FOREWORD The operation and maintenance of Thermal Power Plants is the most vital area for the achievement of high availability/more utilisation of the installed capacity in the country. Electrical equipments form the back-bone of Thermal Power Stations. Operation and Maintenance of these equipments require not only thorough understanding but also attention due fo sophisticated nature of these equipments. Itis, therefore, important that knowledge in a simple and systematic form is made available to the personnef of all tevels in a Power Station and its application is ensured for the optimum results. Power Engineers Training Society (PETS) is bringing out a manual on "Generator and Electrical Plant" as a part of Power Plant familiarisation series, This volume-"Generator & Electrical Plant’ is fourth in the Power Plant familiarisation series and has been prepared as a general text for Graduate Engineer trainees as well as reference material on Generator and other Electrical Equipments of Thermal Power Station. Reference of 210 MW and SOOMW (KWU Machines) Generator and their related system have generally been made as these are dominating the Indian Power scenario. This will help the power sector personnel jn understanding the equipments and also give them an idea as how to react in abnormal situations that can arise in actual practice. The related equipments like generator auxiliaries, its cooling and sealing, and different excitation systems applicable to the different machines installedin our country, auxiliary supply system, ‘switchgear and their diferent layouts for sub-station/switchyard, transformers, motors, power cables and DC supply system etc, have been dealt in detail with relevant diagrams which makes the subject simple and interesting. it is hoped that the manval will be useful for the trainees, trainers and also for powerplant engineers. Suggestions are welcome for improvement of this manual. (V.K. MUTREJA) NEW DELHI Director General AUGUST, 19928.No. PPF VOL. IV GENERATOR & ELECTRICAL PLANT CONTENTS Subject Generator Excitation System & AVR Cooling of Turbo Generator T.G. Shatt Seal System ‘Auxiliary Supply for Thermal Power Station Switchgear Transformer Power Cables D.C. Supply System Page No. 18 32 46 55 63 89 107 110Module-GF-2 GENERATOR & ELECTRICAL PLANT Level—Graduate Engineers ul -ESSON PLAN a] Jo Principles Je constructional dotas of 210/500 MY Machines, © Diferont typos Je Princpies Je construction ot ‘maj components. (© Requitements ‘© Dotais of sytom for 210500 My machines, (© Voitage Setection ‘© Ditforont Systems| © Description of system Cables eT ypes @ Layout ®Constrction eFauts, Lesson-Vill ssonX Je Type of Coolants © Coosing methods for270'500 MW ‘machines. © Operation Je Diteronces in ‘sysiams operation ete. (© Principles (© Constrvetional ooialls © Ditarontypes (© Cooting methods ‘Suitcnmear ePrnciples © Types © Constnuctonal © Setection DG Seem © Foquiromorts © Systom dotaits © Batteries datas # Operation of System.1 12 GENERATOR INTRODUCTION Generatoronthe Aerator as itis usualy called isthe electrical endo aturbo-generatorser. is acylindical pole (Two pole for a S0H2 supply) synchronous generaicr iis generally knowin as the piece ol eauipment {at actualy convents the mechanical energy o turbine ino elecncty. The generation ol electricity isbased fon the principle of electromagnetic melucion. Probably. tbe fwst ACC. sufbo-generalor was bull in late nineteenth century butt look tity yearsto develop high speed generators. The provement solid torgings ‘and improved echriques pefttiod anincrease ingeneratorraiing. around 1922, 1920 MW al 3000.ev/min Belore the outbreak of 2nd world war, the development and installation of large number ol generators were ‘of the oFder of 3010 50 MW. During iast we decades India has done the installanon and development of ‘generators of 100 MW and above, upto S00 KAW. DEVELOPMENT OF LARGE GENERATORS: Inthe dovelopthent of large generators ine cost of material andlabour involved inmmanulacture and erection, ig 3 basic consideration. Coupied very closely wilh these consideration is the restriction in size and weight imposed by transport limitations, ‘The designer of large turbo: generator must be conscious of the problem of transponing heavy loads. Ahoughthemaximum transportable weight allowed.on railroads continye to increase wth he improvements in rail trackstoads themselves, the limiiaions will sill have to be observed. A generator consists of the following main components and associaled system oa STATOR | ROTOR 4 EXCITATION SYSTEM <8 COOLING SYSTEM 1G SEALING SYSTEM 4 PROTECTIONS, Inthe following sections the above components have been discussed in brit and also shown in Fig. No. 11.1, Thoughihe working principle and components are the same forany size and any make machines, there will be come dillerences in the design and constructionat aspacts between manulacturer fo manulacturer ‘and belween machines of diferent sizes. A generalised approachis therefore adopted inthe discussion of famniliarisations Fig 143° STATOR ‘The staloris the component that embodies the armature core and armature winding. iis totaly enclosed 4 tight fabricated structure Wis the single heaviest loadin the whole turbo-generalo tran. The major part Of ths load isthe stator core. The etalor comprises ofan innar tame ard ovter tame. The outer lrame is rigid labricated situcture of weldedstee| plates, wihinthisshelistined cage of guderbuiltcrcutarand axial ribs. The ribs divides the yoke into compartments through which hydrogervair flows into radial ducts in the stator core and circulates through the gas coolers housed inthe frame. The inner cage is ustially fixed 10 the yoke by an arrangement of spriqgs fo dampen the double requency vibrations inherent in 2-pole {generator The details of he stator have been shown inthe Fig. NO. 1.2. frame spring mounting bean current screening shield FIG. 1.2. STATOR ASSEMBLY Inlargor generators (500 MW etc), the Irame is constructed as two separate parts. The fabricated inner cage is inserted in the outer rane alter the stator core has been assembled and the winding complotod. 2131 Stator Core “The stator core is built up trom a large number of varnish insulated punching or sections of thin (generally 01.35 mm to 0§ sen} steel plates: The use of cold rolled grain-odented. loss less steel (rom which the punchings are made can contribute fo reduction in the weight of stator core for two main reasons: fi) Theres an increase in core stacking factor with improvement in lamination. cold roling and in core, ‘bulking techniques. {ily The advantage can be taken of the high magnetic permeance of grain-oriented steels to work the lator core at comparatively high magnetic saturaton without fear of excessive won loss rtoo heavy 2 demand tor excitation ampere turns trom the generator rotor ‘The slots, ventilation holes etc. ate punched out in one operation in the stampings and as such the stampings are rather complicates on account ot number of holes end stots that have to be produced, The Core stampings are assembled in an inter-leaved manner oncore bars, The core consists of serval pockets ‘seperated by stee! spacer tor radial cooling ol the core by dydrogen. To ensure a fight and monolithic core, ‘pressing of the ‘punchings is done in several stages and when completely buil, the coreis held in pressed condition by means of heavy non-magnetic ‘steel press rings’ which are botled 10 the end of core bars as shown in Fig. No. 1.3. Additional suppor is provided to the teeth portion by means of non-magnetic fingers held betweenthe core and the pressings. The press sings are tapered on ihe lace towards the core, so Thal ‘an even pressure is exerted over the end surlaces of the core when core bars are tightened. The end zone healing is reduced by copper screens provided between the end packets and press rings, Inerder to isolate the stator body and thus foundation from magnetic vibrations of the stator core, the ‘core bars are designed to provide elastic suspension ol core in the stalcr. $16.1. Staroncone AssEMeLY Fig. 18132 Stator Winding & insulation ‘Stator core carries the armature winding where the voltage is generated due to electro-magnetic induction. Each stator conductor mus! be capable of carrying the rated current without over heating and the insulation ‘mast be sufficient 10 prevent leakage current flowing between the phases or to earth. The stator has a three phase double layer shor chorded bar type winding having two paralel paths. Each col side consists of glass insulated sofid and hollow conductor with cooling water passing though the latter in case of water cooled conductors being used in higher capacily unt. Water is ted to and trom the winging through Tetlon tubes as shown in Fig. No. 1.4 Fig. 14 ‘Tne stator winding conductors, both sod and holo, are transposed about a non-magnetic cooing ‘duct which provide the flow path forthe coolant gas in case.of hydrogen cooled generators. Inliguid cooled windings the transposed conductors are recangularlubes. The transposiioncanbe done inaumber of ways but most commonly used method of transpositions the Roebel arrangement whichis shown in Fig. No. 1.5. 1G14 INE ROEBEL TRAMEPORTON ARRANGEMENT OF CONOUCIORS 4‘The stalor current, terminal voltage end current density increase withthe increase inthe generator rating, . This is shown in Fig. No. 1.6. and Fig. No. 1.7 Generator Stator Winding Current & Current Density Generator Stator Winding Terminal voltageWinding forthe stato are made up om copper strips with insulated ape impregnated wih varnish, ried under vacuum andhtpressed io orm a solid insulated bar. These bars are then placed inthe statorskis andheld inpostion with wadgas to form ihe complete winding which s connected together at each end ofthe oore forming the end uns. “These end tums are rgily braced and packed with blocks of insulating material to withstand the heavy forces which might result rom a shor citcuitor other faut condliions, The gonerator terminals are usually arrangadbelow the stator ‘as shown in Fig. 1.8, To main line terminals Core end plats Phase connection ring clamp Fitament wourid 7 alas ig Filament wound ‘glass support ring Clamping tinks Insulation comb cones < > f Epoxy resi filled neoprene rings intercoll pressure bogs Top coils Endwinding sapports, * brackets Coit to coll connection Phase ring barriers From neutral terminals FiG.-8 STATOR ENDWINDING - EXCITER END1.33 14, ‘Terminal Bushings Water cooled terminal bushings are housed in the lower part of the stator on the slip ring side. Porcetain insulators are provided to insplate the terminat' bars trom the stator body. Etfective sealing is provided ‘between the terminal bushing and the stator body fo avoid any possible leakage of hydrogen. The assembly cof terminal bushing is shown in Fig, 1.9. 1, TERMINAL BAR 4. RING 7. INSULATOR 2. GRUB SDREW M8x25 5, © SEALING RING 8. SEALING WASHER 3. WUT 6. SEALING WASHER FIG. 1.9 TERMINAL BUSHING ASSEMBLY ROTOR ‘The gnerator rotor forms the poles and provides the magnetic field. is the most dificult part of the {generator to design. trevoWves at aspeed of 3,000 revolutions per minute. Thepreblem otguarantesing the ‘dynamic strength and operating stabilty of such arotoris complicated by he factthat a massive non-uniiorm Shalt subjected to a mulipioty of citterentiat stresses, must operate in oil Ubricated sleave bearings ‘Supported by a structuremountedon foundations allofwhich possess complex dynamic behaviour, pecubar tothemselv 6s. tis alsoan electromagnet and to giveit necessary magneticsirengih the winding mul carry a fairly high direct curent. The passage of this current through the winding. generates heat but te lettperature myst not be alowed to become too groat, otherwise cificuties will be experienced with insulation. To keap the temperature down, the cross section of conductor couldbe increased bua this would introduce other problems. i order io make room for the large conductor, wider o: deeper slots would have to-be cut in the rotor body and this would cause mechanical weakness. The problem Is really 1o gel he ‘maximum amount of copper into the winding without reducing the mechanical strength, With good design ‘and great care in constuction this can be achieved, 7‘The cotoris.a cast chromium, nicke!, molybdenum and vanadium stee! ingot. and ns further forged and machined. The rotor forging is the planed and milled to form the 1eeth. Very often a hole is bored through {he centre of the totor axially trom one endio the other for inspection Slots are tnen machines for winging and ventilation as shown in Fig. No. 1.10 FIG.1.10 TYPICAL CROSS -SECTION OF ROTOR14a Rotor Windings & Retaining Rings ‘The rotor carries the field windings. Siver bearing copper {containing 0,03 10 0.1% silver) is used forthe \windings with mica as the insulation between conductors. A mechanically strong insulator such as micanite, is used for lining the slots. Later designs of windings for large rotor incorporate combinations of hollow Conductors with siots or holes arranged to provide for circulation of the cooling gas through the actuat Conductors. When rotating at high speed. cenritugal force Iles oli the winding out of the slots and they are contained by duralumin wedges. The end turns out side the slots are covered by non-magnetic steel ‘elaining end rings and are secured to a turned recess in the rotor body, by shrinking or screwing and ‘supported at the other end by Fittings earred by the rotor body (Fig. 1.11). Twist 40 RELEASE RETARING RNG ROTOR ENOWNDING RETAMING RING enomNoIG RETAINING RING COVER FIG. 1.11 ROTOR'ENDWINDING RETAINING RING 9‘The retaining ring s a single piece forging which takes up the centrifuga! forces ofthe zolor end winding, ‘Thetwoends of windings are connectedto slip rings, usually made ot forged steel, and mounted insulated sleeves, shrunk on the shaft ‘These arrangements for rotor windings are shown in Fig. No. 1.12. INNER TURE OF COIL. (OUTER TUBE OF CON ROTOR END WINDING END WINDING & coNDUCTOA rocon dsianem wus Hore —| ‘aas FLoWTO, ROTOR 20GY CENTRE LINE SECTION OF SLOT CONTENTS ATC-E SHOWING BALANCING PLUGHOLES FIG, 1.12 “ROTOR COIL AND SLOT CONTENTS: 10142 Rotor Balancing ‘The final rotor is an end product of several machining operations. however. due to inaccuracies in the machining operations, cortain unbatance is lkely tobe iniroduced in the rotor. tis, theratore, necessary nat ‘when completed, he rotor must be tested for mechanicallalance, which means hat acheck is madelosoe iii run upto normal speed without vibrations. ithe cesidual unbalance is of larger magnitude, corrective balancing operationis to be carried out by adding covective balance weights. Arrangements are theretore, made in all designs to lx adjustable balance weights at each end of the rotor. 1.43 Slip Ring end Brush Gear Assembly ‘The slip ring assembly is made ol alloy stee! and insulating material, I must safely withstand the stressess. due to centritugal forces. Both the rings are mountedoon a single commonsteelbush, which has aninsulating jacket (of expxy glass) premouided on t. The complete bush with slip rings, is shrunk on the rotor shaft. The slip rings are provided with inckned holes for self ventiiaions. helical groove is machined in the surlace ofthe slip rings to prevent air building up under the brushes and adversely allecting current transfer. FIG, 1,13 SLIPRINGS AND BRUSH GEAR 1. Mltistoetakt coupling with plog connection 19. Bearing pedestel 2. Field current Tea imal? bore M1: Comection for bydtraulic shaft 14ft oft 31 Plug-ie Bruch holder 2. Bearing off inlet AC stipring Gan 13, Bearing off draia 5. Spring enclosure 14. Searing inavlation 6° Terminal bolt 15, Foundation 1. Slipeing. 16: Baauet abr duet 20 Slipriog chore 1 Air guide duets in alipring 95 Consection for oil vapor extractor 18, Slipring saculation "144 15 Brush gear is provided on the extendedpartof he bearing pedestalonthe excitation side. Brush holders. are fixed on brass ring, made in such a way as to provide staggering of the brushes along the width of stip ting. The brushes are spring loaded 1o maintain requited contact pressure (0.9 kg/crn? 16 1.2 kgfer), and the brush pressure canbe adjusted individually. The current carrying beass rings are insulated trombearing pedestal and rigidly fixed on it. The slip ing and brush gear assembly is shown in Fig. No. 1.13. +n case of generators with brushless excitation system there are no brushes and slip rings. Cooling Fans. ‘The fans are used for circulation of cooling gas as shown in Fig. 1.10. There are single stage axial flow propeller ype tans. The fans are shrink ited on either sides of rator body. Fan hubs are made of alloy steot forging. In large generators (500 MW), there is one mutistage compressor on turbine end for this purpose. GENERATOR BEARING Generator bearings are of pedestal ype with spherical seating to allow self alignment and are supported on «a separate pedestal on slip ing side, and in he LP. casing on the turbine side. A sectional arrangement of bearing with brush gear is shown in Fig. No. 1.14 116 ‘Thepedestalis a massive steelcasting proving high rigidity. rearing bushis made upot cast steel ined with high quality white metal (generally called bab.) Oil under pressure fs suppied Io bearing through a diaphragm which is preselected o equlate the flow 60 ato gef the temperature rise with in the lms. Oil ‘calchers and dellectors are provided to check the axial eakage of ol. Vent pipe is provided on the beating Cover connecting the inside chamber lor escape ol hydrogen, which may come out alongwith seat oi! and ‘getaccumilatodin hebearing cover. For checking Ihe fow ote, check windows are provided in drain pipes. ‘The cicuation of shaft current, fable to damage he bearing surtace and bbricaling oil. is prevented by ‘means of hard insulation: This insulation is placed in the bearing seals, wipers and necessary oi pipes on sip fing sides, to insulate them from he ame & ean. in larger generator both the bearings are insulated {rom stator frame by means of epoxy glass laminate. The condition of insulation can be tested when the senerator is in operation. The bearings have been provided with RTDs and vibration pick-ups for temperature and vibration monitoring. GENERATOR COOLING SYSTEM ‘The generator losses are dissipated as heat through stator and rotor bodies. This heat should be taken off {or Sale operation ofthe generator. Forced ventilation and otal enclosures ate necessary to deal with the large scale losses. and high rating per unit volume. “The primay cooling medium is air oF hydrogen, which in turn is passed through a water cooled heat” ‘exchanger. Small electic generaiors are cooled by air, The demand for increased output from a single ‘generator necessitated improved methods of cooling net only to keep the size of the generator within reasonable imits but alsoto inimise losses andimprove the elfciencies ofthe generator. The single largest Joss inthe arcooted generatoristhe windage loss. One way of reducing thiss to replace the ai wih alighier ‘gas. Hydrogen has the great adiantige that iis densi a atmospheric pressure is only 1/14 that of air and byusinghydrogen he windageloss canbe reducedinthe same ratio. Use othydrogen also helpsinreducing noises. The olher major advantage of hydrogen is tha its heat transfer co-elficient (15 times) and thermal ‘conductviy (7 times) are considerably higher than those ol ar. AS a resull hydrogen cooling al 1,2, 8 3 atmosphere absolute can aise heating ol the machine by 18,30 and 40% respectively. Theonly other gag _ \which shows significant advantage over air in iets of teduced density or improved cooling properties is Heli but tis too costy, The losses (i.e. sum ol copper losses of stator & rotor windings and hysteresis & eddy current losses) in typical 500 MW generator is about 7 MW as shown in Fig. 1.26. Stator Winatng 2 Stetor Core 12. FIG.1.15 Losses for Typical SOOMW Generator 1%WALIOXa Y HOLVUANED MW 005 TWOIdAL st ‘ota 14soling of generators is also dealt more elaborately under section 3 4AFT SEALING. ‘order to preventetiecvelyshe ascapeothydrogen rom he turbo-generatetis essentialto provide shat salsa both ends where the shaft extends yough the casing. Thisis achieved providing radial and axial |i in the system, the oibeing kept at a higher pressure than that ofthe hydrogen. The shaft seas are ‘pplied withthe same cas used in turbine and generator ournalbvearings. The shaft seating systems shall 2 kept in operation” even when the generator fs not in operation fo prevent he heating and consequent {izing of the sealing due to tho heal generated by barring gear rotation and damage'o shalt because of “Rall clearence. This is essential even when the hydrogen gas is purged out from the generator. The systemis discussed in dtall under section 4, ENERATOR EXCITATION te have seen thatrolor genorales magnetic eld Todo ths a direct curent supply is required to energise ‘@ windings onthe rotor. This is usually supplied by a dlact current generator known as an exciter. Wray 2 directly coupledito the rotor shatt, or driven through a gearbox. may also be separately driven by an ®ctrc motor. A modem development is replace the D.C...generator with an A.C. generator, the output ‘which s passed trough recifirs to give 80.C. supply to the rotor winding. Another method i to tap AC ‘im generator terminals and then rectify through Tyristors 50 as to provide excitation to the rotor. DC circuit breaker is connected between the excitation system and the generator rotor. The excitation rrentivottage canbe fedto generator roi without brushes, However, amodern rendisfouse brushless Xcitation system. The sectional view ofa ypical S00 MW generator and is exciter (Brushless) has been noun in Fig. 1.16. iENERATOR PROTECTION Jenerator has o be protected {rom faults occuring within the generator stator er ‘olor and atsorom external 1ults‘abniormal operating conditions in the grid which altected the generator. Various davices are used to tect the abnormatties in operations ané whenever fault conditions appear, they can give waming alarms athe operators or trip the unit automatically. Generally automatic tippings are provided ifthe time for ‘perator to take corrective action is less or the fault is likely to cause Serious damage to the unit. ‘The fault may be catogrised as follows ‘aults in the generator @R (Stator wer phase’Earth faults Sy : (ii) Inter turn faults + (ii) Field faire eo 15\W operating conditions affecting the generator Ean taunt stem sequence current in the generator) frequency in the system. by abnorimat condition inthe system 1 Faults ‘scould be the result of moisture or deteriation due to ageing or foreign matter ete. Ismay ocour between any phase conductor and core whereas interphase fautis heoverhangs. interphase faults involving earth faults couldbe the result of single ‘may simultaneously result im phase to earth fault in other phase due to increase arth caused because ofthe fystphase to earth faull Ina direct water cooled stator 31 core faut may occur due to insulation failure, due to over heating caused by through the stator conductor. generator if allowed to continue can cause itrepairable damage. can even result :uilourtents. There is a tendency or the generator to over speed since the power 2d Ifthe tauty ganerator is not immediately isolated the sysiem may be thrown yy. ‘erators, i is usually practice to limit the earth fault current 10 avoid extensive Earth fault current of even 100 amperes for few seconds can cause extensive stents generally limited 10 abou 15/20 amos. its, involving two urns of ho same phase. Higher capacity Turbo-gonorators for ‘220 designed to have only one turnin one slot as such the chances of inter tun |. However, in two layer winding generators, two conductors beionging to same vusing damage to the machine citation caused by faut in the AVR or tripping of field breaker. Genorator when running sonnected 10 the grid, shares the reactive demand of the system. On loss of tarts drawing reactive power fromthe system instead of supplying reactive power, rscannot meet the requirement of active power this shail result in large voltage + result in instability, als heated due to induced curcents in te cotor winding, Stator also heats up due 310 Ihe increase in reactive currant from the system. ‘© ungroundod,a single earth fault is caused by insulation faluse due to moisture, ation nthe rotor etc. Bul he existence of single ground fautincreases the chances fe occurence of 2nd earth fault can cause large faut curenis causing serious assingotcenain parol ota, uxpattemis disturbed producingurbatanced torces ‘ougha machine cancontinuousiy union a single earth faut butsecond rotor earth should be detected immediately and generator should be tipped. 1619.4.5 19.18 19.24 19.22 19.23 19.24 19.25 Over Voltage Over voltage at he generator terminals mainly causes higher fux nthe ansformerconnectedtoit and may ultimately burn the core. Over voltage canbe caused by AVA malfunctions, sudden loss of oad on generator ‘0r switching on of a ong unloaded transmission line. Under Frequency Forthe systemto operate at specified parameters a balance betweenthe oad and generation is maintained by individual governors, centralised Irequency controllers and load dispatch stations, An outage ol a major ‘generating uni, if not accompanied by load shedding or the other machines peaking up the loads (whict ‘would pick up incase sufficient spinning reserve is available) would result in drop of frequency. A iow frequency operation is harmful in general for motors and transiormers. In a turbo-generator unit, low frequency would result in high rotor currents, overtuxing and core vibrations due to over excitations. lathe turbine, iow frequency have to be checked lo avoid resonant frequencies and consequent turbine blade fatigue. It has, however, to be kept in mind that ripping of unit underlow Ieequertcy shal resut in further drop in frequency thesystem. Alarmis generally providad to warn the operators on occurrence oflow frequency. The ripping of the unit may be carsiod out depending upon the manufacturer's instructions, External Inter-Phasovearth Fault These faults may occur outside the generator, in busducts, transformers, busbars or feeders ete. The cause ‘can be diferent depending upon the affected area, Negative Sequence Current ‘Aaut in the system due to not closing orcosing otallthe three poles of generator circuit breaker a fault in-a system would resutin unbalancing curent being drawn from the generator. The unbalanced current results in.a negative sequence current inthe stator windings. This negative sequence current causes & double frequency current induced in tae rotor. This current causes serious damage to the rior in case ‘generator continues to supply unbalance currents. A relation |, = constant, between negative sequence ‘current’ andiene''in second, speciied ne operating bits ol generalor. A generaiorcan supply certain amount St negative sequence current continuously but as the Component of negative sequence current increases, the ime tor which this current can be supplied so reduces as per |," = constant, whichis around in the range of for stearn turbo generators Over Voltage/Under Frequency in the System ‘Simultaneous over voltaga/under frequency in the system can be caused by bad load despatch techniques ‘and mainly causes over Suxing in the transformers. it may be mertioned here that elleclicause of over ‘voltage & under Feauency needs tobe studied separately depending upon whether the generaloris running isolated {1.2 the belore synchronising or alters isoiatad from the grid} or when itis synchronised wit the rig (Over Current in the System Geis disturbance leading to poie slipping andor high active/reactive power demand from the generator may cause over currant inthe generator Reserve Power When instead of generator supplying power to grid, it receives power, the operating condition is termed as reverse’ and is likely to occur as follows (i) When immediately alter synchronising control valves ate nol operated which may happen due to some fault in the system or some delay by the operating personnel (i) In case at sudden closer of stop valvas or control valves when the g2nerator unit is sti connected to the grid Reverse power operation is harmfulto ne turbine since without steam flow in ne turbine turbine continies ‘orotate, will suit in heating of (urine biades due to chutning action, However, ihe period forthe turbine to overheat may vary (rom a few seconds to minuies depending upon the turbine and operating conditions a2a 22 EXCITATION SYSTEM & AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION INTRODUCTION The electric powor generators coquire direct cur: ‘ent excited magnets for their fia system. The excitalonfiald systems must be reliable, stable in operation and must respond quickly to excita- tion current requirements. When excitation con- trol is by a fast acting regutator, the excitation system response will depend chielly on the ex- citer. Nominal exciter response is definad as the tala: DEFINITION OF NOMINAL, EXCITER RESPONSE EXCITER VOLTS ‘Nominal excitation voltages of the Generator In Fig. 2.1 OA is the oxcitation volage required forthe generator rated voltage atarotortempera- ® oso 1tureot75°C and ADE" the excitervoltage/time characteristic with origin at A. Then slope of line SECONDS ———e Ace Ap Volts Sec. Fig. 2.1. Exciter voltage response WAF= 0. eo. 9 spociod Then ope of tine AC = 228 ‘od nominal excite response « 82 It is sometime considered that exciter response in teams of the generator no-load excitation voltage may introduce errors when dealing with response under load conditions. Exact values can be obtained oniy by {esting and results obtained during testing indicale that exciter response under loaded generator condition is not markedly different from the value under no-load conditions DIFFERENT TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEM - Initially, only D.C. excitation system was in use. The development of improved techniques resulted in the {ncreased capacity of generator which in turn raised the demand of excitation power, But it was found that D.C. excitation could nol moet the domands of large capacily turbo-gonorators due fe the following reasons:- {@) High excitation current at comparatively tow vollage was required and these would entail a large ‘numbor of brushes operating on the exciter commutator, This willcreate dificutes in operation and Wil require extensive maintenance of commutator and brush gear. (0) The other disadvantage ot D.C. excter is that commutation may be satistaciory during steady state bbutduring load fluctuations thereis a risk of flash over atthe commutator. Themaximum phesipherial ‘speed of commutator for proper operation should nol be more than 45 moters per second. A reliability is one of the main requisites ofthe excitation system of the gonerator. ths lod to the accelerated developmentot AS. excitation system, where A C. generator alonguth rectter systermis used. Jor teld excitation. Two main tines of development have taken place in ths area o! AC. exciation. (i) Static rectifier systems inwhich the dc. output is sopiied to the main rotor via sip rings. This system may be further “ud-divided into two types (6) Diodes supptied trom shalt-driven rotating field a. exciters where the excitation #s controled by varying the lield ofthe as. excites, and (01 Thilo supped usa ram the main aerator ermine via a teansforer or ooeasonaly om a shait-driven a.¢. excite. Excitation controls then an the thyristor. (i) Brushless systems, where the rectifier unit is rotated on a directly driven shaft. This avoids the need for sip rings and brushes, Infact excitation systems canbe catogorised and sub-divided into ane of the groups shown botow 18EXCITATION D.c. syste RECTIFIED A.C.SYSTEMS ROTATING ROTATING STATIC (HIGH FREQUENCY) EACH OF THE SYSTEM WILL BE CONSIDERED 23° D.C. SYSTEM (Rotating) 0.G. Excitation systemis inuse formost ofthe older units in the country. Direct Currentexciters are basically rotating shunt wound machines and compounding can be included to improva response. The exciter canbe ‘riven from the main generator shaft either by means of direct coupling of through reduction gears. ‘The generation ofthe dc. supply is achieved in two stages, ist a relatively small rated ouput pilot ‘exciter which supplies the excitation for the main exciter, The main exciter, in turn, supplies excitation tothe main generator rotor. This systems shown in Fig. (22) occemnarons tee GENERATOR wan — ror poren SS {: - ‘ ; C) bole up < raz? oe excranonsverea! \ ‘Thepilotexciter consists stationary feldools which provide the magnetic field utilising theresideual ‘magnetism. Thisinduces ac, voltage inthe armature (ctaling coils, Butas the armature calls are connected to 2 commatatr, the ouput from the commutator rushgeat isc ‘The pilor éxcterd.c. aulpotis hen conttoled and ed to tie rain excite: fed (stationary) coils which in tum induce ac. votages in the main exciter armature (‘tating} cals and again rectified to dc. by the commutator and brusigear. The controled ouioutol he main excites the fed tothe main generator olor ‘winding via the skp sings and i's brushgear- “The pilot exciter ouiputis regulated by a variable resistance, usually a motor driven rheostat, which ‘seontrolled either mankally or via an Aulomatic Voltage Regulator (AVR). The AVR measures the ganerator terminal voltage and compares ito a desired (set) valie. The difference ivalue‘s then used to give signal that walter the rheostalto change the olor dc. curtent which nur wlrestorethe voltage tol'ssel vale 19GENERATOR aww ExciTER POL ExcHER O -MAIN EXCITER. AUX. CONTROL FIELD ENDING 2-AUX.CORTROL FELD WINDING B/ROTATING AMPLIFIER, ‘AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR FatING AML IFIER, 2 og Fig2.3 D.C. EXCITATION WITH AMPLIDYNE. Because ol the relatively stow response rales of the motor driven sheostat, on larger d.c. excited generators (eg. 100 MW and above), thas been replaced by a rotating amplifier called an Ampiyne’. This ‘machine is a cross field generator Raving two pair of brushes, two pole with actually four pole projections and a compensating winding, Basically, tis atwo stage ampliier having power gain of upto 20,000 = t with ‘output upio20 KW. Thus, fulloulput ofmachineis available as anormal generator, but controledby atraction (of the normal excitation. A scheme incorporating an ‘Amplidyne’ is shown in Fig. 2:3. ‘Asthe rating o he goneratorsincreased above 200 MWs.d.c. excitation systems presented serious problems, mainly bocause of the commutators and brushgear. Therelore, the ac. excilaton system ‘superceded the dc. systern, 24 AC. EXCITATION ‘The A.C. exciter gained favour because ofthe problems and constrain's associated with DC exciter already discussed. Commutator & OC brush gear were efiminated gwving place to the simple rolor slip rings and associated brush gear. There are two types of A.C. excitation system namely () Rotating System: This is a high frequency excitation sysiem with an AC exciter, permanent magnet pilot exciter and an uncontrolled reciier {i) Satie Excitation: This is generator potential fed static excitation system with controled rectifier (siicon Controlled Reciier - SCA} and a rectlier transloxor 20244 242 High Frequency Excitation System (Rotating System) The High frequency excitation system adopedin 200/210 MW'TG, isbaséd on the principle of separate excitation with the help.of a 500 ofSA.C., main and 400 fs pot excterinconjunctiononwih the static rectifying unit, Both the exciters are directly mounted on the TG shat. ‘The main excier (HF. EX)}s aninductor type generator iS thvee phase AC. windings and four field windingson the stator and no winding on the rotor which enhances its reliabity and main- tenance. The (PEX) is a parmenertriagnel iype and servesasa S00rCE OF stable supply to the power magnetic ampliiers of AVR and the manual exctaion of &.E-E.X. a various operational conditions. The rectifying unit is water cooled, thrae phase static con- verter, which recifs the HF EX output and igeds he turbogenerator fields. The Fig. 2.4 gives the principal scheme for 200210 MW, Turbo-Generators, ‘Static Excitation System In order to maintain system stability, itis necessary tohave asl excitationsystam fo large synchronous maces wien means the fiaid Current must be adjusted ‘extremely fast to changing operational conditions. Besides maintaining the field ‘current and sleady stale stability, the exctaton yale fequoo fo extend fabiltyimis, Dueto abovereasons, siabcGrcitatonssprelerred andintnisall ‘components are solid sale and no mov- ing pars. The required excitation power is taken {rom the generator itsell supplied 1 the ‘converter via step down translormerand through the eldbreakerto the generator field. For operational reliability tuly con trolled thyristors bridges are spit into number ofseperate (independent) blocks: shown in Fig. 25. Staic excitation sy5- tem can be designed without any ai ty toachievermin.responseratiowhih “is required by the system. The response ratioottheorderaltoS canbeachieved by this sysiem, A blcok diagram ot this systomig shown in Fig 2.6. Mair arabia ¢ RECTIFIER CUBICLE Pivor exeirer rex swe [Pty cenenaton Nan exerren TT iSO. “a — q ees i 7 va AYR em Fig.2.4 A.C’ EXCITATION SYSTEM hie wee eght BFS, a2 svaTic EXCITATION ETE atBlock Diagram of Static Excitation Equipment Freon oa cane a =e — cnn Sm Sear fro#® 24.21 24.22 2423 FIELD BREAKER A. - ELD. Fig26 NSCHARGE RESISTOR [] FIELD FLASHING isn Static Excitation Equipment broadly consists othe following: ‘ Reciilior Transformer” ‘4 Excitation star up and field discharge equipment ‘& Thyfisior Rectifier Banks “ % Regulator and operation control circuit Rectifier Transtormer ‘The excitation power is taken from generator output and fed to the excitation (rectifier) transformer which steps down tothe requied voltage for SCR bridge and thon fed through the field breaker to generator field, Ini a dry type cast coils transformer and is most suttable for staic excitation system. lis provided with ‘currant transformer for over current protection and temperature survellance devices for over temperature protection. This translorermer must supply rated excitation vokagercurrent continuously and is capable of Supplying ceiling currents at the ceiling excitations for a shon posiod of ten seconds, Thyristor Rectifier Banks. The Thydistor roc = Bank consists of @ she ‘narnber of bridges connected in pari. Each thyristor bxidge comprises six hytisiors, fuses and snubber cxcuit for protection Thyristors are dlasigned such that their junction temperature rise is well within its specified rating. By changing the ring angie of thyristors, varable oulpul is obtained. Each bridgeis controlled by one final pulse slage and is cooled by a fan. Excitation Start up and Field Discharge Equipment As residual magnetism of generator is not suticient to start voltage buill.up. this type of system noeds separate equipment for excitation start up {Field Flashing), The field flashing is done with station supply 2voltage/DC voltage (battery). From the moment of closing the field breaker, Fieks Flashing breaker also closes and generator voltage builds upto 30% of rated voltage and alter wards pulses aré generated! released to fire thyristor bridges. The field Hasing breaker will automatically switch olf as soon as the ‘generator votage reaches to 70% of lullvotage of generator. The field discharge resistor s normally of non- linear tor medium and large machines ic. volage dependent resistor. Aaver voltage Protection's empioyed 1 protect the fied winding of generator agains! over voltages. Gperates on the insulation break over Pr Regulator and operation control circutts ‘This is the hear of the system. This regulates he generator voltage by controlling the fring pulses to the thyristors. A high control speeds achieved by using an inertia tree.control and power electronic system. Any ‘deviation in the generator terminal voltage is sensed by an error dectecor and causes the volage regulator to advance or retard the firing angle ofthe thyristors thereby controling the field excitation of the alternator ‘The system components are discussed below. (2) Eror Detector & Ampitior ‘The Generator terminal voltage is stepped down by a three phase PT {Potential Transformer) and fed tothe AVR. The ac. input thus obtained is recilied, ttered and compared against a highly stabiized relerence value and the ditference is amplified in diferent stages of ampkication. Uhre CTs (Current Transtormers) sensing the output current of the generator, feed proportional current across variable resstorsin the AVR. ‘The voltage thus obtained across the resistors, can be added vectorally either for compounding or for Iranstormer drop compensation (0) Grid - Control Unit Theoutputofthe AVRis fedtoa grid control unit gets its syichronousa.c.reterence through atitercircut ‘and generates a double pulse spaced 60° el. apart whose position depends on the output of the AVR, i. the pulse posiion varies continuously as a function of the contol vollage Two relays ate provided, by ‘energinsing which, he pulses can be either blocked completely or shifted to inverter mode of operation (©) Pulse - Amofiier ‘The pulse output of the “Grid control unit is amplified turther at an intermediate stage ampliication. This is also known as pulseintermediate stage. Thaynithas.a<.c:power supply, which operates tom athree phase ‘380 supply and delivers + 1SV,-15V, +050 and a coarse stabilized voltage Vs. A builtin relay is provided ‘which can be used for Blocking the 6 pulse channels. in a two channe! system (tke Auto and Manual, the change overs effected by energizingide energizing the relay (0) Pulse Final Siage This unit receives input pulses from the pulse amplifier and transmits them through pulse transformers to ‘the gatas of the thyristors. A builtin power supply provides. Tha required dc. supply to the final pulse and amplifier. Each Thyristor bridge has its own final puise stage. Theretore, even if one Thyristr bridge fails ‘with its final pulse stage, the remaining thyristor bridges can continue to cater to fullloadrequrement of the ‘machine and thereby ensure (n-1) operation, where ns the number of Thytstor bridges. (e) Manual Control Channet ‘A separate manual control channel is provided where the dc. control signal is taken trom a stabilized de. ‘voltage through a mortor operated potentiometer. The d.c. signalis ledio a separate grid contol unit whose ‘output pulses alter being amplified at an intermediate stage can be fed tothe final pulse stage. When one ‘channels working and generating the required pulses, the other remains blacked. Theratove a changeover ‘rom “Auto’ to “Manual” controi or vice-versa is ettected by blocking or releasing the pulses of the corresponding intermediate stage ‘A pulse supervision unit detects spurious pulses or fos5 of pulses at the pulse busbar and transfer control trom ‘Automatic’ channel to Manva’ Chane! () Fotlow-up- Unt To ensure a smoothichangeover from ‘Auto'to Manual’ control, dis necessayy thal the position of the pulses ‘on both channels should be identical. A pulse comparison unit detects any diterence inthe postion of he ‘pulses and wih the help of a follow-up unt actuates the moter operated potentiometer on the Manual ‘Channel to tum in a direction $0 as 10 elainate the dilference. However, while translerring contol trom ‘Manual’ to "Auto mode any cference in the two control levels can bo visualy checkad on a balance meter and adjusted io obiain ruil before change over. a24.25 2826 {g) Limit Controters When a generator is running in parallel with the power network, iis essential to maintain tin sychronism without exceeding the rating ofthe machino and also without the protection system tipping, The automatic voltage regulator by isell cannot ensue this. tis necessary to supplement the basic vollage regulator by limiters to limit over-excitation and under-excitation. Limiter do not replace the protection system but only prevent the protection system from tipping unnecessary under extreme transient conditions. The AVR aiso has a bul-n frequency dependent circuit so thal when the machine is running below therated requency, the regulated voltage shouldbe proponionaltorequency.Winthenelp ofpotentionmetar provided in tho AVR, the ctcait can be made to respond proportionally tovoliage above a certain frequency {,)and proportional 1 a voltage below this {requency. The range of adjustment of tis cut-off frequency (1) 4s between 40 and 60 He. The static excitation sysiem is equipped with three limiters which actin conjunction with the AVE. ‘These limiters are as under- {) Rotor Current Limter ‘his avoids thermal qveoang fe to: wining ands provide fo reel he generat ftor agent excessively long duration over loads, The ceiling excitation isimited to a predetermined limit and is allowed 10 flow for atime whichis depertent upon the rate of rise of field current belore being mitedto the thormal limit value. (ii) Rotor angie limiter It generates a dc. signal proportional to the load or ror angle from the stator current and voltage. The device takes over as soon as the set limit angle is exceeded, By increasing the excitation and ignoring ‘opposite control signals the generator is prevented rom falling out of step. (i) Siator Curent imeer ‘This avoids thermal over loading of the stator windings. Stator current miter is provided to proect the generator against longer duration of large stator curents. For excessive inductive currant it acts aver tha AVA, ater a cenain time tag and decreases the exctation curren o limi the inductive current to the int value, Bul for excessive capacitive current i acts onthe AVA without ime delay to increase the exctation and thereby reduce the capacity loading. This is necessary as there is a risk for (he machine fall out of step ‘during the under excited mode of operation. {(h) Slip Stabilizing Units. ‘The sp stabilizing unitisused for the suppression of tor ostilaions athe allemator through the adeitional iniizence of excitation. The sip as wellas accelerates sgMas Hea for he stabilzation are detved from aclive power delivered by the allernator. Both the signals, which are correspondingly amplified and surimed Up, influence the excitation of he syncturonous machine through AVR in a manner as to suppress the rotor oscillations. The voltage regulating equipment needs ac. supply380.V, 3phase torts power supply nits which is derived. fromthe secondary sideotthe reciter ansstormer rough an auriliary ranstormer. This voltageis reduced to diferent levels requited forthe power packs by means of mult-winding transformers. ‘A separate transtormer suples the synchronous voltage 3 X 380V, forthe iter circuit of each channel andthe voltage realy. Duringtesting and pre-commissieningaaativies when generator volageisnot aviable, the station aux. Supply 3 phase transtormer for testing purpose with ihe help of a regulator test'service switch, ‘The supply for the thyristor bridge fanis taken from an independent transformer which gets its input supply rom the secondary of the excitation transtorme< ‘The control & protection relays need 48V & 24 V6. which are delivered trom the station battery by means of DC/DC converters, which are intormally prected against overload Protection The following protections are provided for the static excitation equipments: Roctilier transformer over current instanteneous and delayed. Reniilier ransiomor over temperature Rotor Over-Voltage, Fuse failure monitoring citcuit for thysistors 245 Loss of control voltage (48V & 24V) 6 vidi protection of SCR by snubber net works 7, Rotor earth taut. 25 SRUSHLESS EXCITATION SYSTEM 2.51 INTRODUCTION {m all he excitation systems discussed so far, the D.C. power generated or derwved trom diferent meansis fed 10 the generator field through brushes to the sfip ring. The brush gear and slip ring havebecome such vitalparts that require high maintenancae and are a source ol falure, thus forming a weak finkinthesystem. This weakfinkcan be efiminated by using brushless excitation system. Wat the advent ol machancay robust sone diode capable of conve to DC at hight power” ieee. besos orca set as Eason opr ‘afd being employed. Thebasic arrangement ol a typical bunishless excitation system prosenily used in BHEL machines is shown in lig. 2:7. This system consists of main components a shown in fig. 2.8 and listed below. i) Thee phase pilot exciter (®) Thee phase main exciter {ii) Rotating rectiar wheels: (Cooler (Metering and supvenasory system, ‘The three phase pit exciter has a revolving field with permanent magnet poles. The contialled ‘ected d ¢.is fed to the main exciter field. The induced three phase ac. voltage is rectified in the rotating recitier bridge and ted to the generator rotor winding through the dc. leads in tho sha. The pilot excitor 5253 ‘magnets, the main exciler rotor and the rotaling diodes are all mounted on a single shatt as shown in Fig, 29 Fig2.8 BRUSHLESS EXCITATION SYSTEM ‘Three phase pilot exciter ‘There ate 16 poles in tho three phase pill exciter. The output is 220 V + 10%, 400 Hz. Ten magnets are housed together ina non-magnetic enclosure and this makes one pols. These magnets are braced between the hub and extornal pote shoe with bolts, ‘Three phase main exciter “The three phaso main exciter isa six pole rotating armature unt. The fred poles with the damper windings: _are arranged in the stator frame. Laminated magnolic poles are arranged 0 form the field winding. Bars are provided on the pole shoes, and their ends are shorted to form a damper winding, To measure the exciter ‘current a quadrature axis Collis fited between two poles. Theroloris formed by stacking laminations together and these are compressed by through-bollsover compression rings. The three phase winding is inserted inthe slats of the rotor. The winding conductors are transposed within ne core length, andthe ends turns of the otor winding are secured wih steetbands, The ‘connections are mace at rectifier wheelend. A ring busi formed atthe vanding ends andthe leads torotaling rectifier wheels are also connected to the same. The complete rota is shrunk fit on the shal. The rot0rs ‘supported on a journal bearing positioned between the main and pilot exciters. Lubrication of the bearing is ‘rom the turbine oll system, Rotating rectitier wheels. ‘The silicon diodes are arcanged on the recitier wheels in a three phase configuration. The diades are so rade that the contact pressure increases during rotation dueto the centstugal force. There are two diodes . 28inpparallol on each heat sink and these are protected by one fuse as shown in Fig. 2.10 & 2.108. The BC suppression network consists of one capactior and one damping resistor each, and there are six RC cicuits pper whee! The two diode wheels are identical but diflor only inthe forward direction of the diodes, The d.c. leads run through the bore ol the shaft and the connection to tne diodes is made via radial bots. FRaawRecTirieR WHEELS 7285 Coating arrangement ‘The exeiteris air cooled. Thisis a closed toop system and ihe hot alris cootedin two coolers arranged along side the exciter. The entire exciter is housed in an enclousure through which ihe coofing ar etculates, The main exciter receives the cool alc from the fan which draws the cold air through the pilet excita. Air amers. ‘the main exciter from both ends and is passed onto the ducts below through radial holes, The warm av passes over the coolers and roturn to the main encioure ag shows in lig, 2.41 section -D ‘ton a8 SST teste ald mane RR Ereezneyvenciaion section EF Fig.2.11 EXCITER COOLING AIR CIRCUIT288 25.6.4 25.62 2563 282 Emergency cooling is dane by operation of cooling Rans on the excitor. One flap is provided on tha main housing. Two mare flaps are pvodied bolow the coolers. These taps opan when the cold alr temperature In the ‘excite housing rises beyond 48°C and an open cixcuit cooling is maintained in the excite. Motering and supervisory systom “The supervision of exciter consists the sroboscope for fuse monitoring and rotor ground faultdetoctionscireut, The generator feld current is measured through a quadralure axis cot! mounted ofthe exciter stator. Fuse Monitoring ‘During operation of the turboset, the fuses on the rotating reat whee! are monitored with the holy of the sttoboscope On each of the to heols A and 8, soparate fash lubes are provided. A common contrat unit is provided to supe'y and control the two lubes. The control uritis mounted on the excite enciosure. The contrat Unit is sa provided that itis vary easy to manitor the fuses trom outside the enciosure. Once the machine is ‘synchronisd, he system frequency is ullised te activate the ashes. The cables to the conlrolunt and Hash tubes are run in metalic hoses and the entie arrangement is well protected agains! dust and water entry. Ground fauit detection ‘The rot earth ait dation system detects igh reistanoe ano aw resistance ea talt inte enter okt ercui. Two slo “ings are provided on the excter shait. One of the sip rings is connected to fre neutral point of the oxctor armature winding and die olner sip ting is the shal reference, Tho two rolerence points are takan ‘thcough loads tothe relay ufit maurted on the relay Panel. This is 2 two siage relay system which acivates an alarm at valves of resistance to earth below 80 kilo ofms and vps the turbosel at resistance values below § ld Field current measurement ‘Tomeasure the fold current, two quadcature coils are mounted between two poles on the exci stator, Due to low of current in the armature, an @.nt.is induced on the quorature cots. This voltages taken through ieads to the exciton panel. There a transducer converts this A.C. voltage to same stardara O.C. value. From this itis: again convortod to mivampore range for indication purposes. The acjusimont and sptingis mace during ine stort Gicuit esto the generator. ‘Thyresieum Excitation System . Theautonatcvaage putin othe bashes excter's done bythe tresum (OJ automate yoitage eglator. ‘Tho voliage eplalor contro the excitation of the generator by controling the Led cureent al tre aC. excite Fa2.12 VOLTAGE REGULATOR BLOCK DIAGRAM Es)The block diagram as in Fig. 2.12 shows the circuit configuration. The excitation system contains two closed loop contol systems with separate gate contol and thyristor ses, The system in addon includes the field discharge circuits and an open loop system for exchange of signals between the regulator and control room. The two closed loop systems are the auto channel and the manual channel, “The auto channel performs the folowing functions ~ (a) Generator voltage control - range 85% to 105% UN. {(b) Field forcing limiting (c}_ Over excitation fimiting (d) Under excitation limiting (e) Automatic voltage build up and field suppression, When the vollage regulation calls for maximum excitation, the field forcing limiter limits the output current othe thysor sett the maximum permisibe value. This maximum permissible values about 1.4 {01 Stimes the rated excitation. “The over exclalion imiler ensures a delayed reduction of he excitation curren tothe rated vak in the over excited range, The delay time depends on the magnitude by which the rated value has been exceeded. The abore wo limiters protec the regulator and machine against over stressing by excessiva ‘oF ploionged over excitation inthe Unde excted range, the under excitation limiter ensures tha the minimum exctationcequired ‘orstable paalledperaion atthe generaterwitthe systom is available andthat ne under excited reactive power is Imited agcordngly. The response characteristic is formed on th basis ofthe generator reactive Current, active curenl and terminal voltage ard can be maiched othe generator and system data ‘The maaualchannet conics the excaion current inthe main exile held winding. The angeis no exoiation o 105% hilload excitation. Thissysiemis aback uptothe automatic voltage regulate. Inaction, this chanel is usell in the intial commassoring to get the generator open circu! and shor circu characteristic and ako to adjust, cack and set relays inthe fst stan up ‘Normally the automatic chamnel in senize, The manual channel confinuously follows the auto channels outputs tha smooth change over tomarwalis possible any ime. incase fultn aviocharmeh, the channel change ove takes place automalicaly. The fallow up ol manual channel is maintained and a doviaion indeatr is provided inthe contol oom. inthe thyresieum 4.2 system, therearetwo separate setsol thyristors forauto ard manual channel teach, Each thynstors se protected and in manval channel \nysto use monitoring is done, nthe auto channel. the current low through each thyristor is monitored As the auto channelis the maincxeul this is provided with totalisolating switch, Thisswichenables the isolation of he hyisor of auto channel, to lactate any replacements if reuired with the machine in sewice, Fiekd dischargé takes place whenever the tip commands given to the excitation system, inthiscase listthe thyistrsare dren io inversion modeandthen. tho fiskdbreaker tips, Feld discharge wil also ake piace when ins speed lls blow 95% rated spoed. During start up the iol forcing limiter Sel points kop 5 zoro, When the machine reaches near about rated sp20d and the tld broaker closed, th ing set pomntisinereasedin20 seconds tthe operaionalvalveby a armp uncon generator. The generator votlage by this means increases gradualy 10 the rated value, Thus the votage bull up Is kept graduah In adotion othe eiters mentioned eat. the systom also incides a votage by frequency limiter and a power system stabiliser. The Viz kmiter is usotal in preventing the overioxng of the generator vanslormer The PS S isused to conan any resonance oscifations of he machine in the gid inthe 0.4 Helo 25 Hz range by giving the correcive signal o the AVR,COMPARISON BETWEEN THYRISIEM 02 (AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR FOR BRUSHLESS EXCITATION VY ‘SYSTEM) AND STATIC EXCITATION EQUIPMENT. Thyrislem 0,2 ~~ 30°" Manual ehafnal sa closed loop contre! 2. Separate Gate Contol units ‘and Thytistor sats for Manual and Avo. 3, Generator Votige feed back to bath under exctation liniter ‘and over exofation iter. ‘The ouiput of itor are fod to regulator a the input of comparator. 4, Tha over euctation tit has got more infugnce than ‘under exctation iter on the voltage regulator. 5, RAISEILOWER command for Auto ‘of Manual are sama trom einer local or romote and ted ‘through fogl geting. ‘When the fold breaker trip ‘command i givon, fst ‘dovexctation (verter ‘operation) takes place and after Reoc the dechage resistor come in paral! to fold and then fold ‘broaker tps 7. Tha AUTO Channel has got vokage regulator (PI) and Proponional eurent regulator freaseade. 8. The generator votage, ttansiormer breaker as welt as he vollage is montored. . Fortis purpose one more sot of PT. voltages ave avalable 9. Whon Auto is solocted, tho - 61 pointer cannot be raises, 4 ovor excitation imtor '5 active andit cannot be lawared funder exciton limiters acive 10, Separate vite intor 1s - rovies for avoicing bvertixing, 1. Generator rotor temperature cannot 99 rrontores, 12. Approximate measurement of ‘gonarator roor curent is possibie, at SE ‘Manual channels open loop conte. Soparate Gate Contol unt but Same thyristor bnges or Auto and Manual No generator votage feed back {0 under or over exclation Emiters. The output ofthe limitor are fod to vollage regulator a the output stage ater PID. Tee over excitation liter vertides the undar excitation Iieter ‘Separate RAISEAOWER commands for Auto & thanval ‘No Une delay ia the tld breaker tip command for rwarior oporation The AUTO Channel has got only voiage regulator wen PID characteristic. The voltage wanstormer DroakertF utes aro montorod, ‘Tnoro is no blcekéng in tne RAISE/LOWER Command for Auto Potentiomee. Fiequaney itivence is provideo i the vailage regulating sell Ganerator sotne temperature ‘eon be monkored. Exact measurement a)COOLING OF TURBO-GENERATOR INTRODUCTION. a0 3a COOLING OF TURBO.GENERATOR ‘An efficient cooling and ventilating system is needed to keep the temperature of the windings and other ‘components of the generator resuling due to various losses, below certain limits depending upon the ingulation. The coating system shal also ensure that no excessive hot spots occur at the windings/oore. Mainly the progress inhigher eloctric loading ofthe stator has beenattzinedby the applicationofmore ctfective cooling, which incidentally also helps in reducing the windage and other losses as described in the {allowing sections. Over tha years, cooling of large Turbo Attemators have changed from conventional Ait Cooling to Hydragen cooling and now io mixed Hydrogen and Water Cooling. The effect of athe measures adopted has been a considerable reduction in size of active volume needed per MVA capacity. “The losses in an zir cooled generator is about 2% on full load, Their average distribution is es given below:- = + 0.20 = 080 052 024 > 02d - 020 2.00 ‘The losses in a generator (500 MW) with mixed cooling is about 1.4% ang their distribution is already shown in Fig.1.14, ‘As far as disposal of friction loss is concemed, these are carried away by the bearing lubricating of and thus do not enter into the cooling problem discussed here. The temperature gradient in stator is such that the highest temperature wid be at stator copper, ‘gradually falling upto core and then to cooling medium. in rotor, with ventilating slots, temperature drop wil take place fram copper andircn via insulating materialto slots and trom coreteethto rotor surface andhence to.ga0. With effective cooling applied, while the temperature rise of rotor winding only 40°C, that of stator windings would be 60°C. +The maximum permitted temperature rise above the cooling medium is 80°C for stator & 90°C forthe ‘olor. The cooling medium tempetature shall not exceed by 40°C. The stator temperature can be measured ‘byemploying nermocouples RTDs at diferent points while that ofrotoris calculated by measuring variation in resistance. In case of water, this rise is nol allowed as iis likely o boil nd thus hamper smooth flow. COOLANTS ‘Nongwiththne development towards theinoreaseinmachine sizes, there hasbeen asearch or newcodants, sothat heat is carried away expeditiously with minimum o! coolant required and with minimum of operational hazards The cari cooing mocium was ai, which was replacadby hydrogen orhigher capacity mactinos. Now water is being used for stator cooling of machines from 200 MW to 500 MW, alongwith hydrogen for rotor cooling. Some manutactureres have started use of water for rotor cooling as woll, In USA, oil and synthetic Tiquids are also being used, but their use is limited, because under faulty conditions there is ikatinood of crossing the fash point of cooling media. Moreover, in case ofleakage the mulation can gel permanently damaged. Ti snot the case wth pure water. ah this case, insulation ean be improved by tsing some drying methods forthe winding olthe machines, The dillerent cooing methods fr stator & olor have been shown in Fig. 34wads Errre- Generator Program Todirect Air or Hz Cooking Systems moO RB pot 0 - Stator Cooling Rotor Cooling Cooting Gas in the Casing Le Alc H= Hydrogen Product Turbagenerator R Radial Air or Hy 33 Stator Winding Direct Hy Primary Water D F Direct Hy Primary Water‘The choice of a coolant depends upon various properties Ike specific heat, density, thermal ‘conductivity ec. Thase properties dace the quay of the coolant used and fan power required to dissipate a given amount of losses. The relative properties of various coolants are given in Table 1 ‘The deployment of cootant to suit particular method of carrying away heat also plays an important af. in the machinos below 200 MW, the heal is principally dissipated by convection to circulating media, “The tans are provides al cotor ends to augment the circulating media currents and batles are provided to ) Swichrooms for ait break switchgear should be provided with heating, sufficient to prevent condensation. Conversely switchgear located in a high ambient temperature, say on the boiler side ol the building, should be adequately ventilated in order to avoid excessive lemperature. (@) Forsatety reasons there must be a least one allemative means of exit, Doors should open outwards ‘and "ESCAPE" door should lead one to a sate landing Unit Boards (See Fig. 6.3. & 5.4.) ‘The principal already discussed for station board will also apply tothe unit boards. {ning the tocations, itis evident that switch board should be positioned near to the "contra of gravy” of is toad, namely between the boiler and the turbine. This unfortunately, is nol always possible, this area may be congested with pines, gas ducts etc. which would necessitate a compromise being made. Dificully in nding accommodation may sometimes be resolved by sping the un board into two sections, one suppiying the boiler auxtiares and the othér supplying the turbine auxiliaries. Some economy in cabling may also be achieved by adopting this method. Wi aso extremely important irom operational aspect & possibilty of human error to ensure that rolalive poston ol switchgear controling a unit and switchgear of other units be Separated in similar snanner. Location of 415 Volt Switchgear ‘As bofore, the general services board should have central location and the unit auxiliary boards ehould be ‘adjacent to their respective units. These boards should, i possible, be mounted at the operating floor level. Ready access is required in the normal course of operation. A standard layout of 415 Vis shown in Fig. 5.4. ‘The swilchboards outside the main building such as coal and ash plant boards, nood the protaction from ‘environmental effects. Where the area is exposed it will be advisable to provide heating in order to avoid ‘condonsalions. Switchgear should not be located where there is asisk of corrosion e.g. in he same room. 8 chiorination plant, batteries etc. ‘The sub distribution switchboards, which willbe quite numerous will be located conveniently to the plant they serve, and as far as possible in possition not exposed to falling water, moisture and dir. in extreme ‘cases, forexample in some pans ofthe coal or ash plant, orinthe boiler house basement, tmay be advisable 10 provide a canopy or some similar protection. PROTECTION OF AUXILIARIES ‘AN circuits are protected by either tuses of relay in conjunction with circuit breakers or contactors which ‘operate to isolate the circull when lautt occurs. In case of auxiliaries care has to be taken to ensure that the ‘Protection will pperate against fauks and, at the same time, allow the starting current of the motor to pass ‘without opening the circuit breaker or biowing the luses. “The type of tau likely to arise on auilary motor circuits are = — Sustained over foading due to excessive mechanical load ~ Single phasing due to ar open cirouit in one ofthe windings or supply line — Phase to earth or phase fo phase short circuit. The motors wil in fact, contin to run under the single phase fail but may overheat and itis therelore, adhisable fo protect this by single phase Preventor Rolays, BUS-BAR PROTECTION ‘Normally the 6.6 KV unit auxiliary Bus Bars are provided withthe following protection :~ et5122 5123 543 8.134 8132 5.13.3, — Instantaneous over currert protection, ‘Under voltage protection ~ Bus-Bar fauit protection, instantaneous Over Current Protection ‘This protoction is intended for phaso 10 phase or 3-phase shor circuits on 8.6KV Und Auras; Bus schon ‘and a back up protection fo faults on 6.6 KY feeders nol cleared by te mavvidual feeder protection ‘Under-Voltage Protection for the Bus ‘This protection is provided to salequard the 6.6 KV motors connecie protection is categorised into three stages. First stage is defined as, when the bus voltage drops 10 70% of 6 6 KV, non-essential auxiliaries ike Ball ill ané Mill Fan (until Section), crusher motor, Ash Flasting Pump (Slation Section) will ip out and tty to improve the Bus Vottage. Second Stageis defned a when he bus votage comes o 50% of 6K he essential abxiiarios ike FD Fan, Boiler Feed Pump and PA Fan of Unit section and starting oil pump of station section will wip. Third stage is defined as when the Bus vonage comes to 20% of 6 6 KV, twill ip out the main 36 KV unit auxiiary breakers. Usuaily a time delay is given such as 0.5 seconds for Is stage, 0.9 seconds lor nd siage & 1.5 seconds {or ard stage. 6.6. KV Bus Earth Fault Protection the bus trom overload. This ‘66 KV systems normally kept insulated from earth the faulting to Earth of one phase does not constitvle an emergency because it does not interrupt the supply However, such a faultit alowed ‘0 persist, may become the cause of serious outage. The protection is provided independently for each bus section and intiate alarm as soon as a phase is connected to te earth PROTECTION OF 6.6 KV FEEDERS Fauks which may appear during the operations of induction motors may have the fotlowing forms = — Phase to phase and three phase faults within the motor winding in ne incoming cables. = Fautting of one phase of he stator to the motor kame. = Overtcading of the mators.~ Phase to Phase or 3-Phage Faults ‘This protection s interposed directly behind the circull breaker and thus inchudes in its zone of response not only he motor proper, bul alsothe motor cable. The setting for above protection is chosen ata level above the motor starting current ‘The protection is performed by instantaneous overcurni relays connected across the CT'sol R & Behase. Earth Fault ‘The earth tault in the motor winding is rellected as on bus earth faull and alarm appears. The faulty motor is tobe isolated oniy ‘Gver Loading of the Wiotor ‘Over loading in a teeder can occur due to overlong t¢ drive mecharisia, drop in vollage and eaueney ‘the supply systam and when operation takes piace an only single phace Motor overoacing leads to ‘overloading of he windings andinsulation. The prolectionss periormed by proiectiverelay (IMT) connected across he C.T's of R & B phases The protection of each busi perterr ‘seconds oF 50, by instantaneous o: current eelay witha time lag detay C10564 SWITCHGEAR INTRODUCTION ‘A Suichgearis one which makes or break an electic circuit. ‘The equipment which normally fallin this category are Isolators Load Break Switches Earth Switches Circuit Breakers Isotator ‘An Isolators ono which can break an electc ciccuil when the circuit isto be switched on ng.foad. These are rormally used in various circuit for he purpose of isolation a certain portion when required for maintenance: ate. Switching Isolators are capable of ) Interrupting transformer magnetising currents; “ {Interrupting line charging current; and 7 Gi) Load transter switching. Its main application is in connection with teed or bank transtormer feeder as this unit makes it possible to switchout one transformer while the other is stil on load. Load Break Switches Load Break Switches are those intertupting devices which can make or break cits. at 7 0 8 times rated current. These ate normally installed on the same circu oron the cxcuts which ave backed Up by Oeult breaker. ~— Earth Switchos Earth Swtiches are devices which arenormally usedto earth aparicular systemto avoxdany accident which may happen due to induction an accourit of live adjoining circuit. These do not handle any appreciable current. Circuit Breakers The main duty of ciecuit breaker is io mterrupt the highest fault current. Let us consider an elmntary circut breaker As shown above, a5 soon as the two contacts of a breaker apan, an arc is developed between the t . an arcis deve two Contacts anditsthis arc quenching which ivites developing a lolsystems and devicesin acircui breaker. ‘Those types of problems are nat encountered in case of athers such as Isola oa gsempes ot pe 5 Isolators, Earth Switches and FED contact x ——* ovine contact62 624 ISOLATORS TYPES Isolators may be sub- the timo betwoon tho stat of separation of the cicut breaker conics ad the instant ofthe short ecu curent, exchidig resistor current duraton fay. Total Break Yime ‘Tejotalbreak time's the sum of operingtime and arcinglime, This is tobe specitesby the purchases, Breakers are now avaiable wat otalbreak time varying fom 25 cycles to 8 eye) Make Time The make time of the citcult breaker is the interval of ine time between the initiation of the closing gperationandtheinstant where te ortacs touch eachother. includes he operating time of any ausany ‘equipment necessary to close the circuit breaker important Characteristics: Restriking Voltage ‘The restriking voltage fs the voltage which appears across the terminals of each pole of a circuit breaker ‘immediately ater the breaking of the circuit i.e. at current zero. ‘The breakers expected to help the gap between the contacts to recover the dielectric strength as early as possible so a6 o avoid restrikingof arc. * Recovery Voltage “This is the normal frequency r.m.s. vollage that reapers between the poles of a circu breaker after final arc extination, Rate of Rise of Restriking Voltage (F.A.R.V) itis arate, expressed in volts per micro second, representative of the increase othe sestking voltage. For aresirking voltage having a single froquency transient comportent, the f..F Vic obtained by dividing the ‘aximum ofthe oscfation by tl isthallwave. Peak Restriking voltage {tis the maximum instantaneous voltage attained by the cestrking voltage. Amplitudé Factor of Restriking Voltage itis the ralo between the peak restrking votage and the peak vatue(‘E™ times the em. value) of the recovery voltage across the poles under consideration. \We may study physical conception ofthe phenomenon in bel. When breaker contacts depan, voltage across mem suddenly rises rom 0 to fullvalue. This rise is prevented by innerent capacitance ol equipment and tfansmission ines in conjunction withthe inductance of the excut. The resirking vollage produced, ‘owing to above circuit conditions, wil have two magnitudes, namely the steady state recovery volage and a voltage oscilaing at natural frequency. In order to obtain quick staiily n the system, ais desirable 10 suppress the natural requency oscitalon. Thisis achieved by using resistors across the breaker terminals 865a 65.12 . 4 Circuit Breaker Types Circuit Breakers classifications are broadly made on: ATocetion of instalation: (i) Indoot Circuit Broakers (i) Outdooe Circuit Breakers. B. Current Interruption and arc quenching Methods:- {) Buk ollcrcuit breakers @) Minimum ol circuit breakers (ii) Airblast circuit breakers (W) Sulphur hexatiuride (SF,) circuit breaker co hae SE ry ote taba ‘of indoor use, generally, Buk cl type is 678 type are in use. C. Operating Mechanisms (Spring operated circuit breaker (ii) Solenoid operated circuit breaker (i) Pressure operated circuit breaker ‘The circuil breakers can also be divided into two broad categories on account ols operation, these are (@) Fixed tip type ii) Trip fee type. Fixed trip type breakers are those breakers which can be closed on faults and the breaker shall rip only after completing the closing operation, ‘While tp ree type of crcullbreakers are those whic do not compete closing operation tripping signal on account ofa fault exists. The breaker shal start tapping operation before the conlacts aciualy meat. ‘Hote. there is @ controversy which type of breaker should be preferred, out of the above two. One argumeritisihat the fixed tip lype are beller as although the contacts actully case on fauk but imumediaiely Stans withrawing on account ol ripping signal. The speed ol operation is uriorm. “Theother school of thaugtns thal y his way the breaker i alowed unnecessary to close on fault and subjoc thebreaker contacso foul conditions and thus chances of contact deterioration are mare, Asch ihe trp ee type of breakers would be better. In order to fully understand the different types of Circuit Breakers, it would be becessary to first ‘understand the gereral prinipes of ourrentintemtuption. Principle of Current Interruption The main requirement of a circull breaker is that it shall be capable of making and breaking the current associated wilh any type ol lait occuring on the system or to carry itfor sho ime wihout sulfering any Gamage. These cutrents may be eiher symmetrical or asymmetrical ‘Shon cuit current can be of very low power factor evento the extent of 0.05 PF. forthe faults onthe ling side of exeut breaker connected with & large soureo of generation. Thus, alourent ero, the recovery Yelage acozs no coact gap is maximum, ais menedaray boo current zoo, tne conta gap votage 's the potential due to the are essiance and faull curt. Al current zero, Ine ate vollage colapses and altempis to recover the system 50 c/s voltage overshoots and oscillates at the natural system frequency, being gradually damped out uni the 60e/s recovery voltage eppears across the ootacts The igh equency oscillionis known asthe retiking volage and the rate ose of restrkirg voltage (RAF isa measure of he cecut severity (see Fig 63) biguecTmicsTRENSTH (OF RESIDUAL ARC-PATH RESTRIKING VOLTAGE “THANSIENT ic VOLTAGE AReNOLS POST-ZERO CURRENT 7 nnc—cunnent 63ere sucossu cure ironuten he rate of 80 ol lec suenghotine ep must be crear aanennnes However, this theory does not take into account the energy available in the arc, and does rat, therefore, explain the phenomena of post arc conductivity occurring at a current zero. ‘A ew microseconds before curent zero the power loss orn the arc is greater than the power input and at current zero, although the inputs zer, the resicual are path sti has conductance; thus as the restriking ‘volage appears across the arc path a past zero current fows. As such for sucessful arc extncion, the power loss must continue fo bo greater than the power input, ‘thereby forcing post zero current hack to zer® and achieving a thermal extinction. rout breaker favre may be dus to; Thomal reignition Os Dielectric breakdown Both of the above The folowing are the diferent methods adopted to extinguish the arcs by itenupters white breaking the current, 4) By providing a blast of air called Air Biastimerupler (By providing oll medium called Oil Intesrupter (ii) By providing an inem gas lke sulphur Hexalluide? —— called SF, interupler (iv) By creating a Vacuum — Called Vacuum Interupter 6543 Air Blast interrupters The power for extinguishing the arc is drawn from an extemal source and its magnitude must be such as {to intemuptthe maximum fault current. As suchit the magniftude of taultis less, the same is iterrupted even cunnent our LP eLECTROGE MigH PRESSURE ‘CURRENT. Ho eu FINAL ARC - POSITION IN AIR- BLAST INTERRUPTER FiG.6. botore the current reaches its natural zero. Here heat is conducted away {rom the are until at current zero ‘casusing by rapid da-ionisation and ajiernately replacing arc path by a colurnn of compressed air of very high dislectnc strength (see Fig 64) 7065.13.1 Air Blast Circuit Breakers Inair blast circuit breakers, the interrupters are Insulated trom earthy mans of Porcelain Insulalors, the ‘number being determined by the system voltage. ‘The number ot interrupters per phase also depends on the rating of the breaker. Normally, support insulators may carry upto four interrupter units, The intertupler units may be mounted one above the other and fed via bypass blast pipes or on branches from a commen point atthe top of the support insulator. A large diameter blast valve controls the flow of air rom the local air recelver tothe interrupter units. 6.5.13.2 Merits of Air Blast Circull Breakers and Air 1, Can be used at high pressure - 2. Reliable operation due to extemal source of extinguishing eneray. 33. Free trom decomposiion. 4. Clean, nen-intammadte. 5. Freely available everywhere. 6. Fresh meduamisusedoverytine. Hencetnebreakercanberepeatdy operated, (designedtrsidh ty. ‘The same air serve purpose of moving the contact and arc extinction. 8. High speed of operation. The compressed air moves very fast and brings about the opening ‘operation. The acing time is also shon. Hense, total breaking ime s shor, operating machansms of ir blast circu breakers are pneumatic. Thearcing timo is almost exacily0.01 second, i.e. 1/2cycle or operating the contacts. Hence breaker speed of the order of 2 cycles can be achieved. This makes the C.B. suitable forimporartlines because high speed opening and auto-reclosurecan, / iinprove system stability. 9, Rapid Auto-reciosure: Tie cicuil-breaker can be given rapid autoreciosure feature. The marutac- ‘urter gives such a provision at addtional cost. The ABCB is easy to reclose bocause the raciosure is by spring pressure against reduced air pressure. 11. Clean service. No need of maintenance of ci 12, Unit type construction gives advantage in design, manufacture and testing. 49, Very high breaking capacities and service voltage can be obtained by connecting more number of nisin services. Hence forall exta-high voltage andhigh breaking capacties oltoday airblastcircut- breakers are used, e.g. 410 KV, 63.5KA, 2 cycles 34, Suitability or repestex operation. The fresh aris used every me, Hence the breaker can be used {or repeated operation d designed for such duty. This is not the case with ol crcul-breakers, Demerits: 1, The demerits of ABCB, complex design of arc extinction chambers and operating mechanisms. Problems of switching over voltages. Slching over voltages are reduced by reclosing resitors. 2, Auxiiagy high pressure air systemis necessary. The costcan be justiiedithere are several breakersinthe switchiyard. For a single breaker the cost of auxiliary compressed air system ‘would be fo0 high. a65.183 Design Features of Ultra High Voltage Air Blast Circult Breaker ‘Tne broakers aro requiod tor breaking shor circuit currants ofthe order! 40K. SOKA, GO KA‘ ula high tage. To achieve such high ratings the Air Bleast Circuit - Breakers have been provided with toflowing fatautes : (Fig. 6 5) vancanereseavorn = =~, I] ‘aeceivemt HOLLOW INSULATOR-ASSEMaLY DOUBLE ARC EXTINCTION cHANBE: PHEUMATIC OPERATING MECHAM OPERATING ROD. bEUmaTiC VALVE CONNECTION FOR CURRENT [ARCING HORNS RESISTANCE SWITCHING FIG.6.5 ONE POLE OF AN EXTRA-HIGH VOLTAGE AIR BUAST CIRGUIT-BREAKER ~ Muti-unit design. — Increasing mass fow of air for arc extinction by making necessary modilicalions in the design of ‘compressed air system and passage of air in the breaker — Use of parallel pre-closing resistor to damp switching over-voltages. ~ ntensifying the cooling of are space by developing the nozzle ol sulable shape by enlarging nozzle shape and raising the operaiing pressuee. ~ Large diameters of flow path. Large components ~ Using new techniques of air supply to onsure almost constant pressure of ir during the opening ‘operations. These techniques include. 41. Using vertical tanks, one for each holow insuator Using high pressure system such as 69 kg/cm. 150 kg/cm? 3, Connecting ine breaker pneumatic vaive direcly to high pressure systean instead of connecting it to focal air receiver. Incircuit-breaker wih ai receiver, he pressure drops to about 70 per cent of intial pressure during are minterruption. There by the rating of breaker for the subsequent opening operation for auto-reclosure duty is reduced. To overcome this dificult, the above mentioned modilicabons are incomporated in duly 1s reduced. To overcome this difficuty, the above mentioned modifications are incorporated in UHS circuit breakers. Further, breakers are fited with silencers and are made earthquake-proot The whole ofthe operating mechanism ofthe circuil breaker is compressed air operated movement being initiated from an electrically operated tip call, (Fig. 6.6). SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF TWO DOUBLE: OREAK PRESSURISED (MTERRUPTER UNITS. 76.6.6 'solation in this type of citcut breaker is achieved by keeping the interrupters open and the contact gap is permagertly pressurised ‘Thelossofairina pressurised circullbroaker will esultin other iis rectosure or oss of ieloctric strengths across the open contacts, Such an occurence could prove gisastroustothe system andithas herotore, been, arranged thal an isolator associated wih he pressurised oicua breaker opens automaticaly aller the circuit breaker has been tripped. “The advantage of this type of breaker is that its performance under lault condition is excellent because: high pressure air is immediataly available at the contacts. 7365.14, 65.141 6.5.14.2. Minimum OW Circuit Oil interrupters ‘Here the principle of arc extinguishing is quite ditferent. In this type the extinguishing power is obtained from the arc itsell. The arc decomposes the oil and vapurises it into Hydragen (60-80%), acetylene and a small ‘proportion of other hycrocarhons. Hycrogen, because ol fs high thermal conductwity and deionising properties, gealy assists In cooling the are at the same time, the pressure within The enclosure i Bull Up ‘ueto the vesticled venting ‘Thus final arc extinction is achieved by rapidly cooling and de-ionishing of the gas and expelling the are product fromthe contraldevies,resufingina rapidbulduperelectnesirength Heretnetulsupota-electic ‘tranghthismuch asterthanin case ot AirBlastintertupier uni. increases withthe increase of fault current. {ean be seen thal for low laull current, the arc duration may bs such that some additional force may be ‘required. Oil Circutt Breakers ‘There are two types of cil circuit breakers (i) Minimum oi circuit breaker (i Buk oil cheuit breaker. Breaker ‘These cireuit breakers ‘normally. are of single - break type. These.nor- mally comprises of two section, oneuppercom- partmentcontaining the are control device and, fixed and moving con: tacts; and a lower sup- porting compartment. ‘The arc control device is contained in a bakelised paper enclo- sure which is in turn housed in a procelain ingulator. Support tor this companmentispro- vided by procelain or bakelisedpapersupport ingylators. Aninsulating ‘ink passes through the: support chamber and drives the moving con- Bor Cenmertien be. MINIMUM OL CIRCUT BREAKER ‘ween the moving con- raer lactandihelowerterri- nal is by means of a sliding contact at the baseottheuppercham- bor (see fig. 6.7}, ‘The upper and tower compartment of ckt-breakers a7e filed with oif, but oil the support compartment is kept separate fromm oil in the arc conirol compartment and cannet theretore, be Contaminated by the products of arcing 465.143, Bulk Oil Circutt Breakers ‘This comparises of simply a dead tank having two bushings projecting omit. The numberof interupter turits contained in the tank is dependent upon faut current to be interrupted and the service voltage. Each interrupter unit is shurted by a linear wire wound resistor of the order of 1200 ohms, the objective being to ‘damp the restriking transient at fault currents and to assist in lina switching duties. ‘Theinterrupterunits and the resistors are mounted on the tower endaf the bushing. The moving contacts 20 years. The operating mechanism is movil nso rid tales 26 sembly. All ive parts are insultated gen FIG. 6.11 ‘erally by epoxy resin-companents. Tar ieh fas erat annoy tease te conta oat fren atmospheric pressure, acting on metal felons Ths onde rears by ears oli sigs wich act agaist ainspheric ress. The rote ie Souascabecmennlaly Ts comroste to encton pangs se slensconace oct Sahansdoqoatepresare ana bohaeletiapocion Ins ales sucteny neiypecoriadar nsaeee how operhing newala ntsc heqoent rachis lching Secge't worsee Ins aos he iat sel cee peconby meanest ast rpeatThedesgnecenomses operating powers the coil, in addition to the contactor remaining closed during momentary supply failure. ‘Advantages o Vacuum intorrupters/Circuit Breakers ‘This simple but most efficient method of power interruption in vacuum, brings fon a multitude of advantages which are brought out. More important ones are discussed in details as under: 1. The main contacts of the power circuit breaker are in a sealed vacuum environment which: Ensure that extemal contamination will not affect the interrupting process. ~ There willbe ne ionized gas produced during an interruption 2 i vacuum interrupter fails on loss of vacuum the back up breaker wl clear the cireut betorethe arc wil escape the interrupter: which is before any damage is done to the breaker or cubicle. With air meciumif the breaker fails to clear, the beaker ang ihe cubicile wil most ikely bo destroyed. 3. Maximum Operation Safety: Inthe vacuum interupter, the arc inter‘uption takes place usualy at the fst current 2ero, The high di electric strength of a small vacuum gap speeds uparc inlertuplion accounting forthe extremely low cleaning time. ‘Thus, fast interuption and dielectric recovery provide maximum equipment protection. nm4. Thearcanditsby products are containadina sealed vacuum enclosure which isolates contacts from in, and tumity damage. 5. Shor contact iravel permis a simple and reltable mechanism design, and betterc performance. & Minimum Maintenance: = Theuse of vacuum cicuitbreakerperits reduction of maintenance work perlormed by skied labour because: = Only poriodic cleaning, lubricating of mechanism is required. No, maintenance of interupter is required excopting an occasional wipe spring adjustment. 7. Long Lite: + Low contact arc erosion offers exceptionally ong switching and intescyptng life without maintenance (atleast 30 operations at full breaking capacity, against less than 10 for air medium circuit breakers). ~ High level of cavuum (batter than 10* mm of Hg) permits greater number of operations without ‘maintenance (10,000 electrical operations and 40,000 mechanical operations without part reptaco- ment). + Noneed teinspect or change contact during lfe of the interrupter, noris there any insulating modium 10 fiteror replace. A simpte contact wear indicator inspection is al thal is required, together with an ‘occasional high potential test of the interrupter, and @ vaccum check is absolutely required. + Test experience shows electrical ile ol vacuumintorrupters is more than that required by the IEC standards which means itis unlikely that an interrupter will ever wearout in service. ~ Ina properly processed vacuum interupter loss of vacuum situation is not likely to arise. ft has become customary to guarantee 29 years o Iie for vacuum inleruptes by leading manufacturers, 86. CONTROL CIRCUIT FOR CIRCUIT BREAK- ERS (Fig. 6.12) This presente a ial scheme of a et + breaker, i Ronioring relays. Any iter- 994 locking conc amin forthe breaker conga {ripping are not shown! oc. The contol uilisod is over rotable DG, normaly 220V.0.C-A close poston ay (C.P.R.) montis the tp coil of the breaker in addition othe close postion ol the breaker. Atria position relay (FP.R) is also installed. This & ‘Sometime made to monitor the closing coitol he breakers. 86.1. interlocks for Circuit Breakers Interlocks requirement is different for diferent breakers. ncaseol220KV breakers, instaledas the main switchgear in a generator feeder, main interlocks required are : {Breaker should not close unit permissive {romthe check synchronising reiayisaval- Lysine able to ensure that the Generator s con- ected to the end. after proper synchronisation, (ii) Breaker should not close unless contacts of Master Trp Relay (M.T.R.) are reset, 10 avoid a spunous tripping. a Gi). Breaker should not close if field breakers, fy. SIDE ‘ot closed, to avoid motoring of the gen- ‘erator. Main iteriocks requirement KV and4i5V switchgear systemnonmaly are () The reserve incoming supply breaker of a FIG. 6.13, 80parioularbus should closeifthemain incoming supply breakeris tippedi.e.C (RetFig. 6.13) should close if B tsps, 1o make sure that the bus remains energies. LV. side breaker of the transformer should not close unloss H.V. side breaker is closed to avoid agnetising of the translormer om LV. side (so as to prevent switching surge on LV. winding}, B ccanot be closed it Ais not closed 67, BUS BAR ARRANGEMENTS ‘There are numerous schemes o! busbar arangements, The choice ofa panicular arrangement depends on various factors vz. System voltage, positon of the sub-siaion inthe system, lexbildy, olabity of supply and cost. In addition, the following fectnical considerations must be borne in mind while decicing upon any particular arrangoment (4) Arrangement should be as simple as possible (2) Maintenance should be easy witout interruption o supply or danger to the operating personnel (3). Alernative arrangements shoul be available in the event of an oulage on any of the apparatus (4) The layout should not hinder expansion andor augmentation as the 1oad grows: (6) Theinstaliation shoutd be as economical as possible. keepingin view the requirements and continuity - ot supply 67.3. SINGLE BUS BAR: ‘The arrangement is shown betow. This i the simplest and cheapest. ‘The arrangement, however, suffers fom folowing detects {@} Maintenance without interruption of supply #5 rot possible. (6) Edension of he sub station without a shut down is nx possible (6), Any fault on the bus results ino tola interruption of supply. SINGLE BUS BAR X Gircuit Breaker 7 Tnolator tw. Earthing Connection _—\— x —\ FIG. 6.14 ‘The scheme, therefore, is nol vary popular for 33 KV and above, except where the relative imponarc. Cf the substation is less, or the position ef the cub-stalion does not jus elaborate schemes, ai6.7.2. SINGLE BUS BAR WITH BUS SECTIONALIZER, Because of cheapness and simplicity single bus bar is adopted with sectionalising arrangement as shown bbolow. inthis arrangement each section behaves as a separate bus bar. Any dulage canbe confined toone ‘ection of the bus bar. tn order to realize full advantage of he system, the incomingfoutgoing feeders are ‘evenly distributed on the two sections, SINGLE BUS BAR WITH BUS SECTIONALIZER Al mK i be t NAN x N % Gireult Breaker Fi9.6.18 1 Yaolator 4 Farthing. Connection For bus sectionalizing. use of an isolator does not full the purpose, since the isolator will have to be ‘operated “ott-doad" which creates a problem. For tuller benelis @ circut breaker should be used. The bus ‘section breaker and the two incoming breakers are so intelocked that only 1wo breakers can be closed al atime, Normally each section continues to.cater its load. Iino incoming ciccuilon any section hastobe taken ‘out the sectionalizer breaker can be closed and supply restored to the outgoing Grout of this section. Itis. an important advantage of sectionalizing that circus breakers of lower breaking capacity may be used by ‘unning normally with sections elecincally segregated67.3. MAIN AND TRANSFER BUS BAR. Tris is only an improvement to single bus bar system. The scheme is shown below := MAIN AND TRANSFER BUS BAR 4 +f % cecal Bemier 0.8 (Et Teeatoreer Inthis scheme, one reserve bus of lower capacity is proviced, The system is conected tothe main bus ‘only, Whenever maintenance is considered necessary, the concerned citcui is transterred to the transter ‘or reserve bus with the help of coupler. The scheme, theretore, provides faciily for maintenance of the ‘breakers but not of bus bar. It may be noted that the protection sctieme ofthe circuit ransferredto reserve ‘bus, gels translerred to the coupler breaker, during the period of maintenance. 67.4. DOUBLE BUS BAR. Inthe more important staions, the use of duplicate bus bars almost universal. The system is shown below. Usually one set ofbars is designated as “Main” and the other as "Reserve" or ‘Hospital’. This infers that ‘ormally the “Main” bars are charged with the other set available in the event of emergency. However, if necessary loads may be fed trom the “Reserve” bus also For obtaining full advantage of the system the coupler circuit must have a breaker to enabie “on load transier of power DOUBLE BUS BAR ‘The scheme provides teilies for the maintenance of either of the two bus, but not for maintenance of any of the breakers, for which shut down becomes necessary. 867.5. DOUBLE BREAKER SCHEME : ‘The double bus bar scheme dioussed above serves most ol the h | Duposes. , however, does not peti breaker or folalor maninance without an oxago, A sinpl bu very oxpensve way ol croconig ie F represonting any phase voltige of the lower voltage winding is shown parallol to responding phase vottage ol Ihe higher voltage windings. {and thus the relevant vector diagram) and the phase displacemerts are identified 2ols which, inorder have for two winding transformers. the fotlowing significance :~ = | Higher vettage winding connection. = Lower voltage wirxiing connection Phase displacement expressed as the clock hour number, ‘gher voltage and lower voltage windings, respectively, are indicated by the use of ‘able below’ tion Type.ct connection Designation e Detta Star Interconnected Star e Dolla Star Ierconnected Star nx en

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