa ; he was
suspected of an intrigue^d
dismissed.
The
was
pupil in this case
already married:
thus the danger involved in privatetuition of boys (according^
have
been
of girls.
to QuintUian) must
as
great in the case
and
Music
an
dancing formed
important part of girls'
a

Catilina's

education.

well,

literatures

friend

danced

'.^

should

woman

'

chairs

Horace,

of their

by feminine
also
as
irresistible,

fascination
voice

of

movements
was

skilled

as

well-trained

and

her

in

both

improvisations of
dance.

arts.

native

But

her

honest

an

Demetrius

as

great part

pupils.

In

Ovid

calls

elegy

an

two

and
of

the

on

his

well-trained

the graceful
or
adept Ijrre-player,
Hostia, the lady of Propertius,
Statins
praises his stepdaughter

an

deserve

excellences

the

than

she, he tells his wife, will

knew

better

spent

charms,

dancer.

sang

who

musicians, such

of

known

Atticus, and

Sempronia,

and

Famous
time

TigelUus, in the
day by the easy

of

and

it, her

songs,
talent

or

playing
her

find

soon

the

on

white

arms

in

man,

lute, her

swajdng
comparison

nothing
with her taste
times
inscriptionsthe cither sometinuance
typifiesthe maid, and the scroll the youth ; the conin heathendom
of music
the
as
principal female
is vouched
for by St. Jerome, who
education
says Christian
for organ,
maidens
should
have
flute, lyre, or cither.
no
ear
of
of dancing consisted
in rhythmical movements
art
The
the upper
then, as now,
; and
part of the body and the arms

to

the

and

virtue.

was

On

no

grace of the
national
A
dances.

little of the

women

of Rome

was

attributable

woman's
a
good carriage was
tion
especialcharm, as Ovid testifies,and, as a Republican inscripnoble'.
Of
'Her
fair, and her gait
runs:
speech was
Greek
the stringed instruments
played by girls,and of some
condemned
as
were
sickly and exciting. Girls
dances, some
of singing. On
their powers
used to exhibit
days of fasting
to

the

Sallust.

The

232
or

festival,choruses

Position

of Women

of

nine

thrice

noble

maidens

used

to

a
hoped, would
lady, Horace
procession ; many
At
saeculare.
remember
singing his carmen
learning and
the funeral of Augustus boys and girlsof the highest families
chorus
a
the
dirge. At the apotheoses of emperors
sang
mournful
set to
of noble
encomia,
boys and women
sang
In addition,
and solemn
ttiemes, by the hearse in the Forum.
common
in improvising to the lute songs to poetry was
facility
of Statius'
in the case
as
daughter
stepamongst
girls and women,
and
Phny the Younger's wife.
and
Thus
pedagogues,
occupied,thus supervised by nurses
maiden.
the
the child became
a
PUny
Younger portrays a
pleasant, well-educated
girlof a great house in his laudation
Minucius
Fundanus
of the
(consul 107
daughter of Gains
She
died
was
or
108), who
shortly before her marriage.
not in all fourteen
years old, and had the sagacity and dignity
of a woman,
with maidenly charm
and virginalpurity. She
used to cUng to her father's neck ; lovinglyand simply embrace
his friends ; love her nurses,
pedagogues and teachers, each
in her studies.
after his right. She was
zealous and intelligent
She
patience and strength she
played rarely well. What
showed
in her last iUness.'
Twenty years ago, the marble
of
bride
discovered
behind
a
was
cinerary urn
young
Villa MeUini
Mario.
She
is inscribed
Monte
on
as
being
twelve
eleven
months
and
seven
days old. Pliny
years,
puts his date too high.
At
an
a
early age, parents sought to assure
daughter a
and
suitable
at the
happy
marriage. The lowest age was
beginning of the thirteenth
inscription on the
year ; the
of a twelve-year-oldchild says
that she was
just ripe
grave
for marriage. Often
introduced
groom
brideto their
they were
the rights of wives
even
earUer, but attained
only
end
of their twelfth
at the
A
of
Severus
rescript
year.
them
from
accused
wives
as
prevented
being
(though they
could
for
the
as
a
fiancees)
previous adultery. Between
Rufus,
usuallymarried.
ages of thirteen and sixteen they were
in
Hesiod
a
physician tinder Trajan, followed
considering
the normal
too late in modem
agd eighteen,but said it was
who
was
days. A womM
twenty years old, and had not
been a mother, became
liable to Augustus' provisionsagainst

sing

in the

'

celibacy and

;
childlessness

nineteen

fuU

years

were

the

The

234
three

younger
engaged from

than

years

been
few

Position of Women
husband,

her

and

childhood,

to

whom

she
with.

grown
up
in the
men

had
The

middle
and
marriages of
lower
classes
under
eighteen or twenty, exceptions ; this
authorized
is any
accords
with
Nowise
Augustus' law.
the
idea of a custom
of marrying ofi half-grown boys* In
senatorial
ranks, the holding of the quaestorship (the first
have
at the age of twenty-five,may
step),generally reached
Helvidius
made
been
Priscus
was
a
preliminary condition.
Thrasea's
Paetus
son-in-law
a quaestorian. Junius Avitus,
as
aedile designate, had
died
been
married
who
one
as
year,
had
had
child.
and
a
just
in their childhood
Often
these
betrothed
:
daughters were
is no
betrothals
; there
being negotiated by intennediaries
court
Latin correspondingto the words
and
woo
Marriageat Rome
brokers
had
to have
seem
a
regular business and
of"ces.
their own
The
men
appUed to
spokesmen or young
the
betrothal
was
parents or guardians of the girl. The
once
solemnly and
festively celebrated.
PUny the Elder
Lollia Paulina
saw
(a former wife of Caligula),at a betrothal
festival in a not
the
very prominent family,standing under
lamplightsparklingwith emeralds and pearlsworth 40,000,000
sesterces
she was
as
(;"435,ooo),
only too eager to prove by
the
the bills. At
betrothal
the principalquestion was
the
dreams
Dream-book,
According to Artemidorus'
dowry.
of children
trouble, for to bring them
always mean
up is
troublesome
than to dream
: to drga^qf a daughter is worse
of a son
for a daughter 'ipeans a dowry and
of
is a kind
:
creditor :
And
the daughter'^s
"claim is absolute ; however
great the labour of rearingher, she leaves you with her dowry,
facts

make

extant

'

'

'

'

'

like
A

dun

with

the

amount

betrothal, however

of the

long, did

loan

not

.'

afflect the

relations

of

the

each
other, unless the
pair. They stiU did not know
bride was
before
given to her husband
reaching puberty.
Any ani"kaJ or slave, says Seneca, or every article of clothes
before
the
bride
or
dish/ is tested
purchase, t)ut never
by her gtoom. Any vices she may havepf passion,stupidity,
misshapedness or evil breath are learnt bnly after marriage.
The
was
conception of bride with its haUowqd associations
,

unknown
other

to

Greece

and

an
bride-gifts,-,gave

Rome.
iron

The

betrothed, besides

ring without

stone

(iron

The

Position

of Women

235
\

rings were Iworn

a
as
gold one

in earlier

days

as

seal

rings),and

afterwards

in
pledge of faithfulness, but received none
When
return.
the
trousseau
the
wedding-day drew
near,
and
wife set the house
in a bustle.
houseljioldof the young
Pliny the Younger sent one
Quintilian(not the author),
to
service
and
the
trousseau, a present of 50,000
provide'i
sesterces
is.
6d.),as he regarded himself as the bride's
{;"'543
second
father,and
Quintilian,though not very rich, was
marrying \1ihe
daughter of a high official ; remarking that
ance
his contribption
small only in view
of QuintiUan'sreluctwas
have
to accept anything larger. Any
rich bride must
ornaments
and jewelryincluded
in her outfit,generallythe giftof
took
of her childhood,
the bridegroom.
The
maiden
leave
her toys and
dolls to the patron deities of her
consecratrnig
the mother
hfe ; and, at last,came
the day on which
younger
her
decked
daughter for the great procession. The principal
ing
a square
flaming headdress, fallpart of the' bridal robes was
to her sides and
down
leaving her face exposed.
At
dawn
the
of both
homes
parties filled with friends,
a

relatives
contract.

atid

clients, who

Both

homes

atria, in which

the

also

were

ancestors'

acted

witnesses

as

to

the

especiallythe

festivelylit up,
cupboards were

opened wide,

twigs. The
woman
leading the bride brought the couple together : they
also
went
sacrificed, and offeringswere
up to the altar and
bridal
the
made
in the temples : the streets, through which
to
was
thronged by the curious, for
processionwas
pass,
stands
In ancient
whom
days, the bride
might be put up.
at the rise of the eveninghouse
only entered her husband's
were
this custom
had
died
star ; but
out, though torches
Flutes
also lit in the streets.
always used : bonfires were
lifted
bride
The
was
heard
amid
the
were
joyous songs.
her new
threshold, and, in default of a banquet at the
over
the day, at
to crown
would
be one,
bride's home, there
the
Augustus
bridegroom's, his bride sitting beside him.
of
feasts
more
these
restrict
the
endeavoured
to
; no
luxury
the wedding and
should
be spent on
sesterces
than
1,000
and

decora(ted with

the

after-feast

been

regarded.

large numbers
given
moneys

this
The

carpets, wreaths

sum

is too

expenses
entertained, the

to

the

and

small
were

doles

green

for

the

law

the

guests in recognitionof

have

with

the

clients,and

the

great, what
to

to

the

honour

they

The

236

of Women

Position

of marrjring less
desirous
Those
doing the house.
thus,
the rite in the country, and
extravagantly celebrated
td the young
sent
invitations
incidentally,
escaped the many
married
how
couple. This was
Apuleius and Pudentilla were
hesitation
without
at Oea
assume
(in Africa); but we may
similar customs
in Romje.
in aU the provinces and
To such
wives
have
be^ a sudden
marriage must
young
release from surveillance to freedom
absolute, and ati awakening
must
have
to an
girls)
enlarged horizon : for, then as now,
were

been

is true,

secluded

much

very

his frivolous

excuses

less bold

than

the

daughters go
good families.
ancient
days,

to

by
poems
whom
ladies

mimes
see

but

These

such

can

daughters

refused

sajringthey
and

thetr

hardly

have

almost

were

the

to

access

Ovid, it

families.

in old-fashioned

are

much

grown-up
in
been

always,

dinner-tablte, to

in

spare

for
actually,girlsleft the nursery
the
Fundanus
state, as Pliny's letters to Minucius
that
planted
show.
From
narrow
sphere, they were
suddenly transof splendour, with
all its enjoyto a dazzling world
ments
of
which
in
and
all
share
distractions,
they might
I
for good or for evil.
their

young
married

And,

ears.

great authority. The old

dciwn at last,
Roman
paternal family autocracy had broken
of women's
and the legalization
proprietorshipin their dower
their final emancipation.
In the so-called free marriage,
was
under
the
usual
received
Empire, the husband
only the
dowry, and that not absolutely : aU the rest of the wife's
not
a
having even
property she had control of, the husband
utilized
this
make
usufruct.
to
Probably wives
power
their
husbands
Martial
knights or senators.
praises one
Nigrina, who divided her paternal inheritance with her husband
Rusticus
died
in
Antistius
(who afterwards
Cappadocia)
affection
than
Evadne
This
for showing more
Alcestis.
or
unassailabihty of the wife's property occasionally became
An
insolvent
the
would
bankrupt's resource.
assign his
Apuleius
property to his wife, and so cheat his creditors.
In

their

that

asserts

such

the

The
and

father

of

could

stewards

of rich

and

and

gold

wine

had

they

his

when

conveyance

his dishonour,

by

home,

own

leave

accuser

Herennius

bankrupt, and,
his

son

ladies, who
favourite

thus

Rufus

sheltered

3,000,000.
had
charge of the

slaves,were

made

jewels

generally proven

The
freedmen.

Often, too, they had

possible,lawyers,
The
is

erected

Pudens,

A.D.)

with

long
her

suicide,

the

pyocurators, if

counsellors

and

of

fidents.
con-

Sestinum, in Umbria,

at

procurator Petronius
Marcus

Justus.
(consul 6

Lepidus
Aemiha

Lepida, the

daughter
adoptive grandson

; in

conviction

36

a.d.,

for

adultery
escape
his inscription,
asserts, that, as

to

in

Pudens,
lived, he watched

he

as

be

237

own

his

to

slave.

and

Tiberius'

committed

also

freedman

Drusus,

their

Paulina

one

friend

her

procurator

of

she

of

learned

would

who

tomb

by

was

wife

Position of Women

her

over

and

conduct,

kept

of the

prince. Cicero, in his Pyo Caecina,

widow
Caesennia's
the
jeers at Aebutius, who
managed
her believe
him
to be indispensable. His
affairs, and made
known
from
real past was
his daily life,as
a
great ladies'
and protector of widows
and litigious
defender
of them
:
man,
men
a
women
learned,
a
amongst
sUly fool ; amongst
It
when
the
was
more
cunning lawyer.
suspicious
curators
prodandies.
Who
is
that
were
mere
curly-haired
as

consort

'

', asks

mannikin
leaves

Martial

wife's

your

looks

reliable

Aufidius

rival

cautious

'

husband,

who

side, is always whispering into

her

supporting

and

of

and

chair
stem

Her

business
In

procurator.

never

her
?

manager

He

would

he

acuteness

ear,

Ghius

adulterer
and jurist]. And
[a notorious
You
he is her manager.
fool,he is managing your business '.
of young
in the mock-trials
And
rhetoricians, the
pretty
'

'

procurator was
The
following
'

has

maji

and

has

frequent exercise

a
case

by

son

second

given

was

his wife.

house.

The

stepniother

he turns

the

latter out, who

tells of

day

adultery

the

between

wounded,

and

the

relatives

decide

to

his

with
to

the

the

young

wife's

dies.

takes
the

the

The

'.

son

Seneca

proper

He

house

in

his

broken

and

the

The

describes in his book

retinue,

lover.
these

wife

the

had

who

procurator

which

One

through.

boy,
five-year-old
murderer.

Gossip

wife.

the

murdered,

room

wall

door.

next

procurator and

the

was

reaUty.
Augustus.
marries
again

under

rather,
procurator, or
astrologer repeatedlymentions

haired
the

ask

procurator.
crime

She

intervening

parents, who

of the

other

debate

pretty procurator in the

quarrel, and
stepson often

and

is found

husband

in

probably

for

is

There

son.

as

"

child

slept
points

accuse

each

on

includes

Firmicus

The

marriage
a
curlyMatemus

procurators of

rich

and

Position of Women

The

238
noble

against going
Hence

out

wives

lineage

often

describes

the

"

Jerome cautions his Christian friends

with
curly-hairedprocurators.
of noble
independent especially when

ladies,and
so

St.

"

it

lorded

Scythians

asks

'

because

that

the

Martial
found

He

wife.

To

Fictitious

fee, were

nothing

Romans

marriages,too,

entered

not

mentions

than

not

be

wife's

my

intolerable

rich

rich wife

overweening
of
a dowry

the

the

'

maid'.

of
ways
a million.

than

rich

sUpper symbolized

woman.

so

rare,

this

to

and

more

and

in

his

to

as

and

against ceUbacy

laws

wish

not

easier burden

Greeks

both
of the

rule

the

I do

Horace

giving

'

foppishness

an
spoiledboys were
thinks
And
Juvenal

husband.

originallynot
Why have I

as

mastery of the husband.

wife

and

home

over

allow

into
the

by

enjoy absolute
on
marriage,

book

evade

to

woman

for' a

men

poor
freedom.

and

the

Seneca

Martial

jeers:
Your
LaeUa, your wife within the law, is a very law-abiding
wife, Quintus'. TertuUian
speaks of the patience such
husbands
showed
to their rivals,and
St. Jerome,
mercenary
of poor
called husbands, and
divorced
at the slightest
men,
'

demur.
Uved

On
in

marry

other

the

alliances

amongst

estate

Tiberius

former

the

at

practice was
beginning of the

Claudius

Hermes,

year-old mistress, and

'

happily by her
patroness and true
and repute for all his

her
"

of

slave

with

parish.

For

freed

and

for

who

married

', says

wife ', that

life

long.

married

such
in

women

than

for

ment
establish-

only legalized in the third

third century. A freedman,
his

two-and-twenty

favour

not

freed-

authorized

218-222,

in his

women

did

to

be

the

the

they might
'

their freedmen
less common
was
marry
made
freed and
the mistresses of the

ranks
to

from

bishop

sometimes

women

freedmen
whom
concubinage
without
senators
losing rank, as

CaUistus,

slaves

senatorial

with

women.

other

hand,

But

by

on

he
an

her

the
owed

five-and-twenty

lived with
years
tombstone
of his
her

his

station

inscriptionin Aquileia
master

'

runs

was

of PubUus
Of
Anicius.
Glycera, freedwoman
my
said enough : I secured
hfe I have
well
and won
the
myself
of a good man
'. Augustus' prohibitionof slaves
contentment
married
to their patron getting a
divorce against his will
re-affirmed
was
by Justinian.
In society,too, women
were
independent. In Republican
Anicia

The

Position of Women

239

whose
days, too, they had been free, unlike Greek
women,
to occupy
their husbands'
was
highestcommendation
thoughts,
little as
for
either
for
evil
as
or
be,
might
good
; whose
frontier was
meant
the threshold, crossingwhich
riskingtheir
virtues
were
position. In early Rome,
though domestic
'

'

valued

in the

Nepos,
and

in

had

preface

the

Roman

attend

wife, she
customs

to

his

in

Rome

secluded.

Cornelius

biographies,contrasts

Greek

wife
could
any
front of the house and

unrestricted.

The
and

in the

properly

be seen,
banquet,
and
watch
the spectacles. The
gradual breaking up of the
family,the cessation of the ancient stem morahty, accentuated
the tendency, and, under
Augustus even, wives were
socially
or

almost

Uve

been

never

rank

and

standing of

distinctions, were

lady and her titles,privileges

closely gradated as those of men.

as

husband's
the
station ; but
times
someGenerally they shared
the Emperors would
consular
with
the
rank,
givewomen
to consulars, and
insignia,if relatives and not married
might,
them
with
this honour
if they
on
rare
occasions, leave
remarried
of lower
a
man
standing ; thus Elagabalus acted
with
when
she married
regard to his aunt JuUa Mammaea
Gessius
the mother
of the
Marcianus, a knight (she became
future
also
raised
the
mother
Emperor
Alexander). He
of his
The
the

favourite

privilegesof
is uncertain

precedence

When

of

whether

of

"

consulars

even

the

consular

according
^were

"

of

man

senatorial
It

assembly.

an

rehgiousorigin,and

Agrippina, Nero's

slave, to

rank.

to

Ulpian,

very

great:

rank
praefectorial

them.
entered

held

matronarum

mothers

over

woman

Carian

ladies consular

these

the

wives, not

Ulpian
had

Hierocles,

became

mother,

the

order, the

was

the

ancient

an

Empress's

after

death

conventus

maids
of

guUd

of honour.

her

husband

pubhcly set her cap at Galba, the husband

of Lepida, the future
arraigned by
Emperor, that she was
AH
at
a
Lepida's mother
night, says
meeting and beaten.
listen to his wife's
must
Seneca, a husband
reproaches :
She appears
in public richly dressed, and is held in honour
:
There
is scarcelyan3rthing
I am
at the conventus
a nobody '.
and
known
to the constitution
as
competence of this guild.
Domitius,

had

so

'

It had
Curia

"

at

like similar bodies

Lanuvium,

with

in other
its double

cities,such
tables

on

as

the

Ladies*

publicfestivals.

The

240

Position of Women

temple and priestess a curia, or meetingwhere

in Trajan's forum,
the
place, on
Quirinal, another
to the Ladies :
have
been found ; Empress Sabina
inscriptions
and
Restored
of Emperors (Caracalla
by JuUa the mother
Geta)
and the troops for the ladies '. Elagabalus had a new
building
of
erected
the
the
on
Quirinal, and enlarged the power
hsid a number
of inquirieson
feminine
Senate, and
points
foot ; what
befitted women
costume
of etiquette set on
of
ranks
had
had
various
the
; which
precedence, and which
right of the kiss ; what kind of carriage and equipage each
have
which
should
sedan-chairs, either
;
ought to have
silver or
with
ivory, which
might have golden or jewelled
consulta
senatus
shoes,
jElagabalus' biographer calls these
ridiculous : Aurelian's
biographer says that the latter restored
their senate, on
condition
of priestesses
the women
having
pre-eminence in it, and perhaps the permission given to
to wear
red, yellow, white or green shoes, is referable
women
consultum.
Under
to
such
senatus
a
Augustus a special

Naples,with

at

or

its

"

'

of

dress
a

honour

special form

when

allowed

was

of

the

stola in the

the

mothers

of

three

all blameless

women

to

sMa

to

first

century
in the title of stolata femina, not

on

honorarily as well.
Girls of the higher ranks

went

out

of use,

only granted

children,
;

it

and,

lingered
mothers,

to

but

of

they

wife

honourable

was

all
she

freedom

to

every

breeze

greeted,

withheld
the

retinues
fortune

learned

and

even

the

favour.

her

In

dependence

married

public

life.

There

influence.

The

to

madame.

In the

serve.

the

cosm
micro-

life.

properties,legions
subjects,her will granted
Youths

the

talent

and

veterans

Whatever

her

with

its scattered

brave,

sought her
might have, beauty, wit,

ensured

of

had

of clients and
or

of

and

by her husband,
equivalent to donna or

of hands

great house, with

silence

even

of domina,

name

of slaves, and

men,

full

their back, hundreds

of

or

the

exposed

were

young

At

for

home

the

left the

claims
or

and
to

grey-haired
noblemen,
admiration

education, her position

ity
sphere, vanity and urbanand
intrigue were
thoroughly at home, passion and
had
full play, and
flirtation
there
temptation was
strong
the
overthrow
enough to
strongest.
Anything assailed
desires is insecure', says
Seneca; 'one brinp
by countless
his wit, a third his intellect or generosity
his beauty, another
success.

new

'

"

The

242
his

mother

Any

says elsewhere, whose

does not pay
and
who

notorious,
fee, is despised by women
husbands
are
got as mere
A

loyal.

woman

Ladies'
paragon.
various
are
lovers, and

is

faith.

having exceptionallykept conjugal

for
he

one,

were

of Women

Position

have

amours

married

become

not

woman

yearly

girls; in fact,
Only the ugly
decoys for lovers.
content
to have
only two hangers-on
divided
their
between
days are
up
stiU not
long enough. A relation
as

lover

mere

of

oldsingle lover, they call marriage ; with none,

when
fashioned
Vespasian
simpUcity. Suetonius
says, that
exceeded
the
bounds
to
throne, laxity had
came
owing to
of the law : the Emperor proposed
the lenient administration
with
had
in the Senate
relations
a
law, making ladies who
their slaves, themselves
slaves.
Ever3nvhere in the city ',
with

'

no,

true

just
?

as

laws

it

there

were

making

seduction

satire

is

who

spiritof

the

youths

Dio

Cassius

against adultery (passed

3,000

cases,

in the

and

this

in

only among

consular-senator

Is

the

age.

says
no

the

indulgence

discovered
his
the

one
no

'.

vice,

Juvenal's

base, accurate.

at

regulate

to

one

say neither yes nor

for not
laughing at

Germans

caricature, but,

obliged

was

noble

crime

; those

are

says no : not
dishonour.
or

woman

one

the

Aurehus
and

if

commends

not

sixth

I ask

though

Some

Tacitus
and

'

Martial,

says

Marcus
of

that

women

Severus'

consulship) provoked

consulars

and

senators

Court.

Septimius Severus made

peace with
the Caledonians,
the Empress
Julia jeered at a chieftain's
of the community
in wives : the latter rejoined,
wife, because
that
Caledonian
selected
the
best
women
men
pubUcly,
In

the

Roman
of

an

year

women

ancient

These

211,

when

the
cuckold

and

worst
'

was

homed

clandestinely.The
beast

name

'.

be violent, unconsidered,
expressions of opinion may
and
harsh ;
the
facts
or
rhetorically over-coloured, but
and
the extent
of the
are
some
significant,
symptoms show
vice.
Thus
great frivoUty, due to the arbitrary divorces,
shown
in making
and
was
abandoning marriages. Under
married
a
Julius Caesar's Dictatorship,a Praetorian
woman,
of
but
divorced
two
unsuspected
adultery,
days before :
any
them.
Caesar
Tiberius
separated
deposed a quaestor for
the day before the taking of the lots, he
divorcing a woman
her the day before in order to rank as a married
having wedded

The
In

man.

Martial

Position of Women
one

leaves

woman

243

her

husband

the

at

no
beginnmg of his praetorship,in January : it was
divorce,
but
Seneca
counted
a
women
good speculation.
says, some
their years, not by consuls, but by their husbands
; and Juvenal,
that
had
some
divorced, before the green bays of welcome
faded
the lintels, and
on
they might have eight husbands
in five years : TertuUian, that women
only in order
marry,
to
divorce
these
have
foundation
:
a
exaggerations must
in truth.
Quintus Lucretius
Vespillo (consul 19 B.C.)erects
this stone
Turia
to his wife
Seldom
(who died 8-2 B.C.):
do marriages last until death
undivorced
continued
ours
: but
in this marriage,
even
happily for forty-one years '. But
after the death
of her
only daughter, Turia had proposed
divorce
that
her
husband
children
a
so
might have
by a
under
second
for childless men
ance.
were
a
disabilityin inherit'

"

herself

She
second

mother

would

seek

him

his children, and

to

wife, and

new

sister

be

mother-in-law

or

undivided.
remain
properties should
But
the
husband
Trimalchio, too,
passionately refused.
on
congratulates himself
declining the divorce, proposed
for the same
because
of his good nature
and
love
reason,
of a Stoic reputation. But
most
less fastidious :
men
were
Ovid
and
Pliny the Younger had three wives ; Caesar and
five : such
must
cases
Antony four ; Sulla and
Pompey
have
been
tions
menfrequent. A tombstone
recently unearthed
wife
there
in
seventh
is
Martial's
a
no
;
exaggeration
wife
seventh
Phileros, you
are
epigram :
burying your
No
estate.
estate
has
been
on
ever
more
profitable'.
your
Women
often.
remarried
Cicero's
as
daughter TuUia

him,

to

their

whilst

'

married

three

Poppaea,
of

of

one

the

and

who

Nero

made

marries

six

eight

or

third

the

was

fifth of Statilia

who

woman

and

times,

Messalina.

husbands

and

of

of

Martial

attempts

seven

husband

at

third

speaks
marriage ;
suspected

of

murdering seven.
Further, slavery,as everywhere, left its track of immorality
visible in Roman
the standard
conjugal life,and made
very
of a man's
even
fideUty too lax. Plutarch
advising
says,
cultured
not
take
a
newly married
couple, the wife must
it amiss,

if

the

husband

grateful for

his

working

out

of

respect

for her

resort

his

to

irm'pa or

passions off

just as

the

Persian

on

slave, but

another

kings

used

be

woman,
to

dis-

Position of Women

The

244
miss

their wives
for

players

their share
makes

from

their
of

the

libertyas
detected

woman

submissive

the

'

temptation.

'

calls you
chairman
he

lovers

reckons

faces

nice

ladies

her

cretin,the black

in

the

further

of

secret

'.

Elsewhere

Manilla, whose

certain

their

as

fathers, namely, the

blear-eyed baker,
narrow-headed
long-eared

athlete, the
the

husband,

deleterious

boat

same

of

children

flute-blower

certain

rarelyresisted
in an
epigram,
says
of
her sedandarling

is the

girls,and

seven

were

wife'. Martial

both

too, took

women,

their slaves, and

as

of

boy

arms
we

say,
And

music-

pretext. Juvenal
of a slave
or
knight
should
each
agreed we

'

slaves
many
cook, the snub-nosed

betrayed

Moorish
the

of
are

you
up the

the

amongst

Your

lover

the

right,or

in

keep her complexion and

do exactly as we
liked '.
and

And

debauches.

male

call in harlots and

feast,and

and

the

red-haired

steward.

of

the
was
slavery on women
of cruelty, increased
habit
by the bloody amphitheatre.
her
the
has
Juvenal's satires paint, how
moody mistress
female
slaves
mercilessly flogged,without
interruptingher
she harshly
work, tin the floggers drop for weariness, and
to go
out : Ovid, too, begs ladies
commands
them
not
to
scratch
the maids
who
are
adorning them, or prick their
naked
Hadrian
for such
arms.
relegated a woman
cruelty
A

to

effect

island

an

murder

for flve years,

until then
women

and

the

was

might

at

first to

any

forbid slave-

time

crucify their

slaves.
Other

corrupting influences
demoralizing effect of the

The

for

there

women

letters

of the

day

also

were.

hardly
Amatoria)

can

(such as Ovid's Elegies snd.Ars

though for flagrancythey could hardly be exceeded, but rather

be counted

as

cause

symptoms of
wholly different
as

was

of

one

Sophia, the
the

first

universal

is

now

widow
of

Duchess

of the

decency among
women,
even
impossible. Leibnitz
Elector

Orleans

most

she

could

one

stand

on

tenth

book

was
women
a

the

much
could

disgustingpoems

of Hanover

(the mother
it out

copy

to

of

for the

(Elizabeth Charlotte),
'

every
Roman

with

of

Prussia),and
of

And

degeneracy.

Hoffmannswaldau's

Queen

Dowager

not

standards

that

proper,

send

and

amorous
verses
delighted with the
; thus
might well read Martial and Petronius, and
his
dedicates
footing. Martial
higher moral
(which is not lacking in obscenities)to PoUa
'

The
Argentaria, who
Lucan, asking
of

immoral

Position of Women

her

not

wall-picturesthat
and

such

of

Paris

of

fifty,the

severe.

And

estimate.

to

the
elsewhere

are

fashion

about

introduced

the

by

women,

Rome

the

spectaclesand excitements
that
the
significantly
says
pure
from

women

The
was

of the

teeth

most

surprisedat

Pantomime.

the

circus

compares
bees.
It

the

there
the

moral
carnival

brothels.
far

worse

the coaches

on

and

the

'

temptations
banquets '. Tacitus

of the

withdrew

Germans

not

of the

one

of

women

For

their

circus

the

not

did

make

women,

toilette

fit to

think

mention

the

and

others
Ovid

seen.

to

ants

height :

found

Paris

cling to
why she

out

its

at

and

not

Ovid

as

was

cast

day, in all ranks.

gladiator,and Juvenal

only to see, but to be

of fashionably-dressedwomen
their

most

this

magnificent,and they

most

flaws

wife

Statius, whose

Rome.

then

Dio

was

theatre, could

stream

was

seemed

Tacitus

And

leave

went

Rome

But

arms

were

eloped with a
her abandoning

senator

and

not

circus

Roman

of

the

say,

for the

wife

would

girls,

both.

passion

the

and

the

by disgusting pictures:
whose
carriages were

influences

worst

of the

at

of

effect

reviles

women

mentioned.

coats

of

licentious.

more

In ancient

The

evil

exposed : in Pompeii even,

pictures are only found in the
were
1750, profligatemanners

in

were

of

widow

the

Propertius

eyes

imperialRome
; there the
replaced,at great expense,

than

the

forty or

thus

were

license, obscene

In

too

shocked

pictures

seldom

women

be

to

is hard

art

about

then

was

245

or

when

admirers.

most

mantle

of

in

gold

which

Agrippina appeared at the naval fight on the Lacus

that
Fucinus
(a sight so remarkable
Pliny thinks it worth
ment,
indicate
the zeal, the self-advertisemention), and this may
and

were

most
than

gorgeousness
borrowed.
In Rome

deeply inset,
they really were

hired, down

to

the

and
;

of the
the

Italian

thousands

every
rings which

Often

women.

kind

love
wanted

of

astute

'

of

feathers

the

far figura was

to

property

advocates

seem
'

more

could

had

on

be
to

impose on the clients they were

defending. Juvenal specifies
when
their
borrowed,
amongst the things women
purses
seats
sedan-chairs
as
were
clothes,
retinue,
(used
empty,
after the staves
and
blond
were
a
pulled out), an old nurse
maid.
In Apuleius' fable, Venus
makes
Psyche fetch her

The

246
the

elixir of

The

divine

in

the

'

the

women

them

Cynthia's
spectacles;
In

Augustus' regulations,

after
the

at

the

resorts.

match-making

as

upper

Circus, the

but, in the

attracted

circus

the harmful

from

country, away

amphitheatre,
only glance up

could

men

to

and

fit herself

to

Propertius rejoices at

large quantity.

theatre

the

at

element

resolve to go into the

Ovid
and
recommends
the

order

theatre.

large femimne

youth

Proserpine, in

from

beauty

visit the

to

of Women

Position

seats

reserved

were

mixed.

sexes

'

Juvenal, as think well to hallo, to

bet high, and
ances
fashionably-dressedgirl'. Acquaintinterest in the
were
easilypicked up by the common
performance, and the little pohtenesses, handing cushions,
the
the charioteer
etc. ; and
were
compliments, wishing one
To the Christians
it reallyhot ? etc., etc.
girladmired
; was
In
the
featvire.
worst
this assembling of the
sexes
was
the circus', TertulUan
repellent
says, 'there is nothing more
in their fineries.
tisanship
Parthan
the
and
women
sight of men
which
often
caused
relations
might grow up into
and
'. Clement
to be seen
lust : people go there only to see
Let

such

go ',says
sit beside a

men

'

of Alexandria
led

women

Worse

to

than

and

than

the

mind
whilst

masses,

that

of

assemblies

these

and

men

profligacy.
this

There

spectacles.
innocent

found

also

the
were

the

involved

was

in

the

Circus

and

the

populace raged madly, but it was more

theatre
and
Atellana
amphitheatie. The
attiacted
the
openly licentious, and
pantomimic dances represented the most

the

doubtful

subjects and drew to them the upper classes : there

effeminate
in
minds
were
an}rthing was
good taste, and
tickled
with
The
Christians
had
good
witty obscenities.
for
the
theatees
woman
condemning
might well
; any
ground
torture
leave them
sullied.
The habit of seeing slaughterand
in the arena
brutaUzed
the soul, and killed its delicate feeUngs
to

extent.

nauseous

Women

were

interested

not

only

personally. Athletes,
with
especiallycarried favour
actors

the

'

ferrum

'

attracted

them

in the

games,

circus-drivers

hke

ladies
a

of

in the

gladiators
highest rank;

and

the

lodestone, and

however
fighters,
ugly, into Hyacinthuses :
a
gladiator, according to Juvenal, even
no
scruples,faced sea-journeys and would

but

to

run

noble
even

enchanted
with
away
ladies
felt
go

to

the

The

Position of Women

247

of giving up the games.

So, too, stageastounding extent
vocalists
and
musicians
beloved
of the women,
were
singers,
whose
into the wildest
passion often led them
folly: thus,
under
on
Augustus, a married
lady waited
Stephanie the
wife
actor
in a page's disguise. Pertinax'
had
a
publicly
known

liaison

sold

their

citharists
One

celebrated

next

citharist

competition

sick

son

the

Seneca,

writing

Nero's

in

and

used

by famous
worshipped.

theatres, in which
vie

be

to

the

she

as

could

from

both

in the

dance, and

women

women.

there

were

Pylades and
their private
and

husbands

The

professional's
partner.

done

however,

and

have

at

crown

have

men

city,homes

artists

to discover

the

years, says that

of the art of
scholars

and

men

obtain,

latter

many

Bathyllus. Everywhere
wives

these

Pantomime-dancers,

signal favour

most

teachers

would

much

as

husband.

or

enjoyed
many

instruments

The

said

rumour

bought by their female adorers and

sacrifice
a solemn
lady in Juvenal makes

dear.

and

were

whether

for

citharist

favour

noble

the

with

pantomimes

art
lent
them
beautiful
fresh
whose
men,
very
young
from
About
banished
22
or
Italy,
grace.
23 a.d., they were
of the factions they caused, and
their relations
account
on

were

with
no

who

women,

such

ordinance

beautiful

boy,

the

favour

the

had

of

ajid his enforced

Paris

the

his

this

of

with

street

strewed
of

Domitian

the

jealousy, and

spot

and
with

Aurelius

Marcus

pantomimes. Galen discovered

Justus' wife for Pylades, as Erasistratus

Antiochus

for

for insomnia,

so

Stratonice.
he

There

concluded

it

was

was

mental

most

feasts

can

never

have

been

had

her

her

licentious

the

so

bore
them

passion
of

that

physical

no

quickened pulse betrayed her, when

Pylades was
pronounced.
the
Tacitus
mentions
temptations of the
well as of the spectacles : but, at the worst
and

of

some

said to be with
one

his wife

passion of

tolerance

more

was

he fell,many
Rumour
nected
con-

where

scents.

the

pantomime.

with

amours

on

his execution.

caused

Domitian's

flowers

other

some

of

Messalina

aroused

the

murder

or

Faustina's
were

in

adorers
the

for

relations

Pantomime

assassinated
of

high rank : otherwise

would
have
been
passed. Mnester, the
most
popular pantomime under Claudius,
the elder Poppaea, the beauty of her day :
been

have

must

reason

countenance
the

name

banquets
of

of

as

times, the

common,

that

The

248
couldnot

women

created
the

have

avoided

them.

the

far

At these
deeper disorder.
evil influencesobtained, as

same

music,

Position of Women

dancing

and

Obscene

theatricals
and

songs

usual

the

met

theatre

the

at

the

were

plays

have
spectaclesmust
ejctravagant banquets,
;

for

accompaniments.
modesty,

of

ears

by S3rrianand Andalusian
depravity could hardly have been less than
of the Eg5^tian almis.
that
Many, says Plutarch, at their
feasts present actions
and
intoxicatingthan
speeches, more
and
children
are
women
present.
debauchery, and when
any
and
men
Apart from such sensuahties, banquets enabled
far more
to meet
women
conveniently than in the Circus.
At them, says Pliny the Elder, greedy eyes are
calculating
woman's
their
a
price,and sodden eyes (of
husbands) sleepily
of the most
ascribed
to
assenting. In one
impudent poems
of the beautiful
wife of a simple husband
Ovid, the seduction
is described
;
nominally it is Paris and Helen, but these
for such parties; and the pictureis drawn
current
were
names
The
true
to the
actual
Ufa of that
realistically.
day, most
lover's behaviour
at table
corresponds to Ovid's advice in
the matter.
The
lady feels the fixed gaze of her admirer,
her lips
hears his sighs,sees
him
seize her cup, kiss it where
touched
it : he makes
signs to her with his eyes or fingers,
writes
in wine
the table, tells love-stories
on
eloquent of
his own
his audacity
passion,pretends drunkenness, to make
innocent.
at
of women
seem
Further, the old custom
sitting
table had
ceased
by Augustus' time ; they lay down, like
the men.
In the old da}^, this would
been
have
indecent,
under
the
but,
Empire, the old rule was
only kept up at the
at Jupiter'sbanquet, Jupiter lay down
and
Capitol, when
Minerva
and Juno sat up on
It is more
chairs.
important',
said
Valerius
that
the
Maximus,
gods keep up the good
of

and

the eyes
dancers, whose

offended

purity were

'

'

old customs,
How
of

with

converse

who

and

in

the

the

gardens.
Further,

black

his
women

basalt

sedan-chairs, or

the
we

in the

women

accompanied

parasol.
on

that

far, apart from

sexes
occurred,

both

parks

than

In

the

banquets,
do

not

'.

real

know.

social
Men

meetings
also

could

pubUc places,walks, colonnades,

stead

mistress,
of

should

women

the

of

some

upper

the
lover

eunuch,

or

page
would

hold

walked

classes seldom

They were
the huge palanquin borne

carried

pavements.

on

the

her

about

shoulders

The

250

Position

of Women

all that
was
going on in the
They knew
farthest lands, caught up rumours
at the gates, or originated
them
sharply on mihtary leaders, and told any
; retorted
street acquaintance all the world's
gossip.
of others, more
The
ambition
cultivated, took
higher
in high positionnaturally sought to
most
:
women
flights
of politics.Often,
in the course
lead, directlyor indirectly,
decided
the
fate of the Roman
world
is known,
was
as
by
gerent
than
less the viceor
women
one
more
; more
Emperor was
of his Empress.
Even
Augustus, one of the greatest

public

interests.

of

statesmen

wife,

aU

times,

Ulysses in
reported that

it was

to

her.

To

to

say

of

Constantius,

often

took

with

counsel

garb, as Caligula called her ; and

he was
what
going
always wrote down
consort
done
the
by Eusebia,
good

he
the

'

and

Trajan's widow,

clever

female

one
man
Julian adds that
in his paternal heritage,another
pardoned
from
imminent
legal penalty, a third saved

information,

his

many

received

honours

was

from

reinstated
a

danger
and

merely
of

an

benefits

'.

give the president

of the Epicurean School
the right of nominating
at Athens
his own
aUen.
PhiUscus
the sophist
and
even
an
successor,
secured
the chair of oratory at Athens, through Julia Domna.
must
The
influence of the Empresses' Court-ladies
also have
been
their favour
was
great., Juvenal illustrates how
very
the
sought after. He blames
extravagance of Domitian's
favourite
Crispinus,in buying a six-pound midlet for 6,000
sesterces
:
as
a
present to a distinguishedlady in a huge
have
been
paned palanquin, it would
justified. In both
influence
would
big and little appointments feminine
dominate,
prein Rome
and
the provinces. Seneca
praises his
maternal
for overcoming
her
aunt
shyness, and
helping
him
Florus
to his quaestorship. Gessius
owed
his procuratorship of Judaea to his wife Cleopatra, a friend of Poppaea.
To
the Chief
Vestal
Campia Severina, in 240 a.d., a statue
was

erected

by

Plotina, made

man

for whom

she

worked

his

knighthood,

lapse of one grade in military

secured
statue
who
thus
promotion ; and another
by a man
the chief imperial Ubrarianship. In Epictetus a dishonest
official hopes to escape
have
friends,
we
punishment, for
'. Ladies
would,
gentlemen and ladies, of influence in Rome
a

tribunate

of

cohort, and

Hadrian

the

'

in

case

of

need,

exploittheir

sons

for

this

purpose.

Some

The
of

the

of

electoral

Pompeii,

Position

of Women
inscribed

recommendations,

25
the

on

walls

signed by women.
of the governors
the provinces the wives
attended
the
a
and, with
bodyguard of centurions, mixed
manoeuvres,
with
the
soldiery: e.g. the proud Plancina, daughter of
the founder
of Lyons, Munatius
Plancus, and wife of Gnaeus
Piso (A..D.17 Governor
of Syria),and
Cornelia, daughter of
the
of Pannonia,
Calvisius
Sabinus
(who died in
governor
ostentation
the
main
was
argument
A.D.). Plancina's
39
are

In

in

favour

to

forbid

Senate

of

(a.d.21)

took

restrained

than

home

law

later

attracted

Women

courts.

but

all the

negotiationsand

up

and

motion

before

his wife

extortion, and

They

Caecina's

taking
governor
that
the
remember,
women

should

of the

two

Severus

men

and

times

more

armies.

record

such

absolute

wives

much

province.
attend

to

and

less

accepted ;
for

harpies clawing

as

of

despots
not

\yas
'

The

so

riff-raff of the

motion

The

Senate,

him.

caused

became

they

with

provincialshad
domineering

the

were

the

in cities and
diets.'
gold, spreading havoc
In literaryUfe, too, women
took their share
educated
classes, in their youth, they were
up

tilian,in his De

Instiiuiione

parents should

be

as

cultured

as

ideal
in

his

Amatoria

Ars

There

is

intense

How

circle of learned

small

is nevertheless

general the

and

centuries

first two

In

dilettantism.

is well

Octavia
sixth

book

of

the

Aeneid

as

speaking only

is

literature

also

it.

embrace

and

of

constantly

dedicated
her

in

was

habit

the

which

to

was

to

who

brother

her

poetic

aged
encour-

his sister

To

VirgU

the

read
:

the

she

is

prophecy of the early death of

Marcellus.
son
Crinagoras of Mytilene the poet, who
to
twice
Augustus
(29 b.c. and 26 B.C.) ambassador
his native
close friend of the family. His
a
city, was

said

to

her
was

from

poems

have

on

daughter,
to

her

had

philosophic work

of

love

known,

women

Martial's

Ovid,

chaste.
he

Quin-

describing women,
says :
women,
genuine or specious'.

Augustus' home,

literature, the

and

upper

it.

father.

the

reader

the

assures

of libertines, but
"

only

rich, noble, erudite

is

woman

to

Oratoria, says, both

possible, not

in the

happy

fainted

Marcellus
the
a

at

and

the

Antonia,

wife of Drusus,

are

her
extant

one

lyrics,and the other

delivery,and others again, on her
volume

of

and

beautiful

was

is
son

virtuous
the

cation
dedi-

prayer
Germanicus

for

Position of Women

The

252

wife
of the
(whose
tragedian Varius
(bom 15 B.C.). The
ficently
munihis triumph and
at
acted
Thyestes Augustus had
learned
Perilla, perhaps
:
acknowledged) was
wife
PoUa
Lucan's
Ovid's
a
poet.
stepdaughter, was
highly gifted. In
Argentaria, according to Statins, was
that
the later Empire, we
Agrippina,the mother
only know
and
which
Tacitus
of Nero, left memoirs,
Pliny the Elder
used
death

became

beauty,

and

the

wife

Severus,

Nazarius

of

father's

who

least

Pliny
in

shared

the

it out

she

would

had

and

said

JuUa Domna,

of

daughter

The

later.

(under Constantine)

for

listen

he

and

them

take

of

his

him.

She

behind
couriers
be

might
;

lauds

them

or

her

was

wife, for
read

his

to

gave

the

to

love

bring messages

gift.

Ovid

success.

interesting herself
books
through and

If he

curtain

Uterature,

and

friends' work

by heart.
the

in

part

pleading. She set his

being her sole teacher.

feminine

common

active

any

in their husbands'

learnt

in which

not

Younger

system

sang

did

of love

through,

was

will be

more

rhetorician

the

oratory

riches

her

intelligenceas

his

equal.

Women,
at

her

regularlystudied

and

of

for

notable

as

wife, after

third

Nero's

Messalina,

Statilia

and

recitation

applause. She
from

the

poems

to

court
music

Apt^expression

recommends

women

good but not stilted Latin ; for a passion

nigh to extinction might be revived, or a livelyflame deadened,
Women's
works, if not
pubby beauty's bad
grammar.
shown
friends.
to their
Ushed, were
PUny says that an
he knew
author
read
out his wife's letters : she might have
If they were
been
a Terence
or
a Plautus.
position,
reaUy her comto write

in

love-letters

her
who

married

and

critic.

power

testified

her

to

the

influence

of her

husband

have
girl: for girls'education must
also
Women
cases.
proceeded after marriage in many
experimented in speaking Greek instead of Latin, or at least
Greek
time
was
interlardingGreek
phrases : in Lucretius'
the lovers' language ; Juvenal says in young
girlsthis might
be endurable
intolerable.
; after twenty-six, it was
in an
But
epoch of teeming poetasters, poetesses were
in Greek
and Latin, who
loved being called Sapphos.
common,
Ovid
applied this hackneyed compliment to PeriUa, whose
to develop, as her hearer, teacher
poetic giftshe endeavoured
as

whose
Sulpicia,

love-letters in

verse

were

included

The

Position of Women

253

those
of Tibullus, was
among
of Servius
SulpiciusRufus, the

probably a granddaughter
jurist,and daughter of a
friend
of Horace's.
Hostia, the lady-love of Propertius,
and
Corinna.
Persius
was
compared to Erinna
jeers at
these
poetic magpies of his day. Of Theophila,the bride
of the poet Canius
Rufus
of Cadiz, Martial, his fellow-countryman,
she
chaster
than
was
Sappho and as gifted; he
says
term
to Sulpicia,the wife
of Calenus, to
appUes the same
whom
is attributed
'.
with
the Muse
a
sickly Conversation
'

'

'

In

those

the

of hers which
Martial
read, she celebrated
poems
of happy, unprudish marriage. On
the
colossus

joys

of Memnon

Julia
her

there

Balbilla

she

from

Rome

of senatorial

by

the
'

distinction
A.D.

her

the

had

honour

Memnon

the

use

Juvenal

five

not

'

moraUty

and

wisdom

who

Sabina,

and

master,

of

train
to

seem

'.

Hadrian

have

liked

deep into the hard

earned
by the plenteous

chiselled

in

before

risen

much

in

more

the
this

sun

vein.

accurate
pedantry
fluency and
model.
obvious
of Sappho, her

poets,
than

worse

minutes

to

have
been
may
is said to have

Aeolic

Ladies, when

by

ascribes

the

at

her

and

in

show

verses

of the

and

colossus

them

greet his dreaded

BalbiUa's

pride
Egypt

BalbiUus

virtue

visited

and

with

mentions

Tauromenium,

every

The

adulation
to

in

of

gentle Empress

verses,

^tone.

city

she

130
the

'

and

an

latter

(governor of
author) and a Syrian prince Antiochus
rank : a statue was
put up to her

Claudius

Nero, and
was

The

and

Trebulla

of Caecilia

verses

inscribed.

descent

under

Greek

are

at

critics,and

were

tipplers.

table, they began

to

as

in

such, deemed

been
they had
discourse
aesthetically

Before

Virgil,monopoUzing the conversation, with

hammer
a
and
tong-like effect. They paraded their snacks
of
forgotten authors
knowledge, made
quotations from
in hand, corrected
their friends' slips. A woman,
grammar
and
have
the
Juvenal, may
encyclopaedia by heart
says
and
the puristwoman,
yet know nothing : Martial,too, mocks
Homer

on

yearns,

and

as

his

Ufe-wish, for

Philosophicallyinclined
Old-fashioned

merely
would
the

ostentatious

only allow
son

:
regrets)

not

and

wife

the

also,

Elder,

read

to
as

wife.

rances.
greatest hinddiscouraged the study, as

Romans

his

learned
found

women

(Seneca

too

very

making

the

great conservative,

superficiallya fact
women
impertinent.
"

The

254
and

leave

the

of Women

Position

loom

and

with

linger on

to

home,

talk

men,

held
Stoics
the
learnedly and
chop logic. The
opposite
the
had
bringing up of
opinion. Zeno
originallyadvised
Rufus
wrote
a
graph
monoboys and girlssimilarly: Musonius
tion
educawhether
on
daughters should have the same
'

'

as

sons

scientific

moral

to

women

'.

education

'

Plutarch

did

as

that

Musonius

philosophy, as

should

women

Rufus

wanted

have
restrict

to

indispensablefoundation

the

went
further, and, after the Socratic
chastity: Plutarch
fashion, prescribed astronomy and mathematics
as
well, as
safeguarding a inind filled with the highest ideas from love of
vanity, superstitionand folly; as making dancing ridiculous

of

for
of

Plato

and

exorcisms

and

mathematician,

ridiculous

to

the

student

Xenophon.
_^

As

fact, women

to the

wife

detriment
of

and

the

superadded
she

of their

Crassus

attended

was

free

and

charm.
of

then
of

graces

had

did study these

often

Plutarch

Pompey,

sciences
says

that

to

music

literature,

of

well,

as

ComeUa,

beauty

and

she

geometry

her

to

philosophic
advantage,
the
of
general ill-consequence becoming
courses

from

'

blue-stocking. Cicero's friend, CaereUis)., fired with zeal

for philosophy ', made
of his De Finibus
before publia
cation.
copy
And
might well find consolation
spiritual minds
in the teachings of the wise, as Livia, at the death
of Drusus,
a

in

the

another

of

words
Stoic

one

of

and

science.

at

the
the

Stoic

Areus.

Court,

same

Athenodoms

of

privilegedto

was

Cana,

dedicate

Augustus' sister, Octavia.

JuUa
when
Plautianus
the favourite
Domna,
intrigued her into
herself
to
Severus, devoted
quarrelling with
philosophy
his

writings

She

to

had

mathematicians

and

rhetoricians

all

her ; Philostratus, at her instruction,wrote

the novel
of Apollonius of Tyana.
Martial's
poetess, Theophila, knew
around

the

Epicurean

attributed
who

to

and

Stoic

systems equally well.

Galen, Arria,
in

friend

of

the

In

author,

writing
is

tioned,
men-

with
Severus
and
Caracalla
high esteem
for her earnest
devotee
study of Plato ; possibly the same
of Plato
to whom
his Lives
Diogenes of Laerte dedicates
of the Philosophers.
sheer tojdng. Horace
izes
satirBut, for the most
part, it was
the old lady in love, and
her Stoic books
silk cushions.
on
In
the
fashion, as.
Epictetus' day, Plato's Republic was
was

The
in

laying the foundations

Lucian
:
community in women
realized that teaching with
their

some

love

Position of Women

measure,

and

not

in

the

philosopher, ladies

rhetors
their
be

to

there

by

of it.

apprehension

Plato's

took

255

of

Utopia

asserts

Marcus

feeing Greek

to

philosophers
pupils, but

some

female

With

in free

Aurelius

Dr.

Know-alls,

philosophers,solemn

and

grey-beards, to attend
walks.
At table, or at their toilette,they had
leisure
in the
instructed
of a lecture
:
course
on
moraUty,
were
interruptions,a billet-doux, swiftly answered

philosopherswere

These

retirm.

taken

well, kept waiting in the rain, and

with
the dancers, the cooks, and
tells of

rich

one

lapdog,

which

who

lady

entrusted

birth

gave

to

in the

sent

the

last

her

Stoic

as

carriage

hair-curlers.

litter under

journeys

on

Lucian

with

her

the

philosophic

Maltese

mantle.
At

all

times,

most

philosophizing, and

some

in

of

it.

The

interest
has

in

stayed

devoted

many

the

female

have

merely

played at
few
have
discovered
a
religion
Plotina
in Epiwidow-Empress
cureanis

mentioned.

been

Neo-Platonism,

must

women

Plotinus, the
after

Rome

students,

some

founder

and
had
a.d.,
244
in the higher ranks,

Saloniaa
the
amongst them
Empress ; with her
lienus' favour, he hoped to found on the site of
in

Campania

(probably Pompeii)

State.

had

never

His

opponents

its Icaria.

frustrated
his

Porphyry,

of

her

and

city

or

sophers'
Philo-

and

quity
anti-

a
pupU, married
her struggle with

Marcella, to support her in

the education
of her
five children, and

great gift for philosophy, into

Gal-

lost

him,

friend's widow,
disease

and

PlatonopoUs

of

which

she

because

had

been

initiated.
The

of

religious movements

increased

in the

second, and

first

the

in the

third

century,

and

their

attributes
all

found

religionsand

Of

many

sensual

the

simple ;

the

wild

last efforts

spiritcoming
lease

of their

their

positive

confusion

of

cults, sought salvation.

these, oriental

and

votaries, who,

in

attained

fourth

most.
These
were
height,affected women
of Paganism to regenerate and
the new
oppose
from
the East.
The
old gods gained a fresh
of honouring
habit
lapsing hfe, and the new

which

rites

prospered

effect, their
their

miracles

gorgeous
and

the

most.

ceremonial

mystic

Their

pomp

impressed

initiations

were

The

256
revelation, and
hallowed
led

road

especiallysuited
asceticism

gained

the

the

and

beyond

with

union

to

women,

state

to

Position of Women
God.
of

promise

them

to

subject

and

purity

License

great vogue.

weakness,

rites

These

temptation,

release

through overt atonement.

the
Thus
yearning of women,
especially, to find here
a consecration, a cleansingor
a consolation, became
passionate;
her tombstone
woman
on
piety (ascribedto one
unsuperstitious
Plutarch
mends
recomby her husband) must have been rare.
the wife to reverence
gods, and
only her husband's
ban other worships and
clandestine
as
superstitions,
offerings
offensive
to
would
be
These
female
devotees
god.
any
of
blind
adherents
the oriental
were
priests. A wandering
band
of begging priestsof the Great
Mother
might persuade
sought

offer

them

to

fever

from

morning,

naked

almost
would
Isis

them
to

hundred

one

to

their

in

the

dip

Tiber

for

knees

pilgrimages
Egypt
them
themselves
sprinkle
goddess of a million

make
bade

divert

the

clothes, or, three

half-frozen

their

on

to

eggs

to

times
and

certain

with

in tiie

early
about

splash

distance.

fetch

to

September

NUe

it in

They
if

water,

the

temple.
Isis, the
names,
was,
throughout
the Roman
world, adored
as
protectress and Lady of Mercy.
she had
to which
After
grims
piltemples in Rome
50 A.D.
many
in the prescribed linen
dishevelled
came
garb, with
hair, sang hymns twice a day, were
sprinkled with Nile water,
other
the
fasts, and
observed
abstention, enjoined by
any
default
met
the priests: any
with
was
a
petition to Osiris
and a substantial oblation
fat goose might assuage
: a cake
or
the angry
gods.
of surprisethat, when
It is no matter
women
so
frequented
abuses
temples of Isis, many
and
and
women
priesthood,men
being professionalprostitutes,and
the

on

this

inside
been

She

An

score.

of

Rome.

at

was

desired

the

devotee

for

5,000

to

meet

Isis

of

denarii

disguise. Tiberius

her

at

came

crucified
ringleaders,

to

cult

the

to

the

priests of

know

Mundus
of the

happenings

Mundus,

PauUina,

had

in vain.

her

persuade her that

night

condemned

was

illustrates the

woman,

of

accused

were

knight, Decius

noble
;

the

whole

The

up.

servants,

a.d.

19

temple
wooing a spotlessand

bribed

the

event

sprang

temple were
the god Anubis

appeared

in

this

outrage, banished

priests,demohshed

the

temple

The

258
Plautius

them,

the

Position of Women

consul, the

rests

on

Britain,

evidence.

insecure

very

of

conqueror

In

58

was

of

one

she

a.d.,

was

'

the
', and
foreign superstition
judgment
who
left to her husband,
her.
The
acquitted
phrase meant
of
the
either
reUgions persecuted by Tiberius, the Egyptian
relative for forty
the Jewish. She did mourn
a murdered
or
withdrew
from
and
also
women
society, but pagan
years
And
the
showed
similar
ancient
life-long attachments.
Christian
tradition
knows
nothing of her as a convert, whilst
St. Paul
the legendary personalrelations between
and
Seneca
what
slender
facts they would
make
on
distinguished
prove
converts.
Much
she
had
become
more
a
probably
pagans
It
is
that
Domitian's
more
niece, Flavia
possible
Jewess.
accused

of

the

Domitilla, became
Flavius
which

Clemens,
had

he

before

music)

From

many

death

or

she

her

atheism

husband,
'

Titus

confiscation, for

charge
Jewish

relegated to

island.

an

of these victims of persemany

presumes,
cution
Christian
The
hagiologies (composed
Jews.

death

the

of Marcus

make
are

St.

Cecilia

(the patroness
entirelyuntrustworthy.

AureUus

to

of

the

great persecution
Church, in which
she
whose
mistress
Commodus,

for the

time

of peace
exceedingly. Under
a

was

flourished

'

Renan

500 a.d.),which
senatorial woman,

of Decius

and

of

executed, and

was

were

not

to

She

accused

were

brought

practices:
Perhaps, as

Christian.

probably, a Christian, whole noble famihes were

converted
:
Septimius Severus, in his first years, took senatorial
who
and
were
men
women,
openly Christians, under
the mother
his protection; Mammaea,
of Alexander
Severus,
is said to have
been
converted
finally
by Origen's lectures.

Marcia

These

was,

great proselytescreated

Roman
them

and

Church,

even

the

many
zealous

difficulties for
TertuUian

the

permitted

CaUistus
clothing due to their rank.
the bishop (218-223) allowed
of senatorial
girlsand widows
rank, who did not wish to lose it through an inferior marriage,
to
with
enter
into concubinage, even
slaves, and pubhcly
for these illegal
showed
his preference
and anti-social marriages
to

the

gorgeous

alliances

with

the

crypts

Clementina
official under

The

of many
names
of Lucina, the

the

contain
In

infidels.

has

been

Marcus

found, the
Aurelius,

as

monuments

noble

Roman

in

the

lady

converts.

sarcophagus of one
wife of JaUius Bassus,
also of her

combs
cata-

Catia

high
daughter,Jallia
a

The
Clementina,

and

her

are
inscriptions

also

Faustina, Acilia
both

the

to

Position of Women
sister
found

though no word had come

family divisions,the centuries
and
assure
Christianitywould
emissaries

Annia

down

Even
and

the

name

family

broken

between

them.

related

Bassi.

of the

of conflict

hearts

paganism
that
says

Origen

the

Christian

most

family relations ; that Christian slaves, as

to
convert
seek
their
master's
alleged, would
pagans
and
family, and incite insubordination
against fathers
One
teachers.
incident, narrated
by Justin, a Christian

wife
and

author

under

Antoninus

type.

One

became

of

Hell

could

as

his

in

married

divorce.
the

most,

with

to

be

tainted

with

In

this

the

dissolve

(as

inscriptionruns)

writers

and

naturally

the

But

pagans.
stigmatizes mixed

could

the

at

the

never

have

be

weeded

to

attribute

wife

the

zeal and

be

to
manage
heathens
among

had

troth

loosely,and

could

Christians, and

common

of conscience
pangs
life-longalliance ; the number

who

women

the

'love

as

diversityof belief, and

to

preachings
length, fearing,
godlessness,she obtained
well as
rehgion,jarred :

his

morals,

case

among
often

husband

her

Christian

an

all her

very
new-bom

convert

been

have

must

lived

couple

not

sufficient

of

Pius,

Christian, but

wife,

were

to

interfere

to

intimate

the

ventured

same

Faustina, Licinia

belonged to a
to the
Pomponii

and

Antonines

of

there

who

Vera,

of

daughter

or

259

aU

the

harshness

marriages

the

been

Christians

out'.
of

with

which

too

Christian

such

and

'

heathens

great ;

guilt

improper

as

'

partings
TertuUian

irrecognisable

often
were
community,
Sometimes
enough led up to by the Christian missionaries.
of the
them.
an
might withstand
equal fanaticism
pagans
of an
oracle of ApoUo to a man
Porphyry gives the answer

by

indicates

the

who
and
write

asked
what
on

how

god
water,

he

or

deflect

should

he

should

fly in

wife.

that

Let

'

air, than
her

divorces

his wife

implore
the

the

have

from

Sooner

change
her

Christianity,
couldst

the

mind

will, remain

thou
of

thy

with

guilty,godless
to her
her empty
falsehoods, lament
god with her faithless
evil death.'
to an
just judges condemned
lips; her God whom
in beUef,
But
women
then, if religiouslythe 'leaders
old faith as they were
of every
obstinate adherents
as
were
new
susceptible to every
superstition.Of the variegated
innumerable
and
superstitionsof these changeful centuries.

The

26o
only

were

men

with

popular

in
is of

the

women

astrology.
it

This

No

too,
the

calendar

at

hand,

of the

of two

condemned

relegatedto

every
Chaldaean

watch

to

instant

the

the

when

child

was

the

exactly, and
remained

of the

slave

free,

under
and

for

island.

long,
Some

and

sulted
con-

other

the

same

other

the

he

was

Augustine
astrology that they
their

the

birth
at
gave
constellation.
a

then

St.

once.

to

bom

accurately the instants of the births of

and
animals
Once
the
ruling constellations.
and

involved

turn.

the
horoscope at
up
friends of his, so devoted

one

star-

they
Many, too, when
posted on some
observatory
stars, and to be informed
by a

at
a

very
where
else-

Juvenal,
the

barren

down

one

than

expert astrologersthemselves,

near

draw

and

were

confined, had

time

was

most

were

the

also

astrologer,says

once

by

extent

practisedmore

was

least

at

considerable

very

classes.

amnestied

women,

to

celebrated, if they had been

had
lain in chains
action, and
political

been

gong

to

form,

upper

became

some

and

the

repute, unless

readers
in

influenced

influential

very

one

Position of Women

slave

St.

tells
noted

domestic
wife
the
Yet

of

same

the

Augustine's

belief in

finallydestroyed.
astrology was
But
and
barities,
barmagic, in all its departments and hoaxes
in by women.
Under
the
was
fervently beUeved
of oriental
influence
of
mysticism, however, the character
this superstitionbecame
in the
second
wholly transformed
the
In
abominable
first, witches, loathly and
century.
doubtful
and
trades,
hags,practised
procuring : they concocted
salves and drugs and philtresfor beauty, and dealt in poisons,
and
fond
of wine.
This
too prowere
profession was
very
letariate
to suit the educated, and
was
yet
sought by women,
in his Marriage
who
believed
in love-philtres
: Plutarch
even
intended
for an
them, though his work was
Precepts mentions
educated
couple.
when
transformed,
But,
magic gained greater vogue.
After

by

150 a.d., when

Julianthe Chaldaean,
with

contaminated
that

the

and

that

more

and

the

Neo-Platonism

about

populace
both
more

Euphrates

philosophy became

theurgy
associated

magicians
of the
and

and

magic.

more

and

natural
streams

Ganges.

Now

and

Apuleius

philosophy with

Pierian
the

fore-heralded

was

more

says

enchantment,

philosophers drank
of the

East, the Nile,

sodden

procuresses

The

Position of Women

replaced by pious and

were

from

came

the

East,

holy miracle-workers,

had

or

spent many

Eg3rpt,or the society of Brahmans

free, despised earthly nutriment, went
later

and

welcome

conjurers

no

"

of

ness

Ufe

the

hags

mere

of

secret

in

guests
their

conquered, and, god-Uke,

was
success
largely due to the women,
of
assiduously. They took great care
Lucian

statelyman,
eye,
locks

and

vest

and

with

his

his

husbands
of

and

wore

from

their

mentions

beauteous

was

sprang
beautiful

extremely

an

story

Literature
women,

man

prefers dwelling
being

as

the

aim

the

same

was

Their

they courted
personal appearance.

beard,
white

in

and

graceful

and

purple

hand,

of their

foundation

the

would

have

written

life.

his

gave
he was
the

Philostratus

been

loved

had

he

Peloplaton

to

ladies

the

wish

she

mystic's

of

that

was

as

of

his

grace
at the

Lucian

But

hoU-

humanity

great children, as

man.

their

herself
human
super-

sophist,

scouts

the

incredible.

as

virtues

the

Alexander

These

Abonuteichos,

in Cilicia, and

with

thence

their

The

tale

linen,

powers.

whom

scythe

had

the

in Seleucia

lady

him, to be blessed

to

up

that

divine

Lucian,

says

favour

their

in

Perseus.

even,

made

"

deceptive wig

about

went

position. Perhaps much

of ApoUonius
of Tyana,

Philostratus

to

palaces.

well-tended

his

said

he

great

of

cloak, carrying

him,

to

skin,

hair,

own

descent

assured

was

voice

white

Alexander

white

musical

over

typify

describes

passion-

were

in white

power
they had

either

about

witches

or

who

in catacombs

years
; who

of

venerable,

261

and

and

of

wife

But
'

the

frailties and

vices

of

than
the
on
inconspicuous
copy,
this
description is thereby limited

better

most

evil side.

on

in

some

mutual

marriages
love, and

are

described

alternative

in which
submission

harmony ; in which the merit of a good wife is greater

than
the guilt of a bad
and wives
mothers
one
', or in which
the light of the home
for this
'. The
were
principalsource
is Phny's Letters.
He
tells of the
gaUery of good women
Uved

in

'

heroic

death

of

from

woman

his

native

Comum,

not

less

and
of Como,
crossing the Lake
a friend
pointed out to him a viUa juttingout over the water.
There
the
who
had
been
husband,
sufferingfrom tumours
to his wife, and asked if she thought
and boils,showed
them
She
them
curable.
thought them
hopeless; encouraged

great than

Arria.

He

was

262
him

The
commit

to

Position of Women

suicide, and

his

only

not

was

but

companion
together

and
themselves
guide as well ; they bound
plunged in to their death.
History, too, records
great examples of feminine
many
and
in the days of the lowest
depths of humihation
courage
were
women
prosecuted for
servihty. In the Terrors, when
selftheir tears, they often led men
to bravery, faith and
on
faithful
wives
sacrifice ; just as, under
the proscriptions,
were
his

to

outlawed

the

the

and

Julian house,

relatives, whom
followed
Tacitus

few

not

Annia

their

PolUtta

the

Vetus,
also

father,

her

and
mercy
mother-in-law

Vetus'

the

in

each, decentlywrapped

husbands.

her husband

saw

prayed
two

the

wife

involved

fixed

in the

his

were

carried

shift

condemned,

with

into

the

bath.

after the

discoveryof

veins, but

she

Piso's

both

conspiracy :
to

Ufe

at

Philippus had
his wife

Cagliari the
been

'

Atilia

of the

to

Sardinia

Pomptilla followed

climate, and

twenty-second

year

she

of

the

resolved

married

both

manner

opened
on

their

several

palenessshowing
on
inscription

he
to

life :

Cassius

comes.

usual

place),
fell ill,
perhaps

(a

him

magic.

her husband,

lived

and

following story

banished

other

to die with

chose

; her
years, faithful to her husband's
memory
how
she had been to death '. From
an
near

rock-tomb

unlawful

by

guilt off the

liberty of choosing

restored

was

suit

ously
anxi-

for

Soranus,

the

wife Paulina

Seneca's

father

of the

issue

to

of death.

the

then

his

of her

accusation

endeavoured

because

did

as

arteries, and

their

cut

on

gaze

prognosticatingthe
Each

beds

vain

all he had
gave
these the three
on

Vetus

three

in

she

his fate,

share

cloak, was

life

mother
daughter, and the grandthe granddaughter, and
on
they on him ; and all
for a
Fate
respected their ages ;
speedy death.'
elder ones
died
first,the youngest last. ServiUa,
in 66
of Annius
Pollio (banished in 65 a.d.),was

father

the

his

to

Sextia.

knife

same

for

decided

reserving only

with

and

The

tried

also

was

Nero's

his slaves,

lay

in

mothers

Plautus

besought

and

their

with
;

save

wives

exile, and

instances.

die

(a.d.62) assassinated by Nero ; she embraced

blood-stained
robe, and lived on
neck, kept the stained
In 65 Lucius
bare necessaries
of Ufa, in deep mourning.

his

'

could

of

barbarities

the

In

preferredto

entreaties

into

sons

givesa

RubeUius

to

often

women

their

their

faithless.

sons

die
she

with

him

died, he

The
survived.
to

the

Perhaps
belief

that

in substitution.

she

the

had

sun

But
that

and

characteristic

died

taken

she

left the

was,

in

how

to

for

wished

rephed

I with

Paetus

she

She

road

in
a

vain

sought

as

aUve, after your

besought her
her daughter to
'.

up

have

This

was

watched,

death
from

chair

revived, and

was

made

hard, but

her

death, easy

in

said

said,

'

Am

to

in your

lap ?
herself, asking her

him, if he

'

dashed
'

the

as

to Scribonianus'

died

I told

it '.

herself
you

'

She

must.

It is useless

hinder

not

and

him,

long and so happily

her
family all the more

so

and

death

to

Claudius

die with

answer

Paetus

show

to

wrote

kill

to

lived

forth,

with

husband
not

break

Illyriaagainst
Paetus
brought to

She

before

witness

resting,

condenmed

embark

to

was

dry eyes and a quiet

ceasing to be mother,

and

of his rank.

man

would

conspiracy
kiUed

was

son

of his

hope

he

inquiries:

was

Scribonianus'

her

informing Paetus,

tears

Paetus

a.d.

less brave

the

son,

greater triumph than

42

in

my

leapt

waU.

play

Yes, if she
She

make

can

In

to

you,
son-in-law

anxious.

his

transcended

both

without

after

acted

'

him

The

the mother,

listen to

only
light of

the

not

Once

with

allowed

if she

hers.

repUes to

Scribonianus

wife, who

other

returned

Arria

Her

in

Pliny'seyes,

Rome.

records

sick-room, and
To

Claudius.

than

'

When

die.

the

courage

nourishment.

comphcity

slave

buried

calm

countenance.

Alcestis,

new

dagger into her own

husband, saying, Paste,

it to her

gave

Younger
sayings of

Arria

simulated

life

the

plunged

lay dangerouslyill.

another

Zeno

her

to

whose

the

Phny

her husband

had

dearer

husband,

of all women,

it, and

dolet.'

and

and

is Arria, who

non

home,

her

of

due

were

children.'

breast, withdrew

and

for

wives

accept

speaks
inscription

died

famous

of men,

by

would

Nethergod

embraced,

most

263

sacrifices of life

Greek

who

her

or

these
the

A
'

CaUicrateia,
man

Position of Women

as

you

Thereupqn
against the

I should

find

Posteritywas to associate
Arria with the faithful wives
of heroic legend. On the tomb
of a lady at Anagnia, the husband
begs her and Laodamia
her soul among
to receive
the blessed
assemblage of Roman
a

and

to

Greek

Arria's
of her

daughter,
:

difi"cult'.

women.

husband

example

or

he

Caecinia

Thrasea

persuaded

at

the

in 60, wanted

to

foUow

her

aUve, and

Arria,
to

remain

condemnation
her
not

mother's

deprive

her

of her

daughter
worthy

was

and

under

her

mother

Priscus, and

underwent

the

Senecio,

and

for

of Helvidius,' wrote

account

she

and
denied
papers,
and
mother
threats
:
dangers wrung
Herennius
her.
was
executed, Fannia

She

confiscated.

this, with

her

both

book,

the

Senate

returned

claims

to

love

facts

only
give

which

and

reverence,

joined her

she

ordered

it and

its

testifies to heifcharm,

PUny

a.d.

97

all

occasioned

had

interdicted

goods

her

and

exiled

her
from

further

nothing

in

of

compUcity

any

which

banishment,

her

the

though

destruction
and

into

her

mother,

took

incited

had

she

that

him

given

Ufa, an^Tvas accused

his

acknowledged

Herennius

time.

third

for his sake,

in 93,

after his execution

husband

her

of

exile

the

shared

punishment

same

friend

this

him,

of

daughter, too, Fannia,

In 66 B.C.,
grandmother.

The

only help.

Vespasian,she

Helvidius

on

Position of Women

The

264

as

model

future

to

wives.
These

of them

even

As

pictures.
is

almost

to

to

set

of

the

dumb.

quaintly truthful

upjferclasses, and
and isolated
merely fragiffentary

widower

of the

women

middle

Only
by their

inscribed

refer

classes

their

tombstones

husbands

with
'

On

says

gratitude to gods and

my
virtues of all women
must
have

eulogium
A.D.):
50
and

the

treasure

'

lady
praise of good

The

same

up,

and

who

their

virtues

not

are

'.

one

death

all tombstone

But

long
(circa
is always simple
gift,which they
if each be worthy
as

noble, shows

women

sufficient

served,
pre-

of her

similar,

been
not

been

virtues

day

Nature's

are

diverse

their

men

was

lower, literature
have

the

testified

of Murdia,

the

and

few
life has
whose
good repute : a woman,
fame
strive
vicissitudes, can
:
gain no new
they needs must
after the one
omission
common
object,lest one
spoil their
famous
like other
life. My mother
the more
was
; she was,
women.and not less than they, modest, honest, chaste, obedient,
of

the

same

industrious, careful

Vespillo, the
domestic
the

consul,

virtue

is all

my

The
classes

sphere
at

his

wife

Thus,

Turia

Lucretius

too,
'

mention

Why

chastity,and submissiveness, geniahty,

modesty in attire ? Or your love to your

kin, of my
with

common

on

faithful '.

and

ready loom,

kio, and

and

of

all times

mother

all honourable
woman
:

was

hence

of

as
women

thus

these

your
'.

conceived

parents ?
in

inscriptions
may

the
be

This

middle

grouped

266

The

followed

him

wife at

Rome

'

Africa

to

for

inscriptionruns

of Women

Position
:

'

thus

To

house-mistress, the desire of my

eighteen

three
years,
with
her without

lived
to

her

and

manes,

(forshe has lived

beg of thee, Mevia
the

earth

there

do, mayst thou

thee, and
heavy on

thou

the

even

hours,

recorded

are

(the

fell ill, and

birth

her

life.

tombstone
he

had

end

to

hateful

be

to

the

only

the

days and
of

widow

of

Piso, who

Nethergod

day), or

intolerable

my

'.

thee

months,

of

habit

of

the

for

have

complain

fatal

refuse

underworld

the

Stranger, may
disturb
naught : if
gods ; the earth lie

thee, if thou

on

days.

me

souls.

departed

be

with

Often

marriage,
carefully

astrological purposes,
and

Pliny

the

prove

tells of how

adopted by Galba)

was

Regulus' question as to the hour of

he forthwith
cast a horoscope for the length of
read his wife's
widower
in Lyons begs those who
bathe
of Apollo and
to go to the
Baths
there,
answered

her

as

the

careful

been

of the

figures are very common

of this superstition. Thus

vogue

Verania

an

and

Roman

now

to

up

put

consequence
hours
of birth

accurate

enorm.ous

to

but

back

her

in

calculating the
these

not

thirteen

in unison

me

Ughtly

rest

has

demand

Sophe,

solitude, if indeed

soul, who

complaint,

one

with

wife,

and

months

either

virtuous

to

given

faithfulness.

proof of

similar

is

eulogium

similar

done, and

wished

he

still could.

widow

mends
recom-

to
Nethergods, and begs them
his ghost up to her at night-time.
send
their good
The
domestic
virtues
are
usually celebrated
house-keeping and spinning. An imperialslave, a dispensator
the
in Lower
she was
Moesia, says of his wife :
patronsaint of my
home, my
hope and my Ufe. Her wishes were
mine
of her secret
None
; her dislikes mine.
thoughts was
concealed
from
She
me.
was
a
busy spinner, economical,
She did not deUght in eating,
to her husband.
but generous
She
with
save
me.
was
a
good counsellor, prudent and
small
one
noble '. A huge
another
sarcophagus in which

her

husband

to

the

'

found, is thus inscribed

was

Amymone,
a

busy

the

wife

spinner,

of

Unfortunately
tone, and

thus

Marcius,

good

in clear letters

housewife,

these

withhold

rests

here

chaste,

have
inscriptions
many

good

was

modest,

not

glimpse

into

and

more

she

and

fair

pious.

individual

women's

inner

The

lives.
women

in
utmost

records

History
who

seeking
quest

rise

above
combine

to

of

truth,

Position

mass

disconnected
cannot

Women

267

conning-tower

her

from
the

of

escape

whilst

history

impressions,
being

merely

those

only
of

morals,

with

the

subjective.

VI

CHAPTER

MEANS
I.

the

has

or

'

better
even

world

'.

in the

owed,

Empire,

an

how

the

This

calumniated

Ages,

Travelling throughout
swift

and

of the

nineteenth
far

were

to

secure

more

alike

ahve

hard

basalt

trade

and

Roman

the

was

South

And

less

vigour

and

East

than

very

until
for

to-day,
'

travel.

the

North
in

much

the

the

and

', and

was

West

residence
land

and
ruts

from
of the

nineteenth

easy,

beginning

water

deep

the

to

is inferior.

the

remotest

and

ancient

known

changing

The

those

even

much

modernity,
Roman
Empire

occasions

than

numerous

even

Empire
afterwards

ever

than

unknown

degree

ways,
testifyto this trafftc *. In
there

and

intercourse,

intercourse,

rather

of the

most

century

with

facilityof

one

was

Roman

than
how

who

of

ancient

will show

of

matter

Middle

modes

of the

chapter

epoch

1897),

conditions

and

'

in

modem

on

reahns

connections

now

far

of the

Most

died

(who

greatest authorities

said

had

Stephan

ROADS

BY

COMMUNICATIONS

(i)Heinrich
of

COMMUNICATION

OF

the

on

Rome,

Empire

century

in

more.

of
two
and
half centuries
a
Empire gave
only occasionallyand locallyinterrupted ; a condition
peace,
since unrealized.
Contemporaries acknowledged these boons
of peace,
An
and
regularity of intercourse.
security and
celebrates
the
inscriptionat Halicamassus
Augustus as
saviour
of humanity, whose
Providence
fulfilled and
outbid
also

the

'

the

of all men
prayers
cities flourish
in lawful

land

and

sea

are

at

peace,

and

government, unity and prosperity

in all things '. All provinces at all periods raise this paean
to
the
accession
of the
the
to
Caesars
world-peace. The
sovereigntyof the earth had strippedEnvy of his destructive

Means
banned

power,
and

all baleful

had

the

set

into

farthest

the
from

land

confusions
similarly stayed the endless
warring states ; she had united peoples and
unbreakable
one
organization of peace, one

had

imperial

revenue

and

Hill

dale

home,

trade

of

majesty
the

gods had

for

the

the
this

enthusiastic

gift of

made

world-state.

the

without

would,

he

mountains

not

are

clad

longer iron, but

their

own

wander
may
the
homes
;

roads

to

Egypt through

barbarians

to

is

This

has

for

their

Cilician

the

the

through
all

retailed

customs

one,
to
laws

opened

have

all with

see
on

all,and

intolerable

family.'

The

it

need

for you

be

have

every gate and

his own
eyes.

been

closes

with

There

earth

is
and

arrive

at

sandy
tain
moun-

Emperor's subject,
had

said,

realized.
and

the

every
have

prayer

have

ennobled

and

laws

no

for every

his

freedom,

conferred

that

The

roads

made

leaders
man

"

You

described

'

of

repealed conditions entertainingto

in reality; and
merged all nations

speech

same

narrow

deserts,

more

are

the

to

terrors

rivers,

You

not

the

Homer

given

busy,

Hellenes

the

the

whither

go

feast.

no

was

first Antonine

homes

now

was

no

Pliny,

or

The

present

Philo

Chaeronea,

gulfs.

Gates,

bridged the
mountains,
peopled
world

sacred

of

vanished

own

earth,

The

things.

the

was
a

of

there

locked

no

anew

"

creased,
inwere

utterances

Is

Dread

Arabia

all

to

common

measured

and

not

from

prosperity.
marine

man
every
all harbours

to be
:
or
savages
pass, torrents
talisman.
is the one
be a Roman

earth

or

not

cities ?

impassable,

the

anchorage : as though
world
; all peoples prayed

these

Are

as

the

Rome.

Could

fields, whence

streams

no

no

all

in

charm

safe

as

into

secure

than

fear ?

incessant

Rome

Appian of Alexandria, Plutarch

and
Epictetus of Hierapolis in Phrygia,
in his eulogium on
the
of Smyrna
Aristides
and

Rome

Nowhere

of Alexandria,

'

earth

first Caesars

pirates.

or

life of the

even

the

which

life,a

of

renewed

eternity of

More

sea

djmasties
ring. In

countries.

bandits

or

source

of

all

Romana,

pax

eternal

an

and

of

secured
peace
the
mercantile

between

battles

the

death

cultivated

were

or

wars

the

rapidly, and

rose

and
there

after

centuries

first two

deserts,

kindly genii
Empire. As the shape of the
anarchy of conflictingatoms,

the

to

term

269

of the

confines

influences

all the

concentrated

within

of Communication

equal

the

mind,

into
this

one

city

Means

270
and

empire

and

no

flourish

blossoms

The

of Communication

in

bloom

fail

not

cultivated

and

Smiling

busy.

forests

the
the

sand

there

has

are

islands

are

remedy.
necessary
Yet
eulogy, if ever
of

system
round
in

the
on

the

Sierra

recall

the

or

the

elaborate

that

and

plagues
deserved

under

graves
Scotland

Syrtes in

and

The
nook
population
over-

famines

the

roads

Roman
in

of

traces

and

which,

brambles,

in

Transylvania,
Africa, monumentally
or

of

greatness

increased

by
of

glorious

the

of roads

network

thought

the

Eifel,

hovels.
every

web

and

drained

:
terrif5?ing

its

with

great
Euphrates
to
the
wayfarer the
or

more

wolves,

were

even

was
justified,

Empire,

Morena

cUffs

evil, and

'

the

away

once

TertuUian

communications,
entire

is

broken, swamps

there

as

deserts, buried

remote

the

fertile,rocks

coming

driven

have

life'.

world

the

says

Every place is accessible

fields
replaced deserts, and corn-

have

cities
many
not
barren
nor

was

a.d.,

before.

fields

made

ordered

its

'

than

water,

tion,
hostilityto civilizamaterial
advantages.

their

all

290

lambs

been

as

with

teems

richer

float in the

iron

spring.'

appreciate

to

TertuUian, writing about

and

the

Christians, too, with

did

until

eternally,or

Rome

'.

'

This

pubUc security,made

facilitated touring and commerce,

eased
agriculturemore
secure,
the working of the.administrature, made
settlements
possible,
ruin
and
The
of these
quickened the spread of culture.'
ancient

universal

links, the

loss

of the

idea

even

of such

complete system, explain many

misconceptions of Roman
in the later Empire.
civiUzation, such as the rarityof travelling
the majority,
roads, or even
Naturally not all the Roman
famous
the
were
comparable with the oldest and most
one,
Via
from
Rome
Appia (builtby Appius Claudius
B.C.,
312
to
of roads
in the
sixth
Capua). This
century
queen
aroused
the
wonder
of Procopius, the Byzantine historian,
who
calls it a sight not to be missed.
This was
broad
enough
for two
not
carriagesto pass at breast and built of a stone
found
in the neighbourhood and used for mills.
The
smooth,
sharp-hewn blocks fitted together to a nicety, uncemented
and
unmetaUed.
Despite the traffic of centuries, the surface
this
was
even
unbroken,
preserving its first pohsh. To
stretches
of exposed pavement
of basalt
day some
polygons
'

stillhold

firm.

The

'

mile

between

Beneventum

and

Aeclanum,

of Communication

Means
built

Hadrian,

under

part,
be

sufficient.

ItaUans

such

Cosimo

de'

narrow

the

on

In

than

Medici

feet to

roads

of Central

can

of

its breadth
of

may
it

as

ment
improve-

an

of

The
been

would

centuries,

Emanuel

have

never

track

'

coach

fourteen

for the most

sixteenth

by Philibert
Gregory XIII.

and

roads

as

rode

small

and

broad

as

Roman

great length

'

built

were

construction

The

fifteenth

the
roads

regarded
;

carriages,and

two-horsed

had

or

(;^i,o87los.).
The Appian

unusual.

was

between
twenty
average,
smaller.
were
People then

roads

most

sesterces

100,000

that this breadth

Procopiusshows
Way was, on the
feet

cost

271

Savoy,

traffic

great

as

the

on

that

as

of

Europe

to-day.
Appia, defying time, no less
have
distinguished it from the rest.
not
was
plastered,but only gravelled
the

Via

over.

The

of

great system

principalradii.

The

roads

started
the

first, to

Ad
took

Hence

hour.

one

by

whence

the

on

and

five
Via

Thurii,

to

the passage
to Messana
the North
coast
of Sicily

along
busy haven

the

with

went

PopuU

road

Rome

South,

Forum

Capua, thence, by
Columnam
(ad Traiectum)
to

Appia

from

of

Lilybaeum (near
whence
boats ran
to Carthage ; the
Marsala, about fortymiles),
of over
stadia taking twenty-four hours or more.
1,100
voyage
from
In
made
Portus
sailingswere
good weather
Augusti
of the Tiber, or PuteoU
to Carthage. Carthage
at the mouth
linked on to Tingi (Tangiers)
was
road, whence
by a Western
sailed
Belone
in
to
of 220
a
(Bolonia)
Spain, a voyage
ferry
road
four hours ; and by an Eastern
to Alexandria,
stadia, about
went

Panormus

there

whence
of Suez

isthmus

there

running
On

the

and

Arabian

Way
The

to

the

was

connection

main
Nile

road
and

with
Antioch.

to
two

Asia

roads

From

andria,
Alex-

either

on

the

over

bank,

to

to

the

Capua,

voyage

to

to

on

the

Myoshormos

and

harbours

two

conmierce,

East

the

whence

two

From

also

roads

ran

Red

Sea

-for Indian

Berenice.

along

bifurcated

to

the

Appian

Brundusium.

(800 stadia) lasted

Dyrrhachium, the great Via Egnatia

Dyrrhachium

twenty-fourhours.
went

the

on

great road

The

was

Hiera-Sykaminos, the frontier of Aethiopia.

an
important junction,whence
rigjitbank Coptos was
up

started

roads

to

or

Aulona

and
straight through Macedonia
(c.500 miles); at that point two

Thrace

roads

to

tinople
Constan-

branched

of",

272

Means

crossingNorth

Greece

at

Athens.

In

Thrace

Gallipoli on
crossing over

to
the

lasted

about

industrial

(c.600 nules
diverged East
Palestine,
famous

With

the

(the modem
Nami

by

in

hour.
and

from

the

West

then

prosperous
thence
over

where

it met

North

there

the

East

with

it from

East, and

civilization,to Antioch
from
South

the

to

isthmus

African

main

lines.

The

Corso, crossing the Tiber at Ponte

and
the
Spoleto to Rimini, whence

met

the

Milan

road

Piacenza

Parma,
Modena

north

road

of the

Antioch

roads
and

Syria

of

populous country

and

three

were

by Bologna, Modena,
geographical miles). At
Verona

the

of ancient

its seats

went

at

and

Constantinople); and
the
Euphrates and

to
a

meeting
a
by-road from the Via Egnatia led
From
Thracian
Chersonese.
GaUipoli
Hellespont to Lampsacus (sixtystadia)
From
Lampsacus the road traversed
on

', and

towns

Alexandria,

the

one

Asia

'

the

of Communication

Po

and

of

Suez

to

road.
Via

Flaminia

MoUe)
Via
to

went

Aemilia

Milan

(87

diverged, which
running parallel

Aquileia,by Bergamo, Brescia, Verona and

from
Rimini
Vicenza.
Generally fast traffic went
along
the coast
to Ravenna,
water
thence
the
Seven
over
Lakes,
by
of
the lagoons
the Po, to Altinum, a staple-town for Italian
with
the North
of this once
commerce
:
city a
prosperous
the water
under
of the lagoons near
few remains
be seen
can
to Aquileia, the
Venice.
From
of
centre
Altinum, it went
trade
with
From
Italian
the Danube.
Aquileia roads in
to Dyrrhachium
Istria led to Pola, and
through Dalmatia
;
the
Camian
to
North- West
thence
Alps
through
Vipitenum
this
road
met
the one
from
Wipthal), where
(Sterzing am
t6 Veldidena
Verona
Innsbruck), and to Augs(Wilten near
burg
thence, North-East
by Emona
(Laibach),Poetovio
; and
(Odenburg),
(Stein am
Anger), Scarabantia
(Pettau),Sabaria
to Camuntum

on

the Danube,

where

the

many

branches

this

March

flows into it at

point,the road went

up to the Danube
and Lauriacum
to Vienna
(Lorch bei Enns) to Regina Castra
to Aquincum
the Danube
(Alt-Ofen).
(Regensburg), and down
from
The great road
Aquileia to Constantinople went by Siscia
Sirmium
(Mitrovic),Serdika
(Sophia), Philippopolis
(Sissek),
and
miles). From
Constantinople
Adrianople (1,128 Roman
the
to
whence
there was
over
Chalcedonia,
a crossing
Bosporus
road
went
main
Nicaea, and Anc5rra, with
a
by Nicomedia,
Hainburg.

From

to

into

inner

Little

Asia.

Alpine roads
Camicum)
was

stiU

been

a.d.

and

before

time

any

St.

Great

the

still

Drauthal,

the

Bemhard

have
carriages: later there must
in the winter.
legionscrossed it even
the Claudian
Way through the Tyrol

for

the

'

much

as

of

end

nineteenth

the

doubtful

It is very
pierced and

milestones.

garnished with
ever
Alps were

the

whether
at

in 69

this road

into

time

Strabo's

Zuglio (Julium

from

that

as

Pleckenpass

In

; as

built, and

was

the

over

road

such

also were,

impossible

A.D.

47

there

rutted.

deeply

In

of Communication

Means

274

crossable

century,

as

engineers
Empire.' The Roman
the JuUer,
showed
great circumspection. Of the road over
some
pieces are in excellent preservation,accuratelyaUgned,
and a roadway of nine to eleven feet.
stones
with big terminal
The
The gradient is never
than
more
turnings
15 per cent.
they

under

were

broad

are

Yet

and

the

made

their

ancient

way

road

up
later

the

bends,

Kxceptfrom

and

animals
road

over

braked
the

up

to

might
had

and

mark
be

to be

the
snowed

used.

often

which

the

in

the

all ice and

was

the

road, and
over

Greater

snow

Alps

must

have

describes

men,

spring on the
the
carriages

and
and

three

passes

the

men

the

the

snow-water,

pulled by

of

most

dangerous. Ammianus
in
slipping about

by ropes

winter, it

when

could

twenty-two.

one

across

passages

waggons
Mont
GtoSvre

back

In

September,

snow,

difficult

been

to

May

modem

been

metres).

3'5
mule-team

the

nine, and

one

from

free

were

(i'5 to

narrow

were

have

only one
carriage and one
also very steep
through. They were
the
Maloia
Pass
(1,811 metres) had

that

Julian says

usable.
very
the
Alps must

over

roads

the

slight,as

force

road

the

wheeled-traf"c

the

very

Roman

the

animals.

stakes

were

put

the

abysses ; and these signals

or
by torrents ; guides
pulled down
dangers even, apart from avalanches,

overwhelmed

whole

caravans,

involved

were

tracks, perilouslyon the edge of precipices,

and animals, who were
not giddy.
passable only by native men

in

these

The
way
and

narrow

busy
from
the

road

by

Milan

to

Little

Roman

miles):
miles) through
the

Great

St.

Strassburg,and

St.
the

Susa
Aries

same

Bemhard,
to

Mont

(395

Bemhard

Geneva

so

and

was

road

Gendvre
Roman
the

was

the

miles) ;
road

to

shortest

by

Vienna

Aosta

(308

led to

Strassburg (545 Roman

and
over
Besanfon ; from Aosta
Martigny, V6vey, Basel-Augst to

Spiers,Worms

and

Mainz

was

409

Means
Roman

miles

Augsburg

or

Partenkirchen

the

Vienna

Treves
West

or

from

Rheims.

also

Verona,

East

West

to

with

Rheims

the

Paris

and

Neckar

Utrecht

and

Orleans, the
Rouen

; as

and

Lyons,

the

Gaul,

with

was

to

of West

centre

met

Mainz

Leiden

with

Lyons

went

there

from

connected

Wilten,

roads

and

Enns,

Bale

to

Brenner,

Augsburg
bei

was

Gaul, and

the

From

Lorch

to

275

Bregenz, and

to

over

Cologne, Nijmegen,

of South

centre

Splugen

Augsburg.

road, and

to

and

over

to

and

the

or

Regensburg,

to

on

of Communication

Strass-

the
where
Western
Bordeaux,
burg and
Pyrenaean roads
to
Britain
went
converged. The
great road
by Rheims,
to
Soissons, Amiens
Boulogne (Portus Gesoriacum) and
the
to Richborough
crossing was
(Rutupiae), lasting eight

nine

or

province,
which

for

hours

stadia.
Roman
Britain, as
a
450
its network
of roads, the principal points of

had

were

the

Camulodunum

(Colchester),London,

and

Ebora-

the
with
themselves
and
(York), all interconnected
ports, and extending as far as the Wall of Hadrian, the Northern
frontier of the Empire.
A probable estimate
of the total lengths of the road-system
The
out.
(as far as our knowledge allows)has not been made
from
Bordeaux
pilgrim-route of 333 a.d.
by Aries, Milan,
Aquileia,Constantinople,Nicomedia, Ancyra, Tarsus, Antioch,
680
Tyre, Caesarea, Jerusalem, is about
geographical miles.
A
the
Hadrian's
Wall
to
journey from
Aethiopian frontier
cum

(Hiera-sykaminos) would
from

Alexandria

be

about

miles.

1,000

tour

Leptis,Carthage, Caesarea, Cadiz, Cordova,

the
Barcelona, Lyons, Rheims,
Boulogne, Dover, London,
Scottish
back
Leiden,
frontier, and
Cologne,
by Dover,
stantinople
Mainz, Strassburg, Milan, Verona,
Aquileia, Sofia, Conand
Alexandria
Nicomedia,
Ancyra, Antioch
would
be about
1,824 miles.
A comparison of the system of roads in the Mediterranean
lands, and on the Lower
Danube, in the later Roman
Empire,
at the beginning of the nineteenth
with
conditions
century,
would

be

unfavourable

retrogressionin
in the

huge
Africa

In

to

realms
there

under

had

network

times.

in

long

one

to

sway
coast-road

Alexandria.

of roads

The

greatest

roads, is still to

the barbarous

was

Carthage

close

modem

civilization,and

(Tingi) by
a

to

centring

seen

of Islam.
from

Eastern
at

be

Sitifis

Tangiers

Mauretania
;
(Setif)

as

276
also

Numidia,

and

of Communication

Means

Theveste

(Susa) and

the

roads

AurSs

main

the

far

provinces,

latter

both

Djebel

the

Numidia

In

inland.

Hadru-

Carthage,

at

In

Proconsular

its lower

it with

by roads, connecting
at Lambaesis
(Lambessa), by

surrounded

was

(Tine).

Tbenae

stretched

met

roads

North-West,

the
; and

South-East

the

(Tebessa)in

Africa, in which
metum

(Constantine)in

Cirta

at

Bescera
heights on the North
in 1850, when
General
St. Arnaud
(Biskra) and the oases.
he passed the defile of Kanga,
pronounced impassable by
the first pioneer. But
the natives, thought he was
an
tion
inscripthe

in

middle

division

of the

the

to

of the
third

Oasis

legion was

of El

way
is still crossed

miles

Roman

often

laid

up

out

for

for three
In

four

or

roads

from

were

Asiatic

Serdica

Sirmium

(Sofia)to

mostly

were

roads

Forts

even.

In

Tunis,

were

were

under

put
the

only mule-paths, excepting

Morocco
has no
roads
as
yet.

were

roads

short

and

Egypt,

towns

roads

Brenis

Wadi

Other

123.

security.

pubhc

Protectorate, there

French

and

smaller

the

by

in

145 a.d.,
On
the

century, and executed

to Carthage of 19,174

Theveste

constructed

was

intervals

at

from

soldiers; that

the

by

third

in

here.

torrential

These

bridge.
of the

that

quartered
the

Kantara,

by a Roman
designed by the Emperors

him

showed

pass

and

European Turkey, the main

(Mitrovic)to Singidunum (Belgrade)
Constantinople (712 Roman
miles).

the
still visible ; near
are
parts their remains
populous parts, they are used for building
great cities and
In

wilder

the

called

purposes,
'

Trajan's Way

of

Ichtiman

the

bare

Adrianople
twelfth
map
Novae

century.

from

fable

times

ground.
was

Sofia

near

have

in ancient

down

Way'

'Latin
'

for

The

still used
On

the

and

(Svistov)the
in 1833 had
Greece

road

can

inhabitants

plastered road
princess,who might not
between

the

Roman

Philippopolisover

The

the

road

by

(Naissus), and

elsewhere.

that
a

Nish

near

the

at

the

depicted on

middle

still be

laid

betread

Philippopolisand

Crusaders
road

was

of the

end

of the

Peutinger's
Haemus

to

traced.

carriage-roadsat all. In antiquity

afford to neglect her roads
she could
(as she also did her
drains and water
supply),as the coasting-vesselscompensated
Romans
to
the
lack.
But
the
she
owed
her
two
great
roads : Hadrian
Unked
Northern
these with the Peloponnese
with
a
carriage-road from the dangerous mule-path by the
no

Means
Sciron

cliffs

Further,
but

in

this

of

for

long
kingdom
bridges :
himself
his

barren

as

of

had

In

Naples

in

the

in

the

South,

did

Emperors

had

in

and

vanished

any,

and

the

King

kilometers

'og

many
fourteen

for

of

roads

complete

not

revived

the

century,

1846
military promenade with

such

antiquity,was

nineteenth

scarcely

Basilicata

the

in

rate
any
existed

afterwards.

adherents,

1872

at

roads,

on

the

province, even

to-day).

even

road-building.

Italy, too,

system

277

(a great engineering feat, wonderful

little in

In

of Communication

practically no
of

Naples

days.

of
in

Sicily
kilometer

square
is difficult,and
the

this

lost

thousands

the

to

former

day, travellinginland
devastating
sary.
fiumari (unknown to Roman
times) make
long detours necesthe Empire, there
thousand
But, under
were
over
one
Roman
miles
of roads, linking all the
and
coast-towns,
with
and
Catana,
Panormus,
Agrigentum
Syracuse with
Termini
In
and
with
Panormus.
Sardinia, where
a
guide

to

must

where
In
main
Cadiz.

be

now

had, there

were

held

the

Rome

only

Spain
road
In

Saragossa

there
the

by
and

East

South

the

East

side-roads

were

miles

1,000

coast,

Seville

100.

from

coast

and

Cordova,

West

in Corsica,

all directions

in

South

and

of road

Merida

from

the

Barcelona

to

in

the

North

principal
centres.
From
tion
Merida, as
principal connecwith
Lusitania
and
Lisbon
was
by Badajoz, Coimbra
and Braga.
A splendid Roman
Calzada
de Oropesa
road, near
Toledo
the
aroused
to Merida)
(a part of the road from
of J. G. Rist in 1806, as being in strange contrast
admiration
with
the prevailing desolation, with
its soliditythat
pointed
the
main
in
had
roads
to happier days.
1830
Spain
orily
from
Madrid
to
Bayonne, Saragossa, Barcelona, Valencia,
Valencia
Seville and Lisbon, and a few provincialroads, from
to
Burgos to Valladolid
;
Perpignan, from
by Barcelona
wUdemess.
these were
a
possible for carriages: all else was
in a twenty-five-mile
Madrid
From
to Toledo, the largesttown
that went, as they
service of conveyances,
radius, there was
a
Astorga,

in the

were

the

to this day, the

'

best
The
maps
chance

have

could, in open

fields.'

large volume
and

lists

of

discovery
been.

On

of traffic in the

of

the

Empire

stopping-places an
1852
floor

shows
of

the

must

absolute

how

common

Baths

of

have
'

made

they
VicareUo

need.

on

must

the

278

Means 'of Communication

Lago
like

di

Bracciano, four
milestones,engraved

to Rome.

These

silver
with

vessels

shaped

found,

were

full itineraryfrom

the

Gades

have

belonged
to Spaniards,taking a cure
and
at these
waters,
leaving
these as pious offerings.The
of them
different dates
imply
continuous manufacture, and
a
been
hardly have
Spain can
smiths
silverexceptional in this respect. And
goldsmiths and
would
hardly have engraved their jars in this fashion,
but
for a great demand.
often
Possibly these lists were
guides to the sights and historic interests, a kind of ancient
Baedeker.
Bordeaux
The
Pilgrim-guide of 333
a.d., from
to Jerusalem, gives a very
able
complete Biblical history referto the several
places,and historical, natural and general
of Jerusalem : e.g.
notes, especiallyfor the neighbourhood
at Bordeaux

from

about

that

vessels, of difierent ages,

the

ebb

leagues ;

100

there killed Carinus

; or

in

was

Bith3mia,that it
buried ;
King, was
were

bred

there

of the

Garonne

of Viminiacum,

or

(Djebize)near

there that

AnnibaUanus,

Andavilis,
of

Tyana

visible

was

that

at Libissa

at

or

flow

and

must

Diocletian
Nicomedia
African

the

that

Tyana,
again, that

near

horses
race-

ApoHonius

the

there : Pella
is mentioned
the
bom
as
magician was
the
Great
and
of the
:
haltingbirthplaceof Alexander
the
there
buried
of
that
was
;
andj
poet
place
Euripides,
of
in
three
miles
Caesarea
Palestine, that,
was
lastly,
away,
And
the List
a
hill,Syna, with a spring, curing barrenness.
Diocletian)
(drawn up under
of Halting-Placesof Antoninus
it catalogues the Greek
matter
the
contains
much
same
;
with
them
the
various
connects
islands
and
legends oj
and
heroes.
1
gods
of
institution
State
a
post was
only intendep.
(ii)Augustus'
It
carried
was
on
for government business.
by military
had
their route
couriers : imperial messengers
mapped out
into mutationes
(changes of horses) and mansiones
(nightreckoned
were
by mansiones
(about
quarters).Distances
found
Asolo
at
miles
:
one
apart)
inscription,
25 Roman
travel fiftymansiones
Gaul
from
a widow
Treviso, makes
near
Bordeaux
to Aquileia
to visit her husband's
grave ; as from
was
or

were

about

forty mansiones,

North- West

afterwards

Private

At

Gaul.
built

individuals

she

the

for the

might

be

must

mansiones
use

of

have

come

from

palatia or

governors
allowed
the
use

or

of

North

praetoria
emperors.
the State

Means
Post

of Communication

by diplomata, granted

only under
feU

released
the

locaUties

Italy from

Post

State

restrictions,by the

severe

the

on

the

to

provincials, to
the replacement
Post

Hadrian
it

But

the

was

last.

of

with

Part

freedmen

Rome,

at

burden, and

fisc ;

by the procurator, later,

The expenses
Emperors.

first, without

at

the

institution.

of the

first

at

279

Nerva

Septimius Severus charged

it a
having already made
severe
obligation for the
of

Hadrian's

by knights as
salary of 100,000

reUef.

any

reforms

was

superintendents
sesterces
(prae-

district surveyors
received
fectivehiculoruni)
;
60,000, but
first appointed by Septimius Severus.
In the fourth
were
fifth centuries
and
there were
three grades of postal service.
carried by couriers, who
led a second
horse
Despatches were
besides
Persons
were
riding their own.
conveyed by express
d
rawn
horses
mules
or
:
carriages {redae),
by
transports of
and
and
materials
River-boats
war
goods on ox- waggons.
mail-packetsalso lay ready to expedite letters and persons.
From
that a freedman
of Hadrian
an
inscriptionit is known
at Ostia
was
procurator of letters by the post-shipsstationed
{naves vagae).
This

copied

was

Post, like

State

from
But

purposes.

so

much

Persia, and
the

hardly
of

success

fail to

else in the
used

these

Empire,

Roman

at

all

for

private

regular public

services

incite

private individuals, at least, when

demand
the
the
and
was
on
urgent, in the larger towns,
main
roads.
of these
Traces
private posts have been preserved
two-wheeled
in Italy. Jobbers of four-wheeled
and
carriages {redae, cisiarii)and
draught-animals {jumentarii)
formed
in
several
cities
of
:
guilds
Italy,which often combined
as
Jin Tibur, the guild of the jumentarii with that of the
adored
cisiarii (named after Hercules, ^tHaowas
at Tibur). In
formed
in Repubhcan
the guild of the cisiarii was
Praeneste
the
Travellers
cisiarii (such as
times.
were
mostly used
in Italy throughout
the
sedie
used
eighteenth century) :
often, as a writer of
redae, a sign of greater wealth, were
could

the

hardly

century remarks,

fourth

of Catullus, ascribed
of

sung

noisy

to

mule-drivers

cart

could

beat

Uable

', is bemocked
him

on

the

even

his

stay in Gaul,

sold

all his

In

accidents.

Vetturinus

Virgil,one

his rival, Trypho, could

not

to

for
road

to

Sabinus,
that

boasting
Mantua

deny this '.

parody

or

'

most
'

no

Brixia

CaUgula, during

imperial furniture,

and

took

28o

of Communication

Means
all the

over

thus

men

carriageson

could

not

hire

attend

to

the

it from

fetch

and

courts

Rome.
lost

Many-

their

suits.

in Mediolanium,
Ariminum,
jumentarii are found
Forum
(Todi) : of cisiarii
Sempronii (Fossombrone) Tuder
at
of both
at
Tibur
Praeneste, Cales and
Pompeii, and
it is probable, therefore, they were
general in Italy and the
there
main
As in the towns
was
no
driving,
provincialtowns.
their occupations must
have
been the forwarding of travellers.
Their
ranks
at the
were
gates : in the larger cities, there
been
several
must
at the
have
gates and
guilds, stationed
in the
Thus
the
at
Mediolanium,
principal streets.
guild
of the
Vetturini
had
its place at the Portus
Jo vis and the
Portus
Vercellinus
; in Forum
Sempronii at the Gallic Gate
Gate.
(the road to SenogalUa), in Cales at the SteUatina
They could either change carriage and horse from station to
the same
station, or, like their modem
use
successors,
carriage
called
muliones
continuously. These last were
perpetuarii.
Seneca
the
of Claudius
in his pasquU on
death
compares
the
with
mulio
Hercules,
world,
a
wandering
through
perpetuarius.
Guilds

of

"

II.
The

THE

SPEED

State

Post

OF

TRAVEL

LAND

BY

AND

SEA

iive

long journeys went

Antioch
hour, including delays ; from

(Roman) miles
an
to Constantinople
about
six days. Travellers
hired carriages
on
(747 miles) was
counted
this pace
as
rapid, as the bargainings at the
very
different
stations
lost
them
time.
Caesar, whose
speed
travelled
from
the
Rhone
to
in
Rome
was
extraordinary,
to
Aries
eight days. By the Ust of stations, from Rome
Toscana
and
the
Maritime
through
Alps was
796 miles ;
Suetonius
intend
this journey in speaking of Caesar's
must
in twenty-four
rapidityin traversing100 miles in a hired waggon
hours.
bore
six

but

Swifter
news

this short

Icelus

somewhat

of the

miles, on

on

murder

than

of Sextus

tWo-wheeled
stretch

Caesar

the

was

Roscius
in

carriage
only required two

to

ten

messenger

who

Ameria,

hours

changes

fiftyby night ;

of horses.

of Nero's
murder
to
Galba
in Spain,
brought news
to Clunia
in under
seven
travellingin June, 68, from Rome
from
days ; an
extraordinary performance. The
voyage
Ostia to Tarraco
five days (Pliny the Elder
at the best took

282

of Communication

Means

distances

covered

were

from

tratus, goes

in

Rome

times

shorter
Puteoli

to

Damis, in PhUos-

(141 miles).

days

in three

in
Rome
Pompeian villa received letters
four or
must
five days, at most
in three : the messengers
have gone on foot.
foot of twenty miles were
Short joumeys
on
in legal actions.
readily undertaken
by people involved
usual
as
as
Probably walking was
driving. In the sixteenth
roads built by Gregory XIII,
century, in spiteof the many
Cosimo
and Emanuel
wide
',carriages
Phihbert,
as
as
a coach
Cicero

from

his

at

'

used, until

seldom

were

Italy, waterways
boat

Po

the

on

eind of the

the

also

were

available.

Ravenna

to

took

In

century.

ancient

Placentia

From

by

forty-eighthours.

about

and
spring, the summer
home
In the late autumn,
or
ships came
harboured
abroad.
From
to the 5th March
the i ith November
there was
no
sailing; on that day, by the reformed calendar, the
feast of the
brated
celeship of Isis (the patroness of sailors)was
all along the Mediterranean
coast, with solemn
cessions,
proof a ship, and
the consecration
its sailingabroad.
Then
all the ships,drawn
troUeyed out.
up on to land, were
risked
No
winter
a
though
except in urgency,
one,
voyage,
for
avarice
made
not
the sea
was
absolutely uncrossable
;
limited

Sea-voyages were
the early autumn.

'

'

men

continue

of

piratesdrove

them

to

been

as

in

gth

25th

on

account

of

Egypt,

was,

prisoner to Rome,

B.C.

of November,
the

of

50 from

Actium

and

at

prisoners

or

in

even

the

stormy December.
in the
had

earlywinter
bad

passage.
fromtiie

had

23rd,

tillthe

Corcyra

who

many

prise,
enter-

Brundusium

to

remaining

weather

mercantile

considerable,
in

fear

of old, when

legates

for Tomi

embark

Flaccus, the Praefect

to the

set

out

before

shipwrecked.

were

Coast-dwellers

overfond

were

wreckage, despite of
Antoninus

Hadrian,
of
sell their

the

26

slave.

fishermen

as

were

39)

was

died

set

false

practising the

of the

Marcus

Emperors

Aurelius):

the

rights
(such as
tants
inhabi-

especiallykeen.
They
of
Calvisius
dispensator

used

shipwrecked, sold

branded

mentions
up

of

efforts

and

slaves

ManiUus

often

the

Pius

Cyclades

victims

(consul in
as

But, apart from

have

had

of 37, brought
Cicero travelled

of

as

transports of documents,

Ovid

Avilius

in winter,

sea

to it.

relegates must

winter.

the

court

to

official
and

the

to

divers

beacons

to

for
lure

Sabinus

and
lost

to

treasure

ships

to

their

Means
doom.

This

of Communication

the
as
dangerous coasts, such
Hollows
of Euboea
to the East by the promontory of Caphareus.
a
Shipwrecked men
were
large contingent of the beggars
at Rome,
and a class of the recipientsof Christian
alms.
in the
Pirates, after the world-peace, scarcely existed
times ; such
Mediterranean, if ever, only in disturbed
as
the Jewish War, when
of fugitive Jews
fortified
number
a
at Joppa
the
and
made
and
between
seas
Syria, Phoenicia
In distant
the Roman
seas
Egypt insecure for a long time.
fleet could
not
Ocean
or
quell the pirates, in the Indian
the

North

was

East

of

were

made

Voyages
The

the

Black

Sea.

by preference on
by the stars, to
starting. Such

before

worship

mentioned.

on

steered

steersman

made

done

283

Philostratus

says
Puteoli
to

from

that

nights.

clear, starry
whom

the

voyages
there
was

passengers
often
are
a

regular
days,

evening
stopping probably in the mornings at Caieta and Antium
from
Rome
(a populous port in Cicero's day). To Stabiae
took
four
Brundusium
to
by sea
days. From
Corcyra or
and
in
back,
good weather, took a day, as
Dyrrhachium
did from
Brundusium
or
Hydrus (Otranto) to Aulona
(Valona).
from
In 50 B.C.
Cicero
selected the route
Cassiope in Corcyra
From
St. Paul
sailed
to
to
Puteoh,
Hydrus.
Rhegium
with a favouring South
wind
in one
day ; but in Philostratus,
and Damis
with a good wind, ApoUonius
took three
days to
A regular
through Messina.
go from Puteoli to Tauromenium
the
to Cyllene in Elis :
from
route
was
sea
Sicily over
open
favourable
be reached
with
conditions, Cyllene could
very
five
from
Puteoli, in six or even
Syracuse, or Corinth from
days.
In journeys from
Italy to the Aegaean, Attica and Little
service

foot

on

canal
one

at

Lechaeon

carriages,and

embarked

landed

travellers

Asia,

in

or

through
opened in

Atticus

also

the

isthmus

1893

"

intended

new

Ovid,

ship

on

Galen

to

his

at

returned

isthmus

Cenchreae.

at

the

Nero's

best

line, the
Herodes

only partly completed.

venture.

crossing

of

Tomi,

to

Cenchreae.

island

the

crossed

^he selected

similar

way

Minerva

forwarded
way.

his

"

was

Propertius thought
and

Ostia, lasting three

of

from

did

the

isthmus

so, and

bought

Avilius

Flaccus

relegation,Andros,
Rome

ot

Little Asia

land

by

hired

or

in
with

was

the
a

;
a

also
same

friend

Means

284
from

and, with

Megara.

Aristides

145, from
the start

few

water

and

from

ship had a bad passage

of Sicily,Peloris, was

The

tossed

was

carriage,
through
September,
a

land

there

return

North-East

the

hired

and

slaves

his

sent

by
journey in

his way

his

sea.

friend

the

Athens,

to

made

by

at

Corinth

slaves, made

Rome

land,

to

of

Gortyn by way
his luggage by

and

of Communication

in

about

straits

the

of

driven

Messina

nights and one day they got out into the Adriatic and
at Cephallenia with
into a quiet sea, but only landed
difficulty.
from
Patrae
at
Aristides'
sailed
Then, against
advice, they
the
equinox, and the journey was
They crossed
stormy.
the
Isthmus
Miletus
in four days : fourteen
by land, reached
often circumnavigated, as
days in all. The Peloponnese was
Zeuxis, at Hierapolis
an
inscriptionof a merchant, Flavius
in Phrygia, shows
had shipped from
the Peloponnese to
: he
Italyseventy-two times : it was notoriouslydangerous. In September,
the
back
that
III
came
Pliny
Younger
A.D.,
way,
he writes
Thence
to Trajan from
he
as
was
Ephesus.
going
to travel to Bithynia along the coast, partly by sea, on account
of the heat, and
of the contrary
partly by carriage,because

in two

winds.
A

of

desirous

voyager,

Asia, might

go

land

by

Via

wanted

from

to

call at Lemnos

Alexandria

misapprehension
islands, had
West

coast,

could

have

but

and

Troas
that

to

instead

of

On

his

Thessalonica
Uke

earth

(on

the

of

of

rest

landed
on

at

the

he

ship sailing

but

Rome

to

way

himself

Hephaestias

fuller's

Macedonia

Illyriato the Hebrus

second
journey to Rome

single city, he

and

to

Italy

Greek

availed

Lemnos,

from

sea

Thrace

through

Egnatia from Apollonia in

in Thrace), as
Galen's
did.
many
back
and
was
along this route.
the

the

avoiding

under
the

Aegaean
on

the

where

he

Myrina,
East,

the

in

preparation. The captain

he postponed the visit untU
for him
not
could
wait
his
; so
return
the
crossed
then, from
: he
Philippi in Macedonia,
of sea
other
to the
stadia
to Thasos
120
coast, went
(200
and
Alexandria
Lemnos
Troas
(700)
stadia),
(700). Aristides,
in 144 A.D.,made his way
back
to Rome
by the Via Egnatia.
frost and
Rain-storms
beset
and
him, and
snow
tempests.
The
room

Hebrus

seen

for boats

few, and

frozen

was

their

; the
rooms

over,

the

fields flooded
gave

forth

ice broken

to

make

in all directions

more

water

than

passage-

; inns

the

were

heavens.

Means
Yet

he

travelled

of Communication

faster than

the

imperialmessengers.

of his slaves followed

slowly

where

task, for
easy
had to be coaxed

at

he

necessary

his

and

approach,

fell ill,and

no

in

part of his beasts

sold.
his
sea

to

The

of

records

He

found

had

days

fled

they
or

draught died on
of St.
Ignatius

the

his

Most

guides,

own

like

forced.

savages
In Edessa

reached

Rome.

the

the

way

Martyr

rest

he

mention

winter
from
Seleucia
or
starting in the late autumn
by
to Smyrna and Troas
; thence, by land
through Macedonia
and
thence
Epidamnus,
by sea to Ostia : the account, if

false, is based
to

after.

hundred

one

285

Samothrace,

whence,

as

he

says

in

from

went

elegy,it

an

Corinth

was

mere

he
wished
to
Tentyxa (near Trajanopolis).Hence
Tomi
by land via Thrace and Moesia, whilst his Minerva
along the Hellespont and the coast of the Black Sea.
the way
is not known
on
: in
an
long he was
epistlehe

to

step
reach

sailed
How
says

probabilities.Ovid

on

letter from
The

or

to Rome

of the death

took

six months

of Gaius

Caesar

this is

no

ard.
stand-

Limyrain Lycia
the 2ist
Pisa on
the 2nd
on
February, 4 a.d., reached
April.
From
Lake
Maeotis
merchantships with good winds reached
in ten
Rhodes
four days to Alexandria,
days ; thence, it was
ten days down
and
the Nile to Aethiopia : as Diodorus
says,
in twenty-four days one
could
sail from
to the
the coldest
hottest
on

news

the

the

Praefect

seventh

Maximus,
In

Galerius

zones.

the

day after leaving the

praetorian senator, went

monsoon

the

route

season,
over

and

travellers

Alexandria
difficult

at

reached

Alexandria

Sicilian Straits

from

days.
Italy preferred

to

to the

Puteoli

Syria

from

direct

one

Valerius

in nine

from

Brun-

andrian
journey : especiallyas Alexthe reputation of being swiftest and
beststeered ; it was
thus that Agrippa, King of the Jews, travelled
at Caligula'ssuggestion. Yet
to make
the sea
journey even
shorter, Alexandria
might be reached
circuitouslythrough
charter
Little
Asia
and
In
of a ship, 200
a
Greece,
Syria,
from
days is required for a voyage
Berytus to Brundusium
includes
and
back.
This
the long and
frequent stoppages
A
of a merchantship.
letter from
Cassius
to
Cicero, sent
in less than
from
Rome
near
fifty
Apamea in Syria, reached
took 100
days
days ; but one from Antistius Vetus to Balbus
from
Syria. A letter from the Tyrian factory in Puteoli, sent
the
on
23rd July, 174, reached
Tyre on the 8th December, in

dusium,

long
ships had
a

286
107
his

Means
Cicero's

days.

of Communication
at

son

father

forty-six days after

only twenty-one days, which was
letter
fifteen
seven

the

of Tiro

to

Cicero

from

days : letters from

or twenty-nine,from

Elder,

is known,

as

received

Athens
it

reached

Patrae

Africa
in

sent

considered

letter

another

from
took

little.
very
Brundusium

A
in

twenty-three twentyin twenty-two, although Cato

the Senate
a figplucked three
of the battle of Munda
(N.E.

Britain

showed

was

"

in

days before at Carthage. The news

of Malaga) on the 17th March, 45 B.C., reached
Rome
only on the
to soma
20th April. Pliny givesa few figuresof quick passages
of the Western
Mediterranean
ports. Ostia to Gades took seven
Ostia
four ;
Narbonese
Gaul
to
days ; Tarraco
(Forum
in mild
weather
Alexandria
:
Julii)three ; Africa two, even
to Marseilles
in merchantmen
took
thirty days. To reach
in seven,
Utica from
Narbo
in five days, and
Alexandria
was
,

fast

voyage.

for
Ships occasionally had contrivances
measuring their
describes
them.
There
is material
mileage, and Vitruvius
the
enough to estimate
sailing-speed. Marcian
average
that
of Heraclea, the geographer, remarks
these sea-distances
diverse ; it was
best to draw
a
mean
(in stadia)were
very
between
and
the
the lowest.
A
highest
ship with a good
wind
might do 700 stadia a day ; a swift cruiser even
900.
on
a
Scylax of Caryanda makes
long
500 a day the average,
included, for Herodotus
journey. The
night-time is not
and
others
a
expressly say that, at midsummer,
ship could
do
stadia
from
by night. A voyage
by day and 600
700

the

mouth

direct

took

of the

Phasis

nine

to

the

West

coast

of

the

Black

Sea

days and eight nights ; a distance of 11,100

stadia.
a
According to Aristides, a ship under
strong wind
could in twenty-four hours do 1,200
stadia, as he could testify.
From
the time
of Herodotus
of Marcian
to that
(400 a.d.)
between
the
and
stadia
speed remained
same,
1,000
1,500
(25-37J geographicalmiles, or 100-150
sea-miles)in twentyfour hours ; or
This
aV ^1t geographical miles per hour.
accords
with all the facts of early and late antiquity. According
to Diodorus
the journey from
the
Pityusae to Gibraltar
took
three
coast
twentydays and nights ; to the African
four
from
to
the
coast
hours,
one
Majorca
Spanish
day ;
to
the
Strabo
mentions
the
distance
from
Spain, a day.
in Crete, according to Eratosthenes
promontory Kpwv M^wttov
~

Means

of Communication

287

days and two nights. From Samonium,

three
four days
or
(the N.E. point of Crete) to Egypt was
and
nights, eighty miles (according to Strabo 5,000 stadia).
2,000

as

From

stadia, or

two

Caletii

at

the

In

day.

one

stadia

140

same

pace
the

to

of the

that

as

Novara,

LAND

methods

of

seldom

even

drove, the

slaves

without

to

make

rested

the

on

rain-mantle

bare

as

500

are

at

the

hour

the

Valparaiso

and

horse

He

and

one

made

the

aU

events

impulse

an

friend, Caesonius

under

coverlet.

or

traveller

went

with

suflS.cient.

carriage was
as

with

them,

on

mattress

If the

seized

but

carriage,at

was

luggage

extra

earth,

sheet

once

their

one

or

second

journey.

carrying all
that

mule

slave at least.

in

Seneca

man's

poor

attendanis

or

are

one

followed

longer journeys.

Maximus,

400

occasionally mentioned.
their mantle
pinned up,

traveUing

on

of

JOURNEYS

with
Simple wayfarers walked
modest
with
baggage bestrode

few

coast.

its sail from

on

was

South

equator.

III.

poorer

African

East

Britain

to

the

Atlantic

The

the

Seine

veering winds- made

only
day possible. Pliny's record
voyages
sea-miles
to twenty-four hours, or six an

most

of the

mouth

on

voyages

Guardafui,

Cape

the

them,
Their

They

and

meals

in less than

so

one
were

hour

one
:
simplest,and were
ready
hand
dried figswere
invariable, and their tablets always at
down
to note
impressions. He drove in a peasant's waggon,
his mules
guiding them barefoot,
just moving along, the man

of the

not

because

it

days of Arcady
ordinary life was.
sight of a gorgeous

had

be

but

summer,

was

taught

Yet

as

him

how
envy

an

uneasy
equipage ; he
his.

was

These

his

These

habit.

two

superfluous much
him,

overtook
ashamed

that

at

so

of
the
poor

explicable
and
for senators
and
consular
in this mUUonaire
knights
:
and
retinue
to travel without
unique :
piles of baggage was
under
the Republic. On a journey
this luxury obtained
even
with
his wife, Milo took all his singing boys,
to Lanuvium
Caesar, on his campaigns,
besides his slaves, male and female.
a

vehicle

should

carried mosaic

thought

floors with

him

feelingsare

Antony's journeys

were

Means

288

of Communication

travellingcircus, with his huge coach, the carriage

drawn
of gold.
by Uons, and the ostentation
Nero
the
This
far exceeded
under
Empire.
luxury was
always had a suite of a thousand
carriages; his mules had

like

silver

shoes, his muleteers

runners

harnessed

with
their

in

bathe

had

500

and

animals.

whether,

themselves

out

as

colour,

the
the

or

to

as

Eusebia,

of all sorts,

coaches

The

'.

shows

only

rich

upper
many

their

on

outriders

Numidian

Gaily-dressed Moors,
cleared

so

of

retinue
'

horses

her

her,

and

journeys,
after their insolvency, they
gladiators or fighters with

plutocrats were

deUberated

hire

runners

had
with

asses

every

fashionable

should

Poppaea

silver and
bronze
gold and
in imitating this luxury, as Seneca

vied

of these

clad

with

inwrought
classes

liveries, his outriders

day : in the
(353),there were

milk

of Constantius

the wife

in

gorgeously
gold, and

were

scarlet

Well-fed
if
mules,
way.
swift
Gaulish
little fat but

and

possible

alike

horses, drew

beasts
for riding. The
palfreys followed
covered
with
of
were
gold or purple trappings,
the
and
with
bridles
bits
were
:
golden
travelling-carriages
fiUed
and
with
might be worth
gold or silver figures,
many
of silk or other rarities, plate of gold and
estates
; curtains
crystaland m5nTha ; works of art, too delicate to be shaken,
the

waggons,
burden

and

carried

and

such

the

was

pomp

and,

of

course,

huge

to protect their faces, and

so
love-boys, with masks
Rich provincialseven
travelled
in this fashion.
Polemo,
on.
of
with
the sophist of Smyrna, travelled
hundreds
of beasts
burden, horses, slaves, leashes of hounds, and his own
Phrygian

of

court

or

Gaulish

horses

inordinate

This

To

purposes.
on

side

one

books

parchment
also

write

allowed

with

him,

in

vade

edition
the

writer

always being adapted to useful

reading, instead of papyri, written
both
hands, compacter parchment

Martial

real

almost

could

held

; for

to
as

Pliny
and

recommends
to

mecum,

same
:

harness.

was

facilitate

used.
a

sUver

luxury

and

were

his poems

was

with

to

have

purchase
such

having
the

keep

Elder

reader, to make

the

the

Cicero
writer

always

his hands

such

warm

a
on

miniature
a

journey

himself.

took

in

One

shorthand
the

winter,

also
long sleeves.
Sleeping-carriages there
were
(carruca dormitoria): in the Pandects, the problem is
a
raised, whether
legacy to a wife included the mules and the
him

of

of Communication

Means

290

them

have

must

their

and

leisure

their wealth

The

had

whom

on

with

put up

to

man

quarters

their

to

from

were

billeted

Pliny

tells of

visitors

behaviour.

tions,
posi-

released

physicians

and

these

rude

their

had

with

Vespasian

but

rhetors

philosophers, grammarians,
this burden.

soldiers

according

by house-owners,

for them

conveniences

own

small.
very
their suite, and

been

Of"cials, judges and

provided

all their

and

people carrying tents

kUled
Hippo Diarrhytus in Africa, who
wonderful
tame
came
a
dolphin, to escape the officials who
it.
When
of Utica
Cato
to see
was
preparing to appoint
and
his cook
provincial officials,he always sent his baker
the
morning before to select his quarters. They quietly
looked
entered
the town,
for some
family friend ; and, if
the

inhabitants

none

of

be

to

were

chose

found,

inn, rather

an

than

burden

there no
inn, they applied to the
private individual ; were
city council and cheerfullyaccepted the quarters assigned
their
calm
and
often
polite demeanour
by them : but
scant
could
courtesy. Even
great men
brought them
only
sufficient
of
their
for
short
have
own
halting-places
journeys
Cicero
had
at
in Italy ; such
as
Anagnia, Atina, Frusino,
and
was
Lanuvium,
Sinuessa,
negotiating for at Tarracina.

Hence,
been

for
in

inns

included
the

the

majority of travellers, there

Italy and the provinces. A commercial

hotel-bills,as well

rhetor,

on

he

inns, though
on

summer

reached

Larissa, and

at

on,

and

he

to

tried
into

and

the

locked

on

rested

season.

Late

So

but

to start
in

the
at

he

rooms

still travelled

of

one

his
up
of the

daybreak journeyed

traversingThrace,
have

about

vestibule, obtained

In

must

started

at

in front

Elaea

in

used

night he
midnight found

at

he

the

Myrina, caught

house, and

country,

wintry

on.

up.

He

advance, and
;

at

bed

Pergamus,

Hermus

went

arrived

friend's

in

little better, and

was

Pergamus.

untravelled

besides

rest

to

Giyneum,

day reached

all

he

standing ready

were

admission

fared

cockcrow

at

slaves, who

and

river

to

Aristides

friends.

many

luggage

the

by

where

Cumae,

him

on

inn

an

Smyrna

had

his

sent

insufferablyhot,

were

inns

have

must

noon,

reached

sunset

from

journey

traveller

fares in his expenses.

as

have

must

another

had

inn, and
an

other

next

uncivilized
difficulties

Means
But
'

we

at

are,

bath,

there

even

or

the

with

little inn

there

had

inns

many

the

had

slept

an

undertook

communes

Clitumnus,

the

the

on

him.

ground.

Towns

had
At

The

invariably
Sometimes

one.

service.

storm,

in inns '.

crossing a
the only

him

up
bare

Springs of
presented

the

of

town

Seneca,

cost

was

to

gave

near

the

they

Oppius

Bethlehem

even

glad ',says

dear

Gains

inn

291

desert, a roof in

Caesar

and

How

how

friend

ill,and

was,

Samaritan

in

cold, and

his

fell

'

inns.

were

sight of shelter

Oppius

Good

there

fire in the

Julius Caesar
forest

of Communication

Hispellum (Spello) was

by Augustus with a piece of land, and erected a bath and
inn.
an
hotels : such
Municipal enterprise often embraced
a
found
Cotta
was
hospitium adventorium
by Gains Arunceius
in an
unknown
In
colony, together with a bath for slaves.
Calama,

in

A.D.

converted

civic
In
warns

the

by

400,
hall

North

and

their

freedmen

put such
136

amply

houses
to

fortified

Inns,

given

Byzantium

'

called

was

Several

they

to

had

the

into

expense,

an

main

and

road
this

new

Narbonne.

used

road

along
mention

near

the

road

from

Latina, the

third

and

often

were
an

Sittius
A

Station

between

were

Station

Marshes,
to

from

Rome

by

Strabo.

either

because

they were
at the public
enough, have

because

room

terms.

camel

by
elephant
Pompeii), or the

at

there

Sea

Dyxrhachium

maintained

led

curator
pro-

Red

the

station

or

animals,

used

the

Pontine

inn
mentioned
Gay ', an
were
similarlynamed,

erected

out

the

Acts

Via

turn

of officials :

use

The

the

kept

ordered

station.

on

owners
Land-

inns,

to

stationes

Appia,

select

host.

such

mansiones

by Artemidorus),
belonging to one

them

built

Nero

a.d.

Plutarch

solitaryparts,

more

provided accommodation,

or

inns.

At

the

inns

of

provided.

stations

signs of

at

about

town,

making
importunate

and

his

station

choice

if there were
these, also, may,
:
expense
been
to ordinary travellers
available
on
The

own

praetoriafor the

the Via

on

the

To

other

alone

attached

to
on

his

the

shame

61

put up

and

of the Three

In

up.

Hadrian

A.D.

at

fisc,in wilder

after

name

agents

as

inns, named
a

spot,

larger towns, there was

-travellers
against false
to
worse
inn, or give ear
of property adjoining

of Thrace
in

waste

of

curator

hotel.

profitable. The
to

Africa, the

(mentioned
(an inn

pygmy
cock
from

Utica

and

gona
Tarra-

Carthage

'

'

called

was

of Communication

Means

292

The

Little

Sword

'

',

Eagle ',

The

'

Cock

The

;
'

The

Wheel

',

'

other

were

names
'

'

Olives

The

promised friendly service, baths,

'

often,

after

Roman

Great

', The

Snake

and

Great

Eagle ',

Crane

',

tabards

These

'.

comforts

'

fashion

The

The

often

Italy,

commercial

favourite

one

in

'

:
Lyons, with Apollo and Mercury on its sign, runs
Here
Mercury promises gain, Apollo health, Septumanus
and. rooms.
coming in will be
Any one
[the owner] meals

hotel

at

'

the

better
inn

one

at

for

it

stranger, look

Antibes,

we

read

'

One

to

where

you

stay

word, wayfarer

At

'.
come

all '. The

host
copper-tablet [the tarifi]tells you
recommended
their
hostess
or
greeted the travellers, and
house.
In a poem
ascribed
to Virgil,a Syrian hostess, with
Greek
a
head-dress, is dancing drunkenly a
castagnettedance
in front of her smoky
tavern, and inviting the guest
his weary
on
ass
in, promising him the coolness of her shady
at the season
arbour
when
the
by the babbling brook, even
with
trees
are
humming
grasshoppers, and lizards flee the
heat : she will give him
meal
of cheese, yellow plums,
a
of
and
mulberries, grapes,
gourds, chestnuts
apples, wine
rural
this year's vintage, wreaths
of violets,roses,
lUies and

in

music

Ceres,

Bacchus

and

Amor

as

well

shall

befriend

the

guest.
did
is made)
mention
The
ordinary inns (only of which
and
invite a long stay : the company
not
was
low, grooms
muleteers
Vitellius, before
ascending the throne, affected
;
of
means
a
Plutarch, as
frequented them.
affabilityand
health, recommends

constant

jeers of sailors,muleteers
deter.
Apollinaris Sidonius'
the

loud
and

speaking,
hosts

at

and

inns

says
should

that
not

interior
description of the
smoke
could easilybe antedated.
of a
The
tavern
greasy
filled it, and oppressed incomers
from
the kitchen
thyme; on
could
wreathed
be smelt : the steam
porringers the sausages
and clatter of pots and pans and chanting of the guests. The
pillows,stuffed with reeds, instead of feathers, teemed with
the ceilingslizards and
fleas and
bugs ; from
spiders would
be overhigh.
In the days of
Prices might not
drop down.
cheap : there
Polybius,in the lowlands of Lombardy, inns were
no
were
bills,but an inclusive rate of half an as {^d.). A relief,
(Isernia),
dating from imperial times, at Aesernia in Samnium
in touring-costume, leading his mule,
represents a man
'

'

of Communication

Means

bargainingwith

his hostess

dessert
(frf.)'

as

free.

The

two

day's

must

were

to

expenses,
also meant

(as to

this

them,

to

Further, inns

cheap
pandars. A

fessed
that
not

be
in

slave

the

Good

sold

been

the

two

is one

for

Possibly
their

wine

asses,

sufficient,as

they

travellers
food

own

one

with

inn.
brothels.

servants

at

girls,and

inns, in

rescript of

Alexander

condition

town

of

country,

or

inn-keepers

that

constantly

Jurists are

were

Severus

unprodirected

non-prostitution,might

be

The
law
bought for such an inn.
made
no
adultery with barmaids, was
326 not to apply to the hostess, provided

the

bread

Samaritan

treatment.

oftpn

on

hay

than

more

khans) brought

at

the

of

consisted

paid by
medical

were

that

mentioning

asses,

Greek

cooked

be

that the

two

have

cover

in

day

legend is

service

asses,

denarii

two

the

293

that

there

Constantine

by

did

she

could

not

serve

guests herself.

As

inn-keepers had an illinscribed

repute. On the lists of the police-soldiers,
they were
with thieves and gamblers. They lied and cheated, adulterated
the wine
the Sign
born
under
(Trimalchio says they were
of Aquarius) and
stole
the
oats
provided for the mules.
of
(a great traveller) to dream
According to Artemidorus
bronze
iron foreheads
for publicans and
or
was
a good omen
toll-keepers; thorns especiallygood for publicans,toll-keepers
and
who
robbers
false weights, and
stole by force or
gave
pandars

Galen

craft.

and

pork,

was

and

for other

reasons,

that human
says
often
dished
up

flesh

tasted

much

very

like

by unscrupulous pubUcans

of a very
credibly informed
palatable dish,
in which
found
the
travellers left in
a
:
finger-bone was
instant
victed
had
disgust,and the owners
subsequently been conladies
at a human
of presence
slaughter-house. The landin Apuleius. St
'Often reputed witches, as once
were
drug into
Augustine says that they would
put a Circean
he

had

their

been

cheese, turning their

restoring

them

only

liable for loss suffered

in

Toll-keepers were
fact.
Smuggling

even

were

Plutarch,

not

conditions.

on

conscious
And

mules,

publicans

and
were

by guests in their houses.

proverbially dishonest ; perhaps largely
was

obnoxious.
'

guests into

when

they finger the insides

and

common
'

We

they
of

object

to

examine

bags

customs

open
and

officials

conscientious

officials ', says

wares,

but

when

yet this is their legal

duty

'.

Rhetorical

One

of

them

'

is

to examine

he

says
and

On

all

tax

of

zj per

baggage,

the

goods : he
pearls in

toll-free,and
and

land

of

In

this

privilegemight

the

Western

exactions

local

of

the

militia

subalterns,

as

cheatings
travelling.

several

up

the

places, such

Irenarchi, who

rank

to

the

to

make

of

as
manded
com-

diogmitae. Further,
disposed by the central

were

in

all

rity,
autho-

centurions,

and

forays against breakers

Dio, brigandage is "is eternal

Cassius

But, says

peace.

human

the

the

of

directed

were

governors

of the

tolls and

the

the

provinces,military posts
under

granted by imperial
the sophistof Smyrna,

to his descendants.

latronihus) at
(praefecius arcendis
Nyon (near Bingen) : in the East
the

She

be

it to Polemo

Hadrian

publicans was
police force was

the

about

frequent insecurity of
partly in the hands of the communes.
portion of the Empire, we find a city force

the

The

large

400
them.

the barrier,
passes
pearls'. Soldiers' goods

demands

the

than

Worse

dutiable

refuses, she

and

and

sea,

is entitled

had

woman

official asks
he

awarded

Trajan

favour.

her

search

may

for

necessaries

all undeclared
A

women.

facts.

the

ofScial

The

cent.

coniiscate

touch
not
may
The
bosom.
her

}ie stops her

were

and

with

hardly accord
articles, except

mock-cases

ran

travel, there

on

of Communication

Means

294

nature.

frontier
ia
the
worst
provinces. An
Brigandage was
(inthe County of Stuhlweisseninscriptionin Nether Pannonia
in 185 a.d. fortified
burg, Sz6kes-f6jervir)
says that Commodus
of the Danube
In the tombs
all the banks
against robbers.
in Dacia, three
(nearMehadja and Cemets) record the murder
and
of two
woman
men
a
by robbers ; two were
revenged.
found
in
have
Monuments
to persons killed by bandits
been
and Treves.
The
(at Orachovats), Darmstadt
Upper Moesia
roads
as

in Africa,

Cyprian, Bishop

that

had

inn

an

avoid

it.

Lambessa,
152
and

despitethe castles,were

A.D.,

in

Carthage,
seized

been

engineer

An

summoned

says
wounded.

robbers

of

to

fell

he

on

Abonuteichos.

The

of
lurking-place

the

at

by

build

a
on

Nile

time

of

swamps

bucoli, a savage

legion stationed at
to Saldae
(Bougie)in

and
way,
that
there

near

report

travellers

made

the

the

insecure,

most

says that

robbers,

tunnel

mentions
the

; he

third

the

robbers

Lucian

Eygpt

of

shows

often

Prophet
Damietta

people, known

stripjied

was

many

were

Alexander
were

to

of
the

Eratos-

of Communication

Means
thenes
on

the

novel

barks

and

islets.

Alexandria, and

They

Salona

in

abounded

Dahnatia

record
the

deaths

Gospels show

that

Judaea

known

how

in

of

constancy
and

of the

Hauran

robbery
in

desert

Herods

and
in

the

Little

huge

in them
Galen

in my
tells of

phylia, and used

a
highwaymen's

Drusus

made

his successors,

the

made

were

robbers

Lucian's

in

the

been

the

lower

time, most

fertile districts

of

and

robbers,

them

Jewish
According to
loot, and

in unsafe

the

Strabo

were

formal

the

fortunate

not
war

be
was

an

Under
and

Troy

near

and

of Hadrian

adjoiningcountries
brigand chief;tain
of

tales
must

time
in

Varro's
for

cultivated

fear

against

declared

freedmen, infected
to
fight them.
superstitions',

sent

Egyptian

and

'

4,000

mountain-dwellers

of Corsica

lived

travellers
Prudent
savage than wolves.
follow
would
in the suite of high officials,

more

districts

ambassadors,

a.d.

could

Tiberius

a.d.

19

with

on

Proclus,

Germanicus.

types. The many

Apuleius in Lucian's
reality. In Sardinia,

from

borrowed

Southern

conquest of robber

exertions
and

forward,
thence-

on

Valerius

of

became

class
of

romance

the

Isauria

preyed

it

in Pam-

century

occupied Ida

of Achaia

insecure, and

of

one

roads

Pamphylians ',

Coracesion

the

son

The

Mysian

legs.

Titus

the

brigand Tilloboras
Despite
forays thence.

Hadrian,

have

Byzantines,

Caesar,

East

smallness

the

The

third

the

Hellespont by

the

is mountainous

the

at

mentions
inscription

the

official of

is

'

ofi his victims'

the

of

Olympus
inexpugnable strongholds
there '.
robber, kept a band

worked

country, after

An

on

cut

under

and

bands

to

succeeded

Trachones.

explicable by

almost

robber, who

The

travellers.

Romans

cavernous

time, Cleon, the

Little Asia.

and

forests

for

population

garrisons,except on the frontier.

still practise robbery :
Strabo,
oak

robbers.

scatheless

Asia, which

its interior, is

monuments

ten-year-old
tions
Spanishinscrip-

of

the

half-

man.

and

'

says
has

hands

the

brigandage

the

of

and

The

of

murder

not

was

them.

Khalifs.

mountainous

the

at

far the

from

weaning
Jordan land,

the

seizure

two

hardly subdue

brigands.

in

mention

It is not

the

provinces,but

jewels,and

her

could

to

life

wild

Aurelius, they threatened

Cassius
on,

their

describes

Marcus

Avidius

districts

girlfor

Under

frontier

only

civHized

Heliodorus

trouble, later

gave

Not

at

of

295

quaestors, or

proconsuls,or

secure

an

escort

296
Lucian

got
of

governor
But

band

lance-men

two

Cappadocia,
the

even

sometimes
a

of Communication

Means

most

harried.
and

In

terrorized

from

escort

as

accompany
and
civilized

187

a.d.,

peaceful regions

of Gaul

the

sea.
were

formed

deserter, Matemus,

whole

the

to the

him

to

friend

his

Spain, burning

and

attacking great cities, settingthe

evaded
the troops
criminal
free, and ravaging at will. He
and
of Commodus,
escaped to Italy, designing to murder
the Emperor : he was
betrayed and executed.
In Italy insecuritywas
: armed
greatest,after the civU wars
and
made
a
appeared publicly
highwaymen
night-journey
erected
from
Rome
forts at
to Tibur
perilous. Augustus
suitable
not
places,but the evil was
altogether allayed,
and
Tiberius
had
extend
them.
to
HighwajTnen, when
tortured
asunder
to death, torn
caught, were
by wild beasts ;
consolation
their corpses
to the
hanged, as warnings and
victim's
kin ', at the spots of their evil trade (as was
done
in the Papal States up to 1 819) ; they were
left on the gallows
or
crucified, or, especially in mountainous
districts,left
by the roadside, as carrion for the birds, or the curious physician.
villagesand

farms,

even

'

Galen
the

hands

not

bury

torn

torches

trembled

him

and

in

sometimes
at

Elder

robber, who

victim

the

days,

two

had

fallen

inhabitants

set

tells how

by

robbers

the

that

Houses

CaeUus

he must

ordered

of whom

had

fared

like

night
hedges

at

dog.
inquire

lost

PUny

Placentia,

his

to

been

But,

burgled

sick

lay
guarded by

was

have

also

were

been

of valuables

bearer

any

senator

and

Younger

Imight,alltrace

feared

on

daybreak

at

away
and
fixe),

at

would

flesh had

much

so

thrown

shadows.

the

attacked

senatorial

(and

used

106/7 Pliny
it

of

his intended

of

were

thus

were

was

skeleton

to make
instructive.
the remains
as
away,
very
in Italy,brigandage died
hard, if at all. At

even

the

saw

About
after

Otricoli

near

fellow-countryman
who
had set out with
of mon^
to provide for his
a
sum
centurionate
he
and
his slaves
had
;
utterly disappeared,
possibly at their hands.
Highwaymen
sought not
only
but
also
both
in
and
in
title
booty,
Italy
ransom,
provinces :
was

many

huge
armed
of his

helplesswanderer
ergasfula of large

bands

drove

boyhood

to

vanished

for

landowners.

off herds.

Marcus

Fronto, tells of how

ever

In

into

daytime

AureUus,
he

of the

one

and

in

even,
a

letter

his company

Means

298
the

interest

in

of Communication
that

them,

Arrian

biography

the

wrote

of

Tilloboras.
These

many
also

extend

the entire

throughout

of robbers

names

Empire
Corresponding

centuries.

through several whole

collections from European history foi* the last three centuries
would
the ampler material.
furnish a longer list from
Up
London
to Dover
to 1 81 6 highwaymen
made
the road
from
there were
great bandits,
perilous; in Western
Germany
and
Dick
and
furnished
this is
Turpins have
romances,
We
then
doubt
whether
even
scarcely a century ago.
may
in the nineteenth
century the regionsround the Mediterranean
and

the

Lower

than

insecure

Danube

not, and

were

in Roman

not

are

more

now,

times, excepting Greece

and

Moslem

countries

of
altogether. In' Hungary
to-day the roving
robber
stUl the
subjects of
good-fellow and
Betydr are
popular legend and fancy. In 1852 Bismarck
might not
ride

Sz61ndk

from

region
armed
At

was

swamps
and well

of the Theiss

57,000

,500

without

of bandits,

mounted,
Szegedin in 1873 800
and

of

hive

Ketsk6met

to

bands

undrained

robbers

and

and

was

since

of their
since
as

would

1799

causes

fill volumes

Corsica

living

many

in

in

All

absolutelyunsafe.

was

from

Barcelona

Perpignan,

to

had

The

Seville
great busy road from
without
between
San
a strong escort
No

Maria.
between

one,

Gibraltar

save

and

in

dire

Cadiz

in

one

to
to

continual

yet

on

efforts

bandits, and

purchase
Cadiz

in

their

ventured

it,in

1830
those

liberty.

impossible

was

and

Mafia

eradication

posts, except

Llicar

need,
;

twenty-one
and

the

200

were

chief

1851-

held, 1,919 persons

refugees. Spain

as

the

population

between

Sardinia,

the Italian Camorra

1851 there

victed
con-

were

of

in Dalmatia,

nothing but
destroy them, despite the

can

In

i860.

historyof

The

ahke.

commoner

Out

1863, 2,659 trials for pubUc violence were

In VerUkka
maimed, and 507 murdered.
murderer.

impenetrable
twenty, well

murderers

the Usts.

district of Zara

and

of fifteen to
Court

attacked

accomplices on

in the

the

on

escort, for the

an

Puerto
on

the

the
summer

Santa

road
of

Even
people were plundered in eight weeks.
830, thirty-five
of the
in some
insecure.
great cities hfe and property were
1

In
were

In

Seville, every
immune.
the

winter

In Malaga murderers
night had its murder.
bettered.
not
Forty years later things were
of 1869 a httle bathing town
in the hiUs of

South

the

visitors

was

Means

of Communication

assailed

and

killed.

In

1842,

in
Portugal,
CivilJiWar

sacked

by bandits,
after

years

seven

299
and

the

eighteen

close

of

the

kingdom of Algarbia, 100

guenilhas or Miguelistas (really mere
highwaymen)
kept
in
check
the
of
of
the
in
the
Serra
valleys
regular army
3,000
de Monchique.
Cassius
Dio's
prophecy, that banditry will
not
nature
remains
the same,
has
cease
as
long as human
been
for the South
of Europe.
true

THE

IV.

"
What

The

been

has

shows

in

the

OF

NATURE
Traffic

said

of

as

the

yet of

THE

TRAFFIC

Roman

Empire

Roman

communications

of the Empire involved

huge extent
ready
and
of government
and
thorough Unkage. Centralization
between
jurisdiction necessitated
uninterrupted services
The
province and its capital,and Rome.
every
governors
with
the
were
constantly corresponding
Emperors, as PUny's
Consular
legate of Bithynia 111-113)
correspondence (as
with
Trajan proves, though he inay have been exceptionally
punctilious: procurators and imperial officials in the provinces
in
communication
with
were
always
departments at
Officials or
the
ambassadors
ordinary
extraor
Rome,
Emperor.
from
the
were
moors
always starting, escorted
from
of Scotland
the
the
frontier
stations
to
Atlas,
Syria to
of Germany.
', says Epictetus, and
Highly placed men

that

the

'

senators,
command,

'

rest

cannot

at

home,

civil

but, in command,

or

under

always be
their
travelling'. The
posts
varied
of
At
aU
after many
epochs very
voyages.
years
to
to
had
Rome
come
personallyto prosecute
provincials
many
to
mentions
Martial
their claims.
one
journey to Rome,
gain the Privilege of the Three Children ; Epictetus another,
to

obtain

accused

in

legal duty, must

higher officials only gained

in

war

the

in Crete.
governorship of Cnossus
provinces of a capital offence, and
of the governors
(such as
jurisdiction

the

or

or

Persons
there

not

senators,
subject to the
sent
to
the higher officers, and
municipal decuriones)were
Rome
a
frequent sight.
the towns, and
from
Embassies
provincial diets met at
Alexthe Jewish deputation from
Rome
at all times
; when
"

andria
that

beseech

to

came

ambassadors

Greek

and

the

Roman

the

world

whole

embassies

the

to

record

Emperor

the

ids.),and

0^130

sesterces

with

Moesia,

meritorious

as

with

congratulate Trajan armed

to

waiting.
voluntary

also in

were

inscriptionsoften

of it,says

member

in
shown
duty : great extravagance was
that
Byzantium
Younger mentions
every

deputy
of

Caligula,Philo,

from

undertaking of
civic

of Communication

Means

300

them

Phny

sent
year
of 12,000
sum

the governor
deputy
6d). PUny proposed, and
these
greetings by letter ;

another

to

0^32 12s.
3,000
the exchange of

Trajan accepted
occasional
dences
resiThe
Vespasian limited the bearers to tKree.
of the
Emperors on campl?iignsor travels became
similarlybusy. Augustus stayed two years at Tarraco'(26-2S
of an
B.C.)and two at Samos
(21-20 B.C.): we know
embassy
from

Lesbos

The

and

from

earthquake

there, shook,

Empire

at

India, and
in

Antioch

115

Dio

business,

or

as

Freedom

of

ceaseless

movement

amongst

firmness

of

tania,

rhetors, e.g. Lucian

no

and

safe

few

of

was

whole
tjife
commercial

legalor

on

others.

Tramn

cities,and

come

sightseers.
travel
on
perfect

manji

whilst

a.d.,

other

says, many
it killed many
who
had
as

surmise

can

/'
road^ induced
the

sulbjects:

the

this

huge world-Empire of over

100,000
square
miles united
the lands, and
made
Any
migration common.
business, unprofitable in one
province, might be resumed
elsewhere.
The
father
of Vitellius the
horn
Emperor was
at Reate, farmed
in Asia,
the import tax
of 2-Jper cent,
and
he died.
subsequently had dealings in Helvetia, where
received
and gave out many
Rome
emigrants ; the provinces,
Greeks
Little-Asians
and
too, were
closely inter-related.
were
schoolmasters, e.g. Asclepiades of Myrlea in Turdeor

the

martyrs
(hke the

Phrygian,
Vienne

at

King

and

Herod

under
of

by

Lugdunum),
; and

had

so

Gauls

Jews settled everywhere

in

active

Palestine.

Eusebius

among

painters and
among

the

throughout

on,

and
in

ander
(likeAlex-

doctors

Germans
the

sculptors
Arverni,
the

in his

Empire,

the

and

West.

guards.
bodywere

with
and
themselves
amongst
their congregations deputies duly brought

communication
From

gifts to Jerusalem
all

or

Zenodorus,

Nero)

Judaea

Gaul,

reckoned

master-founder

i.e.Clermont,

in

parts of the

at

the

proper

times

at

world, Jewish pilgrims fared

Passover,
to

from

Jerusalem.

Means
The

Christian

A.D.

the

rocky,
than

of

their

to

had

town

communities

Churches

martyrs

of Communication

its

not

had

and

Lyons

sister

also

were

closely linked

Vienne

Churches

in

301

sent

Asia

of

news

and

in

77

their

Phrygia.

No

foreigners : even
Corsica, barren, savage,
foreign residents, according to Seneca,

more

natives.

War,

thousands

also, tore

lands, and

through

many
homes

their

and

from

their

settled

this

too,

them

last

at

after

even

drifted

homes,

them

very

far from

Hadrian's

reform

the former
distant
and
recruiting had diminished
few
a
expensive transplantations. Only
provinces like
of
"Egypt and Africa could themselves
provide the whole
their garrisons. The
recruits,
annually drew
20,000
army
consisted
of 300,000
and
a
men
on
twenty-five year service,
and
the provinces, requiring less defence, or. more
martial
had
to
in their inhabitants,
supply the surplus. Tacitus
levies for the legions of Pannonia,
mentions
that in 65 a.d.
local

of

and

Moesia
and

Asia.

Dalmatia

supplied

the

from

the
the
were

and,

Vettius

When

troops.
Statius

asks, is he

Judaea

or

Eastern

the

on

generally

were

from

The

the

in

soldiers

For

Senatorial

from

mostly

came

to

go

of the

never

five

to

Rhenish,

legions or in other

ten

made

Crispinus was

to

Armenia

made

were

in from

served

centurions

some

legionarytribune,

Africa, Pannonia,
the

most

provinces

Narbonensis,

levies

city civilization.
African
legions

with
and

Africa

Danube,

legionary

part

Dalmatian,

the

and

Macedonia

Hadrian
levied
garrisons, and
recruited
for the Praetorians.
Similarly the fleets were
Egypt, Syria, CUicia, Cappadocia, Bithynia, Pontus

these

required

countries

them
from

in

frontier

those

others,

Gaul, Africa

But
changed camps.
sent
officers were
an3rwhere and everywhere. Not only
or
knights, but also centurions
high officers, senators
shifted from
legion to legion,from province to province :

East

the

and

and

West,

unlike

in Narbonese

the Western

legionson

The

made

were

in

Thrace
the

the

East

no

Dalmatia,

Sardinia

and

Corsica

West.

Reasons

of

and

economy

health

required

the

employment

the
limited
country : other reasons
practicallyungarrisoned, had to send
practice. Provinces,
to less secure
their men
regions : the East supplied all the
well ; and
also
West
for the
as
politicalmotives
bowmen

of soldiers

in

their

own

Means

302
in.

of Communication

risoned
garrecently conquered or unruly, were
of
the
by foreign troops. In Britain, only one
of infantry there
divisions
cohorts
of cavalry and
numerous
there stationed
Rhaetia, of the eight native
raised, was
: in
soldier's letter of 60
cohorts only two ; in Pannonia,
a.d.
a
of the cohorts, of which
five were
seven
names
Spanish and
two
Ituraea
in
no
a.d.
Alpine. In Dacia
troops from
and Britain
(in N.E. Palestine),Spain, Thrace, Gaul, Rhaetia
came

Lands,

stationed

were

Spaniards,
Gauls,
most

and

men

and

diverse

Itahans,
lie

show

in

Rhaetia

in

the

107

a.d.

Slavonians,
cemeteries,

Thracians,

In

Britons.

nations

in Mainz

Holland,

command

one

Lusitanians,

Batavians

the

miUtary

together : inscriptionsof officers

them

to

have

come

from

the

Rhine,

Hungary, Carinthia, St5rria,the Tyrol,

Rumelia,
S3n:ia,Spain, France, and Italy,North

Brabant,

Dalmatia,
and

under

South.

Service
in the

in

the

Guard

was

legions for twenty,

five, in

the

in

for

sixteen

the

auxiliary corps

fleet for

the

at

years

least,

for

the

after

two

Mauretanias

twentydismissal,

men,
twenty-six :
if
home
their last
were
home, especially
near
might
in their
settled and married
garrison-duty: generallyveterans
last province.
Augustus, after the battle of Actium, founded
twenty-eight military colonies in Italy,and in 14 b.c. many
others
in Spain, Narbonese
Gaul, Africa, the Mauretanias,
Achaia, Asia, Pisidia and
Sicily,Macedonia,
Syria. Later
Emperors followed the same
policy,aiming at thus ensuring
within
and
without.
Claudius
against foes from
peace
settled
in
veterans
at Cumae,
Dalmatia,
Cologne, Sicum

return

Camulodunum
in

in

Britain, and
Nuceria

Capua, Tarentum,

Aventicum,
The
and

Deultum

Praetorians
the

in

were

legions in

the

Corduba

Spain,

the

Second

in

Cartenna

at

Patrae,

the

Fifth

at

Antium
Pannonia

and

and

Nero

Vespasian

Augusta

at

Palestine.

and

generally assigned lands

provinces : thus the Fifth

were

settled

and

Thrace,

Tenth

second

the

in

Italy,

and

Emerita

the
in

(Mauretania), the TwentyEighth at Berytus and

Heliopolis(S3a'ia).
Emperor to found colonies to relieve
the" civil population, and bought up Italian land for 60,000,000
Dacia
of
colonization
sestelpes (/650,ooo) in Italy. The
in
106
was
exceptional : Trajan transplanted countless
Nerva

was

the

first

'

Means
multitudes
the

from

Dacia,

the

Pirustae, settled

furnished

and

was

remained

and

veterans

their

show
the

the

universal

Romanized

and

assimilated

grew

by

were

provinces,

there

civil colonization,

with

up

security

sutlers

and

all the

soldiers

by

colonies

intercourse

letters

incomers

veterans,

veteran

the

transplantationsquickened

the

peopled

which

of

repeopled

Transylvania,

frontier

cities

system

of

modern

original settlement
camp-followers '.

usual

This

and

thus

non-military colonists
all
gold-miners, above
Pannonia
:
Abrudbanya

despite this

Yet,

military

303
he

most

like

of nations.
'

round

miners,

Little-Asians

medley

Dacia

the

of

most

these

Dalmatian

of

'

Empire
Of

country.
know

we

expert

Syrians

entire

the

devastated

of

of Communication

and

manifestly
the

constant

more.

in

the
more
Correspondence
by
Empire showed
be
vigour than might
expected from the lack of a letter-post;
the
as
correspondence of a Galen
During his stay
proves.
he

Rome,

consulted

Asia, Gaul,
ophthalmia from
Thrace
Spain and
by letter ; asked
pertinent questions,
and
the
and
his
sent
cured
unseen
remedy,
patients, and
others.
through them
Every year, too, he received
parcels
of medicines,
from
the
friends, or through
torial
imperial or senaof
Syria, Palestine,
Egypt,
Cappadocia,
governors
and
Mauretania.
In
Pontus,
Macedonia,
Gaul,
Spain
booksellers
books
sent
to
oversea
Augustus' time, Roman
and
difficult transports were
Africa
also
more
Spain and
;
at

effected.

In

Santander
of

Alps,

Fruit

trees

quickly

cultivated

the

Circus
that
and

proves
from

years

in

Britain.

the
the

into

games.
at

from

water

case

four

imported

were

for

hve

for

medicinal

spring at
been
sent
have
frequent. Pliny's
; this must
over
being imported from
Boulogne
geese
the provinces.
active
between
an
commerce
exported to the provinces very
Italy were

one

was

account

the

was

At

after

the

conquest

Animals,
and

Rome
the

end

the

other
of

the

the

wildest

cherry
and

the

great cities
fourth

was

in

century,

being
biggest,
masses

in

the

this indicates
used
:
Spanish horses were
for breeding and
best horses
racing, the Cappadocian
have
been
most
extensively trafficked
African, must

Antioch,

of Communication

Means

304

"

Intercourse

Commercial

2.

(i) The

imperial roads promoted travelling in general, and

of the portions
in especial. In their scope
was
one

The
commerce

earth, which

of the

before

ever

Journeys

with

after.

or

and

prosperous

more

was

Free

trade

had

never
'

single empire and

civiUzed

currency.

than

wider

field,

Roman

The

penny
in

Italy
RepubUc was
only legalcoin, accepted
consisted
in
in Spain and
and
S3n:ia. Augustus' reform
Egypt alone exceptionally
making all legalpa3mients in d"wam.'
In
drachmae
the
Western
half
used
as
legal tender.
the
the only silver coin ; in the
was
of the Empire
penny
The imperial
the old silver mintage subsisted
well.
as
Eastern
obtained
also
throughout the whole
Empire, but
copper
was
in the East
hardly used, local moneys
replacing it. In
only the imperial coinage.
gold, there was
the
extended.
frontiers, too, Roman
Beyond
moneys
Claudius
to
Under
an
Rome,
embassy from
Ceylon came
of Annius
of the
headed
Plocamus, farmer
by a freedman
He had
in the Red Sea.
been
custom-duties
circumnavigating
Arabia, and been driven on to Ceylon, and there had made
the friendship of Rome
wonderful
court
whose
chieftain
:
a
denarii had all the same
weight, but different effigies. But
had
debased
the
silver coinage, and
the barbarians
Nero
the

the

under

'

further

for

little occasion

wonder.'

The

convenient
preferred silver as more
in the
that date, accepted payment

pennies,with

chariot

the

on

their

to
old

free

reverse

it could

assured

World-Empire
magic

the

that

however

day

found

and

went

world

road

their
on

in

better

was

currency

good, obviously

as

these

easy

distinguished from Nero's.

enterprises the greatness of the
subjects protection. Cicero sajrs

civis Romanus

Indians

remote,

in the
or

to

of service

world, amongst

Persians.

ready paved
roads

were

to

Merchants
all three

greater and

more

to

any

barbarians,
of

that

continents,
manifold

had
degree now
impossible commerce
fee, and the profitsof Europe were
great to the

prosperity. To
the

words

its

stranger anywhere

Roman

RepubUcan
the coins dug

readily be

foreign commercial

For

and

who
after

commerce,

worn-down

that the old Republican penny

up show
the early imperial coin
which
than
was
because

Germans,

records

Puteoli

at

Agathopus
many
The

of Communication

Means

3o6

and

the

Mediterranean,

Black

Sea

resting-placeafter

his

as

East

journeys

wearisome

this

West.
and

the

Atlantic

teemed

'

Juvenal, at the harbours

and seas
filled with great keels, more
peopled than the land ;
pelago
greed lures great squadrons of ships, not only in the Archiand Africa, but far beyond Calpe [Gibraltar]to where
'.
the sun
sinks hissing in the waves
Day after day ', says
merchants
saU
both
merchant
seas
Aristides,
ships and
with

Roman

'

ships.

Look

', says

'

'

only

of"cials

known

commerce

wind
the

to

near

the

harbours

Coptos

From

to

done
their

of Ireland

to

has

Monsoon

took

were

brought

Egyptian sailor,who,

Alexandria

goods

North-East

went

West

Roman

',says Pliny,

commerce

the

to

era

new

Merchants

Coptos

to

the

'

was

South

NUe,

the

At

caravans

had

though

as

the

and

way,

after him.

up

good wind.

private people \

chieftains

Britain

India.

Hippalos

'.

us

named

summer,

the

shortest

discovered

Nero,
was

to East

road
the

learnt

Britain, not

to

commerce.

the

have

under

to

conquest of Eg5rpt opened up

The

India

to

countless

Domitian,

country, and, under

were

went

and

several

whom

to

Augustus even,
homage, the Romans
own

Atlantic],

troops go, but

and

Under

'

the

and

[the Mediterranean

to India

the

in the

height of
days, with

twelve

laden

Myoshormos

camels, and

on

in six

days, or

with warehouses
busy harbour-town
and caravanserais, in twelve
days. In Strabo's day, the first
route
used ; in PUny's only the second, as the way
to
was
and
Arabia, India
Aethiopia ; Roman
garrisons lined the
crossed
the
route.
The
caravans
Upper Eg5rptian desert
at night, steeringby the stars, the
days being too hot, from
well to well, restingby day.
Under
Augustus wells or cisterns
laid by the Roman
soldiers at suitable
were
points on the
Berenice.
roads
and
From
to
Myoshormos
Myoshormos,
in Strabo's time, 120
sailed
the
Gulf
of Arabia
through
ships
to India, with
to guard against pirates:
archers
board
on
In
the Ascitae
of South
Arabia, used poisoned barbs.
some,
Berenice
Pliny's time, thirty days from
brought the ship
South-East

to

Berenice,

"

to

Ocelis

Cane

on

the

at

South

Muziris

days
piratesand
to

Arabia

in

other

the

South

coast

of

the

coast

on

reasons

end

of the

Arabia

deterred

of

whence

Malabar

them

from

Red
it

Sea,

or

to

forty
(? Mangaluru) :
stopping there ;
was

of Communication

Means
they

went

South

further

on

Barace

to

and

307

(Barygaza).

loaded

in

The

December

ships

the
:
speedily lightened
North-East
Monsoon
they returned to the Red Sea, and thence
with
the
South
wind, which
prevailed as far as Berenice.
Alexandria
India
is now
then
to
eighteen days : it was
ninety-four; the journey there and back took six months
were

from

the

The
have

solstice

summer

of

merchants
left

the

to

Italy

Greeks

February.

and

and

with

the

West

Egyptians

imaginably

cannot

the

monopoly

of

this

Horace's
words
profitable trade.
bidding the merchant
be taken
gird himself to sail to the farthest Indies must
of the
Uterally: Seneca, too, philosophizingon the minuteness
farthest
earth, said only a few days lay between
Spain and
miist have
had some
basis in fact.
India, a hyperbole which
Pliny the Elder's knowledge of the natural features of Further
India

shows

it

whose

then

was

written

or

visited

by Greek

verbal

tales

and

Roman

chants,
mer-

incorporated. The
Alexandrian
poytolano,
he

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, an

is preserved, which
of Africa
coast
describes
the East
up
to the promontory
of Rhaptum
(? KUva), beyond Zanzibar,
the first
of Malabar, and
and including the coast
dates from
of a description
years of Vespasian. Dionysius, the author
of the

earth

merchant,
Ocean

to

for vast

in

nor

the

under

verse,

sea-farer, and

Ganges,

wealth

Hadrian,

'

does

like the

riot go

many

is neither

he

says,

through

who

stake

the

Indian

their

Uves

'.

a
a.d.
great
Ptolemy's Geography of about
150
proves
He
had
with
India.
commerce
development of Roman
in stadia
not
only from
giving distances
reports at hand
of
the promontory
of Caly) to the mouth
of Cory (the sea
to the Golden
the Ganges, and
thence
Peninsula, or Malacca,
The
numerous
and thence
to Cattigara (Hanoi in Tonking).
Greek
translations
of Indian
city-names in Ptolemy (mostly
of Greek
in Taprobane or
Ceylon), prove a livelyintercourse
in
these
and
places: probably they
Egyptian merchants
'

settled

iiiereas

they did

in

knew

where

Socotra.

Ptolemy

lay

with

respect

had

'

In

the

Arabia
Indian

gulf of Barygaza,
frequently,as well as from

to

shipped there
the Punjab and

South

/he

Further

India, Roman

or

the

island

Simylla

harbour
from
Indian
coins

of

men

who

visitors '.
are

imperialgold coins, late Republican and earlyEmpire

found,
denarii

Means

3o8
Alexandrian

and

is

common

of Communication

of

penny
Gaius

to

Strange

tetradvachmae.

with

Augustus

the

say,

most

of his two
effigies
most
part plated ;

the

and
Lucius, for the
adoptive sons
denarii,
designed for India, where
possibly this coinage was
good or bad, could not be as readily distinguished. In the
in Ceylon, coins
from
ruins
of Mantotte
Augustus to the
found.
Antonines
have
been
Cape
Beyond
Ceylon and
found.
Comorin
coins are
Thirty years ago, a
only rarely
at
discovered
of the late Empire was
hoard
of gold coins
Calcutta.

Strabo, lay

Pliny and
belonged to the

China, for
stiU

silk-caravans
from

embassy
the

laid

as

banks

of

geographer (at the

century),had received
was

China

to
town

East

of

ravine

from

the

the

Chinese

to

the

of

Shan-si,

have

China

been

expedition to Issedon, a
be absolutely determined.

an

cannot

of

and

Parthia

of

China

sent
;

to Hissar,

to

the

the

started.

caravans

Roman

coins

According

official chronicles

Empire,

Balkh

beginning
(Carategin). Just beyond the
fell,lay the Stone Tower, a place much

Thence

from

Tiberius

An-Si

have

(Parthia)and

reports,Rome
stuffs, jewels,amber,

they

acted

before

Chinese

been

musicians
An-ti

to
on

open

Roman

King

the

a.d.

on

China's

on

(the Eastern

120

King

work

have

details

some

Ta-Tsin

especiallyS5n:ia).In
Syrian jugglers and

AureUan

to

Chinese

to

exported carpets, glass,metals, coloured

corals and
drugs. Further
(according to a
must
then
plants imported oversea) Canton
to foreign commerce.
to

road

caravan

they proceeded
capital,possibly Si-ngan-fu. In the province

sixteen

relations

Comedi

discovered.

Chinese

Maes,

Fortress, Daraut-Kiurgan):
43" lay the place due East, Kashgar,

latitude

the

the

silk, and

merchant,

description of

out

of

same

whence

Macedonian

a
a

route

the hills
pass, where
visited
the Ruins
(? now
in

the

from
perhaps North-East
through the hiUs to Surkhab,

thence

The

world.

wares

organized

The

set

caravan

the

had

stream, beside

Titianus,

China.

in

The

he

known

But
of T3n-e,
Maxinus
away.
latest, of the first half of the second

the

the

called

the

the

according to Phny, told

that goods to be bartered

merchants,

Seres, if satisfied,took

who

of

there

Claudius,

to

our

the

on

limit

which

Tokharistan,

Empire

Greek-Bactrian

the

Ceylon

tale

same

were

reached

at

the

New

of

Court
Year's

of Communication

Means

309

In
An-Tun
October, 166, an
Day, 121.
embassy from
(Marcus Antoninus),the King of Ta-Tsin, came
by sea by
Tonking to the Emperor Huan-ti.
According to the Chinese
had
chronicle the Kings of Ta-Tsin
bassies
long wished to send emto China, but the
An-Si
prevented direct sUk- trade,
wishing to retain the monopoly of negotiating it. These
ambassadors
have been merchants, self-styled
of"cials ;
may
their giftswere
not imperial in character
as
elephant's
; such
'

'

teeth, rhinoceros

horns,

from

embassy

Ta-Tsin

of paper,
probably a company
merchants.
Chinese
also
writers
China

One

Kan-Ying,

to Ta-Tsin

which
in

did

284

so-called

Emperor of China
30,000
of Syrian or Alexandrian
embassies
speak of two

the

gave

roUs

from

In

tortoise-shells.

their destination.

reach

not

only got as far as the Persian

Gulf.
In 226
was
A.D.
a
presented to the
Sjrrianmerchant
Ta-Tsin
to
by
Emperor of China, and accompanied back
Chinese ofi"cials ; the latter was
to give the King of Ta-Tsin
female
ten
and
dwarfs,
(on the Sjnrian'sadvice) ten male
sent

97,

something of
Ta-Tsin, of its use of glass in architecture, of the great roads,
and post (which China
also had), of the lions and tigerswhich
but

he

died

abounded

in

Amazons
the

the

on

way.

lived

South

clock

great waU

with

and

also

ball

golden

knew

the

Of

it consisted

knew

aU

Pygmies and
An-tu
(Antioch),

of

of Ta-Tsin.

capitalof Ta-Tsin, they

with

China

Mesopotamia,

who

towns,

But

round, and

of four

that

that

fell at

every

was

known

to

had

long

there

was

of the

one

walled
a

twelve

hours.
The

of

The

Baltic

trade.
tells us

of

coast

in the

there

voyage
still lived a
a

by the amberexplored ; and PUny

Rome

been

Vespasian

Under

first century.

knight, who had been sent there

exhibition.
in large quantitiesfor a gladiatorial
purchase amber
Carnuntum
From
(Petronellnear Vienna) he reached

there
to

Europe

North

the

Baltic

600

(Roman)

miles

other

articles must

coins

and

point

Germany,
to

long

been

got from

This

South
and

West
of

Prussia

the

Norway

and

livelyintercourse

to

was

have

tour

And

North, for Roman

are

found

all
and

Hanover,

Sweden.
with

time, it

may
amber-trade.

the

(especiallyin bronze)
from

first

the

Carnuntum.

managed

have

fabrics

the

from

middlemen

unique

and

discovered, for

and

coast

been

North

Roman

These

the Roman

over

mark
Den-

finds

world,

Means

3IO
and

their

fords

distribution

into

the

higher

commercial

been

and

great rivers and

regions indicates

drier
In

roads.

Silesia

led

and

by

East

and

Roman

coins

Prussia

and

in

of

the end

the

coins
of

of the

the

decorative
The

articles

Northern

trade

finds of stufis and

only

but

also

lands

Tacitus.

the

Empire

light in

in

which

this date, and

is established

19

he

a.d.,

as

Roman
says,
far as the

area,

forms

countless

and

demands

the

frontiers,

in barbarian

literature,

hucksters

and

stronghold
or
(Boihemum

Maroboduus

Marcomanni,

these

new

by

In

consequence
the

to

tombs

all this wide

over

there

come

them.

with
appear
of the Roman

pierced through
of

the

assigned to

coins

came

route
far beyond
long commercial
of temporary settlements
a large number
but
is mentioned
in
case
only one

not

the

partly singly
a
as
proof of

before

can

For

be

must

taken

which

first of

Marcomanni.

found

are

the

into

hardly have
century, probably in

second

migrations, the

with

war

have

thence

found

are

hoards

partly
(which was
direct amber-trade) ; but they

before

Bohemia

Moravia

were

hoards

Adriatic.

the

to

In

South

RepubUc

the

which

oldest

the

natural

the

the

along

discovered, dating from

road

of Communication

of the

in

chants
mer-

chief

Boiohemum

in

of trade, secured
Bohemia), attracted by the freedom
by a
special treaty, and by commercial
greed ; finallysettlingin
hostile country and
a
forgettingtheir own.
The
regularity of these long journeys in the first two
centuries
makes
of Roman,
Eg3rptian and Greek
voyages
smaller
scales
merchants
on
beyond the frontier normal.
In Strabo's

time,

the
Aethiopia, and
Upper Eg3rpt, teemed
Aethiopia and India.
of

South

who
from

had

fleets went

even,

Land
with

the

on

the

landed

on

that

Theron

Alexandria

to farthest

Troglod3rtes. Coptos,

merchants,

Diodorus

Arabia

Ptolemais

of

from

describes

who
the

travelled

in

into

Ichthyophagi

authority of Eg5rptian merchants,

coast.

Pliny makes
Aethiopian

(on the
principalharbour

the
side

journey
of

the

of the Troglodytes
Sea) to Adule, the
inlet South
of Massowa), last five
and Aethiopians (in an
teeth, hippopotamus skins,
days : at Adule ivory, rhinoceros
and
slaves
tortoise-shell, monkeys
were
imported. But
travelled
of Isis,
merchants
yet farther ; to the harbour
Adule
ten
strait),
(South of the Babelmandeb
days from
Red

Means
where

of Communication

311

the

of
Troglodytes brought myrrh ; to the harbour
the Mossyli (oppositeto the South
Arabian
coast),a staple
for
cinnamon
and
cassia.
Zanzibar, was
Rhaptum, near
the
farthest
South
known
to
point
Egjrptian merchants
;
and in Vespasian'stime ships sailed there from
Muza
in South
Arabia.
Roman
the first to explore as far as
merchants
were
Charax
of the Tigris)
and report on the
Spasinu (near the mouth
distance from the Persian Gulf : they may
have
journeyed there
from
evidence
is extant
Palmjnra in caravans
(o-woSiai)
;
for

the

second

and
the

Athenodorus,

centuries.

third

friend

of

At

found

Strabo,

Arabia

in

Petra
Romans

amongst

strangers there

the

of Socotra,
congregated. The inhabitants
the
ing
island of Dioscoridis
(near Cape Guardafui), were, accordof
to the
portolano of the Erythraean Sea, a mixture
Arabians, Indians, and
Egyptian-Greeks, there engaged in
commerce.

Caesar's

Before

entered

had

Gaul, from

great St.

the

tribes

with

cask

of

'

of the

Gauls ',Romans
long-haired
and

Narbonensis
the

"

merchants

even

in

as

Gaul

Italy

from

far

as

trafficked

wine
aU

CabiUonum

Republic

of earlier

trade-settlements
all

at

of

coast

the

forts.

Arrian,

Phasis

to

as

lived

spoken

there

foreign trade-stations

to

the

Sea, Trajan established

Black

castle

well-chosen

shipping, found

the

had

and

river,

dug from
protect such

moat
to

at

the

Campaign
caused

was

and

the

On

of

chain

of
900

foundations

veterans

the

such,

were

mouth

garrisonof

the

in

the

select
of

the

merchants

outside.

or

or

there

it had

three

Roman
Hadrian

been

hundred
merchants
it had

devastated.

;
staple-town for Caucasia
said to be
languages were
preters
to employ
had
130 interRoman
garrison; in Pliny's

the

Sebastopoliswas

even

; under

time

at

guard

Dioscurias

seventy

and

most

date

The
and Cirta in Numidia.
e.g. Delos, Alexandria
of Marcus
Vinicius, in 25 B.C., against Celtic tribes
merchants.
murdering Roman
by the barbarians

fortress

savage

transported by river, and by waggons : a

paigns,
During Caesar's cambought a Celtic slave.
the greater towns, such as Cenabum
(Orleans),
must
there
(Chalons), Noviodunum
(Nevers),

Roman

been

troops ;

the

the

wine,

at

East

over

and

dangerous

was

pass

fee^and

high

Italian

best

late

Bernhard

demanded

Belgae.

have

conquest

In

the

harbours

of

the

Sea

Means

312
of Azov

there

and

steppes

the

Thus

trade

merchants
of

of South

from

and

the

parts of the Empire followed

all

Commerce

cities.

become

lanes

round
thus

was

the

great

that

remarks

Marcellinus

Ammianus

agent.

eagles;

fellow-pioneers.Their

were

{cannabae)quickly clustered

huts

Romanizing

civilized lands

the

between

Russia.

soldiers

to

soon

livelytrade

and

booths

camps,

was

of Communication

trade,
part of Gaul first opened to Roman
is much
the least resistingto Roman
culture.
There
was
evidence
merchants
seized
to how
as
swiftlyand energetically
on
provincial trade and often monopolized it. Narbonese
citizens
full of Roman
Gaul, fiftyyears after the conquest, was
and
their aid no
without
merchants;
provincial did any
business
The
passed through their books.
;
every
peimy
murder
of Roman
merchants
in Pannonia
in 6 a.d.
(fifteen
amongst the Treviri,
years after the conquest), as in 26 a.d.
the signal of revolt.
In
Mithridates
ordered
88 B.C.
was
the
of every
Italian
murder
in Asia
(which had been a
said
are
1 50,000
province for forty years): 80,000, or even

Aquitaine,

have

to

been

the

been

slain.

commercial

of

industrious

or

investing in

merchants

Thapsus
companies.

conquest)
of the

many

belonged

to

consisted
in

Asia.

of

towns

In

the

and

46

provinces

were

towns.

Beside
seat

these

of their

citizens of
at

At
who

businesses.

Antoninus

(under

Italyand

Pius)
other

Augsburg speak of
AquUeia, a tomb
thence

that of

an

traded

subscribed

with

shippingagent

Dacia

from

centuries

institution,

great authority

for

Rhaetia

'.

of

man

have
citizens

Roman

to

and

in

the

inscriptionat Celeia (Cilh)

An

provincesin
a

provincialssettled

was

after

aUies must

established

importance

merchants
of

mercial
com-

merchants

of

300

neighbouring

for the first two

and

Italians, many

new

with

conventus
:

Utica

Roman

were

citizens and

of merchants

in

the

business

(eighteenyears

a.d.

thickly peopled

and
by their privileges

in

speaks

in

at

were

there

in 61

raised
the

dealers

have

must

Cicero

engaging

there

Hadrumetum

London

later

years

B.C.

massacred
70,000
this class.
The

Eastern

population

all ranks

of

wholesale

was

mainly

this

of

twenty-two

[bankersand

Roman

the

Most

Lyons, Treves
of Cologne has
at
:
Gythion

Nicomedia, resident

'

Roman
by
Inscriptions
and

Bourges.

been
in

in

found,
Laconia

Cyzicus :

the

of Communication

Means

314

greater part of

ApoUinaris Sidonius,

cities ;

of the

most

that
the
tops3rturvydom of Ravenna,
says
ibs Syrians sing psalms. In the
and
money
Genevieve
travelling
(about 450 a.d.) merchants

describingthe
Life

of

from

St.

Gaul

Antioch

to

there
Gaul.

'

'

priestslend

mentioned

are

still settlements

were

of

in the

and

sixth

tury,
cen-

in

merchants

Syrian

Gregory of Tours
speaks of those at Bordeaux
and Paris, and clearlydistinguishes
them
from
the many
Jews.
When
Guntram
entered
the 4th July, 585,
Orleans,
on
King
he
with
in
Hebrew.
Latin, Syrian and
was
greeted
songs
In
that
of Narbonne
ordained
on
Sunday,
589 the Council
no
Goth, Roman,
or
Jew do any labour.
Syrian or Greek
in Gaul
in favour
sixth
in the fifth and
S3?rianwines were
centuries, especiallythose from
Gaza, Sarepta and Ascalon.
and
Charlemagne even
empdoyed Greeks
Syrians to correct
the Gospels.
St.

Distribution

(ii)The
the

On

sufficient

actual
to

distribution

show

that

good market,
fuUy supplied ; the
any

were

all assembled

ever

had

snow

Libanius,
from

all

goods
anywhere. Rome
of

wares

Antioch

parts, laden

Goods

could

is extant,

be

was

all climes

and

seas

says Rome
world's
work
:

the

be

not

its

with

had.

Corinth

and,

at

andria,
Alex-

according

to

attracted

ships

Other

great

best.

was

crafts

and
and

And,

ready market,

all that

but

trjinsportedto
the
place most

Aristides

there.-

with

the

little evidence

any

superfluityof
only might

of

Arelate
amply furnished.
(according to a
of 418 a.d.),by land and
document
and
sea
river,got wares
Africa.
from
the East, Spain, Gaul
and
Articles, found
only at a few places, partly outside the
of the
everywhere on sale. In the Gazetteer
Empire, were

cities

were

of

World
the
and

sole

as

the

distributor

Egyptian

other

exported
harbours.

fourth

to

an

of

Amongst

paper

in

goods, such

Marseilles, and,

fourth-century
comprising incense,
the

century, Alexandria

the

as

valuables

which
of

was

sixth

exported

mentions
in

bronze,

was

herbs,

then

were

Mediterranean

from

Alexandria,

spices, no

universal

as

century, paper

and

roots

doubt, other

no

Gazetteer

essential constituent

the

is mentioned

doubt

demand.

only

known

Tin,
in

Means

of Communication

Spanish Galicia, West

but
seventh

in

was

century

Britain, to

Gaul, the

stock

barter

SorlingianIslands

and

In

the

almost

everywhere.

Alexandrian

even,

for

315

tin ;

ships
tin

sailed

wall,
Corn-

earlyto

direct

exported again to
India
and
The
is
exchanged anew.
cheapness of amber
shown
its
in
by
being worn,
PUny's time, by Lombard
in
peasant women,
necklaces, as amulets
against swellings
of the throat.
In the days of Diodorus
the products
even,
of the

ironworks

the
have

of

graves
the

finds

have

the

the

from

come

from

of Elba

of

then,

Many,

com

Roman-made
North

the

semi-civilized

Hanover,

the

were

ItaUan

from

smithies

was

scattered

all

weapons,
Silesia to
at

Puteoli

frontiers,though
hall-mark.

In

the

over
so

world.

Scandinavia,
;

but

most

of the

some

Denmark,

in

common

may
came

Northern

Switzerland,

Pomerania,

and
Scotland,
England
stewpans,
of Publius
bearing the name
Cipius Polybius (or Polybus),
have
been
found, shaped like those at Pompeii : and some
of one
Nigellus' fabrics at Fiinen and the Savoy. Besides
the
Islands
and
potteries in the Greek
(Cnidos, Rhodes
had
wide
times
sales, in Roman
Thasos), which
potteries
in Pergamus, Saguntum, Arretium
and Mutina
arose
(Modena)
also exported in every
their famous
marks.
halldirection, with
Lyons also had a brisk trade in clay articles,extending
all over
Gaul, England, Upper Italy, the Alps, the Tyrol
and Hungary, all with the same
hall-mark.
Alexandria
factured
manuglass in all the shapes of the imported clay fabrics.
factories
of Scjrthopolis,
The
linen of the famous
Laodicea,
Byblus, Tyre and Berytus, according to the fourth-century
also exported ever5rwhere ; and
so
too, says
Gazetteer, was
Procopius,the silk of Ber5rtus and Tyre. The tariff of 301
for the
issued
East, specifiesmostly
by Diocletian
A.D.,
Western
oriental goods, and
some
fabrics, sold in the East ;
and
ItaUan
Wines
hams,
such
as
(seven sorts), sausages
from
Gaul
and
dresses
African
(e.g. the
carpets, mantles
still is a
fabrics ;
Nervian
weaving town), and
Toumay
Rhaetian, British clothing : GaUic hnen, Tarentine
Numidian,
,

and

Asturian

wool.

In

Laodicea

Nervian

mantles

were

wine
According to Galen, so-called Falemian
being so small,
exported everywhere ; but, Campania
have
manufactured
must
dealers
something similar.

imitated.
was

the

Lastly,

of

the

luxuries

of

the

table, fish

sauces

came

from

of Communication

Means

3i6

{muria) and
(garum sociorum), tunny-fishsauce
from
Antibes
and
Byzantium ; and from Spain fresh
dubs
one
:
quince-jam went to Rome
grocer of Reate
Dealer
in all transmarine
goods '.

Cartagena
others

jars of
himself

'

Travel

" 3.

marches

and

compelled
a

of

only change

Not

Very
one's

own

taught

was

Posidonius,

less

Galen

would

wander

famous

philosophers',
travelling: very many
travelled, for
the

shrine

unblushingly

sea,

to meet

and

the

and

learn

But
men

friends and

hairs, and
and

home

and

was

of

tales

sa3rs he
all of the

that

interviews

of

the

man,

Troglodytes,
Sea.

Red

And
could

man,

spoke

Sea, who
once

time,

days

leisured

Red

man

most

Plutarch's

'.

high-minded
the

The

their

all

spent

of the

year

places

to

as

travels

would

be

such
scarce

taken
under-

by land and by
physician. Arte-

made

many
voyages
of
pupils
Quintus the

Daldis, the

from

them.

the time to travel and

youth was
regularlyleft their parents' house

elsewhere.

scope.

too,

much
was
dream-reader, who
very
for his science, visited Greece, Italy,Little Asia,
Islands, to know
as
colleagues as possible,
many

of

earnest

the shores

prophet on
only heard

personal

Galen

midorus
in

voice

For

visited.

and

of

travellers'

the

were

'

ling
travel-

men,
'

their

as

Dioscorides,

less eminent

returned

never

(such

of doctors

need

and

Cicero,

honourable

an

Doric, whose

the

of

of Ammon,

Cleombrotos,
teU

Apio, Pausanias,
on

book-lore

learned

Sparta, a rich and

knowledge' sake, visitingeven

friend, Cleombrotos

and

from

methods

for ancient

the

widen

saj^

learn

To

Hence

tours

a-field to

now

need.

the

sight ;

(who insists

far

of

absence

actual

Strabo,

much) required long

many

increased

than

through
perfect.

Diodorus,

and

Apuleius

usual

miUtary
professions
posts and

tours,

gain knowledge.

to

more

more

and

rarer

was

further

customs

travelled

eyes
much

but

voyages,

travelling. The

ancient

many

ofi"cial

residence,

commercial

constant

and

press

General

in

'

Shall

young

kin ',Epictetus asks

to say

district in

Oh

! at

the

more

leave

men

leave home.
to

be

'

your
civilized

educated

parents and
hear you splitting
Every province
and

home

sophist, to
perorations ?

better

Young

'

parts had

its

academic

Means
city,to which
the sophist was
Clazomenae,

of Communication

students

and

found

to

begged

raise

so

far and

from

came

317

in his native

school

its fame.

Scopelianus

near.

Cremona

city

Medio-

and

in

much
Cis-Alpine Gaul were
frequented, as Augustodunum
in the
region of the Aedui.
Carthage in Africa,
than
more
ApoUonia in Epirus and Marseilles were
provincial
cities :
at MarseUles
6-2
Romans
went
to study. From

lanium

Tiberius, whilst

B.C.

Rhodes,

at

was

student

zealous

the

patronized in later ages as well. In the

students
most
Asiatic
in Cilicia had
provinces. Tarsus
(in
Strabo's
time, only natives),and, according to PhUostratus,
there educated
ApoUonius of Tyana was
; thus, too, Antioch,
in Cicero's days a centre for learned men
and learned
in Syria,was
studies, and, above
all, Smjrrna, which
taught the youth
of Little Asia, Greece, Assyria,Phoenicia
and
Egjrpt. AU

school

much

was

'

the

who

Muses

she

Smjrrna :
the town

descend

is the

hearth

Alexandria

Rome,

with

teems

to

man

', saj^

her

own

sons

'

Aristides, haunt

and

learning for the

Athens
surpassed

Continent

of

and

foreigners:

with

all.

But

'.

owed

Athens

throng of foreign students to her schools of rhetoric and

her
(the Ephebi
philosophy, and
training-home for men
lands.
which
visited largelyfrom the semi-Greek
was
Institute),
it was
North and South, where
a glory to have
passed through
In
the
third
the recognized Hellenic
school.
century, it
course
interfound
been
that Attic had
was
corrupted by constant
her

with
Sometimes

tiiere

55 A.D.,

from

came

the

and

Libya

former.

entire

modem

On
led

other

road

to

Lucian

fame

he

service

him

gives

she

married

brought

him

Greece,

for
both

makes

declares

in

dowry

Ionia,

Marcus
Arabia

from

(and, later

across

students

on,

stantinopl
Con-

resembled

most

of all kinds

students

and

teachers

in

Mesopotamia,

and

Rome

sophists found the nearest

in educational
and
lecturingtours.
a
sculptor,but chose oratory : in
court
him : Sculpture suggests that

wealth

intended

was

his Dream
her

and

Aurelius

Rhetors

life.

migratory

Under

and

both

native

than

State-paid chairs,
University.

hand,

barbarians.

other

foreign ephebi

their

German

the

East,

Athens

Egypt.
with

the

more

were

of the

114

and

Thracians, Pontines

young

and

fixed

home

had

been

him,

of honour

and

the

to

sea

elsewhere

wife,

faithful

prosperityon
Italy, and

Rhetoric

at

and

his tours
last

even

Means

3i8
in

Gaul.

The

of Communication
then

teachers

celebrated

most

wandered

far

like the
biographies show, very much
tus,
Aristides is excepted by Philostralecturers of the Renaissance.
not travelling
as
much, as having visited only Italy,Greece
with
and
a
paneygric
Egjrpt. They began their courses
to
of
in
and
the
the
eminent,
city they were
stajring ;
statues would
be thus locallyerected : Apuleius congratulates
himself that mean
towns
even
granted him this honour.
Not
only amongst the rhetors and sophists,but amongst
physicians and
grammarians the circulatores or irepiobfvrai
The
were
physician,PubUus
distinguishedfrom the resident.
Scribonius
Primigenius, a freedman, says, on his tombstone,
that he was
travelled
born
at Iguvium, had
much, and been
famous
for his sldll and
his reliability.Quacks
also perambulated

a-field,as

Philostratus'

in this fashion.

charlatans

obtained

When

most

personal acquaintances,
Alexander
in

as

Artists

no

who

used

press,

making
Tyana, and

of

send

to

no

emissaries

out

his fame.

hawk

to

post and
travelling and

was

by
Apollonius

vogue
did

of Abonuteichos,

advance,

there

The
the road.
craving
mostly always on
for the
artistic side of life throughout the
whole
Roman
world
is evidenced
ruins of artistic work
by the countless
in every
could
province ; and the huge demand
only have
been
satisfied by
clouds
or
colonies, expeditions, swarms
of artists,and
artists hoveriag about, ready to settle down
anywhere '. One inscriptionof a wandering sculptor,Zeno
of Aphrodisias, is extant, who, trusting to his art, visited
found
cities ; statues, bearing his name,
have
been
many
at Rome
and
Sjrracuse.
were

'

Actors, musicians
smaller

towns

West

imitated

day,

the

and

which
company
in an

ages
formed

played

of

Dionysus
did

in certain

most

that

Greece

and

at

decree.

in Ionia.
of

the

The

Teos, the

In

the

of

fourth

aU

'

century

the

Dionysus :

Athenian

an

Hellenistic

greatest of

City

votaries,

Dionysian
to Dionysus,

about

of the

the

'

These

toured

end

ayavts

numberless

behind.

places,or

Asia, where

in Demosthenes'

Even

attracted

in

tours,

Little

periodical

more.

fall

constant

regular corporations, dedicated

Amphictyonic
was

not

made

their

and

more

is mentioned

flourished
there

cult

had

even

them

later

artists

athletes

singly; especiallyin

troops, or
the

and

age,

B.C.

drama

companies
in

Strabo's

Means
time

it had

moved

to

there, and

all the

Asia

sacrificed

met,

of Communication
Lebedos,

sections
and

and

319

celebrated

touring about

Greece

In

competed.

"festivals

annual

Little

and

the

Empire these
selected
Dionysus,

companies amalgamated into one, which

the
New
or
Dionysus the Emperor, as its patron. The
called after Trajan, and is the
theatrical S3mod at Nimes
was
in a later inscription the Holy Hadrianic
found
as
one
same
of Hadrian, the New
Synod of the Honourers
Dionysus : it
sent decrees
to Ancyra in Galatia
and
Aphrodisias in Caria
(one of 127 A.D. was
unearthed) : it is there called the S5mod
'

'

of

the

artists
it

Pius

of

of

Under
(an' oUovficvris).

realm

called

was

Company
Dionysus and

the

'

The

Artists

Great

Sacred

the

of

whole

ninus
Anto-

Antonine

ling
Travel-

Empire, honouring

Pius '. It had

Dionysus, Antoninus
sections, some
staying for a longer or shorter while
many
at the same
The athletes,too, formed
place,especiallyRome.
united
with
often
the Dionysians. As
companies, which
of these
members
actors,
unions, or independently, famous
musicians
athletes
and
regularly toured
through Greece,
Little Asia
and
their
numerous
Italy, as
inscriptionsshow.
in
One
Marcus
an
Sempronius Nicocrates
epitaph
says
of his own
composition that he had been a musician, poet
and
of
a
synod ;
cither-player,and, aboye all, member
his travels
trouble.
by land and sea had given him much

Actors
the

and

media

where

would

they

famous

and

New

athletes

cities

Charmus,

the

aroused

singer,

Athens,

won

often

the

be

given

the

enthusiasm.
citizen

laurel

of

at

of

freedom

Aurelius

One

Philadelphia,Nicothe

all

sacred

petitions,
com-

An
athlete,
Capitolineto that of Antioch.
Marcus
Aurelius
Asclepiades,a citizen of Alexandria, Hermoof Athens,
and
polis,Puteoli, Naples and Elis, a senator
of many
other
senator
citizen and
cities, says he performed
Little Asia ; as a poet
in three countries, Greece, Italy and
of the Early Empire says
of Glycon the Pergamene
pancraCorinthian
tiast.
A
list of buildings, put up
priest,
by a
Licinius
Priscus
PubUus
Juventianus (? circa 200), mentions

from

inns

for

the

athletes, who

every

century,
and

the

world

whole

the

charioteers

famous,

towns

most

from

Laodicea,

Berytus, pantomimes

from

artists

e.g. in the

mimes

Caesarea,

the

to

came

invited

Festival-giversoften

Isthmian

games.
kind
from

from

from
flute

of

fourth

Tyre
choruses

of Communication

320

Means

from

Heliopolis and

gladiatorialcompanies
wild

animals

shall

speak

Feasts

over

from

Ascalon.

tours.

the

athletes
made

course,

transport

of

venationes

the

to

distances

enormous

later.

at Rome
spectacles,
foreignspectators. The

and

countless

Of

Of

provinces,attracted

in the

or

Olympian

and

the

Pythian

only as late as the third

under
Julian the
Apostate : vehicles
century, but even
at their conclusion.
burned
were
scarce
Peregrinus Proteus
In 165, the most
himself
to death
at the Oljonpian Games
frequented spectacle of Greece ; as Lucian
says (he visited
the Games
four times),to advertise
the feat thoroughly well.
At such assembUes
traders of all sorts, with an eye to profit,
met.
Dio of Prusa
says that pandars with their girlstravelled
to the
autumn
at
meeting of the Amphictyonic Council
Pandars
Pylae, and elsewhere.
generally travelled much ;
of Alexandria, by sea,
the wretches
go about, says Clement
with
of girls,instead
of wine.
Strabo
a
cargo
says, that,
visited for its springs(on the frontier
at Carura, a place much
between
earthquake swallowed
Phrygia and Caria),an
up
in one
inn
whole
such
Nicocrates
a
troop. Sempronius
abandoned
a

all Greece, not

assembled

games

music,

the

at

at Corinth.

the

even

beauties

also

"

banished

relegated might attend

and

Mysteries of Eleusis, the Feast of

Games
Argos, the Pythia at Delphi, the Isthmian
Of the reUgious festivals,the Eleusinian
Mysteries

attracted

Romans

crowded

at

Samothrace,

Troy

had

even

that

thence

been

colonized

this

distant, inaccessible

the

now

ambassadors
and

the

Romans,

as

island

was

Mysteries of
it

was

fabled

Roman
generals
many
Thus
endowed
the shrine.

hence

initiated, and

were

ranked

Athens

was

centre

of

pilgrimage,
when

Athos, especiallyin the height of the summer,

festival

Elis

the

especiallywith

other

any

Next

season.

officials

is

than

more

and

as

in

great festivals, the

Dionysos

as

traflSc

to

says,

business.

migratory
Further,

he

as

held.

was

Macedonia,

from
Rome

individuals.

Inscriptions in
Little

(whose legates are

'

With

the

same

Asia

called
awe

as

Samothrace
and

Thrace, Crete,

mystae
the

record

pii),as

modern

well
Greek

at Athos, his ancestor

have
skipper or wanderer
gazes
may
and, in both places,
sought the high cliff of Samothrace
;
a priesthood,equally ignorant,similarly
gabbling traditionally

Means

322

Roman

many
the

there

and

of

other

or

(a

'

the

first

of
in

often

resorts,

will

extensive

This
for

thus

essential

to

be

the

inferred,

and

in

Africa,

of

Aedepsus,

the

the

older

Roman

traced

these

of

buildings
bathingall

Hamam

the
Rirra

(Mehadia),
also

were

Canobus.

Men

the

contiuued

along
in

e.g.

Almost
end

but

Carpathians

the

fragments

the

of
be

can

Some

also

the

pleasuretravelled

recreation.
that

seen

will
and

recreation

be

Remains

Pyrenees,

than

impression

still

gorgeous,

and

of

are

Minerva,

or

them).

amongst

century

reconstructions.

Baiae,

e.g.

'

ruins

artistic

are

second

may

Auvergne.

distraction

more

place

the

and

time

dedications

the

coasts,

Algeria,

It

and

fine

several

after

soon

Sulis,

goddess

baths,

the

very

Many

up.

the

Domitian's

very

Mediterranean

for

of

of

the

used

Alps

of

beginning

resorts,

in

remains

inscriptions

popularity

of

visited

was

fitted

richly
temple

bust

and

being

the

deities,

woman's

all

Bath

implements.

occupation,

still

Communication

of

student

in
be

Europe

up

strengthened,
the

education,
of

in

travelling

Roman

to

the

the

Empire

nineteenth

after

knowledge
civilization.

was

century.

considering
of

tours
which

is

CHAPTER

TOURING

UNDER

THE
AND

INFREQUENCY

THE

I.

VII

EMPIRE

LIMITEDNESS

GEOGRAPHICAL
AND

EXTENT

AIM

OF

COVERIES"T
DIS-

OF

HORIZON"

THE

TOURS

must
travellingand the good communications
been
have
more
widely felt as an incentive.
Voyages were
often then made, to gain new
than
impressions and education
nature
now.
Pliny calls human
migratory and curious '.
make
endure
neys
Many ', says Seneca,
long joursea-voyages,
For
remote
for
self-conscious
some
Nature,
alone,
sight.
made
bom
admirers
of her craft and beauty,
us
: her
jewels
'. Very many
would
be lost in a wilderness
gladly traversed
at home
were
unknown
cities,visited new
seas,
everywhere '.
drove
Hadrian
The
love of roaming, which
through all his
with his own
to see
provinces,and urged him on
eyes all he
had
read
of in any
general. Despite the
very
part ', was
Ufe ', says
the Epicurean Philodemus,
insecurityof human
and
philosopherseven, are fools enough to set aside
many,
for
so
coming years for studies at Athens, so many
many
The

of

ease

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Greece
But

not

this does

'.

lands

barbarian

or

that

mean

there

were

then

of
voyages
weak
was

any
unknown

exploring the
of
in antiquity, and
even
fancy scarcely passed the Umits
knowledge. At its greatest extent, ancient geography knew

discovery.

nothing
of

or

of

banish
No

of

for

Europe,

save

the

North

the

known

fable,

even

Columbus

the northr

ships ;

of

of

third

Africa

frontiers

desire

The

was

and

thought,
Strabo

the

sail the
some

and

of Asia

; and

world,

amongst
dared

or

even

truth

save

the

South-

on

the

weU-trodden

could

West,

altogether

not

learned.
Western

which,

Ocean,

off the coast"

way
Aristides
thought

like

impenetrable
a

continent

Touring under

324
between

Western

be

discover
But

lands

The

the

historyof
nature

attained

their
as

would

Thule.

beyond

Romans

to

cease

Tiphys

new

Seneca

would

ocean

barrier, and

unsurmountable

an

possible,and

centuries, the

few

Empire

Asia

and

Europe

thought that, in

the

no

navigation
study. The

this

than

more

little

how

shows

and

extent

idea.

vagpie

stood
under-

they

frontiers

the

of

explorations on the high

of the world
masters
The
sea.
possessed the Iberian, Lusiof the
tanian
and
Mauretanian
coasts, yet scarcely knew
Atlantic
islands off North
Africa.
Some
Andalusian
skippers
Madeira
and
made
from
cribed
desstadia
(about 19,000
Africa),
Sertorius
and
to Gains
its soft warm
climate, fertility
equableness ; it was
thought and called Homer's
Elysium or
the
Isles of the Blest.
Sertorius
yearned to retire to this
magic calm from the turmoil of war, but was prevented by his
No
Roman
after attempted to reach
followers.
them.
ever
Yet the Canary Islands had been described
by Juba of Mauretimes
tania, the greatestauthority on Africa of ancient
(he
of
and
and
Statius
married
a daughter
^ktony Cleopatra), by
great Empire

the

Sebosus,

facts

mus,

who,

his way
where
no

inhabited

by

ship ;

one

expedition of
knowledge gained
denies

two
near

by

of

Chariot

Leone,
the

On

by

where

Gods.

attacked

the

He

Bissao

there

island

an

tails,

with

in the

women

Hanno

Carthaginian made
Cape Verde, but the

the

or

of the

grass
called the

Coast

Hanno

and

trees,

at

Sagras

the

was

on

especially

mountain

Isle of

for

(?Agadir)

Isle of Ceme

Guinea

landed

Strabo,

dimmed.

Harang

the
in

by day only forests, and at

voices:
and
flutes, cymbals, drums
night
island
left the
he
affrighted. His facts correspond with
modem
experience: the heat compels the negroes to rest all
their noisy festivals at night. An
author,
day, and conduct
followed
by Pomponius Mela and the Elder Pliny, possibly

the

and
group,
and
heard
ifires,

creatures

glowing
he

into the

out

touched

Euphe-

them.

the

the

blown

ship

Fausanias

sailor

red

lost

existence

Hanno.

been

days beyond

became

the

nights alarmed
Sierra

b.c.

450
sixteen

date.

Carian

His

were

to

and

an

discovered

sails '.

one

abandoned

480

instance,

from

Italy,had

sat3rrs. They

was

Between

uncertain

uttering a soimd,

without

who,

satyrs

to

on

'

Atlantic,

the

to

as

invite

to

of
]^|^ht

Roman

obtained

seemed

saw

Touring under
Cornelius

mentions,
Gods,
and

both

his site,the

as

and

This

fused

Nepos,
Pliny

tales

of

Empire

into

South

coast

foot

the

the

the

fable.

one

of the

Atlas

on

fabulous
on

towards
the ocean
was
range
African
side filled with shadowy

the

springs. By day
into

awed

clouds

no

silence

man

at

was

the

be

to

terrible

seen

325
But

Mela

Mountain

of the

the

coast.

West

wild

and

waste,

fruitful trees

and

; the

sight of

wayfarer sank
hills piercing the
At night
moon.

of the
climbing up to the zone
there was
fires and a din of satyrs and Pans,
a light of many
to the banging of cymbals and
the sound
of flutes.
Pliny,
the
Mauretanian
the
the
Atlas
with
mountains
on
confusing
and
Bay of Bissao, apologizes for his vague
contradictory
account
the
the
laziness
of
Roman
authorities
by pleading
in

and

Mauretania

five colonies
far

the

it had

in it, and

further
from

south.

Oea

rock, and

But

the

In

19

their

since

governors
indolence

were
; there
40 a.d.
vied in penetratingas

discovery did not

from
lying to conceal their ignorance, and
prevent them
such veracious
and authoritative
tales foxmd
ready credence.
Suetonius
Paulinus
in 41 a.d.
the
was
only Roman
general
He
found
the
who
crossed
the Atlas, and
nothing resulted.
forests of new,
lower heights covered
with
cypress-Uketrees
with eternal snow.
Beyond
(now called ar'ar),and the summits
the Atlas he marched
through deserts of black sand, in which
in the
even
black, burnt-looking rocks rose
up, uninhabitable
winter
through heat, up to the river Ger {giris,in Berber,
flows into the sea
Sus, which
flowingwater),possibly theWadi
South of Cape Ighir (3o"3i"N. Lat.). He learnt of peoplewho
hved
on
dog-flesh in a region full of wild beasts, elephants
and
snakes, and obviously did not try to attain it.
and
commerce
In the middle
of the Continent
war
pierced
as

Atlas.

held

been

B.C.

through
(Tripoli)
a

long chain

Lucius
a

Cornelius

people

of black

in

who

cliffs

hved

Balbus
in huts

marched
of salt-

(now Harudj-el-aswad)

cities and tribes,

(Fezzan) ; he conquered many
in his triumph : amongst them,
and carried pictures of them
the capitalof the King
Cydamus
(Ghadames) and Garama,
of the Garamantes
(the Tedas : on the site of the abandoned
(30" 150
city of Djerma-Kadim, or Old Djerma). Cydamus
and
Constantinople until the Arab
was
an
ally of Rome
into Phazania

invasion.

Under

Christianity: the

converted
Justinian the natives were
place was permanently garrisoned; and an

to

in-

Touring under

326
of
scription
The

the

Roman

reign of

Alexander

discovered

On

the

several

and
forty-eight

of
of

southernmost

the

Third

these

proves the permanence

that the way to them

graves, two
-five feet high,

of these

there.
far

as

Barth

good preservation,

in

probably

at

monuments

as

Hammada

the

of

tombs

The

stationed.

there

Legion,

found

Barth,

to

of the

edge

northern

Roman

twenty

commandants

has been

Sevenis

extended, according

milestones

31" 30' N. Lat.

Empire

the

Old

Djerma (26" 22')

PUny says,

settlements.

Roman

'

formerly unknown, as the robbers of

this people had covered
to local experts)
the wells (discoverable
with
sand, but, that after a war
they waged against Oea,
road
four days shorter
Past
the
had
been
a
found, called
Head
of the Rock
this straightwesterly
: probably because
road
at its steepest.
passed by the decUvity of the Ghurian
and
the Garamantes
on
Pliny repeats Herodotus
Troglodyt;es
of Aethiopia ; the Garamantes
pastured their calves backwards,
and
the
Aethiopians ate snakes, and talked in hisses like
snakes.
The
trade
with
both
races
was
mostly in jewels,
in Carthaginian times, rubies
and
especially,even
garnets.
of
Mount
Balbus, in his triumph, showed
a picture
Gyri, with
the startinga
was
legend that jewels grew on it. Garama
Roman
point of two
journeys of discovery into Africa, of
in
which
from
Garama
Ptolemy tells. Septimius Flaccus
was

'

'

'

three

months

reached

Aethiopia; JuUus

of

Matemus,

Great

Leptis,also started from Garama, and, like modem

Europeans,
under the protectionof a Garamantian
intent
on
chief,
Aethiop
ceroses
rhinowhere
reached
four
the
months,
booty,
Agisymba in
'

'

meet

valley
'

The

Nero

of the

undertook

the

'

least

at

country

as

far South

as

watered

the

Chad.

eternal

expedition
at

; a

went

mouth

riddle
to

by

solve

up the White
of the
Keilak

principal stream

was

thus

were

discovered

Africa

of

called
the

(or Kir, to-day Shir) ; the

', the

in

campaign
Nile
and

of

source

to the

Aethiopia.

Gazelle

the

river, where

Amongst the
Syrbotae (or dwellers
or

Medin,

negro
on

the

tribes
the

Olabi

and
Eliab), Simbarri
Palugges (so-calledby Aristocreon
Rollet
the Barris
and
Pliny, and by Brun
Poludjis).
Nero's
tales of misshapen
explorers brought back
earless
unknown

dwarfs
becomes

with

an

extra

the fabulous.

mouth

The

but,

White

His

great reed-swamps

Kir.

Medimni

Nile,

the

at

all

Nile

up

Sjnr
(or
in

men,

times, the
to modern

Touring under
times

has

such

been

the home

the

Empire

of monstrosities, and

327

the natives

made

terrifythe elephant-hunter.
ever
Naturally,the East and India were
being garnished by
Lucretius
makes
an
phantasy.
impenetrable hedge of the ivory
tusks
of
snake-handed
elephants completely shut India ofE :
its trees loftier than
could
arrow
Virgil makes
fly. Dio
any
of Prusa
describes
India
Paradise, on the authority of
as
a
up

tales to

'

'

merchants

who

had

flowed

streams

of herself

visited

of milk

flowers, the trees

with

and

honey,

nourishment

gave

and

its harbours,

to

oil and
; the

men

rich in shade

little else. There

wine

; the

meadows

arth

aglow

were

fruit ; the

and

"

birds

sang
all the

than

instrument
warmth
lasted
; a mild
any
not of disease, age or poverty,
who
knew
year round, and men,
tival,
The
lived
for 400
a
perpetual fespeople Uved
years.
sweeter

and

Brahmans

the

but

and

contemplation

the

of

well

wisdom,

themselves

devoted

asceticism

rigorous

of

taste

one

which

abstention

to

they drink of
breeds
everlasting
:

desire.

And,
tale of

the

on

farthest

North,

persistent. The
of eternal spring,of a halfin by Pliny.
half -believed

legend

happy Hyperborean land

day and half-year night, was

year

says, that, in the North, there

of ice, the limit of the world
: the
sun

Tacitus
sea
as

the

men's

with

the

had

sea

faces

of Tarsus,

by

demons

few

whose

examine

to

and

inhabitants

he

of Plutarch,

were

later in various

occurs

by

told,

known

world.

beyond

the

that

from

few
East

frontiers

of

to

West

he

had

Britons.

the

spiritof

the

islands

barren

as
spirits

his

of the

abode

forms.

the

geographers would

nearest,

one

to

part

narrower

Empire.
have
gone

Strabo

of

was

journeyed farther
from

the

East

of

the

ventured

few, excepting merchants

Very

called

were

sacred

Umited

generally was

travel

But

uninhabited

some

of these
On
had
one
gone
up.
mighty ones
lay Cronos, held captive by Briareus, and many
coasts
idea of those
The
retinue.
being the
dead

commissioned

was

deemed
was

trius
Deme-

dismissed.

the

he

its

tales of creatures

visited

and,

there

stars, and

the

He

heroes.

moveless
near

so

closely the

more

Britain, of which

about

squall ensued,

sudden

bodies

friend

sinks

the

But

cold

was

dim

and

heard.

animals'

learned

scattered

Isles of

radiance

been

and

Emperor

islands

with

night

fill the

to

splash in

was

opinion

than

he ;

of Armenia

Touring under

328
the

to

the

West

Black

of

coast

the

Italy, and

Empire
North

from

to

from

South

Aethiopia. Pausanias, on
his long distant voyages
(inLibya, Egypt, Arabia, Palestine,
Little Asia, Greece, Italy, Sicily),
who
met
not
had
one
any
had
in Trajan's
On
the
seen
Danube,
Babylon or Susa.
and
time, except merchants
army-contractors, there were
few strangers to be seen.
In the Empire, journeys for pleasure
Tacitus'
would
But

the

to

Western
Gaul

were

common.

and

possessed

Cicero's

were

phrase in
quit Italy

in the

to

Publius

that

such

see

which

to

that

no

countries.

sight-seeing
provinces travels for mere
and
Spain were
thoroughly Romanized,

much

Gaul, but

people.

of

frontier

in the North,
rarely made
reference to Germany
applied :

instruction

or

one

Sea

of

land

Annius

attractive.

was

Gaul

not

was

cultured
and
scenery
African
ing
poet, after fail-

charming

Florus,

the

in the

in 90 or
Capitoline i.y'^ at Rome
94, journeyed
afar for distraction
to Sicily,Crete, the Cyclades, Rhodes
and
Egypt, then across
Italy by land to the Gallic Alps and the
Westwards
to the
pale Northern
peoples ; thence
Pyrenees,
in
their
the Alps.
as
awesome
as
height and eternal snow
last
At
he settled at Tarraco.
In Spain Gades, where
Posidonius
a
stopped a long time, was
popular tourists' resort.
Cicero

says

the

and

did

as

that

to

have

gulf,first entered

visitingthat

the

seen

by

the

torrential

of

mouth

Argo,

the

counted

for

Black

something,
divided

strait, which

ocean

Sea

Aristides,too, designed sailingthroiigh

Europe from Africa.
the piUars of Hercules, but was
prevented by illness. Besides
the Temple of Melkarth, or Hercules, at Gades, a very ahciejit
Phoenician
ducement
inbeen
have
an
buUdiag of cedar-wood, may
Provincials,

naturally,

Tarraco

met

some

Rome.

But

most

aimed

Baeticans
Roman

who

first
had

travellers

Rome.

at

just

Florus

back

come

either

went

to

at

from

Italy

South

and
East, to Greece, Little Asia and
Sicily or
Egypt (afterAugustus' reign),as the literature shows. These
three countries
PUny the Younger caUs nearest to the learned.
Little
Ovid
and
(bom 43 B.C.) had only seen
Sicily,Athens
Asia.
not have
At his time it may
been usual to visit Egypt
made
a
(which was
province in 30 B.C.). In 8 a.d., on his
and

way

to

Tomi,

resort, but

he

in
was

poem

not,

as

he

mentions

erewhile, on

it
the

as

way

usual
to

tourists'

Athens

or

Touring under

330
there

the

Empire

by a
imperial villas, administered
specialprocurator and staff, and at least forty private ones.
Thus, change of scenery
was
amply provided for, and
In Naples ',
its villa.
climate
could
have
season
or
every
least

at

were

four

'

Marcus

Aurelius

weather

is

Laurentum

at

sunrise

; at

cold

as

at Tusculum

as

but

good

The

it is

cockcrow,

the

as

nights

cool

the

Algidus ; the
midday as hot as at

'

in

Fronto

to

changeable.

on

as

writes

Caesar

as

mild,

are

Lanuvium

as

forenoon
Puteoli

the

143,

as

; at

as

sunny
noon
; the after-

and

evening temperate, as at Tibur '. The Baiae season

in March
and
there for
was
April : Nero invited his mother
In the height
the Feast of Quinquatrus (thei9th-23rd March)
of
the
to
summer
Praeneste, Aricia, Tibur,
people went
the
of
Mount
Tusciilum,
Anio, or
Algidus, a wooded
range
hills extending from
Praeneste.
to
Tusculum
and
Velitrae
suitable
Many
places (like Phny's Laurentine
villa) were
for summer
Antium
visited not only
and
winter
ahke
was
:
in the hot season
solstice : and the
but in the rainy winter
of Luna
coast
was
(Spezzia)and of the Maremma
protected
and
and
moderate
in
both
winter
summer.
by high cUffs,
Places
in South
and
were
Salemum,
Italy, such as VeUa
winter
resorts
the picturesque and
Tarentum,
remote,
; but
with
its mild
winter
and
nature,
long spring and generous
than
the great favourite.
in Campania, was
more
so
even
.

Besides

the

evidences

Roman

remains

villeggiature.At Centumcellae
(Civita Vecchia), according to Pliny's description,Trajan's
of green
fields, close
magnificent villa stood in the midst
the coast, where
harbour
on
a
was
being bmlt (106-7) ^^^
the

charm

artificial island

an

and

give
then

was

even

of

these

massive

good entrance
risingout of

Breakwaters

sea.

of

places, literature

these

at

were

stone

both

on

the water,

afterwards

to

the

dam

sides.

Its

splashed by

built

up
and

to

the

breakers

stone

front

the

tossing

island.

later on Virginius
(nearPalo),where Pompey,
for old
Rufus
(who died in 97),built a viUa as a home
age,
there are
ruins all along the sea
in length,
some
450 metres
200
floors, marble
metres, with mosaic
extending inland some
walls, ante-fixes, lead water-pipes,isinglasspanes ; probably
the remains
of some
imperial castles, separately administered.
for
Aurehus
rested
At
this
Marcus
charming sea-resort
four days in 161 a.d., and Fronto
in a letter gently reproached
At

Alsium

'

'

Touringunder
hira
at

for
noon,

after
di

the

other

Ostia,

Varro

331

beat

measured

mentions

with

the

on

years

later,

FeUx,

the

dainty

last,

at

fish and

mussels,

on

and

oars,

frutti

fare.

Favorinus
of virtue

use

for

perhaps

and

confer

to

walking

century, where
summer
evening,
coursing
philosophers, dis-

other

happiness;

feast of

the

Christian, was

heathen

of the

very livelyplace in the second

the villa of Seius, Giellius,one

rambling

was

the

bath, feasting royally

and

mare

At

Empire

working hard, instead of basking, sleepingin the sun

sauntering by the shore, or rowing on the calm

listeningto

sea,

the

the

there

not

vintage,

with

many
Minucius

Christian

and

friend.

to the edge of the winding

They walked
the
shore, where
curly waves
bespattered their shoes on the
the
beached
sand, saw, where
boats
were
resting on treetrunks, boys playing ducks
and drakes, and
at last sat down
the
on
that
extremity of the breakwater
protected the
to consider
the old and
swimmers,
the new
morality.
The shore from Ostia to Lavinium
is now
deserted
(Prattica)
;
but then
intermittent
of country-houses lined it, a
an
row
a

series

PUny

of

little towns.

the

imperialvilla,into
'

At

Astura,

its mouth,

the

from
South

laurel

villa of

and

full

description)and

of which

groves

sea

Cicero's

it
gave
It looked

promontory of Circe.
all parts, guards the
from

is

villa

the

was

of
an

Commodus

plague raging at Rome.

formed
island
by the river

the

on

might be indulged.
visited

cool

there

there

to flee the

was

land

wood,

Lavinium

(ofwhich

Younger

in 188 withdrew

At

the

Pontine

air of

an

out
'

surrounded

on

The

Marshes.'

by

and

Antium,
to

the

at

dense

isolation, where

blue

entrance

Astura

grief
much-

rocky sphinx, visible

the

There

Paradise
was

an

of

the

imperial

villa there.

long rocky promontory, was, in Republican

under
the
times even,
and yet more
Empire, the queen
of sea-cities,
with splendidtemples and palaces,iavading the
favourite
of the Emperors :
resort
domain
of the
a
ocean,
But

Antium,

CaUgula
many
and

of

and
the

on

its

Nero

were

bom

greatest works

there.

of

From

art, the
ruins

palaces come

Belvedere
extend

Apollo,

three
Borghese gladiator:
of this lost majesty
miles ; from
the depths of the sea remains
is
through the transparent water : far and near
emerge
with pricelesspieces of marble, worn
the coast strewn
smooth
the

its

its

over

under

Touring

332

the

Empire

and
covered
with
by the waves
gravel (such as verde and
gialloantico, pavonazzetto, etc.).
also lined
The
bay of Terracma
(the gulf of Gaeta) was
in with
villas and
handsome
with
sea-towns,
country-hgiises
in between.
Martial
once
spent the early spring with his

friend

Faustinus

his

at

villa

when

Anxur,

near

the

earth

singing. He
decking herself, and the nightingaleswere
in his tunic, in the
enjoyed resting there in the sunshine
him, on the firm sand on the river
park, with brooks around
bank
the sunUt
; with
heights reflected in the waters, and
his bedroom
and
the river
(the canal
overlooking the sea
On
that
the
beside
Via
the Monte
ran
Appia to Rome).
Sant' Angelo (CoUis Neptunius) the ground floor of a Roman
Near
Terrapalace with a splendid view is stUl to be seen.
with
cina, amongst other
huge caves,
magnificent buildings
the Villa Spelunca (Sperlonga)between
in them
(Strabo)was
the vine-clad
and
the sea, where
heights of Fundi
Sejanus,
Tiberius'
saved
Ufe,
dining with Tiberius in a natural cave,
was

'

'

the

at

of his own,

risk

ranked

Next

where

villa,enjoyed much

roof

of

coast

Formiae,

viUas, and
a

the

the

as

fell in.

Caieta, studded
domestics

the

by

it

with

was

had
friend,Apollinaris,

Martial's

more

a;s

their

by

than

gentle wind stirred the surface of the cahn

forwarded
visitor
and
the
A
sea
gaily painted boat on.
window,
might fish from his bedroom
Ijdng on his pillows,
the
and
stocked
most
with
the
fish-pond was
expensive
Formiae
sorts.
at
Frontinus
also
had
viUa
a
;
Sergius JuUus
and
calls the
of
the
Graces.
Symmachus
bay the abode
Mintumae
Liris,with the grove and temple of the njrmph
onjthe
of Apicius the glutton ; and Castritiie residence
Marcia, was
There

master.

cius Firmus,
On

the

stiU to

are

honourer

the

coast

of ServiUus

Cumae

between

Vatia, which
be

with

seen,

of Plotinus, also had

and

Misenum

was

described

two

artificial

the

was

Seneca

by

there.

house

grottoes, one

villa

its ruins
of which

day, and a canal

the
from
sea
through a plane-grove leading to the Lacus
too
when
the sea
Acherusius, in which
on
was
fishingwent
without
the
rough. The
pleasures of Baiae
disadvantages
the

never

sees

could

there

But
Gulf

be

the

other

sees

it all

had.

recreation
of

and

sun,

Naples,

and
under

distraction
the

was

mostly

great crater,

even

found
in

in
the

the
late

Touring under
Republic.
pearl

of

his

of

from

cities

residence

to

his

calm

lay
places, its

villas,almost

Statins, in
and

summer

invited

quiet
city of temples

was

the

continuous
his

part, bidding her leave

and

peace
Naples, the

333

Surrentum

to

immense.

where

sea,

there

and

one

abode,

Empire

Misenum

was

wife, mentions

come

and

road

necklace

choice
to

The

the

poem
and

Rome

wiater

mild,

were

hfe.
leisurely

and

For

columned

public
where
a
periodical
open,
festival was
next
to
held, ranking
the
Capitoline. There
merriment
and
freedom
ruled,
a
combining Roman
dignity and
Greek
licence.
The
a dehghtful one
neighbourhood was
: one
could visit the shore of Baiae, or the Sibyl'sgrotto at Cumae,
Misenum,

or

from
of

theatres

Capri

covered

the

or

grape
lighthousevied
and

Bacchus,

enjoyable,
Greek
of

for

ever

city

prosperity

after

several

an

art

and

active

and

busts.

and

of idle

moon

and

The

often

are

vineyards

beloved

mentioned

of

as

the

resorts

'

culture

at

the

or

Capri ;

or

Virgil, were
glad to leave the
live in Naples the peaceful and
Greek
colony with
repose ', a
to the destruction
learning,down

life,such

country-houses

statues
down

the

the

Gaurus

Surrentum,
heights
waters
of Ischia.
healing

leisure,games,

the

there

'

with

of

of

gods, or the
These
places and others
for relaxation.
Many, Uke
bustle

clusters

the

other

of Rome

and

of
as

Italy

of

retired

Silius Italicus, who

Naples, richly

name

Others

'.

one

owned

decorated

of the

viUas

has

with
come

the
of
name
PausUypon
(Sans-souci)has become
the hills between
Naples and Puteoli : it belonged to Vedius
fat slaves.
The
to feed his lampreys with
used
PoUio, who
cut
at Agrippa's order.
tunnel
through it was
by Cocceius
from
to Naples, chose
Baiae
Seneca, one
day, on the way
the land-route, and
escaped sea-sickness to suffer the oppression
of this dark
torchlit
of the
dust
Neapolitana.
crypta
At
Puteoli, a harbour
town, a favourite
place for building
in Cicero's
once
holidays
days, GelUus
spent his summer
the
and
there
with the rhetor Antonius
Julianus,
great Greek
At Misenum,
composed his Convivium.
grammarian Herodian
the Gulf of Naples
built a lofty villa with a view over
LucuUus
held
it :
Sea :
the
and
the
Tuscan
Emperors afterwards
there he died.
often stayed there, and it was
Tiberius
;

The
Vesuvius

opposite coast,
in 79

and

before

its ravages,

the
was

first known

outbreak

quite different

of

in appear-

the

Touring under

334

Except

ance.

the

Empire
the

apparently extinct,

crater,

entire

vineyards : the view

from
Capri, says Tacitus, was
splendid, before the changes
Martial, writing in 88, says, that
wrought by Vesuvius.
mountain

ashes

covered

was

now

covered

heights, beloved
cities of

Venus

fields and

with

the

finest

of

Bacchus,

and

Hercules

presses ; and
danced,
satjrrs had
vine

had

stood.

those

on

and

Stabiae

the

(Castel-

time ;
at
overwhelmed
with
the
ashes
same
lamare) was
its neighbourhood was
residence
for patients on
used
a
as
have
been
must
The height of Surrentum
most
a milk-cure.
richly garnished with viUas : on the South- West promontory
stood
the Cape is named
a
temple of Minerva, after whom
the
Statins'
to
description of the vUla of
present day.
PoUius
of Puteoli
Felix
between
the
Capes of Surrentum
and
idea of the
Massa, gives an
beauty and splendour of
these houses.
wine
of this coast stood in comparatively
The
high favour : besides Bacchus, Minerva, Neptune and Venus
to have
seemed
been
Venus
patron-deities: Virgil invokes
to aid him
to finish the poem
in glorification
of her son.
Augustus received Capri from Naples in exchange for Ischia
and
adorned
it with
palaces. Tiberius stayed there eleven
after
villas, named
(26-37 a.d.). He erected twelve
years
the
principal gods : a few ruins remain ; the fragments
of his own
less scanty :
residence, the villa of Jupiter, are
it

at

was

of the

the

North

End

lighthouse mentioned

of the

by

island
Statins.

near
'

the

What

foundations
a

wonderful

have
with
been, adorned
sight the beautiful island must
temples, arcades, statues, theatres, and parks and roads,
marble
and
its heights with
view
from
the
palaces.' The
villa of Jupiter over
the whole
gulf,and the Gulf of Salerno
and
the open
was
sea
incomparable.
'

Thus

all the

shore

from

Toscana

to

Terracina, from

Terra-

lined
Naples, and round the Gulf up to Salerno, was
marble
with
palaces, baths, gymnasia, temples, a wreath
of
Roman
then
splendour. Any one
walking along the
of pleasure, competing
beach, and
seeing all these abodes
have rejoicedat the magic of civiUzation.
with the towns, must
To-day, on this Elysian coast, there are only the weatherbeaten
keeps of the Middle Ages, built to guard againstpirates.^
les^
coasts
remoter
from
and
Rome,
Naturally the
cina

to

accessible, were

not

as

much

visited

as

the

West

coast

but^

Touring under
they
of

left deserted.

not

were

lay grape-shaped

views

lightof
cool

the

on

the

woods

of

situation

made

expense
the
East

On

to

houses, which

and

summer

Cassiodorus

had

also

Ravenna

and

the

fishpond

cornfields

full

and

olive

council.

magnificent pleasure-

paternal

for himself.

them

secure

sunny

were

Nero's

Baiae

properties at

city

with

country. The excellent

pure
there
to rest, visit it and

came

coast, there

villas.

and

resorts

the

to

The

the

was

was

who

many

occasion

it

Gulf

It received

vineyards,

town,

seen

fields.

green
winter
rich

were

the

be

might

on

; the

fisheries

Out

there.

sea

335
"

and

risingsun

the

blue

Empire

Scyllacium (Squillace the

described
by Cassiodorus.
hills overlooking the
bay,

Squillacein Calabria) is

town

the

At

and

both

Domitia

aunt

he

placeshe

owned

poisoned her
built pleasure-

A
days of Cassius Dio.
decision
of Celsus
the
jurist (under Trajan and Hadrian)
refers to a tennis-hall
beiag erected in the Park of one Aureand the repair of the heating-pipes:
lius Quietus at Ravenna,
there
a
Altinum,
harbour,
summer.
Quietus went
every
Martial's
and
in
between
Patavium
time,
Aquileia was,

kept

were

the

to

up

'

filled with
the

die

to

when

like
at

ferma

terra

wanted

villas

was

praises Istria,

fish-pondsand

Of

the
used

most

were

of the

of the

'

as

country

villas

Roman

Second

is
to

Parthian

built
have

lined
Subiaco.

with

and

Albanian

of
up
been
near

and^CastelGandolfo.
at

its Baiae,

Italy,both

oil and, com,

The

than

more

the

the

as

Avemus,

one

(praetoria)axe

castles

there

coast,

was

and

Sabine

Legion, before
fragments of
the
The

ranges
On
to

Villa
wild

; Albano

the

and

town

the

camp

Domitian's
between

Barberina

country-houses, amongst

walls

reign of Constantine,

villas

banks

the

was

under
Rome

near

castles

medieval

Albano

and

Republic

in the

residences.

built

were

settlements, e.g. Frascati

were

Martial

Probably,

Tibur.'

at

wine,

pearls.' Off

of

mountains

the

Empire,

seems

that

of

of islets.

chain

and

did

in

oyster-basins.

strung together like

the

rich

with

beautiful

so

canals

the

Diocletian, the
capital
more
sought after. Cassiodorus

region

like

after

and

of Ravenna,

was

Horace

as

more

it

and

Baiae,

at

became

coast

Campania

Venice

there,

Ravenna

Adriatic

those

of

the

them,

Albano,

Anio,
Nero's

villa

also,

palace

Touring under

336
Perhaps

the

most

naturally

its

palaces were
gorgeous
described
by Statius, and

of Hadrian

was

and

and

West,

such

the

is

of

but

instance"

an

it had

splendid :

sections

the

centuries

VI)

huge villa

wings. East
famous
places,
spoUation and

two

after

named

as

works

(TivoU) :
Vopiscus is

Tibur

was

villa of ManUius

Canopus, Tempe ; three

collection
(since Pope Alexander
the

Empire

beautiful

^the

"

most

other

the

of

have

exhausted

not

it contains.

art

Baiae
travellers

Very many
and

Puteoh

the

fine

On

it, the

frantic

as

to

honour

horses

to

his
On

it many

"

and

the

fine

pania
Cam-

drive
bored

with

journeys.

be

to

lady,

which

chief harbours

would

town,

viUa, there
a

to

for shorter

used

of

Appia,

thence

Italy'stwo

much

weary
Albanian

Via

her

in

and

retinue

Propertius'Cynthia, travelled, ostensibly to do

; herself the great sight,driving
Juno at Lanuvium
as
women
frequentlydid ; to the poet's disgust

of his

rival

man,

Rome.

to

men,

her

rich

also

was

the

by

HUls

Brundusium,

and

road

hurry

return

of

busy

out

Albanian

the

straight over

went

started

her, in

accompanying

was

richlyupholstered

carriagewith silk curtains, and two Molossians with collars

upstart freedman
might be
leaping alongside. Or some
also made
ages
pilgrimshowing his expensive ponies. Women
with wreatiis in their hair, and
bearing torches to fulfil
some

vow
'

Mirror

to

Diana

there

in

the

celebrated, and

was

glistenedwith
Ovid's

of

beggars,

Vallariccia
But

now

and
the

ruins

of arches

Occasionally, a
roUs

the

over

the

Campagna
dreary song

Young

the

lake

land

aUke,

will

of

themselves

of the

end

great
day and
a

too,

men,

have

this

for

first

'

Nemi,

summer

spot is vouched

the

by

Diana's
festival

night,

followed

opportunity.
settlement

century, between

the

Ganzano.
'

of roads

Queen

it stretches

of

of
and

availed

the

about

sides

the

torches.

popularity of

The

heat

water

advice, and

wooded

the

at

the

two-wheeled

drive
of the

is

desolation

nndulating

of cloacae,and

ancient

'

here

carriage

stones,
their

green
and there

or

the

droves

field-labourer

of

with

Campagna,

both
with

dull house.

some

piled wine-casks

mounted

sheep
echoes

; on

shepherds of
and
in the

kine, and
distance

under

Touring

338
Boccaccio

mentions

immorality.
and

the

baths

beginning

of

Empire

of

liveliness

the

The

the

the

seventeenth

the

also

the

in

frequented

were

and

spot,

century

its

fifteenth
Baiae

but

fire.
1538 destroyed by a subterranean
Baiae
make
In
vied
art
to
and
unique.
antiquity Nature
The
incomparable
beauty of the situation, the gorgeousness
of the
bright sky, all
palaces, the luxury, the clear air and
festivals
the
to
moment
combined
make
delightful ; and
in

was

followed
boats

Parties

races.

the

From
and

songs
or

daybreak
music.

rowed

were

The

cool

and

sleep

The

Ufe

Baiae

satire

misfortune.

their

from

his

bather
was

had

cold
torch

there
not

Avemus,

outings,
quarrels.

fell
falls

in

Propertius,

was

who

at

Baiae,

love.

solved.
left

on

says,

fire

girls.
public

squandered
of

swim

female

For

Many
and

it

set

of

constant

were

instead

Cupid

perty,
pro-

Wastrels,

vice.

Women

poet

made

and

recommended.

Rome,

Ovid,

Venus

in,

from

says

devoted

boys

time

of

oysters.

another

at

home

on

Once,
but

the

and

or

Baiae.

common

children

expelled

man,

here

arrived

it

shore,

above

were

visiting Baiae

with

the

on
or

avenues

maidens

became

here

heart.

was

Lake

myrtle

says

calls

money

many

he

from

Seneca

wounded

Baiae

the

men

ill-fame

borrowed
:

of

old

insolvency

visitors

Lucrine

the

on

it ;

to

many

feared

whom

together

whispered

shore,

loud

rang

feasts
and
induced
evenings
disturbed
rivals'
or
by serenades,
Varro
was
proverbially dissolute.

was

and
Cicero

shore

there

common

was

star-Ut

of

special

Lovers

solitudes

the

sought

the

light

the

on

or

drunkenness

sunset

to

about

board,

on

guests wearing rose-wreaths

sight.

held

were

gentle sea, countless

princely galley ; and

the

sometimes

swaying,

were

were

On

ceaselessly.

on

the
in

water

it ;

henceforth

virtue

got

cure,

the

at

spark
any

place

love-entanglement,
sa3rs
tells
of
a
Penelope

Martial
Helena

probably not unprecedented.

those
who
Gellius, and
sought modest
pleasures,
the
But, as Symmachus
preferred Puteoli.
hood
neighboursays,
not
there
was
implicated in this license : he lived
without
profligacyat banquets ',
songs on boats, without
"

Touring under
III.
After

Italy,Sicily was
the

the

mild

beauty
legendary. Such

and

Proserpine at Enna,
scented

flowers,

to

as

its
and

throw

339

for

natural

fame

hounds

sions
excur-

wonders,
of

tale

redolent

so

short

Etna,

of its cities,both

the

was

meadow

place

nearest

were

winter, the

Empire

SICILY

the

attractions

the

the

with

off the

torical
his-

violets

scent

and

after

of

Rape

this

the

sight, came

Pluto
gulf out of which
forth, and
sprang
the
ancient
of
Ceres.
In
Templd
Republican days, Sicily
favourite
was
a
touring resort : Cicero says there is scarcely
of you ', he is addressing the
Most
ever
a
cloudy day.
the quarries at Syracuse '. Ovid
jurorsof Verres, have seen
He mentions
stayed there a long time with his friend Macer.
the principalsights Etna, the Lakes
of Enna, the Anapus.
as
the springs of Cyane and
the
Palici ; two
Arethusa, and
lakes out of which
ally
water
is continulittle,deep, milk-coloured
of sulphur and
a
roar
boiling forth with a strong smeU
;
there oaths were
made, as perjuriesof such oaths were
instantly
Near
a
punished by the Gods.
by was
richly decorated
slaves.
temple, an
asylum for runaway
Caligula, after
in sailingalong the
Drusilla's death, found
distraction
coast
of Campania
and
Sicilyto Syracuse, and enjoyed the several
in sudden
sights,but fled from Messana
panic from the smoke
'

'

and
later
the

of Etna.

rumble

Seneca,

on.

traveller

first

under

of

strength

LoUianus,
to LoUianus

the

and,

read

all harbours,
the

place

the

when

on

many
cloudless

the

in Latin

or

information
visit ;

Lakes
Greek

on

of the

the

quarries

of

his

cious
vora-

the

the

even

Athenian
with

towns

their

huge
;

and

Firmicus

winter.
in

says

next,

the

and

other

his work
to

; and

defying

where

stone

dedication

Syracuse,

water

thousands

up
environs

the

mentions

eruptions of Etna,
he had

where

the

in

to

ice-cold

enjoys a mild
astrologer,composed

traveller

A.D.,

of
then

the

stages

mentioned

Charybdis, which is only

and
the spring of Arethusa,

swallowed

bigger than

Matemus,
350

and

broken,

was

the

will be

real

wind,

safest

depth

town,
the

and

of

its mirror-Uke,

with

storms

enormous

the

sees

of Etna

ascents

speaking

East

an

poets' theme,
the
quietest
worst

The

Sicilyabout

friend

Mavortius

Sicilygiven by him
ScyUa and Charybdis, the
on

Palici, and

of the wonders

whatever

of the

else

province.

Touring under

34"

next

reverenced

'

Fame

but

step

of supreme
since
the
Rhodian

past

one

art

Punic

cities and

Wars.
in

Embassy

Aemilius

Paulus

rumoured

'

191

B.C.

and

Asia

travelled

landmark,

In

the

been

visited

ever

of

autumn

Greece

great '.

too

every

monument

some

had

makes
you ', Livy
speak in the Senate,

through

great, perhaps

'

of

'.

of

legend.
epigram, we
they are sacred '.

its association

temples

Most

land

the

Latin

tomb

had

ground

Rome

history and

in the

historical

some

her

of

the cities of Greece

seen

of

glorious past

fallen and

inch

Greece, every

Greece

civilization, and

her

greatness goes ', ran

of the

ashes

took

its

In

Greece.

was

of

source

with

stays,
the

seek
In

the

fame,

ancient

mark

common

Empire

GREECE

IV.
The

the

have

167 B.C.,
things
general
'

to

see

Roman

The

the
'

temples (Delphi,Lebadea, Oropus,

Epidaurus, Olympia) and cities (Athens, Corinth, Sicyon,
Argos, Sparta, Pallantium, Megalopolis)and places memorable

visited

like
the

Aulis,

Phidias'

88-33

and
the
her
The

Under

B.C.

the

some

decay

seemed

stillness

administration

Antonines,

the

never

prosperous
Wars.

and

to

mere

allure

soUtude

its dam

over

where

impressed by Olympia,
as
a
present deity.
from
its devastations
by

enhanced

and

country

of

Achaia

larger

100

the

ofjher
visitors
the

Rome

remained

reached

shadow
Roman

the

province

towns
villages and small
regions, like AetoUa,

more

Mithridatic

Chalcis, with

Roman

the

and, under
But

him

recovered

numerous

cities.

most

was

impressed

never

revived,
had

he

Zeus

Greece

Hke

remarkable,

or

Euripus

from

celebrated

the most

idea

desert,

former

aU
of

of

level

the
her

self,
more.

great

her cities were

cities but in name,
such
as
past. Many
Panopeus in Phocis, once
proud and populous, in Pausanias'
theatre, no
day, a collection of huts, no palace or
ayopi,
In
not
Thebes
the
no
even
a
citadel,
spring.
gymnasium,
only
of
and
called
Thebes
the
inhabited,
was
;
partly
Kaiiicia,
lower
the
city, only the gates and the shrines remained.
At other places sheep fed in front of the Council
Hall, and
the
statues
was
ploughed over, a few marble
gymnasium
of
pedestals, inscribed with the name
jutting out, or mere
other cities were
the lost figures. Many
in ruins : the country
was
unpeopled : in the wildernesses, the traveller,like Dio
of

Touring under
of

herdsmen
might meet
city,knew
only their

Prusa,

beheld

from

civiUzation, had

But
of

travellers

most

the

the

past,

increased

Empire

and

hunters

who

scattered

own

341
had

never

huts, and, aloof

of primitiveman.
simplicities

visited

that

or

the

under

had,

cities rich

only

Roman

their

in ruined

reUcs

rule, preserved

The

or

grandeur.
prosperity
Sulla
her
but
in
calm
desolation,
destroyed by
;
and
beautiful.
Ovid
she was
her in her greatest
saw
peerless
she had
in the
ness
fullbeen
decline, and could imagine what
of her
he
and
days : envy,
grieve
says, must
weep
at the
Even
the unartistic
spotless splendour of Athens.
entranced
at
Roman
the
:
was
magic of Pericles' Athens
its
its glory was
undimmed
after 500
:
youth
years,
seemed
In
second
eternal.
the
century the city, which
still sunk
under
Trajan was
deep, received a kind of aftereven

had

of

life.

Hadrian's

Zeus

Hadrian

built

city ', centring

with

its

columns

120

pillarsof

120

Athens

been

math
'

of

on

the

South-East

round

the

colossal

he

pavonazzetto

also

and

erected

new

Temple of
library with

with

gymnasium

of

100

His new
water-works, from Cephisia to the new
gialloantico.
Pius in 140 a. d.
Herodes
city,were
completed by Antoninus
further
Atticus
the
buildings, principally
sophist added
the Odeum
at the foot of the Acropolis. Severus, afterwards
as
a
legionary legate,,'for the sake
Emperor, visited Athens
Eleusinian
of studies, the
mysteries, the buildings and

antiquity'.
Under
on

of
and

Athens
Greek

by

Attica.

and
cities

and

Nature

art.

Aristides

Aurelius

Marcus

He

the

calls

Athens

of

fairest
her

gave

poured

forth

panegyrics

still the

all, beautified

her

her

harbours,

greatest

by Nature
acropolis,

breathing grace ; her air, finer in the town than

be known
in the country, although aU Attica
by the
may
her
the
greatest
gave
brilliancy of its atmosphere. Art
of
and
the
the
fairest temples,
and
sculpture,
masterpieces
and
baths
and
racecourses
best
gymnasia,
Ubraries, and
other
aU
Athens
all gorgeous
cities, not only
:
outstrips
and

in

her

her

island

soft

excellences,
with

chorus

in

but
of

theirs

isles

be known
seeing Attica may
constantly visit her, whose
the sight. The
light there

around

from
soul
is

well.

as

her.

merchants
is

She
The
or

uplifted and

stronger and

lies like

an

delight of
others

who

purifiedat

fuller, as

though

Touring under

342
Athene,

in Homer,

as

all sides

on
seems

would

much,

so

dance

of

and

joy

the

Empire
the

veil from

of the

eyes

comer

beauty surrounds, that walking

various

so

admire

not

took

the

Who
happy dream.
the
ground stretching

the

voyage
of
loveliness

the coasts, and

and
to the
town
Acropolis down
not
Who
would
wonder
?
partitionedoff by the mountains
bosoms
whose
at the glory and
charm
of those
mountains,
Gods
Thus
?
contain
the
marble
for thanksgivings to the
her a microcosm,
the variety of Attica makes
a perfect
harmony
from

the

of land

and

Athens

differed

Athens,

calm

The

situation

of

and

the

over

after

was

by

As

with

Mummius

of Lechaeum

to

as

Capitoline Jupiter and

huge aqueduct built from
and

had

of

erected

would
Corinth

years

B.C., Corinth

and
harbours, Cenchreae
permit to sail into the one
was
a
meeting-place for

of

the

Achaia,

the

harbour

by Statins,

It

lay

; the

of the

out

all men,

two

on

Lechaeum
and

was

Julia
colony,j^Laus

temple

others.
Hadrian
many
the valley of Stymphalus

two

the

to

of Parnassus

governor
from
colonnade

thermae.

that

hundred

146

Acrocorinth, mentioned

of

mountains,

One

Roman

than

view,

snow-peaks
in

buildings,a

new

was

Strabo.

by

residence

the

the

pleasure.

beautiful

more

there
to

of the

monuments

of modem

bustle

even

Crisa

described

the

and

and

by Julius Caesar

Corinthus.
it shone

did

as

noise

of

its destruction

refounded

was

Acrocorinth

Bay

HeUcon,

antiquarian and the

Athens
equally seductive.
Rome
and Naples of to-day :

'earnestness

the

From

dale.

way,

much

of Corinth

Athens.

North,

her

and

Corinth

at

past

and

art-lover, the

the

Corinth, in

Corinth

at

hiU

attracted

scientist
and

and

sea

and

had
in

the
and

seas

wind

same

other

soon

thus

rich

grew

at all seasons,
a
again, as a market
frequented by Greeks
In the style
place for festivals,a real metropolis of Greece.
of its buildings and
its population, Corinth
was
only half-

Greek.
and

The

Roman

element

spread gladiatorialcontests

Greece.

The

refuse

of East

Corinth, too, received

Isthmian

city

influenced

of

concealed

Games

in

honour

and
a

also met

panegyric
of

to

the

of

Poseidon.

Aphrodite, which, like Homer's

much
and
so
beauty, charm
even

manners,

beast-fightsall

and
West

life and

strongest ; also the

at

this

Aristides
It
belt

love

city

still
of
as

point.

at
was

over

the
the

Aphrodite,
to

of the

be

sistible,
irre-

Naiads,

under

Touring
whose

above

but,
in

the

all, the

was

of

stream

also

be

bubbled

springs

rich.

Numisianus

the

second

was

After

to

was

it

gained
the

new

also

physician.

Her

might

have

been

A
and

for

of

too, Corinth
to

were

hear

to

historical

fame

the

volume

was

die.

This

of

of the

more

celebrated

of
wiU

pleasure-resort

on

in

be

made

the

sea

must

its

wooded

the

both

beautiful

monuments

the

God.

temples

their

towns,

reUcs, would

historical

of

friends

the

art

Aedepsos in Euboea
hot
sulphur springs,

later.
:

which

with

Greece,

between

of

'.

magnificence
adding a mortuary

Epidaurian

beloved

these,

ficial
sacri-

ground, in
enclosed
valley

their

treasures,

various

its

art, filled with

fame

and

guests

holy

shrines

with

were

museum

art

history, mention

the

spots
banqueting-haUs,

they

and

and

conveniences,

demesne

the

the
to

secluded

and

out

testify

Emperors

was

were

loveliest

and

of the

it also

outside
or

the

Inside

spread

ruins
the

Under

well.

Epidaurus

at

sanatorium

as

In

huge

of the

of
a

grove

bom

centuries

fill

dense

births

be

catalogue

alone

floating

Galen

as

Aesculapius

sacred
ofi

extended

temples

works

Horae

schools

and

Romans.

walled

; the

as
heights, studded
garden and a rich

of the

The

the

one

decorated

legendary
of

by

its shade.

Pius

none

books,
and

the
her

set

such

came,

shrine

visited

and

house

the

'

patients lay in
buildings
and

g5niinasia

parts

vogue.

temple,

Antoninus

who
In

of

and

parts,

wealth.

343

none.

mountains,

of

all

Empire

Poseidon,

students

most

spot

of

world's
all

Corinth,

the

by

Court

In

foreign

seen

in

up

the

the

it had

;
assembly-place of Greece
liveUest
Romans
also came
Aedepsos was
there, as did Sulla.
and
halls
with
reception-rooms
in the
spring. Residences
baths
the
skilfully laid
were
provided for the guests, and

which

out

still in

are

land

and

Aedepsos

the

is

Aedepsos

deposited by
100

feet,

sea

made

the
ten

the

hcense

society

and

buried

an

was

the

Yet

enjoyment.

and

use,

of
its

beneath

laden

minutes'

banquets

pleasures
masses

springs, and
ascent.

did

Baiae

of

piled

shore

the

on

were

rare

at

obtain

not

better.

to

Now

travertin,

yellow
up

height

of

V.
Most
The

THE

islands

ISLANDS

tourists

to

of the

could
he

GREEK

Roman

would

not

Gyaros, mere
punishment

be

to

condemned

island, such
of

visit

to

Only

Musonius

Rufus

there

meet

see

to

in

cave

pitable
hos-

mitigation.

recall

to

or

severest

more

the

scene

When

rocks.

put in at these
to Gyaros, many

saUed

Greeks

afterwards,

the

waterless

the

names

which

was

on
spring he had discovered
in Pholegandros, amongst

or

was

great philosopher, and,

the

the

was

larger

misfortune,

banished

was

on

muse

Naxos,

or

travellers

past exile,would

friend

mortality :
Seriphus, Pholegandros,

to

Andros

as

Asia.

of banishment,

homes

the

by fishermen,

inhabited

rocks
:

to

Relegation

stay.

Little

visited

and

voyager

ASIA

LITTLE

also

desolate

the

make

Empire

AND

Greece

Aegean,

only

the

under

Touring

344

to

In

island.
inscribed

are

Roman.

some

Delos,

too,

port, as the
168-88
of

once

of the trade

centre

had

B.C.,

been

Mithridates, and

the

island

Empire

to

round

the

Cicero

in

hold

of

by Latona,

mentions
their
horn
all be
Of

at

of them

two

it

Yet

Romans,

legend
which

landed
visited

were

birth

the

Romans

of

he

pUlared halls, their sacred

altar (builtby Apollo as

And

giftsfrom
boy) and

Late

for the

the

Apollo, still

saw.

the

the

seized

palm

Ovid

shrines

kings, the
statues

like

Delos

At

shown

the

guard

Asia,

there.
;

general
restored

into

it down

free

between

the

travelling to

have

West

depopulated,save

often

51 B.C., must
sites of history and

the

and

The

possessed

found

temple.

East

recovered.

who

Athens,

between

created

ravaged by Menophanes,

never

Pausanias

populous,

so

with

famous
would

seen.

and
Lesbos
larger islands, Chios, Samos, Rhodes
would
be the most
sought : Cicero exalts Mytilene, the capital
of Lesbos, as a city,beautiful in its regularity,
its architecture
and
its environs.
Agrippa retired to M3rtilene to avoid
suspicionof thwarting Marcellus, the Emperor-designate:
any
in

32

the

Mytilene.
in

an

Junius

A.D.,

excellent

sea-breeze, the

Roman

view

beloved

abode

villa

of the

in
'

of the

made

not

was

situation.

healthy climate,
a

GaUio

the

The

bay

Lesbos
thick
and

island

Romans.'

allowed
has

exile of
easy
discovered
been

the

woods,
of

heights
enjoyable,

the
Asia
and

refreshing
and

the

Mjrtilene

346

Touring under

return.

by

The

Northern

most

not

and

coast
'

but

voyagers,
missed.

the

Ilion, the

Empire
islands

were

mother

of

left
Rome

alone

',

was

Greeks
city of Aeolian
(now Hissar-lii, the
palaces) was
altogether inconsiderable, until the Roman
walls
tiled
or
occupation of Asia, a mere
viUa,ge without
roofs : but
the
Troy had
reputation of being the ancient
the
been
contested
inhabitants
declared
never
:
they were
descended
from
Trojan refugees. Pallas Athene, to whom
Hecuba
the
and
Andromache
had
patroness
prayed, was

Ilion,

of the

Paris

and

town,

new

her

to

small

Alexander

and

the

Xerxes

of the

had

Alexander
in

shown,

was

armour

the

and

heroes

her

made
the

temple,

of the

Iliad.

sacrifice

The

lyre

of

Romans

mother-city the
mistress of the whole
from
taxes, and generally
coast, immune
it.
favoured
Thus
privileged,Ihon
prospered. In 85 B.C.
the Marian
Fimbria
took
Ilion the SuUan
city by treachery,
demolished
the
walls
and
burnt
the
city down, including
the
Even
temple of Athene.
Appian,
Agamemnon,
says
did not do her as much
for
not
a
injury :
temple or house
left standing : it was
statue
asserted
that the statue
or
was
of Athene
alone remained
unscathed.
Sulla gave some
leges
privilUans
to the
was
; Julius Caesar
benign to what
very
he deemed
the cradle of his race.
increased
its territory
He
and
confirmed
its independence and
In 26 a.d.
immunity.
Ilion and ten other Asian
of erecting
cities vied for the honour
the mothera temple to Tiberius
: Ilion preferred her claim as
refused, as only possessingthe
city of the Julii,but was
Claudius
In 53 a.d.
authority of unquestionable tradition.
made
Ilion
immune
from
further
obligations, especially
from
Senate
advocate
in
the
contributing troops. Her
accepted

of

Rome

of

from

sixteen

Troy,

years
and
the

Pius

confirmed

Antoninus

from
of

the

guardianshipof

city and
general.

Rome's

the

and
A
Ihon

scientific assault
her

owed
and

of

then

Nero,

was

tradition, and

Troy

Ilium

old, who

affirmed

the

Julii from

Aeneas.

descent

rescript

immunity
non-Ilian
children, allegingthe fame
official
ancestry. This belief was
now

its

freedom

deUvered

on

prosperity. Demetrius,

new

Hestiaea,

and

was

their

made

critic of Homer,

and

the
a

contested

fame

to which

famous
the

logist,
philoidentity

assertingthat Troy lay thirty stadia

away

Touring under
'

the

at

them

Villageof

Troas,

and

attack

was

learning,

Alexandria.
Strabo

Greek

cultured

Rome,

whose

in

the

The

learned

confirmed

inhabitants

it

world

but

doubt,

went

and

the

plain

with
sea,

where

shown

satisfied

'

tourists,

were

Both

of

welcomed

this

it

town.

And

no

Bunarbashi.

now

scarcely spread in
society, and did not obtain
footing in
any
for
Ihum
too
reverence
was
deep-seated.
making pious pilgrimages to every classic spot

loved

the

347

neighbouring cities,Skepsis and Alexandria

have been actuated
bylocal jealousy : but the
may
of Greek
dangerous, as coming from the centre

and

Romans

Ilienses ',

Empire

from

came

view,

the

the

crammed
their

this
with

the

every
hosts
had

both

the

town,

to

on

the

They
place of combat.
the
where
encamped ;

view

to

',
antiquities

local

outside

guide

scientious
Con-

erudition.

pious

ships had lain, and every other spot in the lUad, such
the fig-tree(according to Strabo, a desolate
as
part with
of Ilus, and
wild fig-trees),
the beech, the monument
so
on
;
the cave
in which
Paris delivered
judgment, which Diodorus
fell or
there
of the heroes
who
caUs
'godly'. The
graves
Greek

died

also

were

buried

Ilians.

At

Achilles, Patroclus

and

offered

no

sacrifice,as,

CaracaUa

to

the

catch

grave

of

tombs

doubt,
of

fell from

the lUans

not

could
of

evidences

the

truth

the

At

then
and

of

it
the

hung
Jupiter had
preliminarilyto punishing her.

anvils

In

which

Lucan's

poem

Caesar

stolen

Rome,
to

visits the

the

district

statue

by Diomede,
as

of the

one

rehcs

Other

legend.
on

The

anew.

was

at

was

high enough

when

grew

Tyana

ProtesUaus

of

tomb

did, e.g.
of

ApoUonius

and
Ilians

the

also

was

shown

Rhoeteum,

Sigeum,

withered

Heaven
:

is not

travellers

Achilles, and

exhibit

grave
at

at

many

to

of Pallas, which

Anchises

Ajax

Antilochus

Philostratus).
which
trees
always
glimpse of Ilium and

(according
stood

the

at

prove
says his

Pausanias
the

that

to

and,

Mantinea,

at

the

by

shown

feet

after

of

the

were

Juno,
battle

have
staying at Athens, may
out to Ilion and
excursion
sions.
incorporated his impresmade
an
and
decaying trunks
According to him, barren woods
in the
rooted
palacesof kings and the temples of gods :
He
of
shrubs.
saw
lay lost in a wilderness
Pergamus

of Pharsalus

the

poet, whilst

the

rock

to

which

Hesione

was

bound,

and

Anchises'

room

in

the

jungle ;
the

eagle ;

the

the

rock

its

dried-up brook, the

the high grass
and
Hector.

his

said it

guide

This

few

of

coast

Ionia

scattered

excelled

temples

Little

here

of

by the
to play :

in

shrine

in

but

fell.

attractive

scenery.
ancient

famous

The

Germanicus

which

of

ashes

the

Priam

Greece.

Colophon,

at

which

by

of

sign

no

abounded

Asia

cUmate

the

were

altar

disturb

to

not

stones

the

was

warned

was

was

desses
god-

n5miph, used
on
carelesslystumbled
walked
and
heedlessly

He

Xanthus

ravished

the

Oenone,

name.

the

judged

Paris

Ganymede

which

which

on

Empire

which

in

cave

at

spot

without

stone

no

the

Touring under

348

visited

in 19 A.D.
to consult
the oracle, and at Ephesus and Miletus
also the fairest cities,all generously provided with the modem

especial. Ephesus and

mentioned
these : they are

splendours, and baths

the
were
principal of
of Prusa,
Prusa

Ephesus
and

was

Tarsus

and

of

the

Antioch,
the

were

commercial

; under

country
one

rich

Sm3niia
by Dio

in

probably they

of the

with

most

for

his native

visited

by

travellers.

and

the

beautiful

and

treasmy

capitalof the

the

populous

most

models

in Asia

town

Romans

the

as

province
of

cities

the

world.

But,

Strabo's

in

fairest

of them

drainage.
enlarged

no
was

and

earned

the most

it

embeUished
'

the

the

first two

city of

first
and

sun

Asia

the

finest of all the

under

later, and

the

in

splendid

most

beautiful

from

of the
was

the

the

sea,

The

Ionian
it

in

cities

being

and

had

the

city

centuries,

greatness and
'.

metropoUs
:

Lucian

Philostratus

generallydesignated

was

amphitheatre
the
the

and
charm

and
;

; weUs
open
the streets as

There

were

also

the
was

From

town.

view

from

all

panorama

within

Smjmia

seemed
great
public places, theatres, temples
baths
in plethora ; walks,
;

and

broad

marble

top there

was

Gymnasia,
precincts abounded

right-angles,with

arcades.

an

made.

their

excess

like

suburbs

fairer.

not

covered

sea

magnificent, from

was

even

bom,

at

and

dirty

were

remedied

was

of

the beautiful
as
',as Aristides, who described
inscription
before
the destructiyeearthquake of 178, called it. It

points

in

defect

fame

the

'

rose

and

This

its title of the

beauty, the
calls Smyrna
in

Smyrna had
all, although the streets
time,

that

so

springs for
as

the

squares

pavements,

schools

of

every

all

and

she

house
and

and

straight,

two-floored

sorts, native

and

Touringunder
foreign;
other

distractions

art of

and

man

spring
suited

and
to

her

the

schools.

his

as

the

Great

Galen,

the

by

(the Greek

Scholars

from

Scopelianus,a

in

teachers

in

all

climate

fine ; in both

Westerly
and

the

famous

wind

continents

sophist of

The

accessible

end

of

(accordingto Philostratus)
the

was

which

sciences

chief

of

muse

all

their

were

his

VI.

city,
came

the

strings were
always at hand :
to
Smyrna, to

twenty-first year (151), went

Pelops,a pupil of Numisianus, and the Platonist

hear

for work

Roman),

all three

Smyrna
centre
for
;
Smyrna
cities, the bridge on

Ionian

set.

cooled

the

century, selected

best

34.9

fighting-contests,
spectacles and
the
competition between

of nature

art

nations

leisure.

first

the

Empire

eternal

an

summer

both

for

and
to

superfluity of

the

Albinus.

EGYPT

province

of

Asia

might

be

the

startingand
South, aiming at pleasure and
knowledge.
Cjrprus was
usually

point for travels East

than
experience, rather
but as a stage on the way
to
regarded not as a touring-place,
Syria or Egypt : Titus in 70 a.d. on his road from Corinth
to Judaea visited the Temple of Venus
at Paphos.
He saw
the pointed pillar,
that represented the goddess, the reliquaries
the
and
all the attribution
of the
offeringsof kings and
Greeks
to their beloved
antiquity', and consulted the oracle.
In the first centuries
but
few
to Syria, Phoenicia
travelled
and
for business
Palestine, save
or
ofl"ciaUy: the curious
the
before
:
sights did not
long sea-voyage
compensate
'

the

third

century very

few

Romans

or

Greeks

visited

Hiero-

famous
solyma, which
Pliny, after Agrippa, calls the most
Pausanias, exceptionally,had been there and
city of the East.
the
Red
Sea.
the
on
Antiochia, the splendid
Jordan and
as
infrequentlyin the literature
capitalof Syria, is mentioned
Alexandria
of the first two
centuries
is frequently: the
as
Elder
it twice, on
Greek
authorities,
Pliny only mentions
botanical
for geographical and
purposes.
from
went
to
But
crowds
Italy and Greece
every
year
service with Italy in the shipping
Egypt, which had a constant
The

season.

and

from

of

it with

regular boats

Puteoli

to

Sinuessa,

Rome
was

went

from

Alexandria

direct, after Domitian's

only

141

(Roman)

to

Puteoli

connexion

miles.

Puteoli

Touring under

350
the

was

harbour

of Rome

the

after

Empire
of Ostia

siltingup

the

down

and
by Claudius
port Portus
completion of the new
Trajan. A Greek poet under Augustus and Tiberius, Anti?
philus,asks why should Puteoli need such huge breakwaters

to

the

The

is,to contain

answer

comparison
designated

(inthe
and

at

this

Rome
coast

it
the

as

Similarly

small.

was

hostel

of

world

world.

the

in

Statins
Of

the

pictures of Puteoli, and

home
by visitors as keepsakes, two have been preserved
of Odemira
in the Portuguese province of Alantejo
mines
Piombino) : the pilaeof PuteoU are representedas twenty-

ornamental
taken

with

whole

fleets of the

the

with

glasses engraved

five with

twenty -four
of

arches

columns

are

stUl left,the

approached
streaming out on
through a gate.
the Alexandrian
to meet
the breakwaters
corn-ships,and all
Campania eagerly hailing the tabellariae, or post-ships,that
preceded them, with their easilyrecognizable flags; for they
alone, after passing the straits between
Capri and the weatherwhence
Minerva
down
the
beaten
on
promontory
gazes
waters
(Cape Campanella), might hoist a topsaU : all other
of Pozzuoli
ships had to lower theirs. The silent harbour
of to-day was
then
from
all Mediterranean
quick with masts
lands.
The
inscriptionof a sevir of the Augustales at Lyons
between
both
points to direct intercourse
ports : he was
extent
shows
the enormous
a
freighter at Puteoli : Strabo
of Puteoli
and
Ostia
of the trade
with
wine,
Spain in com,
the
red
to
scarlet
and
oil, wax,
lead, equal
honey, pitch,
African
trade.
According to Philostratus, ships sailed from
and
to
Puteoli
Africa, Eg37pt, Phoenicia, C5rprus, Sardinia
at
wharves
late
Puteoli, in the
beyond. The
Republic,
Africa
investment.
In
from
them
com
were
a
lay
profitable
and
Egypt, oil and wine from Spain, iron from Elba (this

so-called

Bridge

CaUgula.

sixteen

Seneca

By

describes

land

they

were

all Puteoli

'

'

last
Coast
and

was

collected
and

other

stufis, such

at Puteoli

manufactured
raw
as

products
Unen,

of

other

harbours

and

then

exported everywhere),

the

West,

besides

carpets, glass,paper,

on

the

West

and

Alexandrian

incense, etc., and

South
of the extreme
and East, which
passed
costly wares
An
latest
of
at
Alexandria.
the
Early
inscription
through
merchants
with
who
traded
Alexandria,
Empire was put up by
Asia
and
once
Syria. Augustus, in his latter days, was
passing by this port, and to his delight received homage
the

Touring under
from

the

of

crew

forty pieces
been

like

and

Gains

Jews

of

Agathopus,

Puteoli

who

journeys

may
he is

says
between

strong oriental

the

element,

and

Egyptians and
Syrians, and
manent
percolonies
and
from
the
commercial
agencies
great
of the
as
East, such
Hierapolis, Berytus, Tyre and
their
local worships.
On
the pedestal
others, with

cities
many
of a

colossal

of

statue

represented,which
17

of

Puteoli, who

A.D.

towns,

erected

East

might
peoples and

the

of all

Tiberius

restored

the

commercial

had

or

Tiberius, fourteen

Ephesus, Sardes, Cybara,

in

to

Octavius

wearisome
many
East.
There
was
a

the

351

ship : he gave each man

of spending them
only on

after

and

Greeks

Empire

gold, on condition
inhabitants
goods. Many

resting there
West

Alexandrian

an

of

Alexandrian
have

the

anticipatethe
tongues,

after

an

etc. ;

the

statue, either

relations

with

East

with

from
The

in this

motley

various

are

earthquake
Augustales

came

them.

their

Asia

cities in

these

voyager
harbour
and

costumes

wares.

In

Alexandrian
ships of all sizes must
shipping season
lying at anchor, from the Ught swift-saiUngvessels

the
been

have
to

the

at

Nicomedia.

driven
crowd.

Isis, a

The

long, 45 feet
of

1,575
from
800

into

storm

by

describes
the

she

such

Piraeus

must

as

attracted

her
tons),have
She
talents
a
(^^2,8293s.) or more.
year
each side of her bow
a picture of Isis and
on
had
the visitors, who
never
seen
anything
aU

taken

were

saUs, the

and

ship

the

tanned

at

other
of the

sailors with

hold.

after

Hadria

The

subduing

vessel
Britain

in

kind

which

masts

deck-

steersmen

Claudius

rather

before,

the
and

foreigntongue

Egyptian

was

decorations

at

the
seaworthy, and were
Aristides puts 1,000 as the largest number

could

Attic

painted, had

was

most

the

feet

180

twelve

owner

windlasses,

and

fearlesslyaloft.

clambered

reputed
after.

anchors

stared

cabins, and
who

cordage,

curious

been

wondered

vessel, and

the

over

was

deep, and had a tonnage

large ship (which varied

earned

1,500

which

feet

"

to

ship,

have

built

also

were

and

three-master,

its broadest, 40
have
been
must

at

such

corn-boats,

and
cargo
Lucian

vast

most
an

were

sought
Egyptian

returned

to

floatingpalace.

the
vessels
smaller
than
biggest corn-ships were
and
obelisks,
speciallydesigned for the transport of marble

And

gucb

the

was

the 4ccftus, the first Alexandrian

ship to

land

"it

Touring

352
Ostia

re-erected

in

Augustus

had

of

the

It

this

obelisk, and

said

obelisk

the

subsequently
del Popolo.
permanently in the
Piazza

the

now

it had

Pliny's time,

have

to

Empire

exhibited

monster

but, by

is

Circus,

Large

PuteoU

down.

the

Augustus, carrying

under

docks

under

carried

been

the
passengers,
linen and
400,000

1,200

cargo of paper, nitre, pepper,

of com.
bushels
But
the greatest marvel

(Roman)
according
to
import
to

stone

the

of

to

of the

mortar

In
But

the

had

these

ships
(1856),390

broad,

took

the

whose

murder
have

118,750
required four

of the

whole

left side

planted three
The
ship which

Modem

rowers.

towering
brought

tons

1,500-2,000
feet long, 45

the

Great

only
antiquity.

of

admired.

were

broad

Eastern

passengers

times

ships

transport

of

4,000

Elder, the

is dated

Arsinoe

same

it carried

mainmast

and

83

deep,
feet long,

680

was

besides

from
Puteoli
to
voyage
least twelve
at
days ;

average
wind
was

good
Pliny

the

the

and

crew,

of cargo.

tons

The

of

blocks

ballast

it.

300

huge

even,

Persia

83 feet

than

employed

tonnage of 5,400

5,000

four

in 357 in the Great

Circus
up by Constantius
del Laterano), according to Ammianus,
Piazza

forties

the

sink

it, to

on

gigantic,and
surpassed

have

its

ships,

at

set

the

on

was

lentils ;

Egyptian

obelisk

(now

the

Pietro),and
pedestal. As

San
the

as

for

destined

in

CaUgula's order,
Vatican
Circus
(now

built,

one

almost
the
it ; it covered
span
harbour
of Ostia ; and Claudius

piles of
the

di

the

was

obelisk

serve

bushels
men

Pliny,

Piazza

the

on

to

burnt

fastest.

the nth
on

been

the

is to

us.

Egypt

official paper

The

192, at Rome
to the Romans

was

route

was

with

nine, according to

January, 193, by theyear

31st December,

known

America

An

Alexandria

at

document
of Commodus,
cannot

much

by Sicilyand

fore
there-

farther
Malta.

and
had
according to Diodorus, was
good
prosperous
and
also
Gaulus
800
harbours
had
it
stadia,
was
(as
Cercina) :
less than
a
day, from Syracuse. St. Paul sailed from Malta
Alexandrian
in an
to Puteoli
at Malta,
ship, which wintered
the Dioscuri
; they stopped at S5Tacuse and
Rhegium.
irradiated 300 stadia (sevento eight
The Ughthouse at Pharos
It
the
of Egypt.
dangerous coast
geographical miles) on
like a star, and
lit up the darkness
might be taken for one,
the
until
marble
on
daylight revealed
shimmering white

Malta,

'

'

the

blue

sea,

and

the

palms

on

Pharos

came

into

view.

The

Touring under

354
reeds

the

Empire

and

bushy plants, or a lowering crocodile, an

ichneumon
writhing along,
creeping on the bank, a snake
ibis
with
its
its bent
beak
feathers, and
an
palms
preening
and
stems
feathery crowns,
overhanging, with their shm
the thickets.
Severus
attracted
in Egypt by the strange
was

high

animals

and

The
scenery.
illustrates the interest in the fauna

the
in

framed

is

them,

and

hippopotami,

with

lances

from

of doves

in

in

with

which

Egypt

best

the upper
half represents
animals
fabulous
and
real ;
the

on

Nile

and

ibises, water-birds,
chased

being

are

boat.

Palestrina

tableland, containing
lower
half, variegated buildings

barren

of

mosaic

new

dovecot

men

croc^dUes
huntsmen

by

suggests thp

ness
common-

in

Upper Egypt, conic^il dovecots

kind
of upper
are
a
storey to village-huts.Dongola is said
to possess
garden-houses hke those in the Roman
paintings
of Egypt.
The
of Egypt
often
marvels
'fabulous :
were
Tacitus
doubted
that
the
there.
never
seen
phoenix was
near
Alexandria, which
Pliny tells of a pahn-tree at Chora
died

and

the

at

reborn

was

of

moment

pygmies,

which

discovered

to

that

there

East

shore.

imitated
and

be

were

Nature

in the

in

the

at

favourite
dwarfs

Acoris

villa

that,

fruit.

The

on

been

the

lands
high-

the

Epicurean states
Middle
Egjrpt on the
and

Tibur

labyrinth and

monuments,

adds,

borne

of Akka

in

at

and

subject,have

architecture

his
a

just

Philodemus

equator.

apparently
and

it had

another

pygmies
Egjrptian

Phoenix,

the

writing,

existent

Hadrian

Severus

with

were

the

near

colossal

districts
had

were

Canobus,

Memphis.
and

ancient,

were

wonderful
in
has destroyed
always ahke
Egyjpt. Time
of stone, the gigantic
nothing of these artificial mountains
temples, the endless rock-passages and caves, the forests of
colossi
and
brilliant pictures and
sphinxes, the countiess
new-old
ment
amazemysterious walls of hieroglyphics. The same
has
Modem
men.
always attracted
buildings and
picturesdid not disturb the unity of these superhuman works,
but copied the ancient
styles.
obtained
in Egypt many
there
customs
Further,
utterly
and
such
artificial
incubators
as
strange
unique,
(in hot
dung), a practicethat aroused the interest of medieval
pilgrims
their way
to Palestine, and
is still carried on, especially
on
at

Cairo

; or

the

mode

of

clambering up

the

palms

"

^which

Touring under

the

Empire

355

still subsists
and

tree

the
by slinging a rope round
body
this slingmaking knots by which
they

in

but, most

of

adoration
Thus
at

all, the

the

ascended

above

all, the

of animals.
the interest in

the

strange worships, and,

and

end

of

the

of the

Aeihiopian

Greek

and

third

has

been

and

ears,

of

identical

perennialand

(accordingto

century

Tales)tales

Roman

learning of

Egypt

Egypt

the

the

found

ever

listeners

did

author

attentive

not

tire

of

the

pyramids, the graves of the kings and the

of this fairyland. Of the Emperors and their famihes,
marvels
Germanicus
to Egjrpt in 19, Hadrian
travelled
in 130, Septimius
with
Caracalla
Severus
and
in 202
down
Julia Domna
of Aethiopia. Titus
to the
borders
his way
back
from
on
Alexandria
:
Judaea in 70 visited Memphis from
Caligula
intended
and
Nero
Aurelius
journeying there :' Marcus
did,
and
probably Lucius Verus as well.
exotic
in Egypt. It was
Alexandria, the capital, was
a
town, built in Greco-Oriental
comparatively modem
style,
like other
cities of the Macedonian
epoch, as their ruins in
Little Asia, Syria and
Cyrene show.
Napoleon ni, through
the Court
astronomer, Mahmud
Bey, of the Viceroy of Egypt,
in 1867 instituted
have
thrown
excavations, which
a
new
The
results were
confirmed
light on the plan of the town.
of
1898-99. Mahmud's
by the excavations
street-plan,
of
of the fourth
the
city, though post-Hadrianic,
period
followed
the former
the town
plans. According to Mahmud
inside the walls was
15,800 metres round or eighty-sixstadia :
in the 16,375 jwiWa passuum, the
the
highest figure among
ancients, the

suburbs

have

must

been

included.

The

vations
exca-

of seven
mainrectangular network
wise,
streets lengthwise,lying WSW.
by ENE. and twelve breadthstreet
The
central
lengthwise,
by SSE.
lying WNW.
the
of
centre
to
which
crossed
the
city, and led East
Road, or the Corso or
Canobus
perhaps called the Canobian
revealed

have

"

was
8po/xos,

the

main-street

metres
thirty-six

On

sides, to

both

colonnades
the

roads

wide.
led from

broad

mark

as

all the way.

fact, it
a

ofi the

Strabo

The
the

breadthwise

main-street

Sun-gate

to

the

are

left of

also

Moon-gate,

there

had
and

was

were

them,

only 6-65

was

it

quite twenty.

carriage road,

thirty stadia : traces

running parallelthe pavement
for the

not

was

says

In

metres

colonnades,
had

the

same

356

Touringunder

width

as

blocks

of hard

the

covered
had

The

main-roads

twelve

district

and

of

the

city :

with
a

with
tinuous
con-

aU

massive

had
all

stones

flat roofs.

occupied

the Mausoleum,

seawards

of

Palaces,

the

paved
in by

was

limestone, held

The

the

Museum,
Greek

road

stately houses
and
supply of running water

Strabo

to

The
and

stone, basalt

canals.

Empire

Road.

Canobian

freestone.

the

its

fourth

According
gardens, the
part of the

body of Alexander
gold one
having been melted
Of the many
public buildings,
Gymnasium, with colonnades

contained

Mausoleum

the

glass coffin,the
I.
down
by Ptolemy Alexander
the
the most
prominent were
than
artificial hill,
stadium
more
a
an
long, the Paneum,
mounted
by spirals,giving a bird's-eyeview of the town,
the Caesareum
Strabo
ally
or
only mentions
Augusteum incidentit was
a
:
temple put up by Cleopatra to Antony, and
first Emperor : it may
to the
have
subsequently dedicated
been
afterwards
it as
a
completed. Philo describes
great
with
halls,
libraries,
parks, propylaea,
temple
porticoes,
and
and
full of offerings,
statues
pictures
gold and silver.
Strabo
also passes
by the Serapeum shortly ; Hadrian, who
the

Great

in

decorated
was

columned

and

centre,

court, with

have
may
the Column

obelisks

front

Alexandria

two

anew,

in

extended
of

in

Pompey

behind

it.

the

halls

It
the

were

down
library burnt
by the Arabs,
and
in
front, a propylaeon with
cupola. Ammianus
says
with
its huge colonnades, breathing statues, and numberless
that,
inferior only to the Roman
works
of art, it was
Capitol:
written
under
in the Description of the World,
Constantius,
it is mentioned
as
unique.
educational

Diodorus'

In

the

rooms,

time, the
After

free citizens.

Battle

the

its commercial

exceedingly, and
attracted
immigration

population must
under

million.

isle of Pharos
as

(a

well,
name

was

population

and

cross-race,

in Philo's

in

two

mainly
was

and
in the

of
of
two

the town

300,000

prospered

first centuries

and

the

to be

new

was

voluptuary advantages
total

been

extended

perhaps
town

of
inscriptions

consisted

time

this

Alexandria

of Actium,

time),and

; and

resettled

found

had

town

(inStrabo's

The

Jewry

doubled,

have
The

hence

of

census

was

the

the

the

the

free

scarcely
desolate

Heptastadion

called

Neapolis

century).
and
Eg3rptians, Greeks
Jews
Greeks
and
Egyptians. The
out of the five districts (which
second

Touring under
named

were

their

the

but
alphabetically),

also

Empire
in

357

other

the

parts,as

in
might be seen
parts of
the town
: the
according to Jewish authority,
a
magnificent building, was
destroyed in Trajan's reign.
Under
limited
Nero, the Jews (according to Josephus) were
to the A district.
and
other Europeans, apart from
Romans
the strong garrison (which was
from
citizens
the
recruited
and
of Alexandria
few
and
contained
Occidentals)
camp
and the large officialdom, must
have
been
constantly passing
universal
trade brought
through or settling. Then, too, the
Africans
and
distances
Asiatics together from
the farthest
;
an
unparalleled meeting of Aethiopians, Libyans, Arabians,
and
Indians.
Scythians, Persians, Bactrians
The
all
harbour
of Alexandria
the only safe one
on
weis
of the long coast
(5,000 stadia or 125 geographical miles)
between
of the
Paraetonium.
At
the
mouth
Joppa and
only waterway of an immeasurably wealthy land, midway

many-shaded

sjmagogues
chief synagogue,

between
and
of

all

three

West

and

Prusa

of the

'

continents,
the

on

remarks,

road

the

threshold

the

on

',Alexandria

to India

"is

was,

Dio

earth, the market-place

of the

centre

East

between

andria
Alexpeoples. This unique situation made
the commercial
capital, and before the Empire, the
the
of the world.
Later
it was
poUtical capital,to some,
second
city after Rome, a rank challenged in the third century
But
the
only by Carthage and Antioch.
entry of Egypt
into the
of free trade
ensured
the
best
her
huge domain
results
of
her
instantly increased, and
position. Trade
the Alexandrians
aU
were
by
gratitude for the annexation
Augustus ; put up the temple to him, as protectorof shipping ;
and
celebrated
of Land
Sea, as Jupiter the
him, as Lord
of
Star
the
Saviour,
Greece, whom
Jupiter the Saviour

had

remotest

set

in

deputation
entered,
incense

to

Arabia

Actium,
then

was

waited

on

which

and

and
him

clad

Alexandrian

the

in

and

in his last

white,
him

exalting
god,
and
pleasure, freedom
India

and

sixfold

no

increased,

less
and

it had

120

market

to

as

the

mercantile

days at Puteoli,
though offering

under

after

for

Central
the

The
the

tiieir

imports
Battle

of

the last Ptolemies

India, and

from

of

author

fortune.

been

annually

than
the

as

alone, six years

what

twenty ships went

Myoshormos
also

ascendant

wreathed

life, trade,
from

the

in 25

B.C.

Africa

goods

that

from

imports
passed

Touring under

35 8

Alexandria

through
with

the

Caravans
from

and

the

fable.

Italy and the West

luxury and civilization
in year

trade-fleets,year

South

and

the

from

Gulf,

and
and

jewels

goods, all of

such

the

century.

brought

treasures

the

farthest

lands

Persian

the

China

from

silk

dytes,
Troglo-

of the

land

"

^all

hence

transhipped

were

of

amassed.

there

lay

pearls from

value,

utmost

first

out,

India,

from

byssus

in the

the

Arabia,

from

scents

enlarged

have

must

world

the

Gold-dust, ivory, tortoise-shell

herbs

from

East,

greatest rarities of

The

Empire

to

of

spread

the

profit. In Strabo's time even,

the exports exceeded
the imports.
to
and
wealth
This
universal
trade
provided livelihood
from
whose
the rich merchant,
thousands,
ships sailed to
Rome,

to

the

at

Malabar

loo

per

coast

and

cent,

Puteoli

down

in the

navvies

the

to

harbour.
after

The

looms

in

finenesses, and,
national

their

for

of

taste

celebrated,

the

even

gay

and

valuable

glass-work

shapes : the papyrus-makers

paper-manufacturer Firmus,
his paper
purple, and boasted
oils

and

of

essences

incense-works

the

to

work

with

to

leave

the

This

shops

active

Alexandria

workmen,

sealed

bustle

of

faiths

Hadrian

on

in

wrote

and

second

134

to

and

visit

to

masks

and

an

defalcations, had

brother-in-law

his

work

chiragra.
one

even

Mammon

veils, and

thick

'

Servianus,
the

god

astonished
one

', he

is idle here

gouty, the

is the

medley

the

No
'

leisured,

the

great harbour,

AlexEmdria.

to

his

every

prevent

the

sought

industry contrasted with

Rome,
and, together with

cults, natural

has
man
every
sufferers from
Christians

of

to

The
army.
In the
famous.

support
also

and

thin.

and

Aurelian,

were

and

aprons
naked.

unproductiveturmoil
of

would

glass-blowers
all colours

in

thick

paper,
under

animals

and

men

The

dresses.

less

No

wool-stufis,

the

Middle

the

Arabia,

consulted.

was

carpets and

in various

flax
and

Ages, were
designs,tapestriedfiguresof

artistic

out

India

to

customers

the

antimacassars,

sent

native

the

exports

the

in

from

linen, sought

furnished

Alexandria

in Britain, made

even

with

of

of

and

blind
the

Jews,

'.

correspondingly haughty. Mercantile

population was
of
pride, the knowledge of the indispensabilityto Rome
rife.
If any
the Egyptian corn-supply, were
one
praises
The

'

the

Nile

', says

Die

of Prusa

to the

Alexandrians,

'

you

are

Touringunder
proud,

the

Empire

359

flowed
though you
straight from Aethiopia '.
Where
wealth
was
prodigious, and raillionaires abounded,
where
the
on
proletariate easily earned
enough to lunch
fresh or smoked
fish with
garlic,on snails, meal or lentils,
in a cook-house, and
or
on
giblet stew
barley-beer to his
satisfaction, luxury and license also prevailed. Egyptian
in
Alexandria
became
unchecked
sarcasm
impudence ;
and
and
benefactors
not
were
immune,
danger
emperors
the
bitter
wit.
Dio
of
Prusa
scarcelymitigated
congratulates
himself
the
Alexandrians
without
on
facing
fearing their so
dreaded
hisses, jeers and interruptions. Seneca
was
proud
of his (maternal) aunt
for the
for being spared calumny
of Egypt
wife of the governor
sixteen years of her residence
as
in a city so witty, and
ready in abuse of the government '.
the point of punishing
on
Vespasian, despite his mildness, was
for the contumely they showered
him,
on
the Alexandrians
of the increased
in consequence
taxes
imposed : they called
him
salted
fish-dealer.
Titus
interceded, and they cried
a
know
We
will forgive him
out to Titus :
as
yet
; he doesn't
'I have granted this city Hadrian
how to'playthe Emperor
writes to Servianus,
all of its requests,its ancient
privileges,
whilst I was
here,
well : they were
and new
ones
as
grateful,

as

as

'

'

'

'

'

but,

as

CaracaUa
In

as

soon

avenged

Alexandria,

someness

their

too,

There, too,

Alexandria,

(at any

rate

the

remarks,

and

only

100

laughter

interest

was

had

later) the

panem

light-

and

idealism

and

earnestness

time,

years

'.

Antinous
and
Verus
son
my
in 215 by a frightfulmassacre.

Dio

as

Strabo's

in

even

at

sneers

universal,

were

nowhere.

but

left,scofied

et circenses.

amphitheatre,

an

and

racecourse

beloved

farces, jugglery,
popular, and
music
were
all, dancing and
contests, and, above
Alexandrians
were
thoroughly
of the people. The

musical

theatre
animal

were

the

the

most

iUiterate

detected

even

citharist's every

false

they were
especially
string instruments
fusion
music, probably a Hellenistic
adept. Alexandrian
became
of Greek
and
popular at Rome,
Egyptian style,soon
Greco-Roman
style. According
and
strongly influenced
infallible sedative
an
and
to Dio, vocal
string-music were
a
and
the cither cast
the voice
spell over
for tumult, and
the people. The
racing events also led to affraysand fights.

note.

The

In

wind

and

Alexandrian

mob,

as

harbour-mob,

and

as

the

motley

Touring under

360

dregs of the most

most
inflammable,

various
the

the

nations

Empire
cross-breeds,

and

spark setting it

least

was

fire and

on

in this city of luxury and

delight.
creating a pandemonium
and
Demagogues would excite the many
large clubs (Oiaa-oi),
in orgies
themselves
in which, according to PhUo, they vented
of drunkenness
and
impertinence. The slightestoccasion
of livelihood,
distress on
the means
a
a
greeting unretumed,
of a triflingrequest, the unpopular punishment
the refusal
of a slave
and mobs
collected, weapons
gleamed, and stones
"

"

flew ;
but

sometimes
often

more

of the

in
ended
uproars
the troops had to be called
in

Empire
walk

governors

these

fourth

the

century,

in fear and

in Alexandria

justice is always ready to commit

Religious fanaticism amongst the
Diodorus

unrest.

cat ; the

awe

ward

of Rome

provoked

commixture

but

the

and

and

off his murder.

different communities

witnessed

street

out.

In

sects

these

Under

to

tumult.
of
were

the

Hadrian

also in

animosities

and

stones.

Egyptians

often

caused

arson

incident

an

Roman,

raised

by

Apis-bullat Alexandria

reasonably expected

induced

sacred

king could

of the

and

find

to

;
practices

heathen

sharp opposition of

often

popular

hurl

Hadrian, the claims

Christian

Jewish,

the

that

it is said

trembling

intercession

rediscovered

songs,

tion
descrip-

King Ptolemy Auletes, unintentionallykiUed

under

not

himself

mere

faith

and

race

persecutions,like

that

Jews under
Caligula, described
by Philo, and the
Tiberius
conflict of Jews and
Greeks
in 66.
On this occasion
Alexander,
a
Jewish renegade, the Praefect, to break the
resistance
of the
soldiers,
of 5,000
use
Jews, had to make
who were
passingthrough, besides the two legionsin garrison;
Jews are said to have perished.
50,000
Amongst the various tourists to this peculiaraxid splendid
city,those in quest of health and those in quest of learning
be mentioned.
recommended
A sea- voyage
to Egypt was
may
by physicians to consumptives. The kindly heaven, from

of

the

which

never

fell any
and
not

snow,

under

which

roses

bloomed

in

sunshine, where
day passed without
the summer
relieved
was
by the monsoons,
might well give
some
hope to the patient who found the climate of Italy
too harsh.
Also Alexandrian
physicians and medical schools
studied in
he
enjoyed the highest repute. Galen
says
Alexandria
Alexandrian
doctors
that, if only because
gave
the

winter,

"

"

Touringunder

362
with

apparatus
itself, a place
breeze, the

for distant

views

for

made

and

Empire
comfort

every

the

and

waves,

Canobus

freshening sea-

the

pleasure, with

of the

murmur

the

sky, seemed

sunny

Apio, the Alexandrian

flocked
Homer's
Elysium. Patients
philosopher,realized
to the famous
Temple of Serapis,an especiallyholy shrine,
secluded

from

receive

to

the

world.

At

oracles

the

went

to

Canobus

the

extent

of

the

canal

to

in

Canobus

their

debauch

But

dreams.
town

the

visitors

most

proverbialfor

was

time

practice. Day and night in Strabo's

full of barques, with
companies of men

the

was

and

grated
overshadowed
windows, and were
by the fuU Egyptian bean
the
extinct, hke
Nelumbo, now
papyrus),
(the Nymphaea
amid
scents
and
the joyous voyagers
be
seen
feasting
might
of these

Many

women.

and

flowers,

boats

performing

or

had

and

in them

rooms

lascivious

dances

sound

the

to

have been unearthed

Representations of such scenes
contains
of Palestrina
a
banquet
Pompeii : the mosaic
which
is plajring,
under
a female
a vine stretched
flute-player

of flutes.
at
at

the

across

But

canal

aUve

Alexandria

with

and

the

of the

blossoms

excitements

her

spectacles could
visited Eg5rpt for
the capital,a short

and

allure

hke
Germanicus
who
voyagers
its antiquities. From
the modernity of
not

inland

journey
from

the

camels,

on

bustle

and

or

the

up

splendour

dateless

antiquity. There
like ApoUonius
sightseers,

to

have

must

bean.

the traveller

stream, took
the

silence

awesome

been

of

conscientious

many

of

Tyana, according to Philostratus,

who
crossed from shore to shore, so as to miss nothing.
Most
travellers aimed
at Memphis
next, not as being the
second greatest city of Egypt, but for its ancient monuments.
nades
The
palaces of the Pharaohs
might be ruins, and the colonof sphinxes leading into the Temple of Serapis more
than
the

half

buried

under

Pyramids.

towards

the

From

West

covered

with
the

at

1200) says
pyramids
abrasion

that
would

desolate

the

stone

apex.

The

copies of

they could be
rocky plain,like

filled with

Arabian
the

took

not
seen

Ijdng

hills amid
then

was

sear

sides

were

gether
altoall

nating
termihierogl3rphs,

writer

writings
than

more

cloak

could

appearance
steps on all four

surface

of this outer

time

but

Their

smooth

cover

distance

of sand.

difficult mounds
different

on

sand

the

on

AbduUatif
the

10,000

place only in

two

leaves.
the

(circa
great
The

first half

Touring under
of

the

the

fourteenth

Cyriacus

late
the

second

the

Red

mostly intact ; and

Pyramid by the Arabs) as

Busiris, in
Arabs

the

did

doubt

the
late

the

in

As

end

the

as

of the

neighbouring town
of climbing the
art

the

for travellers' benefit

exhibition

an

top.

English traveller),
third
one
(called

an

antiquity practised the

incline,no

smooth

Natives, from

century.

the

to

up

was

fourteenth
of

climb

Greaves,

363

pilgrim in 1395 found

Great
Pyramid: in

the

on

could

(accordingto

1638

as

of Ancona

Empire

French

; a

complete

almost

process

1440

century

the

Middle

Egyptian
priestsaverred that the depth of the Pyramids underground
was
equal to their height; a legend told of Marienburg, and,
and
other extraordinary buildings. Greek
no
doubt, of many
Roman

tourists

their

in

Gains

and

Terentius

Hadrian
of her

memory
without

him,

grief.

lion with

human

head

discovered, when
Another

for two

the

on

both

beside

shores

the
was

ruins
from

Holy

the

sister

The

century.

official under

left this

on
inscriptions

the

surface

vanished

the

Trajan
her inscriptionto the
had visited the Pyramids

high

she

and

building

objectivewas

miles

'

him

of other

to

fifteenth

and

brother
for

wept

The

Ages.

copied by pilgrimsto

consul, dedicated

sweet

number

on

Gentianus,

and
'

names

and

seen

fourteenth

the

the

their

cut

were
inscriptions

Land
of

same

of

memorial

pyramid

of

claw

the
of

her

huge

Khefren

were

excavated.
of Thebes,
North

which

stretched
Germani-

to South.

perhaps had the first intuition that

Rome
orientally coloured
might similarly disappear. The
out
old priest read
that, at his request, an
report states
what
left of the hieroglyphs : the old Theban
kingdom
was
of that time.
Parthia
had once
and
been as mighty as Rome
11
the legend says King Rhamses
With a host of 700,000
men,
and
subjugated Libya, Aethiopia,
(1400 B.C.)had traversed
and
a
great part of Asia : the various tributes of gold and
and
silver,horses and weapons,
ivory and fragrances, com
other products were
specified.To this day, in the ruins of
of
circumstantial
Thebes, there
are
pictures and records
cus

went

there

in 19, and

war's and

Rhamses'

victories, and, in the tombs

of his officials,

gathering of the silver

the Royal Treasury : in

listsof tributes, depictingthe

and

ivory

the amount

given

as

and
of

ebony

into

grains on

33.333.33"-

the

fields from

Kush

to

and
one

gold
tomb

Naharain

is

Touring under

364
The

vocal

West

bank

Philostratus
after
of

of the

Nile

deserted

object

great field of ruins, which

was

in

by Germanicus,
On
all Egypt.

(possibly
Apollonius of Tyana
Julia Domna) calls the market-place

life of

his

in

descriptionof

the

attractive

Empire

also visited

was

most

the

apparently
the

of Memnon

statue

the

with

city,strewn

columns,

and

of walls

remains

and by time.
destroyed both by man
seated
of this whirl of fragments, there towered
Out
up two
Each
colossi of King Amenophis III, visible four hours
away.
to the waist,
out of a rock
hewn
was
sixty feet high, naked
close by the
with
a
youthful expression,upright, the arms
Since
an
earthquake,
body, and the hands on the knees.
the upper
down
part of one
possiblyin 27 B.C., had thrown
the throne,
of them,
on
leaving only the knees and hands
at
visitors to Thebes
a
strange sight. When
might behold
stone

and

seats

both

sunrise

statues,

colossi threw

fallen

the

statue

shadows

vast

forth

gave

Strabo,

note.

ness,
silent wilder-

the

over

first

the

might be caused
report on it, calls it a sUght noise, which
compared it to a breaking string,to a
by a tap. Others

to

resonant
the

vessel, or

copper

idea

it

arose

was

statue

with

even

of

title of

legendary buUder of these

the rosy dawn
was
greeting his mother.
Memnon
into general use
is not
came

of
cut

Alexandrian

famous

Apio, the

anti-Semitic

the
his

name

Memnon

times.

three

records
He

and

this

When
known

charlatan

but

(the author

by Josephus),has
eternallythat he had heard
and Caligula.
under
Tiberius

confuted

pamphlet

it, and

on

savant

Hence

according to Greek
palaces : and the

of Memnon,

tradition, the
son

voice.

the human

lived

is
Memnon
as
designate this colossus
Pliny the Elder in his Natural History (completed in 77 a.d.),
As the musical
statue of the son of the goddess of the rosy dawn
The

first author

the Colossus

pilgrimsto
the

are

as

dated.

under
own

attracted
this

far

other
as

The

in

have

remarks,
knees.

of

Egypt, and
the Thebaid,

cut

Of

the

those

Of the many

occasionally
legs, covering it

their names,
to

on

tourists.

the

seventy -two,

thirty-five

Domitian, one
Hadrian
: Hadrian's

Nero, three under

of several

followingrecord
also eight governors

of his

There
are
130.
wives
of governors,
two
three
commanders
various
two
officers,
judges of appeal,a priest

November,

visit

Greek

(twenty-seven) under

his wife's,and

of

the

and

first is under

Trajan, most
name,

Roman

sight,some

date, and

almost

to

Touringunder
of

Serapis at Alexandria,

and

forth.

so

Severus.

The

the

vibration

The

his

but

poet

restoration

which

the

of the
pressure
sudden
change of

at the

of Memnon

statue

Homeric

'

are
inscriptions
residence
in Egypt

restored,

present day

Empire

last dated

During

Colossus

the

'

the

of the

Museum,

under
in

Septimius
he

202,

has

lasted

had

to

the

heavy blocks prevented

temperature at sunrise.

henceforth

was

365

dumb,

and

soon

very

forgotten.
In

tourists
inscriptions,

many

Memnon

and

loves, whom
fashions.

they
The

national

would

former

inscriptionsin

Egypt.
gods

protectiontravellers
In

Thebes,

Romans

visited
of

range
Moluk
the

dead

rocks,

by
and

'

of

the

the

Tombs

not

bush,

have

of

and

halls

wished

in

of

tourists'

other

of

in the
The

as

now,

jackals and

dug

of the

deep

Greeks
second

desolate

into

the

and

Libyan

valley of

of grass on
with
sand

Tombs

be.

to

Memnon,

Kings

yellowish cliffs,bestrewn

vaults, passages

or

of

blade

the
haunt
passages,
vultures
without
'. The

form

Thebes.

same

dark

name

by them,

home

of the

or

worship of
of far-away

supplication to the
whose
country, under
mighty

Colossus

West

in the

contain

far from

after

their

commonest

the

doubt, the

no

to

They

so

mountains

was,

like
is the

local

or

him, often

to

prayers

record

Bab-elhome

bald

and

of

steep

traversed

hyaenas within,
Kings are rooms,
the

rocks

the

pipes (o-vptyyes) More than a hundred

found
been
here, hastily scratched
on
by
inscriptionshave
red : they are
mostly Roman
;
torchlight,or painted over
those dated
Trajan up to Constantius, and
ranging from
Greeks

none

and

called

anterior

dates,

them

to the Ptolemies.
or

of

exclamations

of them

Most

amazement.

are

mere
'

Those

names

who

nothing', runs one Greek inscription

IX
who
have '.
Rhamses
in the tomb
of
:
happy they,
A high Egyptian official of finance
(about the fourth century)
and
Rome
and
seen
remarks
he has
stayed long in Rome,
Egypt thoroughly.
either bank,
at places on
Similar
inscriptionsare found
on
temples, obelisks, nvXtoves,and so forth, up to the frontier
and
at Philae
Syene, and as far as Hiera-Sykaminos, the
point of the Empire,
Aethiopian frontier and southernmost
Some
are
interesting; at the ruins of Great Apollinopolis
of Dionysius,
Ptolemy, the son
(Edfu) in Upper Egypt,
have

not

seen

this,have

seen

'

'

366

under

Touring

the

Empire

'

of
the
Dorion,
a
son
Theodotos,
Jew, praises God',
the
country) :
Jew, saved from
(thereis a blank for some
from
have
been
travellers must
a
Eg3rptian Jews, returned
long and dangerous journey, and, perhaps, out of regard to
companions, givingthe expressionof gratitude a possibly
pagan
a

'

turn.
pagan
is hewn
in

the

on

Philae, the

At

with

climatic

advantages,

Salemum

he

Horace

him

here

came

{2 B.C.)on the 25th March

in the flightto the Rhine

in
:

of

name

Gains

of

otherwise,

or

eleven

later

years
battle

after the

Velia

thirteenth

Augustus'

and

consulate

he

in the

leisure

at

corresponded

once

Vala

Numonius

killed

was

Teutoburger

Wald.
be
sights in Egypt, only a few can
the
the
mentioned
here.
At all of the shrines
priests were
ciceroni.
Aristides
says that, on his four journeys to Egypt,
he left no
site unvisited, and
measured
place he could
any
find in books
not
with
the aid of the priests and
prophets.
The priestsalso showed
the holy animals, such as the immortal
Diodorus
ibis, mentioned
by Apio, at HermopoUs.
says
the
steer
at
told
of
that
much
Memphis,
Apis
might be
the crocodile
in Lake
Moeris, the lions in Leontopolis, the
the
steer
at
Mnevis
HeUopoUs ; but it
goat at Mendes,
Of

the

would

be

other

incredible
the

expatiateson
them
laid
sums

tourists'

with

the

save

to

who

those

had

who

distinguishedmen

best

food, gave them

their splendid beds, got them
their burial : in his time,
on

waited

wives
as

on

baths

warm

much

and
as

He

them.

seen

them,
and

fed

scents,

spent great
100

talents

also visited the steer Apis, which

(""23,5765s.). Germanicus
the priestskept in a specialstable : Titus attended
the consecration
of one.
The
crocodiles
knew
the
priests by their
voices, were
taught to follow them, and let them open their
cloths :
with
Unen
jaws, clean their teeth, and dry them
at Arsinoe, used
crocodile
to be fed by tourists
Suchos, a tame
with

bread, wine,

Of

the

constructed

great attraction.

just on the tropics,at

equinox was one of the
there
that

was
was

flesh.

great buildings, besides

labyrinth
was

and

no

shade, and

upright shone

under

the

these

erections

the
mentioned,
in Lake
Moeris,

Elephantine and Syene

the frontiers of Egypt, at the summer
wonderful
natural
sights. At midday,
obelisks, temples and men,
everything
in full sunshine
: at
Syene (Assouan)
The

view

of

Touring under
there

the

367

Empire

sacred

spring (now vanished) at the bottom

of which
the sun
might be seen, filhngthe water to the surface.
The Little Cataracts
of the Nile above
also much
Syene were
visited.
Here
at high water
the stream
flows over
a
rocky
was

island

in the

middle

When

governors
boatmen

the

and

great

rowed

from

is calm
to

came

stream

the

see

be hurled

side.

waterfall,

West

the

on

either

on

beyond

back, without

Aristides, at his request, got

military

men
garrison at Syene, to force the boatto exhibit
their skill, and
himself
The
joined them.
in Aethiopia were
but by few travellers.
seen
great cataracts
from
either bank
were
Similarlyplaces too remote
scarcely
to inaccesvisited : curiosity could not
reluctance
sibility.
overcome
Aristides
went
through all of Egypt four times
without
famous
seeing the
porphyry-quarries on the Red
Sea
(now Djebel Dochan), where, after Claudius' reign,

escort

the

men

the

harm.

to any

and

up
then let themselves

and

the cataract,

coming

of its bed,

Roman

'

'

of

hundreds
the

scorching sun,

and

As

to

both

Greek
the

Wonders
sites

places
and

is, in

the

and

Roman

objects of
of

in

palaces

INTERESTED

WHAT

the

worked

to transform

for

decorations

VII.

but

convicts

the

are

interest

World
absence

the

countries

the

hard

of

Rome.

such
of

time

into

stone

columns

TOURISTS

visited

by tourists,
and

information,
at

They

B.C.,

Alexandria,

their

to

uncertain.

284-220

Seven

the

travellers

attracted

sources

applicable;

Whether

diverse.

and

waste,

ROMAN

certainlyput together between

of the AtdSoxot,
and
probably

were

waterless

equally available
were

as

the

in

the

perhaps

of Rhodes,

by Callimachus, before one of them, the Colossus

was
earthquake. Their sites lay in the
destroyed by an
the Great, and in a circle
territoryconquered by Alexander
Alexandria
round
; they were
Olympia (with Phidias' Zeus),
Rhodes

and

the

Colossus, Halicamassus

and

the

Mausoleum,

Temple of Artemis, Babylon with the walls

the
and
Pyramids. The
and
hanging gardens, Memphis
afterwards
Colossus
of Rhodes
was
replaced (according to
Martial
by Apollo's altar of horns at Delos), and the number
that they
thus
seven
was
kept up ; yet there is no evidence

Ephesus

were

and

visited

the

as

the

Seven

Wonders.

Pausanias,

who

travelled

368

Touring under
had

much,

(ofwhich

met

never

any
but

one

the

Empire

who

had

been

to

Babylon

remained).
nothing
little
curiosity in the national
betrayed very
of the tourist
customs
most
of
foreign peoples ; because
countries
with
Grecobad
been
tinged to a large extent
Roman
not
were
civilization, and, superficially,
peculiar,
the past was
thus more
and, secondly, because
interestingto
the Roman
than
the present. The
object was, step by step,
of
trace
monuments
the
and
remains
to
antiquity, and,
then

walls

the

Romans

besides

this

remarkable

historical

sights of

interest in them, but

for

or

the

artistic interest

contribute, is

did
a

"
First
best

Even

of

of

sake

all sorts

know

as

as

so

much

fame,

rarity and strangeness.

and interest in nature
essentially,
which

Historical

The

satisfying their

must

their

bent

cravings

both

in

for

Greek

be

many

from

literarynotoriety,

or

their

all travellers

little towns,

to

come

possible,not

for their sheer

matter
I.

to

aspect,

deferred

to

How

far

partly,
the

end.

Interest

steps

the

to

sights

and

countries

temples, as
information.

and

in

Italy,

Aurelius
writes
temples. Thus Marcus
possessed remarkable
of Anagnia that it is a tiny old city with
to Fronto
many
and
ceremonies.
ancient
The
monuments,
temples
temples
would
the
finest
the
and
often
be
oldest
buildings,
largest
and most
The interest they
famous, and command
a good view.
could awaken
is shown
by Philo's descriptionof the great Temple
of Augustus at Alexandria.
It was
situated on an eminence
above

the

harbour,

formed

and

landmark

it

was

full of

offerings,pictures and statues, and its huge precinctswere

garnished with colonnades, libraries, halls, parks, propylaea,
ever3rthingdecorative.
open spaces, and
The
precinctsof temples often enclosed, besides numerous
of sacred
and
birds ;
animals
edifices, parks and preserves
the visitor to them
was
regaled by the beauty of the many
of the canals and
the purity of the air '.
trees, the coolness
the magnificent Temple
According to Lucian's
description,
surrounded
of Aphrodite at Cnidos
was
by a park of fruitbloomed
well and
trees, planted for their beauty, which
afforded
myrtles, laurels, tall
ample shades : they were
and
all ivy-clad, with
vines
planes ; the trunks
cypresses
In the shady arbout, amidst
and grapes pendant from them.
of the grasshoppers,seats were
the hum
placed for the banquets
'

Touring

370

under

the

Empire

restored ;
by him
knowledge, and
and
carved
into
of ivory, unworked
there
also masses
were
them
all.
in ancient
figuresof 'Hlkij
style: Verres sacked
In the Temple of the Syrian goddess at Hierapolis,barbarian
Indian
to be
costumes,
jewelry and elephants'tusks were
to the loot brought back
seen
by Dionysos,
; all ascribed
Massinissa

the

without

his

architect,
supposititious

that the tusks

skull he

famous

at the

saw

of

India.

horns, and

bent

were

from

Pausanias

confirms

Temple

it by

of Diana

at

elephant's
Capua. The
by catapults
an

feet long, killed

a
120
jaw-bone
by the river Bagradas in the first Punic War, under
of Regulus, were
preserved in a temple at Rome
skinand

the
the

hide of
At

War.

Numantine
of

Temple
a

bear

he

Hadrian

Olympios

Zeus

Temple

the

snake

had

he

slain to his

crocodile

from

built at

Temple

of Isis in Caesarea,

Indian

an

gave

surmises

the

down

to

snake

to

and

Athens,

of Eros

at

in Mauretania,

orders

the

Thespiae.
in

Pliny's

exhibited
:
neighbouring lake was
it had
been
given by King Juba as a proof that the Nile
from
that lake.
Hanno
the Carthaginian on the West
sprang
of Africa found
and killed three
coast
',
hairy savage women
which
the interpretercalled gorillas(they must
have
been
than
gorillasrather
chimpanzees). Their skins were
kept
in the Temple of Juno Astarte, until the razing of Carthage.
In the
Jugurthine War, the soldiers of Marius
lighted on
animals
like wild
was
fatal, and called
sheep, whose
gaze
Numidian
laid several low, and Marius
cavalry soon
gorgons.
where
sent
the skins to Rome,
treasured
in the
they were
the
Ara
Maxima
the
Forum
near
on
Temple of Hercules

time,

'

Pausanias

Boarium.

Temple

of

the

skeleton

Aesculapiusat Sicyon.

of Hercules, horns
have

saw

been

of Indian

marmots,

frequent sight

in

as

Greek

ants

the

were

word

At

of

whale

Er3rthrae,in
exhibited

at
a

(they

the

temple
cannot

generally impUes).

temples, according to Pausanias,

nuts
consisted
(probably cocoanuts), and reeds
thick as tree-trunks
the root of the cinnamon
as
:
PUny saw
tree on
the Palaa golden plate in a temple built by Livia
on
of Augustus : in a temple of Aesculapius
tium, in honour
at Panticapaeum, a dish was
kept, which had burst by the
water
freezing in it. The great crystal, which
Pliny had
of 150 (Roman)
seen,
pounds in weight, was
given by Livia
to the Capitol
; as a sample of the black spectrous obsidiai}
of

Indian

Touring under
Augustus
made

exhibited
of

out

British

pearls on

Curious

it ;

Caesar

the

bestowed

and

371

four

elephants
of

breastplatemade

of Venus

Temple

Empire

of Concord

Temple

vessels, instruments

be found

to

in the

the

Genetrix.
of

works

art

also

were

in the

temples ; such as a leaden forceps in the

Temple of Apollo at Delphi (showing, according to Erasithe physician,that only the lighterand more
stratus
accessible
teeth
ought to be removed) ; or, at a temple in Smyrna,
mirror
a distorting
; at Erythrae two
amphorae of remarkably
thin clay, made
and
his pupil, vying which
by a master
could

make

stops in
St.
of

the

finer

vessel.

of

Marsyas,
a
huge

temple

Jerome

mentions

Athens

beside

the

Varro

obsolete

an

bronze

Statue

saw

of

ball

Athene,

flute

instrument
the

on

used

as

four

with
;

and

Acropolis
a

test

for

athletes

too
competing in the dySyes: he was
weakly to
and
it. Foreign weapons
also stored
move
implements were
in temples : in the
temple of Aesculapius at Athens
up
Sarmatian
Pausanias
a
saw
breastplate of horse-hooves, and
linen breastplatesin the Temple of Apollo at Gryneum
and
elsewhere.
A bison's horn cased in gold, part of the booty of
with the Getae, was
the war
given by Trajan to Zeis Kao-ios at

Antioch.
Freaks

of

Nature

were

also

occasionally thus

treasured

Pergamenes had bought a basilisk's skin at a high

decorated
was
by Apelles,
price, to protect a temple, which
from
Horace
and
At
birds.
Gnatia,
jeers at incense
spiders
to
altar
fire ; a
said
without
bum
on
an
superstitious
St.
such
fables.
Augustine tells of a
Jew might believe
with
a
of a temple of Venus
candelabrum
in front
lamp,
asbestos
unextinguishable by wind or rain, and explains it as
inside.
daemon
the magic of some
or
Yet
were
common
more
objects of historical interest,
of Julius Caesar,
The
sword
of all ages.
relics of great men,
Vitellius gave
from a temple of Mars.
given to Vitellius,came
Otho had killed himself to another
the dagger with which
temple
of Mars
at
acy,
Cologne : Scaevinus, preparatory to his conspirtocA; a dagger from a temple of Salus or Fortuna, with which
it to Jupiter Ultor on the Capitol.
dedicated
to kill Nero
: Nero
distafi of Tanaquil in a temple
Varro
the spindle and
saw
of Sancus, and
a
royal garb made
by her hands, and worn
up.

by

The

Servius

TuUius, in

temple

of

Fortuna

at

Rome.

In

the

Touring

372

the

under

Empire

still
Augustus could
Jupiter Feretrius
Cossus
Cornelius
Aulus
view
the linen
breastplate which
in singlefight,
the King of Veii Tolumnius
had wrested
from
The
and
consecrated.
ring of Polycrates (with a sardonyx)
in a golden
in the Temple of Concord
exhibited
at Rome
was
of Egypt had
horn
presented by Augustus. King Amasis
at Lindos
to the
Temple of Athene
granted linen armour
cord consistingof 360 threads
in Rhodes,
; Mucianus,
every
from
centuries
of
it in tatters
the friend of Vespasian, saw
The
handling. Delphi possessed an iron chair of Pindar.
of Masistius, who
led the Persian
armour
cavalry at Plataeae,
was
kept in a temple at Athens, together with the sword of
Pausanias
doubted.
the
Mardonius,
genuineness of which
The
to be seen
at Sparta ; the harness
lance of Agesilaos was
disused

and

of

temple

lance

of Alexander

Mithiidates'

armour

in the

of

shape

the

Great

Nemea

at

Gortys in Arcadia, and

at

and

Delphi

fruit-tree,part of Alexander's

candelabrum

Theban

booty,

Apollo at Cumae, could be seen in the

of four statues, which
:
Temple of Palatine ApoUo at Rome
in front
had
tent, two
supported Alexander's
might be seen
of the Temple of Mars
Ultor, and two in front of the Regia
(the dwelling of the Pontifex
Maximus).
dedicated

and

But

the

schools,
their
was
even

by

him

to

Heroes, celebrated
better

were

relics

in

known

than

the

appreciated ; the
equally accepted, for tradition
though fabulous in part. And

remains

more

the

were

most

and

common

taught"ofin

poetry, and

historical

and
figures,
genuineness of them
ranked
with
history,
of heroic

the

most

relics,Trojan

widely distributed : an egg of Leda, that

ostrich egg
a temple-roof at Sparta, probably an
to the temple of Athene
goblet given by Helen
said

Rhodes,

be

to

the

for

Zeus,

sword
were
arrows

the

preserved

in
the
of

wooers,

was
a

be

to

temple

cloak

and

Teucer,
the

to

Apollo

the
the

armour

web

time

and

an

at

the

electron

Lindos

ship of

of

Chaeroneia,

at

seen

of

the

breast

from

hung

;
Justinian at Rome
and
in Euboea
at Geraistos
a ship dedicated
by Agamemnon
of the
to Artemis
at Cassiope in Corcyra the petrifiedboat
:
Phaeacians.
The sceptre of Agamemnon,
forged by Hephaistos

Aeneas,

down

size of her

They

valued.

were

in

the

of

and

in

his

shield

Sicyon's ayopd,where
of Odysseus, the bow
Penelope, the dress of one

rowing-polesand

helm

of

the

and
also
and
of

Argonauts,the

Touring under
kettle, in which
and

forth.

so

of

old Pelias
In

Sarpedon

closed

her

in

smelt

But

of

of the

skins

clay, whence
of

temple

human

at

Prometheus

Olympia

suckled

who

goat Amalthea,

papyrus
relics there
also

earlier

remains

front

like

strangers, and

on

373

boiled, the skin of Marsyas,

gates

Panopeus,

men,

been

Empire

a
Lycian temple there was
Pliny is only surprised because

unobtainable.
at

had

the

Zeus

letter

papyrus

Egypt

then

elsewhere

was
were

in Phocis

Prometheus

made

these

remains

of the

ivory horn
in the Temple of
The
Argonauts.

an

Samo-

same
by the
at two
thing might be seen
places,e.g. the hair Isis tore out
at Osiris' death, at Coptos, and
at Memphis.
in agony
Two
each
cities in Cappadocia lay near
Comana
other, both named
;
sword
be
at both
The
seen.
Heroes, on
might
Iphigenia's
left relics even
their wanderings, had
in the Westerly lands ;
arrived in some
In Gades
other fashion.
or they had
a golden
belt of Teucer
to be seen
was
; at Circeii a goblet of Odysseus,
at Capua the loving-cup of Nestor
Proco; at Beneventum,
of the
the tusks
saw
Calydonian boar, slaia by
pius even
three
the
Diomede,
:
legendary founder
they were
spans
of Grefek
in barbarian
countries, reminiscences
long. Even
travellers,
legend might be found, brought there by Greek
Thus
at the Isle of Meninx
and
clung to by the natives.
(Gerbi),amongst other reUcs, an altar erected by Odysseus ;

thrace

or,

at

of

the

titanic

consecrated

cups

the

of

mouth
with

Argo,

size and

he

accepted

the

mountain

which

who

here

these

placed

bones

to

bathed

the

landing

the
Rome

after

the

of

Jonah

but,

were

stretch

blood-stained

the

In

bound.

lay

in ruins

Abs5n:tus, the brother

reputed the
spot at

Greeks
;

bones
and

of

Scaurus

Josephus' day,

to

be

seen,

water,

and
in

sea-

the

Jews,
transported

to

in

of

shown

was

was

the

to

excuse

shackles

of Andromeda's

time,

Andromeda

he

its

anchor

stone

in Colchis

the

released

ancient

Prometheus

of
grave
Palestine
was

in

anchor

modernity, despite

Caucasus

the

which

exhibited

furnished

monster

In

iron

an

saw

an

city of Apsarus

the

Joppa

Perseus

of
But

style.

to

on

Arrian

appearance

credible.

as

yet the natives

Medea.

an

ancient

Procopius'time
of

Phasis

the

the

traces

in Pausanias'
which

Perseus

fight.

generallyengaged
at the
or
explainers (efij-yijTdt)
temples.
guides {TrepiriyrjTaC}
Visitors

stranded

in

town

without

host

Touring under

374

and, in Greece, in the smallest

he

Empire

they did
by Lucian's

tovms

fail.

not

The

True History,
certaintyof their supply is evidenced
in which
world
the
the upper
to tourists from
they narrate
damned.
of the
reasons
Generally
punishments of the
priestsand temple-servants acted as ciceroni ; official guides
being only found at the largestand most
frequented places.
authors
well-informed
be
these
men,
Occasionally
might
their
of monographs
on
city'santiquities,like a physician
at Hermione
irtpcr/yi/TiJs

and

parrot-guides.Their

; but

and

now

company,

of them

most

were

then

mere

required,

and
at
might often be irksome, especiallyto cultured men
they gabbled out
places like Olympia and Athens, when
their explanations and popularizedstories, and gave directions
of Hecate
to the art of the place'. Pliny mentions
as
a statue
:
in the
at
Temple of Diana
Ephesus in dazzling marble ;
the vergers warned
tourists not to gaze on it too long.
If ',
banished
from
the legends were
Greece, guides
says Lucian,
would
of Plutarch's
starve
; for truth is unpalatable'. In one
shorter
works
visit is recorded
made
to
a
by a company
Delphi. Nothing could induce the guides to abridge their
what
all had
commentaries
on
agreed to visit : they read
but could
out loud
not
answer
any
every single inscription,
the
official
outside
question
patter.
In
Little
tourists
Greece
and
Asia
guides entertained
of the heroes, a more
with
anecdotes
congenial subject to
familiar to the educated
historical figures.
than
all, and more
Roman
of travel
this clearly. Pomponius
show
accounts
Mela's
reminiscences
are
more
mythological ttian historical.
In the xiopoypo"f)id
(now lost) utilized by Solinus, Nature
and
The
lists appended
features.
m3rthology are the two
itineraries
the
of the
to
isolated
one
archipelago, contain
otterwise
to white
reference
marble
of Paros, and
merely
legend ; the birth of Juno at Samos, of Apollo and Diana
'

'

'

at

Delos, the

abandonment

advent

of

Dionysus

in the

East

maintained

to

of

Ariadne

her.

save

themselves

Tacitus,
in

in

Egypt,

Canobus

the

his
does

curtailed
not

steersman

omit

account

the

Greek

legends

well, such

myth at Thebes, the Prometheus

the
the Argonauts at Colchis, and

myth
Perseus
of

as

in

the

the

legend
of

the

localized
Memnon

Caucasus,
at

Germanicus'

derivation

of Menelaus

and

Naxos,

at

Joppa.
journey

Canobus

though Aristides

from
learnt

Touring under
from

Egyptian priestthat

an

had

and

been

used

of Menelaus.

the

the word

thousand

ten

Empire

tale died

meant
years

hard

375

'

golden ground ',

before
the landing

Ammianus

Marcellinus

it.

repeats
Both
the

Yet

the

Greek

spot

and

Roman

tourists

enjoyed being

told

on

'

the

of its past wove

legends a people amorous
into its grey
of ruins, even
beginnings '. In the absence
of antiquity were
traces
descanted
As
Aristides
on.
says,
the
nook
be
on
must
:
everywhere talk ran
bygone
any
the remains
of a
a monument,
spring,the chamber
rpmriuov,
of Helen
Harmonia
Leda.
From
or
or
the Troezenian
Temple
of Aphrodite Phaedra
on
gazed down
Hippolytus, who
and a m5rrtlewith pierced leaves
was
:
running on the course
had
been
pierced by her in her misery with a hairpin. On
this
and

had

his eyes
Aulis there

with
At

stood,

snake

harbour

the

followed
Aulis.

to

in

stone

which,

on

devoured

of the

of

Salamis

old

the

ship on

which

was

before

the
and

sparrow

Telamon

spring by

Ajax

had
was

the

which

of assembled
eyes
her brood
of nine

sat

sailing
plane
Greece,

relic

preserved. Near
Sparta, on the road to
of Modesty, where
Icarios had
statue
a
taken
overArcadia, was
chariot
the
which
on
Odysseus was
bearing away
Icarios
him
of
consent
his
and besought
:
repented
Penelope
his daughter not
him
to leave
:
Odysseus bade her choose
wood

father

between

back

turned
where

sought

the

at

of the

tombs
the

the

at

his

has
shown

at

grave

sea),and

set

Ilissus, of

the

on

Icarios

was

Aristomenes

times

land

also

were

imitated

of AchiUes
where
at

Troy

grave

at

of

that

of

Messenia,

died.

tombs

of his to Hector's

mentions

in Greece,
of

epigram

Ihum,

(ithad been
Epamiaondas
and
worthily

grave,
sacrificed at all the

; an

ander
Alex-

Alexander

Pompey's

Pausanias

tourists

later

tomb

Babylon
of Ajax

he visited

survived.
to

It

spot.

Caracalla

the

Germanicus

that

herself.

sacrifice at their graves.

Thus,
and
Glabrio
ascended
Oeta,

at

house

tomb.

of

men

stone, sacrificed at

great men

the

of Hercules.

the

the

by

inscribed

restored

great

AciUus

Pyre

the

veiled

its saga.

of

Manius

restored

laid waste

manes

had

she

marked

statue

Great, sacrificed

Trajan

Hadrian

husband

pietasoffered

Roman

sacrificed

an

the

B.C.,

191

and

and

stone
every
reminiscences

The

in

was

amongst

the

King Codrus
of

Demosthenes

on

Touring under

376

Calauria, and

at
of

its

and

great

respect,

his

the

main

of

all, and

of interest

in Greece

the
On
camps.
fallen, of Miltiades and

of the

zealous,

most

the

greatness.

centres

plain

and

battlefields
tombs

of

richest

the

thronged cemetery
But

Every city treasured the memorials

of Pindar
Thebes
possessed the tomb
in this
But
Athens,
house
by Dirce.

of

was

Empire

others.

men

remains

the

the

the

were

of

Persian

Marathon,

marble

trophy

the
were

of

the
horses
and
preserved, and, at night, the neighing
The
ruins of temples
trampling of the hosts might be heard.
still seen
Later
burned
by Pausanias.
by the Persians were
We
writes
also commemorated.
', Arrian
saw
epochs were
Sea from
the same
to Hadrian,
the Black
spot as Xenophon
stone
too'.
the
of unhewn
did and
He
altars
replaced
you
altars correctly
with
ungrammatical inscriptionsby marble
'

'

inscribed.the East
in Greece
and
the Great
steps of Alexander
In Plutarch's
time
ancient
out.
an
were
lovingly tracked
which
his tent had
the Cephissos was
oak
on
shown, under
it the
been
spread at the Battle of Chaeroneia, and near
of the
Macedonians.
King Mithridates, on
general grave
his campaign in Phrygia, stayed for the night, for good luck's
inn as Alexander.
At Tyre a spring was
sake, at the same
Alexander
dreamed
he captured a satyr :
at which
shown
dream
a
interpretedas referringto the taking of Tyre. At
Indus), the Egyptian merchant
Minnagara (on the Lower
visit the spots consecrated
in India
would
by the memory
of the Macedonian
by chapels,altars and encampments
army,

The

wells.

and

The

Alexandria, in

at

crypt

which

Alexander's

preserved in a glass coffin in honey, was

probably
visited
forbidden
to
all
the
who
it,
seen
Emperors,
though
by
of the visits to it of Caesar,
We
know
ordinary tourists.
it up :
walled
CaracaUa
but
Severus, who
Augustus and
body

also

was

it.

saw

The

Mohammedans

reverenced

so-called

'

Alexandria.

Just as you ', Pliny

campaigns, are shown
says, in describing Trajan's distant
of great generals, the
time
will come
the
remains
sacred
when
posteritywill long to see, and wiU bring their children

tomb

of

Alexander

at

'

to

see,

you
houses

the

field where

rest, the
you

you

rocks

honoured

as

sweated,

the

jwhich protected
a

guest

'

: a

afforded

trees

that

your

slumber,

the

accordprophecy fulfilled,

Touring under

378
and

Plutarch

the

Empire

of Bedriacum

the battlefield

and

the

Palestine

and

monument

of Otho.

SimilarlyJews
visited

Biblical

Noah's

Ark

in

Christians

and
sites.

on

mentions

Josephus

mountain

in

Adiabene), and the pillarof

turned
seen
(he had himself

was

the
as

and,

it);

pilgrimages

in either

Testament

Pilgrims'Route

the

and
the

to

spake

Holy

was

the

cloisters

also

shown.

visited

were

Rebecca
which

at

and

her

sisters.

in 510

and

animals

sucked

History, in
Nero

under

we

the

them

was

song
from

and
the

the

Seven

up.

Or

devoted

rities
autho-

as

Jerusalem,
journey

Bordeaux

to

God

whence

camels

drink

to

of

Abraham,
flock

Rachel's

which

the

huge stone
Gaulish
lady did

the

not

see

the

as

Motive

described,

the

was

main

'

dangers

Thebes,

live the

have

tourists, as the following lines of

the wonders
of Etna
show
To
on
:
ancient

tales of old lore from

we

But

manner

face

of

famous

place

pilgrim of her

the

gave

Art

2.

with

walls

We

century.

it down.

temples
the

fourth

place of it ; she will not deceive

it was
Piacenza
But
visited by a pilgrim from
still upright ; and he says it is not true that
was

had

Roman

terebinth

Jacob

near

"

for

huge

no

from

Hebron,

near

thbmbush,

tended

Jacob lifted off the well.

the pillarof salt, but only

wife

well-kept garden in front

round
Moses
it, and the spot where
At
Carrhae
in Mesopotamia,
the
in

then

was

with

one

visited.

The

places (383-5).

which

at

spring

un

of 333 a.d.
noble GauUsh

in fire to Moses,

stood

and

tale of

the

church

left

was

and

common,

were

Lot's

which

into

of

others

(placed by

and
graves of the grandsons of Abraham
old as the world.
By the beginning of the

Christian

of

salt

remains

the

Armenia

in

elsewhere

of land

ancient

and

folk to folk ;

built

by

and

treasures

two

sea
now

at

Roman

behold

poet
ful
beauti-

sacred

antiquities,
; greedily seeking the
glad to see the Ogygian

brothers

times, gazing

incentive

scarce

stones

akin

which

moved

there
to

the srrioke
arose
string,and at the altar whence
double
at the spot where
offering; and we wonder
Heroes
swallowed
wrought and Amphiaraus was
and
the Eurotas
the
City of Lycurgus and their

company

who

followed

them

unto

death

enchants

Touringunder
Or

us.

we

the

Empire

Athens, proud in her

see

Athene.

Here

Theseus

379

rtiinstrels and

forgot

to

hoist

her
the

tectress
prowhite

signal to his father on his return ; Athens, too, bears the

star : thence
a famous
guiltof the tragic fate of Erigone,now
bom

was

who

Procne,
bare

on

nests

fields.

fell with

that

He,
Yea,

her

little

with
works
Of

the

swift, and
proceeds on

pictures and

with
Svo/xenj

the

the
to

woods

statues

as

father

veiled,

of art make

or

hops about
Pergamus

cross

many

cultured

nothing

could

look

the

land

Romans
and

of

on

and

him

detain

in

great

motive
the

'Ava-

:
many
the
terrible, with

sacrifice

of

Myron.

These

Iphigenia

to visit them

sea

their

Little Asia.

further

attract

work

some

of Hector.'

avenger
art

dripping hair, Medea

playing at her feet, the

of art in Greece
that

vocal

the wild, who

her

ones

course,

Tereus

the

gaze on the ashes of Troy, and

Hector's
of the
fall,see the little mound

however,
Greek

roofs

on

inhabits

now

We

Achilles

Hector,
'

Philomele, who

travels
Cicero

Greece

the

saw

says
; he

of

many
'.
sures
trea-

Pompey,

would

not

statuary and painting of Greece, which

others
also
several
mentions
generally pilfered. Cicero
of art stolen by Verres
from
works
from
and
private owners
In
to
been
taken
see.
temples, which
every visitor had
the chapel of Heius
at Messana
there was
a Cupid of Praxiteles,
Hercules
of Myron,
two
a
Kovri^poiof Polycletus. The
In
house, though private, was
a
general tourists' resort.
Syracuse a picture of a cavalry battle of Agathocles in the
a
was
principalfeature, as at Segesta the
temple of Minerva
Prostatue
of Diana,
which
Cicero
as
Quaestor also saw.
pertius,in Athens, aimed at studying Plato and Demosthenes
and
art
also the
and
and
sculpture in bronze
Menander,
and
ivory. Apuleius notes his seeing the portraitof Phidias
the Acropolis of Athens.
the shield of Athene
on
on
fame
and
Works
of art of universal
individually known
the
such
to
cultured
as
larger cities of Greece
man,
any
times
the Empire, were
under
still possessed even
always and somementioned
of those
expressly visited, though many
by Cicero as being in Greece and Little Asia had been removed
Cicero's time
to
Rome.
In
Th^piae was
always visited
solely for a Cupid of Praxiteles, and, according to Pliny,
the masterpiece of
for his Venus,
Cnidos
reputed by some
even

the

world.

at

'You

travel

to

Olympia',

says

Epictetus,'to

Touring under

380
the

see

of Phidias, and

Zeus

having

viewed

it'.

but

well have
may
But
everywhere

Roman

travel

; art

interest in art
name

was
or

tourist, says

This

the

it ill-luck

deem

is

remark

seen,

he says,
make

addressed

Once

work.

and

came

and

seen,

looked

letter to

Cicero

is

of

ancient

much

so

sat, talked

her

Greek

for

her

great

art,

as

and

lie buried

Nature

" 3.
Nature,

for

typical.

much

recreation, says

more

as

than

and

'

cal
historiPlaces

',

reverenced,

Athens

where

have

to

mainly

buildingsand
men,

the

picture, and

order
is

interest

Athens

on

in

saw

all ;

was

the

at

containing tracks of those endeared

certain impression on us.
My darhng

not

Greeks,

to

that

'

me,

without

applicable to Romans.
the
object of
history and not art was
is only incidentallymentioned.
Generally
stimulated
brated
superficial,
only by the cele-

Tacitus,

Atticus'

die

to

been

Roman
satisfied.
The
away
like modem
Englishmen whose

went

Empire

attracts

monuments

they dwelled,

'.

an

Incentive

art, attracted

Atticus, is afforded

by

Travel

to

Roman

the

Nature

more

than

by art.
But
different from
that
of our
the feeling was
days,
very
not direct,but aroused
by celebrity,
rarityor sanctity.
Its main
differentia was
its religious
character
: the ancients
remarkable
divine
daemonic
to
attached
a
or
phenomena
the Greeks
evoked
This awe
awe.
content, which
personified
in

m3rths
mystery,

to

the

ItaUans

remained

it

strange present

'

shapeless weaving and swajdng of impersonal

The
which
spirits pervading all Nature.
religioussense,
felt every
single instant the influence of protecting powers,
most
excited by free Nature.
Wherever
intimate
was
some
fine view stirred
place aroused pleasant recollections, or some
fruitful valley or
fertile field provoked the
the
soul, some
erect a simple altar, with
of a divine boon, they would
sense
in gratitude to the
unknowable
a
sculptured snake
genius
loci.' However
much
the old religionmight have
changed
of
of
in the course
the centuries, the piety
Nature
remained
and to Greeks, and
its evoking causes,
alike to Romans
ever
a

'

'

the

same,

One

never

lost their

hold

quotation from Seneca

of this religionof Nature

on

may
to

man's

exempUfy
be

found

soul.
the many
in Roman

expressions
writers

Touring under

the

'

and

You
The
see
a
poets.
grovev
clustered
together ; their height and
out
shut
the sky, a huge darkness
a

bewilderment
Or

god.
a

has

something higher

well-heads

the

has

its way

eaten

ancient
their
in the

teaches

you,

deep grotto

some

alone, and
feels

seizes

Empire

far into
and

the

are

fields.

open

to

of

presence

by

out

solid rock

it is meet

And
a

Nature

; the

soul

place altars

and

spot where
bursts forth from
the dark
hot springs
a torrent
earth, where
bubble
lakes
unfathomable
or
mysteriously sombre.'
up, or
In such solitudes, divinity seemed
and
nearer
more
present ;
than
in the turmoil
of streets, was
the religious
and, more
manifested
old trees, or enclosed
: the twiUght of caves
or
sense
to
the
wanderer
hills, moved
involuntary worship. Thus
frequented not only for
places, naturally beautiful, were
their beauty, but to worship the god of that locality.
man's
to light without
work, a
Living water, that came
caput aquae, with a perpetua causa, as the juristssay, received
Into these sacred
worship, both in and after Pagan times.'
be
wells offeringswould
thrown, coins especially(they are
and springs),
and chapelserected.
in river-beds
often found
now
of the Seine at the end
source
Thus
there was
a temple at the
of the first century ; and
a
magnificent shrine, built in a
sheer
to the
semicircle
cUff, overlooking the loveliest
on
erected
the
over
of views
(itsruins are still imposing), was
spring in the Djebel Zaghuan, with its crystal waters : it
were
fed the aqueducts of Roman
Carthage, which
probably
it in the
Arabs
included
Caracalla
and
built by Severus
; the

reverence

of

thicklyinterlacingfoliage
trees

the
you
hollowed

been

381

great streams,

the

'

'

'

From

beauty.
cold, of

At

the

less

no

into

sources

green,

by

its

its

forth, ice-

ashes

lined

stream

ancient

an

sanctity than

it welled

reflecting the

navigable
stood

of the CUtumnus

source

cypress-crowned hill

transparent

expanding

houses.

visitors

attracted

in Umbria

bank,

Thus, too, the

of the World.

Wonders

on

with

country-

and

temple

either

several

under
Theofor Christian
use
chapels (one, reconsecrated
with
covered
and
columns
were
still exists): walls
dosius
visitors.
the
numerous
Caligula once
inscriptions from
of the
and
source
the grove
to see
journeyed to Mevania

CUtumnus.

There

have

must

Pliny says, springsfrom

the grottoes the
Of

been

beautiful
most

others
many
well-head.

famous

was

the

the

Corycian

Po,

on

Parnassus.
he

the

Touring under

382
had

Pausanias
and

seen,

Cilicia, a
wonderful

from

ravine

roof, and

torch-light darknesses

of

gods

The

of

Corycos

near

describes
It

Asia.

made

and

the

name

subterranean

the

nymphs,

same

three

the

caves

noises

the

other

seem

the

Grotto

the
of

music

water

twilight
dwellings
daemons.

in Cihcia,

according to
off any
from
one
Pomponius Mela, awed
penetrating them.
All the largercaves
had their deities and images of them.
Once ',
Equally natural was the veneration of giant trees.
to this
the temples of the gods, and
says Pliny, trees were
revere
day the simple dedicate a tall tiee to a god, and we
than
the awing
images gleaming with ivory and jewels no more
silence of groves '.
In the depths of forests the mysterious
to the ancients
fear, which
signifiedthe approach of godhead,
felt most
was
deeply. Pausanias
gives a list of prehistoric
recesses

Corycian

in these

streams

in

strange if the

not

was

beautiful

most

formations, the drippings of

and

or

and

greatest and

Pausanias

in Little

caves

stalactites

the

of the

another

huge

great sacred

calls it the

Empire

'

'

in

trees

the

olive

the

on

at

Delos

which

in

Pliny's time

The

oldest

tree

on

of

the

the

at

Athenian

natural

in

Samos,

Rome,

revered

which

to

the

than

Nero's

the
of
were

were

evidentiy

pine on Mount
Pergamus had
more

be

visited

(220 feet

written, and
desired

more

to

be

standing

city, a cypress

lotusa
years,
Lucina
(which was

in the

in

amongst

height) on

several
barren

huge
mazes

few

others,

stand.

Such

them

which

were

Attalos

planes.
of rocks

'

What
in the

worshipped and admiredj than the

full bright foUage on
tree
with
a
trunk, with
green-grey
at
brooks
its feet, refreshing the
murmuring
succeeding
of
Pausanias
?
men
generations
gives prominence to the
plane at Caphyae in Arcadia, planted either by Menelaos
Greece
derived
and
trees
or
joy in them
Agamemnon.
from
Asia, where the plane and cypress had long been revered
and
the tribes West
of them.'
In Auloby the Iranians
in Phrygia in Pliny's time, the plane was
shown
which
crene
South,

and

to

much

Ida

be

Apollo

latter
of

Temple

the

old), itself said to be older, and

450
years
besides huge trunks
in which
several men
could
trees

of

palm

said

Dodona,

at

impossibiUty for the date-palm.

lotusa
according to Pliny, were

fell in

courtyard of

oak

The

was

Vulcanal, said to be older

age,

the

acropolis.
had

Odysseus

trees

same

in the

tree

willow

the

Greece,

'

'

Touring under
Apollo

had

selected

the

Empire

383

for its

height to be a gallows for Marsyas.

One
of the largestplanes was
in Lycia by a spring,no
doubt
also having its myth ; its hollow trunk was
eighty-onefeet round,
and its foliageat the top still spread a broad
circle of shade
:
Licinius Mucianus
the consul
dined
inside it with
eighteen
rested
after
the
guests, and
banquet, and
acknowledged
the view
finer than
from
the gaudy marble
halls of Rome
'.
At Gortyn in Crete
the ever-green
was
plane, under which
Zeus
had
embraced
in poems,
Greek
Europa, and celebrated
and
Latin, which
were
perhaps nailed on to it.
second
for tours
a
Literary fame was
great advertisement
to particular places,just as
Jean Pauls' Titan
popularized
'

the

Borromean

and

Scott

would

be

his

Grotto
'

on

Peneus

in
both

sides

has

Mela's

district

of

account

the

poetical ring, like Pliny's

soft inclines

flows

rate

placesalready mentioned

Pomponius
Cilicia

forties,

up to the
much-described

of the

most

celebrated.

Corycian
of Tempe,
the

Ischia, at any

highlands.

own

largelyvisited

thus

were

Isles and

rise till lost to

with

view

banks,
through
grassy-green
from
the
avenues,
singing
tree-tops'. Tempe
of
the places,imitations
of which
was
one
decorated
Hadrian's
house
at
Tibur.
Seneca
inquired of his friend Lucilius,
who
had toured
through all Sicily,only after the real nature
of the whirlpool of Charybdis : he already knew
that
Scylla
harmless
rock.
St. Jerome, in a brief accoimt
of his
a
was
journeyfrom Italy to the East, says he had all the old legends
of Scylla told
him
at
Rhegium, of Ulysses' danger-ridden
with

the

course,

between

birds

of

songs

the

Sirens

and

the

insatiable

of

maw

'

Charybdis.

in one
of his letters,
Travelling', says Seneca
wiU do you good by giving you knowledge of peoples,shapes
of mountains,
lengths,valleys
plains extending to unknown
unusual
with
waters
eternal
some
trickling through, or
'

river, such
which
or

in
more

as

vanishes

the

the

sensible'.

beauty,but

These

their

Rome,

mountains,

and
or

floods,

summer

you will not

rivers

attract

greatness, fame

linaris Sidonius, in
to

its

itself,but

about

round

with

or

the

Tigris

broad
as
as
ever,
sight,and re-emerges
common-place of poets,with its contortion

from

the Maeander,
and

Nile

letter

tells what

to

famous

poets'streams

be

become

better

people, not

for

or

their

strange qualities. Apol-

or

friend, describes

his

journey

cities,battlefields,sacred
has

seen.

'

As

we

are

born

loftythings ', says

to

admire
the

little

not

Nile, the

of Nero
of

poets.

Lucan

and

we

These

in

the

to

come

West

and

Lucian's

and

its

streams,

from

verses

great attraction, abnormal

third

to

Sabinus

in

travelled

Gaul.

Gades

to

of the

tides

the

see

near

passed by, as being in

sightsare sought abroad.

are

West

Vadimonis

Lake

in

islands

in the

Gaul

friend

of other

courses

The

'.
'

cleft

yawning

quotations are

says,
remarkable

more

Greeks
of

coast

Ocean

the

we

useful, but

and

clear

into

'

Suhlimitate,

De

Dionysius (under Hadrian), the writer

also deal with the same
verse,
topics.

similar, not

Romans

the

fabulous

or

The
floating
phenomena.
Ameria, Pliny the Younger

Italy

of

Rhine, and
'

Tigris

many

Empire

however
the

flow ',real

geography

Thus

the

the

author

and

Danube

underground

exercised

the

streams,

disappearanceof
'

under

Touring

384

or

Atlantic,

as

had

Philostratus

the

did
also

for
ApoUonius go to Gades
the
to this day
he tells the superstitionbelieved
:
purpose
certain coasts, that the soul cannot
on
depart the body except
Dio
ebb-tide.
and
Cassius
at
Strabo, Apuleius, Galen
ravine
describe
near
a
HierapoUs in Phrygia, out of which
and
carbonic
acid came
animals
forth, and killed men
(except,
as
they said, eunuchs) : they experimented with birds and
other
animals.
This place was
much
frequented, a building
convenient
view : Dio calls it
was
put up affording a more
these

seen

tides,

theatre, and

Ammianus

and

makes

Strabo

does

Marcelhnus,

all

into

the

mention

not

the

sight had
deadly fumes

spots, whence

descents

his

Nether

world

it ;

been

forgotten.

arose,

believed

of

time

in the

ally,
Naturto

be

(Avemi, Xaptoveta) were

Cumae
still
the
lake
near
similarly frequented : such was
made
worldwith
called Lago d'Averno,
its solfatara, and
real or
famous
by Virgil. To count
up only the celebrated
less fabulous, would
or
imaginary freaks of Nature, all more
sufficient have
be impossible : and
already been instanced.
interest in Nature
is proved by the
Next, an immediate
well-known

Roman

occasioned

also

but

it

the

city, and

to

was

have,

mean

as

earth

mother

in

the

by

love

the

desire

Greek
'

country life.

It may
have
been
in the summer
of Rome

insanitarycondition

enjoy
a

of

the

to

quiet

writer

and

comparison with

often
the

the

escape
and

solitude
'

says,

bustle

the

enough,

of

and
the

dirt of

country,

refreshing sight
man's

work

sempiternalsplendourof

of

seemed
Nature.

386

Touring

writers

well

as

the

green,
of the
may
the

and

birds

dreamed

true

place

-^''^This love

essential.
of

more

was

or

epoch took
Cyzicene rooms.

this

door, and

'

both

sides
there

evidently designed

were

this

Venetian
was

for

the

mentions

Vitruvius

summer.

any
the
In

time

Nature

was

rate, the

and

had

in

into

the

enjoyment
them

as

were

the

custom

feelingfor Nature

windows,
view

the

of

plans

lajdng

passion

lay North,

These

triclinia in them

two

the

on

of

account

songs

sohtude

the

in

At

own.

our

silent

gardens and views

Pliny, Epicurus was

which

to

the

thought.

and
of the AiaSoxoi,

less similar

in

Romans,

evidenced

was

According to
gardens in town.

time

in at the

poetry and

of

rich, in

the

of

first architect
came

Nature

the

human

to

view, the

distant

breeze, where

and, to

r.uijjiic

the

or

fresh

the

away
of birth

of

homes

deemed

river,

murmuring

be

city

the

on

iiic

superiorityof Nature
refreshingglimpses of

the

celebrate
dwell

and

makings,

unaer

houses,

out

the

invented
the

middle

and

from

the

They
open.
of Nature
in

part of

Greek

occasionally,in his time, used in Italy. Cyzicene

influence.
rooms
spread in Italy with Hellenistic
Pliny
had
them.'
Sulla's
in
two
time
the
gardens
By
Younger
Roman
city houses had gardens and parks. The six lotusin 22 b.c. valued
trees in Crassus'
garden on the Palatine were
sesterces.
Cicero's
as
high as the palace itself,at 3,000,000
the Quirinal; it formerly
his house
had
on
friend Atticus
belonged to one Pamphilus ; he inherited from his maternal
the park. Sallust's exaggerated
feature was
its main
uncle
:
phrase of palaces built like cities,points to the frequency
of large gardens in Rome.
Horace, too, makes
repeated
and groves between
the gaily statued
allusions to Uttle woods
view
with a wide
fields was
house
a
on
:
peristyles
highly
The
to
was
recommended.
assimilate
tendency
always
the
villa.
to
Martial
house
the city
describes the
country
the
which
on
was
Petilian
highest part of Rome
:
palace,
its
urbe
in
it was
a
rus
vintages better than those from
;
Falernian
a
vineyard ; carriage-drivesmight be had inside
immune
from
the noise
the grounds, and
of the
sleep was
In Philostratus,the owner
streets and the glare of day.
of a
large house in Rhodes, which cost twenty-four talents ("$,700)
house,

to

build, remarks

walks

and

groves

that

he need

in it.

Even

not

go out

bath-rooms

much,

might

as

there

have

were

distant

Touringunder
views.

Seneca

bath-rooms

of pomp,

the

large windows

fit for

only

seas

that

observes

without

the

moths.

Nero's

noticeable

Empire

387

luxurious

rich

fields and

looking

out

Golden

Palace,
and

deemed

on

the

type

'

gold
and
ponds, and mock-forests
A juristof the second
views.
century,writing of charges on
estates, says that they consist not in doing something, but in
need
not
allowing or not doing something, as e.g. that a man
his house
decorate
with
paintings,or lay out a garden, or
not

was

luxury ', but

beautiful

a
arrange
If this

always

for its lawns

was

be

the

and

Rome

towns,

MartiaUs

Juhus

friend

on

the

in

country villas would

Martial

his

the

All

praises the villa of

Janiculum for its view.

up to the Albanian
all the little towns, the

Campagna

be

discerned, and

the

Tiber

up
positionof the

to

usual

and

eminences.

on

silver,

view.
inside

so

for

MoUe

Ponte

with

Younger PMny's

Roman

busy

its burden

Tuscan

of

villa

could

main

roads,

boats.

The

be instanced

can

framed
plain could be seen
in, like an amphitheatre,by the Apennines : from the loftier
fields,
peaks old forests clad the slopes, with intervals of cornvineyards, green floweringmeadows, and in the valley
This loftyview was
streamlets.
the Tiber and many
a great
the
like a picture; and
more
eye was
pleasure; it was
with
charmed
variety.
Hardly ever in ancient literature,as we may expect in the
not
only the
South, is a waterless
country praised. It was
pleasantgaze on the limitless blue of the sea, on the reflections
and
in the lakes, the
foaming
streams, and
silvery brooks
the
cooler
but also
waterfalls that attracted
atmosphere.
men,
of water
ever3rthing
Further, in the South, in the absence
is grey and
dry ; only on the banks is the green fresh, the
is fairer
What
vegetation luxuriant, the trees shady.
the

as

ideal.

mountains

broad

'

than

water

'

the

of

Vale

The

of

charm

rocky
four

ravine

miles

Olympus
Olympus
there

is

Tempe,
the

'.

The

river

narrow

river

of Nature.

ideal

scenery
valley with

river

lakes,

broad

ravines,

Peneios

to

the

here

the

but

ancients,

wild
enters

steep offshoots
long, between
covered
sheer
down,
descending

presents
a

lovers

the

valleys attracted

of inland

shores

trickling rills and

with

dales

narrow

The

Petronius.

asks

ravine

Ossa

from

of

some

and

foUage.
right bank

with
the

sheer

belt

of fertile land, sometimes

on

unites

grandeur

but

rock,

'

widening

under

Touring

388

the

Empire

with
grass,
plains,containing springs,and covered
The river flows through peacefully,
laurels, planes and oaks.
to
and
here
there
a
forming an islet, var5dng in breadth
rock channel, canopied with plane-trees,
narrow
impenetrable

into

little

the

to

sun.

Thus

in all

the

water

are

in

Sabine

the

Bandusia

first

constituents.

Mountains
its

with

had

babbling

'

was

ruins

on

doubt

no

Roman

Far

the

of the

and

woods

there

into
the

are

shows

that

ruins

in

love

of Nature.

for
owners,

of

Como

beautiful,

as

to

are

of Con-

date

lake whereon

no

Bracciano

of Tiberius'
(nauo-iA-inrov)

Uned

was

Lake

On

Hedonium.

been

there

project, and no river.

copying his predecessors and
welding all these ponds, lakes

calls the

have

is

Garda

not

the

Pliny
round

with

site of

built

for

the

Younger

villas, as

ranting betrays

time, whose

He

of the

sole domain.

Metia

Cassiodorus'

do

Sans-souci

Lake

on

garden-fashion:

Seneca, there

not

man's

to

Lake

was

', Sirmio

out

rich

Roman

one

belonging

time,

dog-days. Catullus loved

isles and
peninsulas guarded

waves

laid

oak, clearer

ancient

the

other

wide, says

Pliny exalts Trajan

expropriating other
and

and

waters

it, perhaps of thermae

stantine.
villas

then

its

in

crystal and cool even

all things, beyond
above
by Neptune in lakes and

than

it

vegetation and running

Horace's
shady valley
in the
main
charm
spring

Nature

descriptionsof

intense

an

city of

Comum
The

pleasure.

it

so
sea

is

marked
foam, and
shell-shaped,its borders
by the white
cased in by high mountains
: the shores, decorated
praetoriorum
luminibus, with the splendours of its palaces, are belted round
with
olive-woods.
from
the
lulls,
Vineyards hang down
of
their
with
wreaths
chestnuts.
ridges crowned
Snowy
A
waterfalls
into
the
lake.
brates
Carolingijinpoet celepercolate
the beauty of Como,
its green
spring-Uke,
grass ever
the oUves
all
and
laurels and
sides,
on
myrtles, granates,

damsons
had

and

its

sounding
Lambro

which
The

famous

ApoUinaris Sidonius, in a
describes
the
rivers of Lombardy

passage,
with
its bulrushes,

the

however,

scenery,

water-mirrors.

Etsch, the
with

Less

lemon-trees.

the

'

Adda,
green
the oak woods

tardy Mincio
; and
singing-birds,and
many

the
course

birds

the

thickets

the
on

of

modem'

the

torrential
its shore,

reeds, in

nested.

of the Anio,

'

the

most

dehghtful

of rivers ',was

Touring under
beshaded

viUas,

with
the

with

its

Anio

and

resounding
the

intermediate

cool

was

could

not

parch

the

Pliny

the

shores

of

than

other

any

water,

in
inner
the

river.

oasis

an

there

in

the

was

heat, and
In

the

like the

the

Attic

the

desert

of

Greek

the

July
the

to

villa

silver

at

poplars,

There, according to
and

villas

situation, its many

planes and

immense

sun

Elder

with

owned

its cool

forest

the leaves.

lined

more

Atticus

'.

the

spot

lofty

reflected

in

groves
birds

feeling of nature
sophists,Josephus paints

manner

of

calm

thick

were

of streams

melody

on

dog-days, and
rooms.
According

Tiber

of

bank,

the

Herodes

shadow

fall

celebrity to the
Vopiscus. described

which

is still,through
Cephisia, which
wells, gardens, ohves, cypresses,
'

the

Tibur

its

either

the

length with

Subiaco.

at

Manilius

waterfalls.

389

all its

owed

two

even

for

Albunea,

palaces on
of

verge
there

of

Empire

Nero's

Tiburnus

estate

between

the

to

in

of

grotto

two

were

lined

being

of

grove
the

On

by Statius,

It

famous

most

waterfall.

came

and

woods,

the

the

greatest
be

to

ever

the

Gellius,
heard.

of his time, and,

region of Lake
Gennesaret
as a
country of marvellous
beauty ',extraordinarily
to the well of Capharnaum.
fertile,thanks
So, too, a notable
GauUsh
pilgrim of the fourth century says she had never
the

'

seen

lovelier

land

Luxorius

depict

Carthage (in
Luxorius
and
and

But,
seashores

Ancient
of
may

the
be

which

extols

their mossy
watchtowers
of all

Yessen

orchards

balsam,
and

than

and

the

(Goshen),
cultivated

poetry

beauty

country of

the

Vandals

debauched

yards,
vine-

Procopius

fields.

pleasure-gardens Rome

erected

near

ease), and

at

full of song-birds,
the clear brooks
groves
banks, the fragrant flowers, and the pavilions

the

rising from the

regions, the ancients

and

meadows.
most

beautiful

were
scenery
legend is full of

and
of

the

seacoast.

One

loved
almost

the

seashore

S5nionymous.

eloquent appreciations
passage

of

Catullus

reproduced :
matutino
qualis flatu placidum mare
incitat
undas,
Zephyrus procliuas
exoriente
Aurora
uagi sub limina soils.
dementi
flamine
pulsae
Quae tarde primum
resonant
Procedunt
plangore cachinni).
(leni
crescente
Post uento
magis magis increbrescunt
Purpureague procul nantes a luce refulgent, (bciv. 269.
Hie

Horriflcans

Touring under

390
Ancient
the

which

fairest

Greeks

and

Romans

to
'

Empire
this theme,

inspirationfrom

much

art, too, derived

sea,

the

noblest

the

was

and

mighty ', Cicero exclaims, describing the

of
wonders
of creation, is the beauty of the sea, the view
its hugeness, the manifold
It
isles, and
deUghtful coasts'.
inexhaustible
and perennialpleasure. Marcus
was
an
Marius,
the friend
of Cicero, had
broken
a
through on his
passage
from
estate
at
Stabiae
(CasteUamare) to gain a free view
his villa on
the
Cicero
to
gulf in the morning shimmer.
I enjoy the view
writes to Atticus
from
from
Puteoli :
Do
the heights more,
the sea
close at hand
I do not know.
?
or
I cannot
'. The
discriminate
and
letters of Cicero
Pliny
the Younger
such
Plutarch
full
of
are
expressions.
brings
forward
the
and a
coast
that
sail
as
common
a
a
along
saw,
walk
the shore
is the
on
pleasure. Libanius, in
supreme
his panegyric on
the absence
Antioch, tries to compensate
of a sea
view by the absence
of the seamy
side of a sea-resort.
The
most
characteristic proof,however, is Justinian'sdecision
that
the view
of
in Constantinople might obstruct
no
one
the sea, a npayfia
by buildingsless than lOO feet
x'^P'^oraToi/,
Procopius, too, exalting the beauty of the situation
away.
the
the Emperor's dwelUngs close
On
Hellespont, describes
the
the
effect of architecture
and the mirroring
on
shore, and
sight.

How

'

'

sea^

^'iBut the
sea,

much

the

whole

Salerno

sites of

the

further

their

the

Gulf

still.

in every
; how

sea

How

testifyto
literature.

this
The

villas lined

of

the

Spezzia to
intensely Romans

fashion, and, the richer

of the

love

at

Gulf

of

aimed

at

least, built

they multipUed and variegated the

of it is shown
views
by the facts alreadybrought forward, and
of his villa at Laurentum.
Pliny the Younger's specialaccount
a
; There was
dining-room built out on the coast so far, as ta
in the South- West.
were
i be sprayed if the wind
Through the
to
the
floor)
folding doors and the windows
(which went
the sea
from
three
sides.
One
window
of a large
was
seen
out

the

villas

does

from

coast

enjoying
into

than

more

and

Roman

sea

room

afiorded

sea-water

window

view

bath

swimming
looked

of

out

three

windows

of

could

be

together

seen

also
the

on
an

the

alcove
or

broad

calm

afforded
sea

and

views

apart

of
and

The

sea.

warm

view, and

an

the

coast.

From

sea,
so

villas
on.

The

upper

and

the
coast

villa

of

Touring under
Pollius

Felix

window

every

the

all, on
fell on

the

on

sea

at

the water

'

the

391

gave

Ischia, Capri and

sunset

and

Empire

of Surrentum

heights

to

on

the

view

Procida,

shadow

of the

from
above

and,
wooded

hills

in the crystal
to swim
palaces seemed
surface'.
Of the pleasure resorts on the West
coast of Italy,
and the North
of Egypt we
coast
have
alreadyspoken. Near
Old
Canobus
the foundations
of a building might recently
be seen, Uke the Roman
villas,built into the sea.
Fragments
of statues lay about
all sides.
In Greece
ruins of Roman
on
villas
Such

with

met

are

the

was

in Uterature.
terrible

or

and

nature

the

beautiful,
of the

framing
in the

hills

splendour

of

Sirmio
not

mountains

desert

the

on

; in the

level

single word
love

of
of

definition

of

the

there

no

charm

shore

to

Desenzano,

praise for
was

the

us

would

melancholy
peninsula
had

have

cUfis.

its bare

intense, but

as

for them

the

and

Riva

or

of the modern

delighted with

of

valleys

horizon,

in the

or

enchantment

was

Nature

was

such,

as

Catullus, who

Ancient
that

but

Mountains

they liked.

aU

were

graceful

majesty,

savage
scenery,
any
they did not admire

monotony

as

celebrated

antiquity and

by

or

coastlands

the

Campagna.

wild

landscape :

or

coasts.

loved

any

sombre

or

the

on

But

hills and

were

the

than

narrower

charming,
modernity. It is typicalof it that amoenus,
the most
was
Quintilian
frequent expression of admiration.
that
the
to
is
attributable
level,
species or beauty
says
charming and marine regions'. To these three catagoriesmay
of

'

be

added

Lucian's

the

countries

Ship,

Fortunatus

the

are

which

the

most

desirable

in

pleasures purchasable by

viz.

with,

dealt

the

as

all the

territoryby

Eleusinian

'

in

mentioned

the

sea,

the

environs
land

of

of

Athens,

Sicyon,

and

part of Greece '. Hermothe rhetor mentions

as
examples of things pleasant in
genes
descriptionand in actuality the beauty of a region,various
plantationsand kinds of running water', and similar features,
in the Phaedrus.
the plane by the brook
recaUing somehow
Libanius
praises Julian the Apostate for selecting Athens
any

shaded, well- watered

and

fertile

'

and

Ionia

not

gardens
But

be

and

fields

express

we

can

his
on

residence
the

disclaimers

Cicero

found.

that

as

come

says,
to

as

like

as

Prince, because

of

the

shore.
of

the

an

instance

any

beauty
region

of

can

of habit,
power
have
long dwelt

of the
we

mountains

Touring under

392
'

in,

mountainous

even

at the

astounded

Arpinum

near

his

friend

could

the

heroic

in nature

mentions
of

rocks

other

Virgil'sadmiration
rustling oaks and

some

'

for

after

one

any

Apennine ', with

Father

confident

and

distant

does

nor

head

snowy
from

is derived

of this distaste

proof

for

by the fact that Cicero never

twenty-fivemetres of the arms
Isola, one
being perpendicular,

incline

sharp

say he had
wondered
how

is afforded

Litis, enclosing the

the

Atticus,

makes

hills,and

and

further

He

Isle of Fibrenus,

of the

it.

falls of

the two

the

and

Uke

Empire

hillyparts '.

and

beauty
only

seen

the

view.

In

his

him.

swaying

wards,
heavengaze
his enthusiastic

Italy's beauty, Virgil praises her fertilityin

oil, wine, herds, her climate, cities,peoples, lakes and
com,
Seneca's
and mines
seas
no
singleword.
; of her mountains
be coloured
impugning of Corsica as a horrible rock may
by his dislike of his enforced residence and his habitual exaggeration
laudation

of

but

the

it also

rich colouration

at the

the

all that

that

island.

Casius

did

joy

that

of

foot of Mount

mountain

shows

demand

can

weUs

inhabitants,
and

blossoms, and

of

them.

the

North

Pole

of the

terror

thousands

and

Switzerland

save

for the

gardens
early springtime.

was

and

the

of

one

word

why

it is

horrifyingbarren
and

and

They

were

horror

Swiss

Silius

wooded

This

in the

the

terrific in

Alps, ruddy at
the glaciers,
of

of

landscape,

ItaUcus

no

avalanches.

no

describes

ancient
the

lovinglydwelling on

said

Alps as
Italy's

shores '.

mentioned
very seldom
infrequency and failure augmented

regarded

had

eye
wilderness

of

blue

majestic

the

enchantment
snow

near

Alpine roads,

numerous

of the

ice

hundreds

year

mule-paths,

narrow

desert, whilst

Mountain-climbings
their

the

every

foeditas

the

land, travellers

eternal

the

magnificence

ravines

the

sunrise, of the marvellous

or

the

crossed

the

with

'

sunset

when

Roman

snow,

sympathy
is why
of

Nature

time

the
of

to

and

blind

was

desolations

equally impervious

been

lavished

and

trees

the

to

difficulties of the

of ice and
of

have

At
scenery.
of Romans

and

lack

travellers

Modem

because

but

song-birds,and a very
world
To
the beauty of the Alps the educated
the
feeling in speaking of
Livy characterizes
of

eye for
Antioch

no

by Libanius,

is celebrated

terrifythe

not

age had
suburb
The

that

as

are

ordeals,

as

in

their

antiquity,
severity.

Pliny's praiseof the

elder

of the
these

principalcrater.
in

Titanic

eternal

the

Empire

Vesuvius

as

been

actuated

Nature.

Seneca

begs

himself

it

done

is from

snow

by

friend

in

his

and

"

than

of

honour

he

"

him

how

The

fire.

an

Lucilius,

inform

showers

the

quiescent,

science

his

ascend

Sicily, to

in

then

was

rather

imperial procurator
would
gladly have
the

But,

will have

ascents

interest

far

under

Touring

394

poem

scientific, and

probably by Lucilius, is purely

says
obtained
the
to
view
be
whilst,
;
absolutely nothing on
is
in scientific
nowadays, even
reports of ascents, the view
Etna
Hadrian
ascended
the
to
rare
see
always described.
from
the summit
sight of the sun emerging from the sea, which
streak.
The
so-called
has the appearance
of a long crooked
Tower
of the
once
Etna,
a
large building
Philosopher on
with
found
in 1541
still to
several
was
by Fazello
rooms,
edifice
it was
consist
in a
certainly
well-preserved brick
;
Gemellaro's
to
of
Roman
theory,
origin, and, according
built
Mount
his ascent.
on
as
a
night-shelter for Hadrian
Casius
and
chmbed
was
by Julian, as the siin
by Hadrian
Etna,

on

could
of

thence

Mount
For

the

be

Ida

it could

all these
of

sense

of
for

the

Lucania

and

of

Bruttii,
desire

longing for an
speaking of the magnificence
endless
variety of vegetation

in
the

in

wells, clear

sharp
this

the

streams,

observation

of the

of size,

variety

hidden

veins

and

rocks

and

was

grotesque

'.
as

and

of
Thus

parts

savage,

and

and

the
and
to
as

silver

Roman

for
and

the

nesses
wilder-

position;
according

contrast.

Cicero,

cites, besides

creation,

by cool inexhaustible
lofty vaulted
grottoes,
limitless
plains : but

of Nature

strangeness

gold

insensible
and

beauty

fed

banks,

green

mountains

jutting

crags,

marble

and

of

the

is shown,

absolute

remark

Seneca's

confirms

change

denied

be

paradise, seek

only

for

it.

top

If individuals

scenery.

evidence

the

daybreak.
Empire must

later

Campanian

of the

strength

the

of mountain

no

of the

Seneca,

to

of

is

weary

those

seen

From

cockcrow.

before

even

beauty

possessed it, there

that

be

reasons

the

second

at

seen

refers
he

goes

the

to
on

her
to

boundless

wonders
add

'

the

masses

feeling regarded mountains

of beautiful
backgrounds
scenery,
the
desolate, the
or
rough, sombre
well as the majestic in Nature.

Touring under
VIII.

THE

DEVELOPMENT
FOR

The

love

Nature

is

OF

THE

of

the

Empire

NATURE

IN

and

mountainous

to-day

scenery
universal
and

FEELING

MODERN

THE

ROMANTIC

395

the

romantic

in

primary that it has

been
ascribed
to antiquity without
in despite of evidence.
or
It is alleged that the epithets wild, savage,
horrible
might
be
used
before
becomes
what
aware
long
thought
high feelings
such scenes
and
arouse
feelingoften go apart '.
; that words
so

so

'

Such

contradiction

proof and inexorable

In general,however,
as

characteristic

the

and

after

hardly
In

the

foreign

hundred

one

dichter
and
the

no

visited
Latin

heroic

afar, nothing
to Nature's

Greeks

as

of

and

pleasantin
Middle

Romans,

landscape,

Yet

the

Ages,

and

least,found

about

but

its

is

an

1750

love
a

of

long

doubtful

universality

old.

infrequent

conventional
lyrics

and

poems

of the

of real

accepted

poetry. Nature

such

thousands

poems

undisputed, and
To

at

or,

until

supplied a
scenery
could
surmise
one

or

is

the

to

years

medieval

epithetsoccur,

strong

romantic.

or

Renascence,

In Court

birds,

wild

expression

German

theme.

call

was

isolated

thesis

our

of

we

romantic

period
is

what

not

demands

reasons.

antiquity.
the
only
homely was

Humboldt,

says
and

awhile, but

exist

may

gentle May, the

From
foreground.

the

'

the

that

poets inhabited

noble

In
lands.
in many
of the gUmpse
is none

clerics there
'

song of the
the Minne-

castles

lofty

scenery.'

tive
decora-

Knight

greatnesses, or charms,

and

poet

colours,

or

blind

were

to the

evening

capped
finelywrought lines, steep rocks, snowmountains,
rushing streams, waterfalls.'
glaciei^s,
expressions
Old
unambiguous
English poetry contains
ideal scenery
An
depicted
for the mountains.
of distaste
by Cynewulf in the eighth century tells of green, flowering

glow

in the

sky,

the

fragrant fields,blossoming trees,

but
wild

nothing of
or

mountains,

irregular'.

thirteenth
brilliant hke
no

'

or

Thus

fourteenth
the

hills. Chaucer

clear brooks

cold

hollows, ravines
too

in

Sir

century,

midday sun,
speaks of

epic

beautiful
;
as

no

weUs

hills,nothing

or

Oyfeo, an

level, green
sheer
chfis,

and

of the

district

is

valleysand
horrid

chaos,

396

Touring

the

not

of

work

under
God

all-wise

an

the

Empire

; he

thinking mainly
phrase, referring to
is

of

a
danger to mariners : but the
work
beautiful
garden rich in green and flowers, and the
of man,
his preference. In
Shakespeare
clearly indicates
there
is no
sign of the impression produced by mountain
character.
in
on
nor
Cymbeline of its influence
scenery,
and
her
Shakespeare seems
caught by the spellof Nature
with
flowers
Avon
thicket
nearest
view, as though some

the

'

and

possessedhim.

shadows

for

But

the

he

distant

has

no

'

(Jacob Burckhardt, 1889).

Dante
has the same
preferencefor the broad fruitful plain,
Lombard
and
found
rocky districts ugly. The monotonous
plainhe calls lo dolcepiano,from Vercelli down to Marzabo
; and,
as
examples of sheer savagery, he speaks of the road between
Tra Lerici ^ and Turbia.
But fetrarchhad a quickerintelligence
for those
incomparable shores, despite their steep rocks.
He deUghts in the range by the riviera di Levante
as
charming
in its sharp declivities and vegetation,and in the meandering
and
of the
of Genoa
Gulf
with
its splendid outlines
coast
But
this larger appreciation is unique even
shiftingviews.
Garda
with
in
Petrarch.
In
contemplating Lake
1350,
its sea-hke
of Virgil),his eye gazed
waves
(a reminiscence
long on the broad fertile plain to the left. In his description
of the Roman
Campagna he emphasizes the richness of the
hills in flocks wild
and
the many
tame,
springs, the tilled
and
Ceres, the beauty of the
fields, the bounty of Bacchus
singleword

to say

lakes, rivers

near

of Vaucluse

and

recalls

the

sea

Virgil or

hermitage amid
rustlingwater, the

is

lowing herds,

the

the

abundant

Piccolomini

description of
Younger
But
the

far

not

if medieval
in

Romantic
of

oUves

(Pope

Italian

might

Nature,

educated

paintings of

Pius

scenery,
says
have
written.

literature

admiration
He

the

Silvio

his

Horace.

in his

Enea

shows

some

Europe,

and

not

few

may
North

always exulting
bird-songs and
vines

that

sign

have
and

and

his

in

II),
nothing

Vale

of the

of

had

crops.

inspired
Pliny the

the

Central.

for

sense

ciation
appre'

which

How

developed fully by the end

of
of the thirteenth
be regarded as
index
an
century, can
the feelingfor Nature, is a question incapable of a simple
reply. The lay and the expert in art do not hold the same
1

Tra Lerici

scenery,

Turbia

la

pitldiserta,La piikromita

via.

...

(P. 111. 49).

Touring under
views,
idohze

mountain

what

landscapes

pictures,because

the

been

Empire
The

show.

art
but
scenery,
opinion deems
ugly.

common

such
to

modern

as

the

the

of

masses

to-day

predilection painte
The
public appreciates
reproduces latent beauty

artist

by

less sensitive
the

all the
For

The
have
same
eye of his gazer.
may
for the older school of landscape painting,and,

case

more

so,

this
On

the

the

in the

we

alone

reason

go back
H. Riehl's

more

W.

Eye for Scenery

fifteenth

artists

backgrounds,

of

introducing
was

scenery
rule not

craggy
esteemed

being

universal

as

the
as

ideal
Riehl

is

only introduced
scenery
picturesof hermits, of the Night

art."

graph
mono-

in concluding
wrong,
and
sixteenth
century

be

must

historyof

instructive

very

from the practiceof German

the

397

that

to

not

bare

thinks.

when

tainous
moun-

character

in

of

speak

Pure

the

Gethsemane,

at

tainous
moun-

on

Road

the backgrounds are

wide
And
views
never
Calvary, etc.
artist rather
intends
combination
or
a
agricultural. The
of various
A frequent
imaginary sceneries,,including rocks.
framing
composition of this sort consists in the rockwork
the
horizon
behind
in the
and
into
a
foreground,
jutting
is
stanced,
indesignedly level centre-piece. This conventionalism
by a view of Cologne with sharp crags all round.
the brokenness
of the clifis becomes,
In these cases
partially
Gothic
late
at least, a
matter
of style. The
mere
period
deUghted in sharp, broken, dented lines, both in the arbitrary
the copying of bodies
and
architecture
and
the crafts, and
inanimate
Nature.
thrust upon
costume.
The same
stylewas
to

For

it is observable

that

this

for
seeming predilection

tainous
moun-

and etchings,
in woodcuts
landscapes is far commoner
trees.
and is comparable to the fondness for leafless and contorted
of
is that
Its tone
Italian
landscape is quite different.
the
in representations of history and
the gay
idyll, even
is an
Leonardo
da Vinci
Crucifixion.
exception, and is in

not

and
He

in

of his time

advance

only

own

surfaces, but

calm

puts

his

an

the

of the

world

high

to

hills.

in much

else.

Lisa.

He
.

may

be

quite different

from

the interest

the

the

wild

of mountains

tains,
moun-

contours
a

as

portraitof his

with

comprehension

loves

visited

said to be

sympathize warmly
This

he

the

into

He

their delicate

Apennines with
the
Alps, which

Alpine background

Florentine, Monna
in

this, as

man.

fellow-

first

man

majesty
is

thing
some-

in their detail in Diirer's

Touring under

398
notebook

in

the

Altdorffer, Patinier,
imitate

him

pubUc

Bias.

or

this

; but

or

the

Tjrrol,or

the

arbitrary combinations
A
few
of his pupils

all the

was

Empire

he

influence

of
tried

had

on

an

to

the

artists.

on

landscape developed to an equal weight with the

school,
figure,and, at last, to independence in the Venetian
especiallyin the masters, born on the terra firma, Giorgione
Italian

di

Palma

Castelfranco,
in the

born

was

they

Alps, and

dominate,

never

Monna

Lisa, Maria

Berlin).

di

He

afiects

Titian

much

in

as

Leonardo

da

Vinci's

Anna

(at Paris), Risurrezzione

hillyforeground inhabited, with

the mountains

trees, and

Titian.

mountain-landscapes, though

draws

as

and

Bergamo,

afar.

the

Leonardo; loves

(at
leafy

phantastic

a
terrifying,but Titian pours into his mighty scenery
and
feeling of majestic peace
jocund solemnity. His is
the harmony
and
taken
Claude
by Carracci, Poussin
;
up
he created
the classic landscape.
However
few
realized
the
these
first
or
lay who
many
interpretersof landscape, it is certain that in the fifteenth
or

and

sixteenth

centuries

North

South

and

difiered

much

in

their

is classical, and
the other
Romantic.
feeling: the one
have
art, if freely developed, would
Probably, Northern
created
tendencies.
But
the Renascence
a
public with the same
in aesthetics
in the
and
spiritconquered the North
aesthetics
of Nature
its pupil French
art and
art
; ItaUan
The
reaction
of the
German
overcame
Germany.
genius
in

the

afiected
had

no

seventeenth

ordinary
lack

of the

romantic

majority of
the
ItaUan
style.
homage to decadent
Travellers
the

the
The

who

were

forced

of admiration.
to

the

Holy

not

these

the

gain

reaUsts

the

rather

who

approval

sided

eighteenth century paid

visited

for
to

the

scenery's
them,

cross

Magister Thietmar
Land,

'because
delectabilis),

grazing-ground '.

educated

School, scarcely

Holland

spiritdid

who

eighteenth century

of those

Dutch

with

absolute

classicism.^
few

were

the
in

Even

taste.

the

of

in

century

The

found

Mount

it abounded

G.

DeUo.

sake

there

in

in

diaries

few
on

sions
expres-

age
pilgrim-

beautiful

dales, and
awarded

before

the

are

in 1217,
Carmel

quaUties

same

mountains

was
a

(visu

good

certificate

of
to

'

'

pleasant
Jerusalem

Leonhard
of

Touring under

the

Empire

to Mount

from

four

in

Rauhwolf

Augsburg.

Lebanon

1556; the same

(1573-1576), a

Enea

of the

customs,

Bruni

of Arezzo

Silvio

who

men

of the

travelled

expressed by

was

physician

visited

saying nothing
describes

view

399

and

botanist

Scotland, and
But

scenery.

speaks

Leonardo

his

impression of the Alps on his

through the Tyrol and Arlberg (Mons Aquilae) to the
way
Council
of Constance.
So
the
mountains
and
huge are
manifold
rocks, so
and
broad
the ridges,so awing the
peaks
and
numberless
what
the
ascents, that
one
fitlywonders
mother
and
shaper of the world. Nature, was
thinking of.
At the sight of these eternal and unbroken
a shuddering
masses,
and
seized
which
the
awe
(horror quidam
religio)
me,
of them
still recalls.'
Trent
he calls an
memory
agreeable
town
the
considering
surrounding country ', for above
and
the river.
below, is the plain,and it is well situated
on
'

'

Tramin

is

beautiful

and

spot, but

rich

terribiliter

shadowed
over-

The
Lake
of Constance
he
by frowning rocks.
liked exceedingly.
German
pilgrimsto the Holy Land generallypassed through
the Tyrol, especiallyafter the construction
about
1480 by
Duke
Sigismund of Austria of a good road on the traces of
the
old
and
Brixen
Bozen, the
dangerous one, between
built it
Kuntersweg (named after a citizen of Bozen, who
in the fourteenth
Fabri, a preacher-monk,
century). Fehx
of Ulm, crossed by the Kuntersweg on both of his pilgrimages
in 1480 and
to the Holy Land
1483 both ways : before and
after

reconstruction.

horrible, and
of

the

one

'

He

is either

says :
in the

The

mountains

glare of the

sun

are
or

the

very
chill

they stretch up beyond the clouds ; but the

valleysafe very pleasant (amoenae), very fertile,and produce
of the world, a real paradise. They
aU the delicacies {deliciae)
there
also
mines,
are
are
densely inhabited, and
many
especiallysilver-mines '.
In
horror

ice ;

the

travels
to

seems

by

the

(the son-in-law
of

only

of the

of the
have

sixteenth

been

majesty

the

of

of Melanchthon

and

only

the

or

abysses, huge piles of

snow,

the

and

feelingproduced
Georg Sabinus

first Rector

horrors
the

in

his

of the

centuries,

main

mountains.

Konigsberg, 1544) speaks

difficulties and

seventeenth

of the

versity
Uni-

journey to Trent
Alps, the yawning

cold, the

avalanches, the

Touring under

400
and

storms

torrents, which

Miinster
the

Swiss

and

the

of

Kiechel
at the

aiming

of

Rhine

Holy Land,

returned

and

mountains

impressed him,

and

uninviting

in

most

was

Delft, and

Hague,

fertile

or

Verona

air, the which, if but

from
as
passage
rich
Schickhart

Padua

Frederick

near
'

leave

to

the

of

beautiful

Fusina

or

his

in

bucolic

Ernst

Landgrave

the

over

HeinDuke
his

Kempten),
which

Novum

took

Itineraritun

'

disgusting
vania
Transyl-

savage
been
in

mentions

never

the

land, wherein

one

fair corn-land

The

Albert

all the

might

and

mountains

as

writes

to

harder

of

have

of mountains',

cowed

at the

the

danger

but

the

hillmen

of

Linnaeus

sight of

rendered

fullyappreciate

in

of

speaks
might.

resolved

them

could

done, in the sixteenth

in

first

148 1 the Swiss Abbot

describes
the Gotthard, as

whilst

Zurich

modem
any
friend at Glarus
I have

'.

and

For

Utt6rateur,

'

trees

plains were

(i516-1565), the

naturaUst

of

rows

Bonstetten

von

Silius Itahcus
Gesner

as

country.

own

Alps and Italywithout

celebrates
as a goodly
Lombardy
in a garden, and
seeth
nought
'

of the mountains,

habituation
their

and

in the

dwellers

terror

fareth

(from

the

and

sea

but

expressing admiration,

he

and

Rheinfels, in his Travels

Hessen

von

1636-1642), passes

the

Zlatna

'.

'

Fiissen

ideal.

pleasant
pleasant

as

mountains,

poem

the

of any scenery.
Paul
do not contain
Fleming's poems
of nature-impressions in
word
his journey to Persia.

one

but

were

'

'.

cross

but

charm

to

the

accompanied
is glad
on

Italy, and

wearisome

'

to Venice

1599

(between

his

were

and

J. Furttenbach, in his
Italiae of 1627, characterizes the Spliigen,as
wilderness
'. Opitz travelled
far, had
days

ten

country '.

beautiful, level

flats

therein,

in

to

'

all

Nile

dwelt

architect

horrible

'

the

the

to Luza

Wurtemberg
Nesselwang

of

back

way

the

as

Mantua,

Christians

Poland,

the

and

Tyrol.
merely unpassable,

Lombardy

or

also

1585-1589
and

garden-like plains, near

to

pleasant '. The

speaks of the banks

Kiechel

too,

the

in

home

at

Venice

by

with

contrast

from

Prussia, Sweden

visited

rocks

frightful. So

tours

long

describes
and

mountains
and

cruel

The

He

the

his

tian
Sebas-

down.

Pass, and

Gemmi

as

in

Ulm,

Switzerland,

not

the

pretty, and

the

Empire

obstructions

rolled
on

valleys as
Vale

Samuel

but

shuddered

the

as
'

his

century, Konrad

time,

physician,
of the
enthusiastically
As long as I mayUve',

letter

to climb

'

On

the

at least one

admiration

mountain

Touring

402
the

deepest

of

which

In

175

the

he
the

crevices

were

depicted

in

Swiss

Gotthard

the

in

Grimsel

to

of ice from

Lauterbrunnen,
of

Gruner

the

varieties

dragons,

History of Switzerland.

sea

S.

on

words

to

G.

volumes

(1760), 'lacks

Empire

Natural

his

off-shoots.
three

the

occupied by

beUeved

and

glaciers were
exhaustive

under

Ice-Mountains
horror

the

express

Glarus

over

whence

the

in

Bern,

his

land
of Switzerof the

great

'

a
as
heights ; Guttanen,
pleasant valley, is described
'.
combining all the terrors of Nature
Travelling,when it revived in the sixteenth century, aimed
than
at utiUty rather
enjoyment, and only knowledge could
ling
Travelto dangerous and
be an incentive
costlyjourneys.
',said Muret
(1526-1585), 'is useful and pleasant; but
Horace's
and praisesforeign
the wise
follows
maxim,
man
'. But
the letters of Justus Lipsius
lands
from
his own
home
that after 1550
the grand tour
the
was
(i 547-1606) shows
in
to
a
1578 he
finishing touch
gentleman's education:
writes
from
Antwerp to Philip Lanoy at Douai, approving
of going to
Of
his intention
old, and nowadays,
Italy :
have always travelled '. But the use of any sensible
great men
increased
and
customs
was
knowledge of manners
voyage
'

'

'

and

of

constitutions

mind.

He

in

recommends

interest, and
to the

foreign lands, and

the
'

study

of the

broadening

of

the

places of historical
life,and scarcelyrefers

the

social

Italy is varied and beautiful '.

Similarly,Caspar Stein, a physician of Konigsberg (1592account
of his European
from
travels
1652), composed an
1612-1621
in
an
(unprinted) work, entitled
Peregrinus,

sive

country,

which

Italy

in

Peregrinator terrestris

et

coelestis.

Martin

ZeUler, the

seventeenth-century Baedeker, pubUshed a series of special

handbooks
for
England, France, Italy, Spain
Germany,
and Hungary, and a Fidus
Achates (Ukn, 1653, 1 6". )containing
160 itineraries.
the sights (divided
He, too, only mentions
into the three categories of ecclesiastical,secular, and private),
In the Mercurius
and practicallyonly deals with the towns.
Helvetiae
of Dr. J. Wagner of Ziirich, 1701, entitled
An
haustive
exdescriptionof all places,cloisters,and castles alphabetically
is said of the mountains.
arranged ', not a word
incidental
Nature
was
an
pleasure, not worth
reccardingin
'

guide-book.

Up

to

the

eighteenth century,

the

mountain-world

was

Touring under
practicallyunknown

the

to

the

Empire

cultured

of

Europe, partly as
partly the rugged
feelingof Nature,

being inaccessible and uncomfortable, and

rather
Thus
the
frightened than allured.
down
narrowed
being crippled, was
by its
This

is not

for distant

inconsistent

views

with

of hills.

403

limitations.

own

earlier

expressions of liking
Celtis (i459-rso8) praises

Conrad

of the Neckar
lofty castle and the deUghtful banks
near
of the Alps, visible on the
Heidelberg, and also the panorama
the
heights near
Freising above
rushing Isar. Leonhard
Rauhwolf
of
the
flat roof
(1573-76) liked standing on
a
Maxonite
cloister in Lebanon,
and
it
the
fairest
thought
in
view
of
the
mountains
spot,
high snowy
; especiallyat
with
the
cedars
in sight,and
other
hills,used as
daybreak,
There
is no
pastures, with the dark deep valley below'.
ancients
in this ; for the
sign of romanticism
recognized
mountains
as
backgrounds.
A
newer
feeling is manifested, as J. Burckhardt
pointed
in
of
Mme
de
who
felt
the
full
letter
a
out,
Sevigne,
spell
of her
of landscapes near
In many
and
distant.
letters
her delight in the beauty of trees and woods,
remark
one
may
the sunset-hues
and
the
moonUt
the golden autumn-tints,
is widened,
outlook
and
travels
her
her
on
nights. But
the lower
she is almost
alone
in enjoying the
on
scenery
a

'

'

Seine

and

Loire, and

the

outlines

of

Mont

St.

Michel.

Of

looks out over

Veiltoux, which
lofty Giignan and Mont
Provence
and
Languedoc, she says (3rd July, 1689) : j'odme
winter
in a hard
even
ces
fort tous
amphithSdtres'. And
(3rd February, 1695) : 'nos montagnes
whenGrignan was all snow
she
and
d'horreur
leur exc"s
:
dans
sont
charmantes
longa
de toutes
I'"tendue
ces
epouvantahles
a
painter to depict
Switzerland
Travels
beautes'.
Addison's
(1701-1703) in
feeling.
and
Italy also betray the awakening of the newer
took five days, aroused
of Geneva, which
The tour of the Lake
tery
monasof the Alps from
views
a Carthusian
his wonder.
The
with the many
rugged peaks and precipices,
atfRipaille,
of agreeable shuddering at this
sort
a
filled his soul with
'. He
was
apparently surprised
most
misshapen
scenery
the

'

'

'

'

that
author

Alps
the

terrible

the
of
in

The

1703,

could

be

beautiful.

Earthly Pleasure
and

felt

mixture

in

God

of fear

ice-floes gruesomely beautiful:

many

C.

H.

(i680-1
and

Brookes,

the

747), saw

the

delight;

years

he calls

later in the

Touring

404

under

the

Empire

mountains
that
the
rude
recognized anew
inspire
terror
and
at once
pleasure.
(i690-1 762) fully understood
Lady Wortley Montagu
and
liked wild
frightful
beauty. True, she speaks of the
and
the
and
horrible
Saxony,
precipicesseparatingBohemia
about
'. She
describes
talked
crossingMount
Alps so much
Cenis(2SthSeptember, I7i8),asa 'prodigious'view of mountains
Ear beneath
clouds
waterfalls
of eternal
her, huge
snow,
have
would
been
whirUng confusedly from the cliffs,which
entertaining to her, had it not been so intensely cold. In
he

Harz

'

'

'

letter dated

December,

the nth

Venice, she intends

1758, from

Tyrol, from the reputation of its beauty :

loved valleys set in with high hills. Her
favourite
Iseo, shut in by unsurLovere, on Lake
spot was
and
mountable
hiUs
enchantingly remote, and she calls it
beautiful
romantic
the most
Whilst
region that she has seen.
the Danube
from
Regensburg she enjoyed the
sailingdown
and
romantic
desolations,
kaleidoscope of populous towns
visitingthe unknown
she had always most

isolated

from

all human

traf"c, and

the

shores

with

their

delightfulvariety of woods, rocks and hills, planted with

vineyards, cornfields, cities and ruins.
the
full modem
feeling: as his
Gray (1716-1771) had
Chartreuse
Grenoble
show.
near
impressions of the Grande
the

On
a

cUfE,

sheer

him
he

the

of.

could

torrent

him

and

the

and

ought
at'noon

there
spirits

visit to

with
and

romantic

most

Every

easUy see

Munro,

thunderous

torrent

religionto

and

overgrown

of the

sense

knew

rock

side,

one

Lake

trees,

to

District

marvellous

seemed

scenery

full of
atheists

convert

even.

other

deep precipicegave

and

rock

the

on

According

filled him

to

poetry
; fancy
H. A. J.

the

with

same

in attributingto
picturesque. Scott is wrong
Gray in The Fair Maid of Perth (chap,i)the expression beauty
in the lap of terror
was
: he
thinking of SheUey's, A tranquil
in the lap of horror
to smile, even
(Alastor).
spot that seemed
Switzerland
But
as
was
mere
as
a
long
stage on journeys
of

sense

the

'

'

'

'

and

difficult

In

between.
to
snow

Savoy,
and

that, such

Grandison

(1753)

emotions
the

are

passage

few
from

and

far

France

from

a
mere
spring to winter, was
experience of
sively
excesbitinglycold winds ; and ever3rthingseemed
'

miserable
inclement

at

one

'

in

conditions

'

that
in

worst

of

hurried

lands

'

Savoy.
journey did not

But

less

create

Touring under
favourable

more

view.

For

feelingreigned unchecked
Even
inspiredonly horror.

the

and

Empire
most

to

most

President

de

in his Lettres d'ltalie follows

guide

the

405

part

ancient

travellers

Brosses

Misson, the

the

author

the

(1709-1777)
of

popular
cobbly

to

Italy in four volumes, in seeing only bad

in preferringthe
roads, and
fertile plains: but
he
little

very

better

than

the

and

feelingfor

Nature.

He

Italian, of which

waterfall

at Tivoli

considers

few

better

the

shows

French

St. Cloud

equal
than

gardens
Marly,

and

at Terni

one

Alps

as

more

accessible.

Thus, too, in the popular descriptionof his travels

Switzerland

Germany,
Keyssler (a
much

third

mention

distant

edition
of

Terni, the

at

was

of

Genoa

his

but

Italy, from
published
from

the

by J.

1729-1731
in

He

1776).

features, such

natural

view

views

and

the

as

sea,

and

Thus

makes

delights in

strongest epithet of admiration

pleasant', and he prefers any fertile tilled plain to

which
he
does
not
magnificent scenery,
imagine
beautiful.

G.

waterfall

'

he

through

the

extols

monotonous

the

is
most

be

could

round

country

'

Mantua.

Panegyric falls flat at this fertile plain, planted

with
of trees and
rows
vineyards, especiallyat this season
of nightingales. In Italy such scenery
is common,
and almost
that any
to awake
ceases
sure
one
tomed
accussurprise. But I am
the
to
hilly Tyrol, Salzburg, the Harz, the Saxon
forests
of Thuringia and
the
hill-towns, the
Pomerania,
sandy stretches of Silesia, or Brandenburg or Mecklenburg,
from
of Liineburg or Westphalia, any one
these
the moors
or
suddenly transported to the choicest parts of Italy would
be
Salzburg and
Tyrol Alps,
supremely delighted.' The
and the Mark
the Liineburg moors
pine forests are aU branded
unfertile or ugly and not
pleasant '.
HaUer's
In 1729
Alps appeared ; it was inspiredby a great
was
scientific explorationin 1728. This
popular
very
poem
'

"

it

(by

1777

the

attention

and
hadpassedthroughthirtyeditions),

oifEurope

people

land

and

in the

unbroken

not

only

of

the

the

on

next
the

half

succession

of its inhabitants
For

for

shedding glory

Switzerland,

to

The

century.

of tourists

to

of

singular character

'attracted

book

on

heralded

Switzerland, admirers,
the

country,

but

also

',
few

customs

decades
of

this
the

new

country

attention
:

for

was

Haller

trated
concen-

painted

Touring under

4o6
Arcadia

the

of this

people

background.
England and Holland

vague

admired

the

of it

Alps

Germany,
poet

satisfied in Holland,

most

was

general

little the

how

show

as

in

of his tours

diaries

(1723-1727)
sense

Empire

herds, with

of

Mailer's

His

scenery.

'

the

country, with straight canals and avenues,

tree
no
beyond
gardens, fields and pastures ; where
grows
is
He
most
uncultivated.
is
its measure,
no
pleased
spot
with
lined
in Leiden,
at the
road
moonht
a
long waterway
a

pleasant

very

to Utrecht

Amsterdam

from

road

The

trees.

'

is

'

enchanted

an

gardens and countrythe land thoroughly tilled ;

houses, the river is full of swans,
with
it is a picture of perfection'. He
Johnson that
agrees
mountains
'unnatural
are
protuberances on the face of the
earth ', and
includes
well : for Heidelberg he finds
hiUs
as
hills '.
unpleasant, in the valley of the Neckar, between
Haller's
foreign tours in the Alps any
Alps did not make
Swiss
more
designed their
patricians even
frequent. The
houses
with
the
garden pavilion looking out on the main
building, and the wall shutting out the view of the Alps ;
of the Lake
the view
just as in Coppet the gardens exclude
to
did not
of Geneva.
at Femey
Voltaire's
on
room
open
fen

Every village,every

land.

is amid

'

Mont

Blanc, because

the

he never
his eyes ; and
Alps he could always see.

dazzled

snow

essayed the chmbing of the

Klopstock from the 23rd July, 1750,

once

at

Zurich,

'

look

conceived

arrival

the

of

idea

frustrated

; it was

the

at

by

or

near

afar

Alps long
imusuaUy early faU

tour
an

1751,

never

from

Alps

stayed
betrayed

February,

astonishment

Bodmer's

to

curiosity to

any

only

but

to

the

in

'

after
of

he

his

snow.

enthusiastic
an
Nature-lover, and his neglect
Klopstock was
of his opportunities shows
of that time
tourists
that
most
with merely seeing the
content
were
stayed
Alps. Gibbon
at Lausanne
from the 21st September to the 20th October, 1755,
made
and, after two
a
journey through Switzerland.
years,
look at the
and
glaciers,
Foreign visitors used not to cUmb

though they

came

to

main

was

in the

he

interest
visited

hbraries

the
and

spread

of

the

the

various

principal cities
chief

Haller's

customs.

see

"

love

men

Alps
of

his

of

marvels

Nature.
of the

constitutions
and

their

object

contributed

Nature, by

was

churches,
to

learn

Gibbon's

repubUcs :
armouries,
men

and

only indirectiy to the

advertising Switzerland.

Touring under
"
Konrad

Gesner's

the

Empire

enthusiasm

for the

Alps
Highlands

unique ; thus, too, the Scottish

mainly by their inhabitants.
Thomson's
in

his

Autumn

the

to

of

years

On

there

about

the

of

the

thus

was

almost

appreciated
warm
appreciation
(1729) is similar
beauty of Caledonia
Burns'
the Highlands fifty
on
poem

the

expressions
later.

407

other

hand.

were

Captain Burt,

time, thinks

who

travelled

sandy steppe preferable.

ventured
far in 1733
and
so
spoke with disgust
the wilderness : hke Haller, he declared
the neighbourhood
Leiden
incomparable. Johnson in 1773 visited what are
deemed
the most
beautiful
parts and replied,when asked
same

Goldsmith
of
of
now

he

how

liked

'

them

Who

like them

could

'

He

describes

the

of the treeless moors

and
naked
dreary monotony
hills,
An eye
as
only occasionallyvaried with a sudden waterfall.
accustomed
to flowery pastures and
ished
waving harvests is astonand repelledby the wide
of hopeless sterility.'
extent
The
is that of matter
incapable of form or
appearance
usefulness, dismissed
by Nature from her care, and disinherited
of her favours, left in its originalelemental
It
state.
will very
that
this uniformity of barrenness
readily occur
'

'

...

to the traveller
very little amusement
and
to sit at home
and
conceive
rocks and heath

afford

can

that

these
the

which

neither

impregnate
understanding.' Had

labours

journeys are
imagination, nor

useless

it is easy
waterfalls

'

enlarge the
Loch
Lomond
been in a happier cUmate, it would
of the
the boast of wealth
and vanity to own
one
which
to have
it encloses, and
employed upon it

have

been

little

spots

all the

arts

islets,which

court

the

of

embelUshment.
from

gazer

But,

it is, the

as

distance, disgust him

his

at

he

approach, when

shady thickets, nothing more,

uncultivated
than
ruggedness.'
Macaulay, who quotes Burt and Johnson,makes the reason
have
been
their
of this blindness
insecurity. This may
of soft lawns

finds, instead

contributory

Macaulay's
German
and

convenient

Lebanon
Dr.

mountains,

or

the

the

excite

distaste

which

and

modern

Cordilleras,

Johnson, according to

mountains

Thomson's

but

cause,

assigning

and

fancy

and

to

beUes

enthusiasm
this

one

Keyssler disdained, were

travellers face danger
or

the

Isabella
exalt

heart

of Africa.

Bird, the North

the

spirit.

The

fact.

safe
to

see

Despite
American

under

Touring

4o8
In

the

Empire

the

in scenery
early eighteenth century, Romance
almost
tmfelt in England.
The
was
English ofi"cers at Fort
Augustus longed to be released and free from the wind and
rain of July : for there was
no
sky and dun
sun, only a dark

rocks, clouds
De

Foe's

of rain, ice-cold winds, the

Tour

through

(1724)scarcelycontains
pubUcation
for the Highlands
sombre

and

Ossiaji

in

desolate
in his

heart

he

into I
guides me
piping in my ears, and
in cloudy shades
under
stream

roar

their

caves,

death

round

lover's
The

one

they

tomb

and
the
'.

were

and

cries

I wander

and

the

laments

four
This

out

wafting
dimming

down

of
and

mood

was

What

heatii,with

Britain.

new

the

world
storm

spiritsof

my forebears
tain
; I hesir the moun-

moon

the

the

in
gnomes
groan
maiden
weeping unto

stones
of her
grass-grown
the mood
of the Highlands.

but

bom,

'

the

in its flow

moss

waters.

to the

the

on

it

the

of

Great

beauty of Nature.
in 1760 developed the taste
full of the passion for the
Werther
replaced Homer

Nature.

see

Island

reference

of Ossian's poems

The

by

whole

the

of swollen

roar

had

ence.
strugglefor existA
beauty of the Highlands
years
ago
far from
Dr. Beattie
was
:
being absolutely admitted
(1735but
1803) says : 'The Highlands of Scotland are picturesque,
in general a melancholy country.
Long tracts of mountainous
with dark heath, and
often obscured
desert, covered
by misty
weather
vaUies thinlyinhabited, and bounded
by pre; narrow
cipices
with
the
of
fall
torrents
soil
a
so
resounding
;
rugged
in many
and a climate
to
neither
the
admit
so dreary, as
parts
the labours
of pasturage nor
of agriculture; the
amusements
mournful
dashing of waves
along the firths and lakes that
intersect
the country ; the portentous noises
which
every
and
increase
of
the
and
of
the
diminution
wind,
change
every
waters, are
apt to raise in a lonely region fuU of echoes and
the grotesque and
rocks
and
caverns
;
ghastly appearance
of such
a
landscape by the light of the moon
; objects like
the fancy, which
these diffuse a gloom over
may be compatible
and
social merriment, but
cannot
enough with occasional
fail to tincture the thoughts of a native in the hour of silence
new

romance

was

hundred

and

solitude

to

the

'.

" 3
Thus,

by about

1750,

the

feelingfor

the

romantic

and

'

sombre
of

under

Touring

41 o

scenery.

beautiful

Every

the

Empire

knows

one

'

', he

says,

ideal

my

plain, however
lovely, realizes
it. I want
woods, mountains,
torrents, rocks, pines, dark
rough paths, and frightfulprecipices'. And as his melancholy
did this passion for savage
Nowhere
solitudes.
so
grew,
in Lake
did I feel so happy as on
the lonely Isle of Peter
No

scenery.

'

Biel.

Its

of the

Lake

the

to

shores

of Geneva,

shore

interrupt the
of

source

disclosed
St. Preux
the

over

the

of

less

not

birds

and

head, and

there

into
the

the

full view

traveller

in

were

he

La

of

the

new

H6lolse

and
men

weary
in the

of

charm

of

eagle's

falls
water-

eternal

torrent

an

twilight thicket

even

commixture
the

more,

climates.

and

of his

peace

the

his

What

meadow.

the

was

and,

beneath

loftyturbulent

flowery

climbing beyond

thundered

nouvelle

turmoils
the

when

storms

all sensitive

of

ascribed

cause

whence

the

mountain-torrents

spray,
out
of

Valais

and cultivated
scenery,
savage
of all seasons
and combinations

the

down

come

Hiloise

walker's

enchanted

as

the

those

to the
world
new
a
(1761) revealed
in
A
the
marvellous
Alps.
descriptiveness
enjoyment
for the first time
the delight of regions where
(as
writes in a letter to his beloved) huge rocks towered

ravine

foldness

forests

smiling. Only

involving him in a cloud of

hollowing out a giddy precipice;
or

and

rocks

than

romantic

more

stUlness.'

nouvelle

La

and

as

yet it is

twittering

and

cry,

wilder

are

contrasts
this mani-

To

soul, and

clouds

of

to

felt it

height

feet.

also

epoch-making in teaching
souls to find refuge from
the petty
still greatness of Nature.
The
gospel

deserts

was

to

the

sensitive, and

their

horror

propagated. St. Preux, in absolute isolation

sad.
his love, found
his days as charming as they were
from
of melted
A torrent
snow
fallinginto
twenty paces away
and
sweeping stones and obstacles in its course.
dirty water
Behind
us
an
impenetrable chain of rocks, in the direction
with
of the
Alps or glaciers,covered
age-old ice. Black
with their sombre
shadow
to the right ; to the
pine-forests
left oaks ; beyond the torrent, and, at the bottom, the endless
lake extending from Pays de Vaud, and crowned
by the Jura.'
caused
the popularization and
transformation
Rousseau
Heloise
The
Nouvelle
of the feelingfor mountainous
nature.
to

the

duU,

was

'

made

subjective appreciations of

Nattire

usual.

Nature

Touring under
invested

was

with

language
high hills,and
and

of

herself '.

to

German

the

Empire

soul, larger than

in

meaning
lonelywoods
a

her

and

Rousseau's

that

411

of

'

changes

eternal

valleyswas

individuahsm

dumb

stood

and

man,

in

the

reflection

in

opposition

und
regulations of Ufe, introduced
by the Sturm
Drang period, and directed attention to a Nature
previously
neglected. The melancholy broodings of the next generation
the
unclassical
in
Nature.
romantic
corresponded with
Rousseau's
the
hermitage at Meillerie was
prototype of
the scenery
henceforth
sought after.
nouvelle
Helolse
eSect
La
his other writings had
and
the
of advertising the Lake
of Geneva
and
West
Switzerland.
wrote
to Abt, after reading the book,
In 1763 Justus Moser
him
that he might send
back
something of these wonderful
almost
Alps. In 1779 Goethe
wept on seeing Meillerie, the
of Rousseau's
and aU the Uvely scenes
dent du Chamant
lonely
theatre
to
Meiners
made
the
life. In
a
pilgrimage
1788
to
Lausanne
and EngUshmen
of Heloise, as did all travellers
'

'

'

especial,HMoise

in

and

in the

guide-book

country

of the
and

followed
and

(1755-1827),

Travels

of

master

in

land
Switzer-

(1776, 79, 85,86) was the

Rousseau's
footsteps.
ampUfied by Ramond

Grisons

translated

was

Carbonnidres

de

Coxe's

hand'.

time

of that

book

Coxe's

in

words

and

an

discoursed
Coxe
mainly on the plains
expert on mountains.
Ramond
first
and
gave
valleys,the cities and the customs.
he had
climbed.
Ramond
also
place to the heights which
in France
in his A ventures
attempted to acclimatize Werther
afterwards
to Lenz, and
du jeune d'Olban
(1777), dedicated
les
the
sur
classic works
wrote
on
Pyrenees, Observations
(1801). SaintePyrenees (1789),and Voyage au Mont Perdu
of the Pyrenees
the Saussure
as
that Ramond
Beuve
says
'

painted quite
the

courage

wrote

forgotten, save
(born 1770), who
and

was

of the

men

described

of

So, too, Etiennes

France.

in

second

charms

of Geneva.

wanted

to

have

feeUngs, and express their great natural

frightenshim.
Nothing mountainous
at an
inopportune time, and he is almost

Ossian

Ruysdael

between

he

of their

thoughts freely'.
Ramond

that

canvases

new

the

and

the
and

Alps

Werther

Salvator

heights

after

in
:

his
his

Rosa.
Rousseau

de

Oherman

Senancour

{1804),

style is mediate
The
was

discoverer

Saussure

under

Touring

412

the

Empire

the Alps
(1799-1846) properly divided
the lowest
into three zones
:
including the hills up to the
nut-trees, the limit of Rousseau's
explorations; the second
larches
desolate ; pines and
and
more
severe
dif"cult, and
of

Topfier

Geneva

in it, and
there
grow
the charm
of the wUd.

ravines

are

and

torrents

ahve

with

with
ice-region,
onlyand
Alpine roses
hardy bushes in the crevices or bordering
This third region Saussure
discovered.
the eternal snow.
on
In antiquity and
were
modernity naturalists and botanists
the first to approach and learn to love the Alps.
In 1 74 1 two
and Windham,
discovered
Englishmen, Pococke
Chamouny, but for twenty to twenty-five years the place was
seldom
visited, and
only by the English. In Homan's
splendid Atlas Novus
reipublicaeHelvetiae (1769) Mont Blanc
Maudite
found
not
and
the older Montague
under
are
;
Here
the
terrible
are
glaci"res de Faucigny, the words
glaciersand ice-mountains.'
Saussure, an ardent student of the High Alps,began exploring
at Chamouny
in 1760, and
ascended
Mont
Blanc
in 1787.
Like
and
naturalist
this indefatigableclimber
Ramond,
was
also a master
of the pen : his simpler style effectively
gives
The

third

is the

'

impression of

an

mortal

eye,
his readers

to

for

the

and

that

unparalleled in

first time

those

on

'

the

seemed

his work

incitingto

Besides

the

Frederick

directed

the

He

realized
the

dangers

and

stars

distances

fantastic

universe,

any

to

terror
see

its

made

overcome

adventurous.
also another

was

the

attention

wonder.

and

of

communicates

heights,with
only marking the

tale of the

The

and

then

immense

survived

Saussure, there

rit, whom
who

feet'.

at my

corpse

have

to

and

peaks and
brooding silence

rocks, their

until

Nature,

of terror

his mixture

barely illumining the

-and

unviewed

scenery,

Great
to

called

Chamouny

enthusiast, Bour-

I'historien
and

the

Alpes,
high Alps.
des

dedicated
life
and
his whole
painter of Geneva
Blanc
Saussure
:
(1739-18 1 9) to the exploration of Mont
in 1773
work
as
a
acknowledged his own
preparation for
these
Goethe
ascended
the Rigi before
scientific memoirs.
to
of the
do so,
first foreigners in Switzerland
1775, one
and
heard
Karl
his Alpine journey of 1779 with
on
August
He

of

was

Weimar

that

he

so

much

followed

of the

Saussure's

wonderful
advice

Savoy ice-mountains,
and

made

an

excursion

Touring under
Chamouny.

to
not

so

by

the

In

peaceful

beauty
and

biit

of the

In

413

was
complained Lausanne
invaded
by strangers, attracted

was

Pays

glaciers.

Empire

Gibbon

1784

the

de Vaud

and
had

he

the

fashion

for

tains
moun-

in the

toured

low-lying
and in 1791 went
with Lord
Shef"eld
by
Geneva, Chamouny, Col de Blanc
(much-climbed for the view),
1755

of Switzerland

towns

Martigny, St. Maurice,

and

Lausanne.

the

natives

But

had

become

Saussure

themselves
readers.

the

He

Lake

of Geneva

wearisomely ready

interested

see

the

In 1790 Switzerland, sixtyyears

the playground of Europe, and

became

unknown,

round

the

left

V6vey
almost

Chamouny
oblige.
at

could

of his most

one

was

before

who

more,

many

Kant

Alps.

to

to

not

zealous
'

recognized in
the sombre
the interesting
melancholy wilderness of his home
dreariness
of a desert
heaven-high hills,deep crevices
; and
and
stirred his imagination, in abstracting
rushing waters
In his Criticism
the idea of the noble in Nature.
of Judgment
never

East

but

Prussia,

'

'

'

'

he

says

That

nobilitydoes

mind, in
thing, but in our
of our
superiorityto Nature
as

is known

less
that

to

likelyon
the

He

us'.

the

noble

cultured

up

to

in

also

than
the

far

so

on

us

as

and

indicated
the

in

consist

not

conscious

become

we

outside
that

beautiful.

natural

any

as

us,

agreement
Had

eighteenth century

much
was

he known

all concurred

Savoyese peasant who called the lovers of the Alps

have
fools,he would
recognized that the judgment of the
noble
depends on the direction, as well as on the degree of
civilization.
If Schopenhauer is right in making the basis
in us by mountains,
induced
of the
serious and noble
more
scape,
the fact that their shape is the most
permanent Une in landbeen
their sight could not have
so
regarded
differently
at varjdng epochs.
It is not pertinent to trace the history of Alpine travelling
exercised
and
art have
Literature
down
to the present day.
'This
Science
the Alps.
with
and
themselves
more
more
of Nature
Hegner (1822) of
of susceptibility
', says Ulrich
science
nor
natural
geography, was
is neither
Winterthur,
with

the

'

'

'

fiftyyears

unheard-of
and

has

grown

pluck

easy

to

Karl

Ritter

Art

up
and

have

adventured

ago,

even

in

novels

or

mightily in Switzerland,
von
digest'. Alexander
put Alpine science on a

later

into

the

Alpine

tales

of travel,

bearing
Humboldt
sounder

field than

fruits
and
basis.

literature.

Touring

414

under

the

Empire

" 4

change of feeUng corresponded with the Sturm

und
Keyssler called the Salzburg
Drang period in Germany.
and
: Meiners'
Tyrol Alps as dull as the Liineburg moors
the supreme
letters on
Switzerland
beauty
(1790) presuppose
in
mountainous
of Switzerland, as the most
Europe :
country
Thus

the

the

is

difierence

Bonstetten

'

absolute.
in

writes

1780,

'

These

', K.

wastes

of rocks

and

ice

von

forests

and

beauties

V.

of

will

the

plains'.
this passion. TravelUng from
Nicolai
is filled with
even
in her
Nature
he writes :
to
Vienna
Munich
majesty is
tainous
more
inspiringthan anything human, and especiallyin mounnineteenth
lands
the
'. In
century the beauty of
Moltke
in themselves
becomes
mountains
a general dogma.
Frat
knows
of only one
exception,the Caradja Dag between
in a
and
chapter
Tigris. Mountains, according to Ruskin
headed
Motmtain-glory, are created to portray perfectbeauty ;
the elements
they combine
(form,colour, variety of scene, etc.)
the
than
more
they excel as does a
plain,which
infinitely
and
white window.
a
inspire
They ennoble
painted window
please

the

than

more

you

soulless

'

mankind,
he

remained
also

Avebury
of

end

the

author

thought
with

says

that

of

the

that

its hideous

view.

back

the

nests.

Goethe

mart.'

please

1823, in

mountains

merry

He

for

the

eye '.
was

alpha

those

letter to

age
Nees

of

and

age
Lord

omega

gardens, fruit-trees

Foreigners

angry

without

remarked

in his old

lack

and

with

his

wild

rocks,

before

often

were

for

son

seeing Italy.

'

He

of

seas

of

coming
did

mist

not

and

vedi

NapoU e poi
to the older conception.
returned
von
Esenbeck, he speaks of his
as

and
journeys to Switzerland
something by seeing mountains
paradox of a worthy man.

a' delightin

mountains.

the

are

useless

done

of

old

to

old

father

Gotthard

affection

any

dragons'

to

the

adoration

mountains,

Goethe's

from

share

In

of

his

Down

At
generation still demurred.
the eighteenth century, J. C. Fiissli,of Zurich,
of a Description of the Swiss
State and
Country,
beautiful,
Engelberger valley could not be deemed

anything

or

'

to

scenery.
The
survivors

the

'

true

cathedral.

and

their school

are

climbingmountains,

his
'.
'

belief
He

When

regardthe

that

calls

he

had

this

the

travellers

mania

as

take

profane

Touring under
and

barbaric.

Mountains

impress

not

with

and

irritatingsilhouettes, and

making
be

the

liked
But

the

the

of

idea

the

portion
kindly man.'

of

any
few
of

the

enthusiasm

new

Empire
with

us

Providence.

fairest

by

the

their

grandiosity,

These
.

zigzags

of

granite,
shapeless piles
earth
a
polar region, cannot
generation who

younger

consciously in

were

415

objected to
minority. Such

in
Oberland
Hegel (born 1770),who visited the Bernese
to Lauterbrunnen
1796. He found the roads from Interlaken
oppressive,as the narrow
valleys shut out the views of the
mountains.
He
longed for space, and saw
only rocks ; and
wearied
of the two
Litschenen.
On
was
by the eternal roar
the Scheidegg, the Jungfrau and the two Eigers did not arouse
the feelingof majesty he had
expected. Of the region about
the Grimsel
hospice he says : these dead masses
only impress
was

'

with

me

most

interested

to Lucerne

which

This

wide
any
affirmation

waterfalls

its lower
the

eye
view.

of

Hegel's diary

1805
a

with

Chateaubriand

of

sense

in the

deUghted

without

for

wearisome

an

was

in

protest against the

unalterable
and

hills, the
nauseated

his

very

glad

lake

and

its

by

grey

Voyage
of

au

to

return

reflections,

remained

unknown,

publication.

Mont
mountains.

Blanc

In

raised
'

in Europe and
America, and had always
many
their claims
by
exaggerated ', an opinion confirmed
seen

was

lofty mountains,

for

intended

admiration

He

was

independent mind
not

fact'.

He

had

thought
a

visit

He
holds
that
landscape requires a
Chamouny.
every
background of hills,and spaciousness : no interior mountain
necessities.
The
views
fulfil both
large objects are too near
are
to be seen
in their true
perspective,and the mountains
obscure
too huge to be decorative.
Further, the snowfields
and
is
is hardly seen,
the whole
region and the sky, which
Nature
which
essential
the canvas
paints : Art appreon
as
ciates
woods
to
in
hills
as
a
the fact and
background
brings
and
plains. In moonlight the grandiosenessof the mountains
lacking
But if the grandiose and its majesty are
be seen.
can
Swiss
is all grace.
valleys
themselves,
so
in the mountains
tains
are
only comparatively pleasant. The feelingof the mounVirgil's
is disagreeable,as they are rough and unfertile.
valleys,the haunts of the Muses, are smiling and charming ;
to

his woods

are

forests

of

oaks, elms, beeches, not dreary pines.

41 6

Touring under

and

his

is laid

valley

memories

he

in

peaks and the T6te

inspiration,thought

otherwise

mountains

of

the

Noire.

home

huge

and
when

Umbs

rounded

I cannot

be
and

caves

called
tortuous

he

the

In
to

the

dwellers

on

last

to

like the

that

the

South

the

But

or

view, but

plain ;
Alps.

thus

between

us

South

and

stiU

have

we

naked

sides

marvellous

and,

confirm

shown

by

of the

Southerners

and

the

if so,

this

the

view.

the

nature

swiftly than

more

that

the

Scotland, love

and

sooner

the

must

near

largely determined

birth

contrast

of North

heads,

Switzerland

comes

Thus

is

Nature

home.

ture.
Scrip-

backgrounds,

as

snowy
a

also

full accord.

is in

feeling for

from

did

as

makes

golden light on a dark horizon.

to love lanky ridges,crevices,ravines,
upon
Alpine valleys.'
is right in
invoking the ancients, with

off in

Chateaubriand
whom

hideous

are

despair ;

Their

and

Rousseau,

repeats that,
'

essential.

are

than

pain and

Finally, Chateaubriand
mountains

Empire

place of historical and poetical

with
its glaciersand
Chamouny
of true
Antiquity, the source

hate

would

the

of

tains
moun-

among
be the

would

ancients

is

really
Italy and
actually the

modem
And

and
more
harmonious
eye, spoiled by their richer
vast and
climates, finds mountain-lands
depressing. There
Italian

'

Ugo

says
forth

'

Foscolo,

every
always, voice

rules

living being '.

this

with

alone, and

Educated

ItaUans

often, if

long in the South,

Southern
feeling. You
live

frozen

the

to any

one

by
bom

the

not

snow.

at Zante

It

requires

to live in such

satisfying

are

strong

become

may

'

of Albany writes
imagination ', the Duchess
your
in 1816, who
had
retired to Switzerland, 'instead
it

',

sullenly drives

view.

Northerners, who
infected

Nature

to Foscolo

of

having

inducement

country '.

Stendhal,

describingLake Como, says that the distant view of the eternal

of the Alps gave
snow
a
filUp of melancholy to
necessary
Victor
the pleasant scenery.
on
Hehn, in his book
Italy,
with
treats of Italian scenery
masterly comprehension, and,
dislikes Switzerland.
consequence,
with
tower
lofty,desolate, swampy
as

and
into

covered
the

with

valleys,and

scanty grass

'

For

there

mountains

plains,trough-shaped
midden-heaps descending

dreary ridgesof

stone

mist

and

clouds

of

under

Touring

41 8
coldness

Empire

Vierwaldstattersee
travelled

to

mountains

the

and

dumbness,

and

the

shapeless. So,
Constantinople, taking

round

Rudolf

too,
from

the

the

Delbriick

3rd May

to

the

(II, 1905, p. 296), 'on

June: he says, in his Memoirs
have
since
I experienced, and
firmed
concrossing Switzerland
colours
and
the
of
the feeling,that after
the
shapes
I
does
think
of the
blue
not
South, Switzerland
please.
and
sky, the gleaming sea, and the Unes of Corfu, Palermo
Naples '.
i6th

" 5
The
the

character

Southern

Fernan
'

in Andalusia
be

theme

in

Spain

without

The

of

poetry

taste

and

enthusiasm

the

classical, and

this

lack

fact

that

the
in

and

glory

and

love

of

is the
not

from

in

so

far

says of the
suddenness

literature

the

as

determine

the

view

landscapes

from

Carmona

of this view

in

is
scenery
Views
rule.

then

other

scarce

romantic

are

lands.
;

would
But

admiration

regarded from
aspect '. Thus

of

feeling is a lack of romantic

feeling; and the
for glaciers,though,
Spanish has no native term
in Spanish territory,
shows
lack of interest
are
a

Andes

mountainous
The

Caballero

should

scenery

feelingfor Nature,

similar.

are

of Southern

Nature.

Eastern

akin
with
the Southerner
world, being more
Northerner, shares the Southern
feelingfor Nature.

than

the

The

Arabic

'

like the
ancient
all art,
garden was
garden,
all in the rigid oriental
form '. They love
straight paved
walks
at right angles,oblong flower-beds
with
stone
settings,
and
well-tiimmed
bushes
scented
at the edges, and
straight
cascades
formal, with
angular trees : everything stiff and
and
marble
In the garden of Chomiravaih,
fountains.
the
Fatimite
iron
ruler, at Cairo, the palm-trunks had
plates
let in, and
water
shed
from
the
pierced with pipes, which
On
trunks.
the public places,the garden-beds were
arranged
in designs. Almonds
to
were
grafted on
apricot-trees. In
flowed
from
the pUlars, and birds nested.
a pavilion cascades
birds
in the
stalked
about
Peacocks, guinea-hens and
rare
III (who
garden. In a garden laid out by Abd-er-Rahman
died
in 961) for a favourite
slave, near
avenues
Cordova,
of myrtles, laurels, olives and
fruit-trees were
laid out round
.

translucent

lakes.

The

flower-beds

were

aUve

with

most

Touring under
lovely and

blooms

the

Empire

419

animals
parks with rare
;
there were
aviaries
of bright-hued song-birds,marble
baths,
a kiosque in the
centre
view.
The
on
a hill,with
a delightful
garden of Shah Yehan
{1628-1658) at Lahore, called Shalimar,
is
In the squares
between
obviously designed by Arabs.
the walks
there are thickets of mangoes,
and
fig-trees,
oranges.
Marble
balustrades
surround
the great pond.
Marble
bridges
lead to the marble
is as
The
marble
kiosque in the centre.
white
and
shade.
as
Everywhere water
freshlyfallen snow.
The
and
bushes.
And
above, the
pond reflects stonework
golden Indian
sky.'
The
ancient
the palaces of kings
Persians laid out round
rills and
and
and
satraps parks containing wide meadows
word
; the Persian
pairidaeza is the originof Paradise.
game
is the
This
(1214-1294),
style of the parks of Kublaikhan

fragrant

the

'

whom

Marco
with

palace

feeling

was

Persians

walks

and

ridge

or

banks

green

and

in

Paradise

cool streams.

strange mountain

interest.

formation

the

Koran

Pagan

Blessed

in

the

Koran

have

shadow,

rich

many

plucked by

easily be
pillows.

wells

the

river

four

with

snowy
their

Elysium
:
Virgil's

banks

Gardens

trees

and
of

recline

the

afiordingdeep

fruit-trees, which

and

blessed, who

the

or

similar to
is very
have
suggested it

decorated

are

volcano

scarcely arouses

poets ; Virgil may

Elysium emphasizes the shady avenues,
The
watered
the meadows
by brooks.
in the

this

beauty of Persian
gardens : it lay by
flowers '. This
full of splendid trees
and
the
Nature
scarcely changed with
ages.
and
still delight in flowery gardens
shady

towards

Modern

also, mentions

Libanius,

visited.
'

all the

and

river,

Polo

can

gorgeous

on

akin
more
feelingfor nature
is universally
and
China
In
with
Japan, scenery
ours.
tants
the holidayings of the inhabiPolo describes
Marco
beloved.
of Quin-Sai (Hang-Cheu-fu) to the neighbouring lake
To
this day
to enjoy the changeful beauty of the scenery.
the
view
are

give partiesto

Chinese
or

not

rare

flower.

shunned,
as

and

Interlaken.

poets medieval
and

has

East

Further

the

But

Lamartine.

and

admire

moonlit

night,

But

long journeys to beautiful

the

mountains

The
modern

Chambers

of Su-Cheu

descriptionsof Nature
are
strikingly like
described

Chinese

are

fine

districts
as

quented
fre-

in Chinese
Matthison

gardens

in

1757, and

Kent

gardens

have

the

under

regular

influenced

lakes

framed

'

writer,

is

home

flowers

for
A

for

the

man's

and

there

Uttle

are

in

arouse

and

nature

even.

flower
They have
landscape-gardening is highly

Mexico, the

of

groups

chases,

model

feelings'.

decorate

to

and

Fujiyama

the

dwarf-cedar, and
feasts

and

his

pear-tree
his

Uttle

exhibitions,

and

artistic.

wit"

of leaves

the

similar

poor

for Nature

sense

galleries,ponds

made
figureswere
mostly tasteless.
Generally any

soul

be

frequented by visitors,
is distributed
widely, in

summer-palaces
many
flowers
and
trees.
Many

Montezuma's

then

too

man

waterfall.

In ancient

are

art

peak of
snowy
his apricot, his

still have

the

finest views

habitation, the

natural
should

garden

to

as

classes

with

will

so

sense

lowest

fields.

too, the

Japan,
the

the

still in vogue,
is far from
being
of rocks
trees
and
are
brought

with

substitute

all Nature,

and

in

introduced

style

sinuous

agreeable
In

The

English.

Chinese

'

after

ever

Empire

of the enchanting,
paths. The names
deUghtful gardens show the strivingsof Chinese
A garden ',says a Chinese
in landscape.
character

bridges and
terrifyingand
art

the

(d.1748) designed the English garden

Ming dynasty, and

stiff. Groupings

or

in, and

of

under

Touring

420

was

had
had

highlydeveloped.
large gardens with
artificial rockeries,

diving-birds.

and

flowers, and

human

But

decoration

was

study of the difierent feelingsfor

will show
that every
Nature
people loves its home-scenery.
wild
borderland
Scott's
was
ugly to Washington
Irving :
ancestral
his
hills
he
would
Scott
loved
and
thought
grey
for a year.
die, should he not see them
Every people loves
its

front

of

necessary

as

in

The

nature.

own

J. Frobel,
dwellings

detailed

their

huts

air'.

The

show

of Mexico

Indians

in

the

than

fell them

will not

dweller

is at

dweller

in

and

Europeans

home

his

pastures and

in

only

marshes

undefined

direst

his

he

need.

mountains,

longs

horizon.

for

his

to

most
every
in his native

in

save

as

of their

floral decorations

they choose
The
Lithuanian
beautiful bloom.
deUghts most
he worshipped late
and
birches
willows, which
round
century ; and plants them
every
and

the

Polynesians find flowers

of Nicaragua, according

Indians
taste

more

of flowers

masses
'

the

have

eighteenth
building,

into the
new

The
and
level

mountainthe

marsh-

cornfields

So, too, the Southerner

Touring under
loves

his gorgeous

wrote

Sorrento

at

still alive

are

Goethe

by
apologized,
of

'

True

love

Italy.

of admiration

Dr.

the

Nature.

When

keenly

passing

Rajak, the
Joel stopped towing and
a

-a

fell

sun

Preller

paradise

own

Neapolitan boy

of the

Greenlanders

421

Friedrich

for one's

Signor, perdonate, questa

native, Joel,in
and

Empire

joy,

i860, and

modem

cry

found

arctic

in

in

his

Nansen

Nature.

the

of

Bay
6

la

ahve

alarmed

Naples, and
mia
patria '.
the

to

beauties

mountain-peak with
the glisteningsnow
on
'

exclaimed

binne

'

kack

(how

beautiful I)

"
These
of

considerations

the

ancients

prove

was

more

the

subjectivecomprehension
which
a
soul,
gives Nature

Antiquity, however,
which

in

sees

work.

This

Nature

view

in the

sixteenth

much

later.

also

that

an

the

feeUng for Nature

restricted, and altogetherlacked
of her, first spread by Rousseau,
and

makes

lacked

the

artist's

is also modern

century, but
It

it

;
was

her

reflect

aesthetic

dehberate

soul.

appreciation,
individual

and

painting based
communicated

our

on

it

occurs

to Uterature

fully expressed in Diderot

(in his
criticisms
the
Salons
from
on
1 765-1 767), who,
describing
Vemet's
of
to
real
but
landscapes, appears
speak
scenery,
uses
epithets applying only to pictures. He loved historic
of its masters
all, and
Poussin, as one
:
landscape above
his enthusiasm

shared,
Little

as

is found

for Nature

he

beUeved,

limited, and, like the Roman,

was

but

few.

landscape painting, it is
certain that, despite the stylistic
delineation, its development
aesthetic
too
to foster an
was
description of Nature,
poor
But
the principal diSerence
such
has arisen in dur day.
as
the complete lack of the efiect of lightand its modification
was
in air.
In AeUan's
descriptionof the Vale of Tempe (borrowed
from
Dikaiarchos),he speaks of the colour, the refreshing
of the atmosphere and its effect : the tone
green, but never
is topographicand plastic. So, too, in the sceneries, described
Pliny the Younger, speaking of
by ApoUonius Rhodius,
the regionis forma pulcherrima :
vUla, mentions
his Tuscan
it seems
a
picture rather than reality; he has the features
its effect depended
of the country in his mind, though he knows
'All these
the colours.
descriptionsgive an impression
on
as

is

known

of

by

ancient

of

impljdng

the

clear

light,which

full

air and

Empire
would

bring

out

plasticquaUties.'

Here
for

there

there, however,

and

varying Ught-efEects; for the

making the water quiver, and

sea,

at

the

Touring under

422

eventime

for the

sea

red

the

dew

emotion

rippling on the
refreshingthe dewy woods

clear

in the
in

expressionsof

are

moon,

rays

of the

and

sun,

the

the

golden morning Ught,

like diamonds
the grass, when
on
pools and streams and the
earth give forth mist.
But
these uncertain
pictures,though
like modern
descriptionsof Nature, are all of single scenes.
Of the general effect of lighton landscape there is no mention
;
of
the
shades
between
cold
and
nor
moonlight
perspective
of
the
wonderful
sunset
and the hot
colours, which
glow ; nor
in the morning
wreathe
the horizon
and
hills of the South
and the evening, from pink to deep blue.
No such expression
in ancient poetry,
blue hills ', twilightdistances ',is found
as
to call forth a distinct colour
picture,like the one in Faust :
empurpled

waves

'

'

Down
In

The

the

of the

the

for the

Rome
have

it ;

on

on

to

gaze

the

VitelUans, the

moon

object is merely to illustrate

of the
picturesque effect,
historian, Uke

mention

landscape.
:

his

modern
as

the

Ovid

he

is, hardly

departure.

the

liberty any

Tacitus, would

have

stem

Flavians

Flavians

the difficulties ; he is not

a

saw

poet would

tearful

between

behind

rose

Memnon

he, discursive

only expatiating on
that in a night combat

and

of

statue

by moonlight

this theme

says

modern

the

dawn-red

Tacitus
the

world

undying evening-glow !
dale ; the heights a-blaze
rest each
silver brook's bright golden flow

last time

warmed

mentions

silenced

inscriptionsof

of

effect

the

the

At

None

on

but

his

thinking
artistic

permitted himself.

with a walk
journey through Hades
cates
indiby the deceptive moonlight, and never
the artistic pictures. But
he lets the Penates
appear
in full moonlight, to be seen
before Aeneas
as plainlyas possible:
in moonUght
he feels nothing weird
modem
a
:
poet would
have
had a mysterious twilight.
difierence
The
be
ancient
same
presumed between
may
modem
the
and
landscape, on
authority of Philostratus'

Virgilcompares
through a wood

descriptionsof

Aeneas'

pictures.

'

The

ancients

laid

most

stress

Touring under
on

the

local and

forms

the

plasticelement,

and

Empire

423

after clear

strove

significant
of light

organic whole : the effects

have
taken
the
were
secondary, and could never
modem
The
and
primacy.'
dreamy
mysterious,
vague
obtained
as
by atmospheric effects,is utterly foreign to the
sharp and clear classical spirit. Artistic realization of such
love of Nature, unknown
impressions presupposes a sentimental
down
to very
recent
times.
Further, the sky in the South
is clearer than
in the North, and
less prolific
in these misty
effects. Lastly, ancient
landscapes could all the less attain
the colour reached
by realizingatmospheric effects,as artistic
and
plastic perfection, the main
object of ancient
grace
be readily combined.'
art, cannot
to the absence
The
limited
of antiquity was
due
travel
of the Teutonic
roving spirit,and also to the slighterfeeling
for Nature.
Only the very few penetrated far into Africa ;
and

make

to

an

air

'

the

islands

India

scarcely

sailed from

Dio

of

inland.
made

to the
the

in

saihng

the

to

the

the

Alexander
this
a

Great's

Greek

study under
cynic, Demetrius.
and
after

in

Persian
the

fourth

his

of

wise

the

boat

not

to

who,
them

to

held

in

peripatetics.
ApoUonius of Tyana
by

the

authorities

teUs

Lucian

men.

was

view

oral

were

reports.

this

the

India

to

of

or

second

an

Attic

expedition
joined Gordian's
to learn
order
something of Indian
242, in
Antioch,
to
to
escape
philosophy, managed

murder

Plotinus, who

of

Gordian.

philosopher(of Persian
the

Brahmans,

Possibly, after
philosophers occasionally went

to

Persia

confirmed
makes

with

attributed

and

India

pilgrimage to

century,

to

time

object

the

of

learn

authority

Philostratus

reason

The

never

studied

who

India

to

on

the

on

Alexandrian

written

to

but

to go

his

journey might

Paphlagonian

Sea.

Red

India

trade, and

adventurous

young

used.

seldom
on

of

course

had
philosophers,

barbarian

the

of the

end

extraordinary wisdom,

make

evidence

persuaded

was

tropical world,

like all

For

centuries

first two

tells of

and

coast, but

Malabar

fabulous

fleets
year
the frequent

Every

Romans.

gives second-hand
only sailed in the
Now
and
again an

Lucian

visited

never

were

the

attracted

was

in Alexandria

see

coast

Prusa

informants
went

West

Alexandria

opportunity

be

the

on

century had

The

origin) to
the

same

visit of
India

object :

in
he

the

Metrodorus
the

first half

is said

to

of

have

under

Touring

424
succeeded

by

unknown

to

the

Indian

But

these

his reserve,
them.

Empire

his communications

and
St.

the

knew

Jerome

gymnosophists,Buddha
journeys, whatever

that, according to

had

their

of discoveries

been

of

bom

number,

virgin.

been

have

must

exceptional; and their aim precluded the study of the tropics.

The infrequency of travels to distant and tropicalcountries
and

the

of

lack

incentive

them

to

reacted

each

on

other.

specifiesthree great incentives ; poeticaldescriptions

of
of Nature,
landscape painting and the cultivation
tropicalplants. He was
impelled to tropic travel by Georg
Humboldt

Forster's
of

Descriptionsof

the

South

the

Sea

Islands, and

pictures

Warren

house

at
Hastings'
Ganges
and a huge dragon-treein an
old tower
in the Berlin
London,
botanical
gardens.
This
how
three
aU
antiquity lacked
chapter has shown
incentives.
Descriptions of Nature
aiming at reproducing
and
conjuring up the impressions of a scene, such as excited

the

Forster

shores

and

of

Humboldt,

of

and

in

In
the

in

winter.

palm- wood

at

Antium,

on

the

at

Bordighera)

West

may

have

coast,

beside

and

Exotic

Egypt.

their

outside
their own
grow
the Middle
Ages were

for

bination
com-

of narration.
Pictures "of^
powers
excite a desire of more
distant
lands,

only dealt with

flowers

involve

and

and

cultivated.

fruits and

modem

very

are

might

times

scarcely
will not

science

which

scenery,
in Roman

in

hot-houses
Of

the

plants were

Romans

forced

'

foreign trees which

country ', palms in antiquity
than
commoner
now
(except
In 291 B.C. they are mentioned

been

grown
temples of

in

the

cities

Greek
In

Apollo.

Pliny's

time

in Italy. Petrus
Crescentiis
de
common
they were
horticulture
for all classes
on
(born in 1230) in his work
recommends
duced
planting palms (which must have been reintrotized
by the Saracens). The fruit-trees from Asia, acclimaunder
the first Emperors, apricots,
peaches and pistachio,
became

soon

before

the

native, but
fourth

plants, now
in

and

deemed

antiquity.

In

century,

whilst

characteristic

gardens
and

there

decorative

did

not

grow
and

in

several

oranges
of Italy,were
would

be

the

few

open
otiier

unknown

medicinal

plants, like the peppertree, the incense-bush, the leafy cassia, myrrh and
crocus,
microcosms
of
little
as
tropicvegetation.
arranged
The
difierence of feelingof the present day and antiquity
foreign

herbs

lemons

Touring under

426
discovered
in

villa in

Prima

Porta

Empire

covering four

1863 shows,

in

the

Rome

near

of

walls

it dates

from

room

about

represents a garden.
faithfully
Augustus, and
surrounded
with
The
a
foreground consists of meadows
Behind
stone
brick
and
or
a
hedge.
palisade of reeds
there
is a
the brick
hedge, straight but for a few curves,
of flowers,
graceful wood
growing out of a thick underwood
including palms, laurels, granates, apple-trees,quince-trees
of the
and
hedge there are,
cherry-trees. In the curves
besides
other
undistinguishable trees, dark pine-trees,with
the background
From
to the ground.
boughs reaching down
are
seen
towering. The whole park is full of birds ;
C5^resses
the
lawn, the palisade,the flower thicket with larger birds
the

time

like

cocks, and

whole

of

the

artificial

jungle

various

with

trees

has

small

enlivening

an

birds.
and

'

The

inspiring

appearance.'
the imperial
Though such designs may have been common,
tectural,
generally the artificial and archistyle of horticullnire was
inherited by the Middle
a taste
Ages. The directions
his ancients well, correspond
knew
of Petrus de Crescentiis, who
absolutely. For the gardens of the middle-class, with about
of fruitthree to four iugera,he recommends
straight rows
trees, or, in hot countries, cedars and palms, but only trees
the

of

Of

summer-houses.

in

vines

nature,

same

is

there

flowers

and

between,

more

no

meadows

and

mention

than

'

'

:
gardens of kings and great men
of
with
for which
he assumes
a
an
area
iugera
twenty or more
the
in
North
In
those
stream
a
flowing through.
gamecasino
a
(palatium
park should be laid out ; in the South
speciosum),which will afford long shadows, and a cool breeze
in the hottest
inside
weather, besides
giving a view over
There
must
also be a fishpond
the garden and
its animals.
bushes
and
and
trees,
an
aviary of lattice-work, bmlt over
lings,
be
with
to
stocked
pheasants, partridges,goldfinches, starnightingales,ousels, and song-birds. In the garden a

in

for the

his directions

with

summerhouse
in which
fine

my
weather.

lord

and

The

willows
fruit-trees,
or
Or
a

it may
number

be
of

and

rooms

my

walls
and

dry wood
graftingswill
of

halls of trees

lady
are

to

and
be

his barons
rows

elms, clipped and

overgrown
afford much

is to be

with

may

put up,
stay in

of

quick-growing
trained to shape.
vines.

pleasure,but

Further,
in such

under

Touring
garden
palms are

the

Finally,a

and

direction

The

the

for

his

receipts on Pliny.
prescriptionslasted on well

These
'

Leon
Battista
years.
principlesof the Italian garden,

trained

(1450)established

bases

427

and
pines, cypresses, cedars
Every speciesis to be set separately.
is given to build thick
living walls and
round
garden and court through trees

pinnacles and roofs

carefully clipped and
Alberti

Empire

the

evergreens,
essential.

most

the

later

Italian

horticulture

into the sixteenth

does

but

The
main
canons.
adapts her to its own
and
division
into
characteristic
symmetry
the viUa itself is to be surrounded
garden nearest
traded

terraces

Valleys

and
and

Or

The
spaces.
with balus-

the

lower

artificially
produced

are

broadened

straight canals

in cascades,

collected

objective is

architectural
steps, and is rendered
by
ending, by gradation, grottoes and fountains.
declivities

and

Nature,

and

semicircular

century.

imitate

not

which

to

are

fall

out

by
into

ruptions,
interbasins

through statuary.

off into a circus ;

ground
piece
whole
or
a
single fashion,
valley or region planted in one
but
be wholly rural
not
must
(e.g.the pine-grove in the
Villa
will have
vistas
the
straight waUs
Pamfili). Then
in or
of fountains
and sculptures,and must
be framed
vaulted
in the
with
first case,
over
:
hedges of cypress
evergreens
a

of

is to be

laurels, in tiie second

and

oaks.

rounded

The

of free Nature

contrast

beyond the Italian garden, of distant hills

views
of country and town, or the sea, is a first essential.'
or
This styleprevailed in Italyduring the fifteenth and sixteenth
taken
and
centuries
England
; was
up in France, Germany
and
and
ruled supreme,
HoUand,
protest,
despite Rousseau's
nineteenth
far in the
even.
eighteenth and
Hegel prefers
the
he
to
the
architectural
garden
picturesque, in which
freedom
thinks
the
purposed purposelessness and forced
rectified by man.
tasteless : one
can
Goethe,
enjoy Nature
at
older
in
the
too, extolled
style (1825),
palaces.
any rate,
or

architecture

'

'

The

'

spacious arbours,

berceaux,

quinconces

society meeting in an orderly way,

all in
sets them
plan of freakish Nature
Nature
serve
The
attempt to make
ItaUan
the
garden from antiquity to
of

fact

all the

transformed

more

since

remarkable,
the

as

sixteenth

Italian

at

whilst

least
the

allow

Enghsh

collision.'
art

the

has

dominated

present day

vegetation has been

century by importations

Touring

428
from

the

East

painting,with
is still behind

Northern

art.

has

Italian

antiquity and

school
has

Empire

Further,

all the rich art of

the

the

America.

feelingfor Nature
heaven, except as far as it
that

the

and

under

not

been

it

the

influenced

Renascence,
be

must

changed

landscape

under

admitted
the

Italian

by Transalpine