CE 523 - TIMBER DESIGN

Characteristic of Wood
Trees are either deciduous, having broad leaves and usually shedding them in the fall, or
coniferous having needles and cones containing seeds. In the wood industry the deciduous
trees are called hardwoods and the coniferous are called softwoods. Hardwoods are generally
harder than softwoods, but there are many exceptions. The oaks, for instance, are very hard,
whereas the basswood, classified among the hardwoods, is extremely soft. On the other hand,
the Southern yellow pine and Douglas fir, although classified as softwoods, are, in realty, two of
the hardest woods.
The trees used for lumber are exogenous, that is, they increase in size by a growth of
new wood on the outer surface under the bark. The cross section of a tree trunk reveals the
layers of new wood that are formed annually. These layers, called annual rings, are frequently
composed of light and dark layers. The light ring, being grown in the spring of the year is called
the springwood, while the darker ring called the summerwood. Thus, the number of annual
rings at the base of a tree indicates the age of the tree.
Wood consists of long, narrow, hollow cells called fibers. Scientifically, wood is called
xylem. New fibers grow at the outside of the tree, increasing the diameter layer by layer. The
thin, growing layer is called the cambium layer. The sapwood is within the cambium layer, and
its fibers are active in the life processes of the tree, but they do not grow. Sapwood is the band
of rings at the outer edge of the trunk. It carries the sap from the roots to the leaves. As the
tree ages, the sapwood gradually changes to heartwood and new sapwood is formed. The
heartwood at the center of the trunk consists of dead fibers. The heartwood usually darker in
color than the sapwood because of the resin, gums and minerals it contains. At the center is a
thin vein of soft tissue called pith extending the length of the tree having no strength. Outside
the cambium layer is the bark, which protects the growing cells from the insects but is useless
as a structural material.
The fibers of all wood specie consist of a structurally sound material called cellulose
(approximately 70% of the volume) cemented with lignin. Paper is made of the cellulose from
wood.
The structure of trees consists of longitudinal bundles of wood fibers or cells. Smaller
bands of fibers, called medullary or wood rays, radiate from the center of the tree trunk and
serve to bind the structure together.

Defects in Lumber:
Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/ mold properly with
the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concretes quality.
Any irregularity in wood that affects it strength and durability is a defect. The most
common defects:
1. Check a crack or lengthwise separation of the wood across the annual rings. It
generally arises from the process of seasoning. Seasoning is the process of reducing
the moisture until a suitable moisture level is reached.
2. Shake a separation along the grain principally between the annual rings. Both
check and shake reduces the resistance of wood to shear.
3. Split separation of the wood due to the tearing apart of wood cells.
4. Knot a portion of a branch or limb incorporated in the body of a tree. The strength
of a member is affected by the location and the size of the knots it contains.

Prepared by: Engr. John Le Carre A. Enerlan, CIT University, CEA-CE_1401

Source: Notes of Engr. Larry C. Almonte

5. Wane the term applied to bark, or absence of wood or bark, on the edge or corner
of a piece of sawed wood. In specifying, wane maybe avoided by requiring material
that is square edge.
6. Pitch Pocket an opening parallel to the annual rings containing pitch, either solid
or liquid.
7. Cup and Crook distortions caused by unequal shrinkage during seasoning.
Decay the disintegration of wood substance due to the action of wood-destroying fungi. The
growth of fungi is encouraged by air, moisture, and a favorable temperature.
Green wood are wood which containing substantial moisture.

The four major enemies of wood:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Insects (Termites)
Marine Borders
Fungi
Fire

Classification of Lumber:
Lumber the product of the saw and planning mill not further manufactured than by
sawing, re-sawing and passing lengthwise through a standard planning machine, crosscut to
length and matched. Those pieces 1 inches or less in thickness and 2 inches or more in width
are boards. Pieces at least 2 inches thick and less than 5 inches or more wide are dimension
lumber. Pieces 5 inches or more in thickness and width are timbers. The three classification of
softwood lumber:
1. Yard Lumber
- Comprises the material less than 5 inches thick used for general building
purposes. It include boards and siding less than 2 inches thick, flooring laths,
shingles, pickets, finishing material, planks less than 4 inches, and joist 4 inches
or less thick. Studding and the common sizes of joist and rafters are included in
this classification.
2. Structural Material
- Includes lumber (except joist and planks) 5 inches or more in thickness and
width. They are generally referred to as timbers. Under the classification of
structural material:
A. Joist and Planks 2 inches to 4 inches thick or more wide
B. Beams and Stringers 5 inches or more thick and 8 inches or more wide
C. Post and Timber 5 inches x 5 inches and larger
3. Factory and Shop Lumber
- Includes factory plank graded for door, sash and other cuttings 1 inches or
more thick and 5 inches or more wide. It is used for general millwork and other
industrial commodities.
Lumber is finished in one of several ways. Rough lumber remains as sawed on all
four sides with no further finishing. Dressed lumber or surfaced lumber is planned or
surfaced on at least one face. It is designated as S1S if surfaced on one edge. The
abbreviations S2S, S1E, S1S2E and S4S are used for other combinations of sides and
edges that are surfaced. Worked lumber is dressed and also worked to provide tongue
and groove or shiplap joints and/or to change the cross section in some other way.
Quantities of lumber are measured and sold by the by the foot board measure
(fbm). One board foot is a quantity one foot square by one 1 inch thick. It is equal to a
volume of 144 cubic inches.

Prepared by: Engr. John Le Carre A. Enerlan, CIT University, CEA-CE_1401

Source: Notes of Engr. Larry C. Almonte

EXAMPLE:
If lumber costs Php 20.00 per board foot, how much will a 5 lengths - 2 x 4 x 6
cost you?
SOLUTION:

Volume of Lumber = b x h x L x number of lengths

= (2 inch)(4 inch)(6 ft) x (

) x 5 lengths

= 2 880 in3
Convert Volume of Lumber to board foot = 2 880 in3 x (

Convert Volume of Lumber to board foot = 20 bd.ft

Cost of lumber = Volume of lumber in board foot x unit price of lumber
Cost of lumber = 20 bd.ft x Php 20.00/bd.ft
Cost of lumber = Php 400.00

Types of Problems
1. Design given the load, determine the size
2. Investigation given the size, determine the load

Criteria for Design:

1. Safety
2. Economy
3. Practicability/ Aesthetics
I. Flexural Members
- Structural members subjected to transverse loads. They include floor joist, ceiling joist,
stringers, girders, purlins, girts, etc.

Modes of Failure:
1. Bending Stress
2. Horizontal Shear Stress
3. Deflection

Prepared by: Engr. John Le Carre A. Enerlan, CIT University, CEA-CE_1401

Source: Notes of Engr. Larry C. Almonte