Geotechnical Laboratory

Measurements for Engineers

Geotechnical Laboratory Measurements for Engineers John T. Germaine and Amy V. Germaine
Copyright 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Geotechnical Laboratory
Measurements for Engineers
John T. Germaine and Amy V. Germaine

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
ISBN: 978-0-470-15093-1
Germaine, John T.
Geotechnical laboratory measurements for engineers / John T. Germaine and Amy V. Germaine.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-470-15093-1 (paper/website) 1. Soil dynamics. 2. SoilsTesting. 3. SoilsComposition. 4. Soils
DensityMeasurement. I. Germaine, Amy V. II. Title.
TA711.G48 2009
624.1'510287dc22
2009007439

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Contents
P R E FA C E

XI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

XIII

PART I
Chapter 1

Background Information for Part I

Scope, 3
Laboratory Safety, 4
Terminology, 5
Standardization, 6
Evaluation of Test Methods, 8
Precision and Bias Statements, 9
Laboratory Accreditation, 11
Proficiency Testing, 12
Technician Certification, 12
Unit Convention, 12
Significant Digits, 13
Test Specification, 14
Sampling, 15
Processing Bulk Material, 17
Test Documentation, 19
Spreadsheets, 20
Reporting Test Results, 20
Typical Values, 21
Further Reading and Other References, 21
References, 22

Chapter 2

Phase Relationships

24

Scope and Summary, 24

Typical Materials, 25
Background, 25

Contents

Typical Values, 33
Calibration, 33
Specimen Preparation, 35
Procedure, 35
Precision, 37
Detecting Problems with Results, 38
Reference Procedures, 38
References, 38

Chapter 3

Specific Gravity

39

Scope and Summary, 39

Typical Materials, 39
Background, 39
Typical Values, 44
Calibration, 45
Specimen Preparation, 45
Procedure, 45
Precision, 50
Detecting Problems with Results, 51
Reference Procedures, 51
References, 51

Chapter 4

Maximum Density, Minimum Density

Scope and Summary, 52
Typical Materials, 52
Background, 52
Typical Values, 55
Calibration, 55
Specimen Preparation, 57
Procedure, 57
Precision, 58
Detecting Problems with Results, 58
Reference Procedures, 59
References, 59

Chapter 5

Calcite Equivalent

60

Scope and Summary, 60

Typical Materials, 60
Background, 60
Typical Values, 62
Calibration, 63
Specimen Preparation, 65
Procedure, 65
Precision, 66
Detecting Problems with Results, 66
Reference Procedures, 66
References, 66

Chapter 6

pH and Salinity

68

Scope and Summary, 68

Typical Materials, 68
Background, 68
Typical Values, 74
Calibration, 75
Specimen Preparation, 76
Procedure, 76

vi

Contents

52

Precision, 78
Detecting Problems with Results, 78
Reference Procedures, 79
References, 79

Chapter 7

Organic Content

80

Scope and Summary, 80

Typical Materials, 80
Background, 80
Typical Values, 82
Calibration, 82
Specimen Preparation, 82
Procedure, 82
Precision, 83
Detecting Problems with Results, 83
Reference Procedures, 83
References, 83

Chapter 8

Grain Size Analysis

84

Scope and Summary, 84

Typical Materials, 84
Background, 84
Typical Values, 107
Calibration, 109
Specimen Preparation, 111
Procedure, 112
Precision, 115
Detecting Problems with Results, 116
Reference Procedures, 116
References, 116

Chapter 9

Atterberg Limits

117

Scope and Summary, 117

Typical Materials, 117
Background, 117
Typical Values, 130
Calibration, 132
Specimen Preparation, 134
Procedure, 135
Precision, 137
Detecting Problems with Results, 138
Reference Procedures, 138
References, 138

Chapter 10

Soil Classification and Description

140

Scope and Summary, 140

Typical Materials, 140
Background, 141
Calibration, 156
Specimen Preparation, 157
Procedure, 157
Precision, 160
Detecting Problems with Results, 160
Reference Procedures, 160
References, 160

Contents

vii

PART II
Chapter 11

Background Information for Part II

163

Scope and Summary, 163

Intact Sampling, 164
Processing Intact Samples, 169
Reconstituting Samples, 184
Transducers, 189
Data Collection and Processing, 203
References, 209

Chapter 12

Compaction Test Using Standard Effort

210

Scope and Summary, 210

Typical Materials, 210
Background, 211
Typical Values, 219
Calibration, 220
Specimen Preparation, 220
Procedure, 220
Precision, 221
Detecting Problems with Results, 222
Reference Procedures, 222
References, 222

Chapter 13

Hydraulic Conductivity: Cohesionless Materials

Scope and Summary, 223
Typical Materials, 223
Background, 223
Typical Values, 233
Calibration, 234
Specimen Preparation, 235
Procedure, 235
Precision, 237
Detecting Problems with Results, 238
Reference Procedures, 238
References, 238

Chapter 14

Direct Shear

239

Scope and Summary, 239

Typical Materials, 239
Background, 240
Typical Values, 248
Calibration, 248
Specimen Preparation, 250
Procedure, 251
Precision, 254
Detecting Problems with Results, 254
Reference Procedures, 255
References, 255

Chapter 15

Strength Index of Cohesive Materials

Scope and Summary, 256
Typical Materials, 256
Background, 256
Typical Values, 264

viii

Contents

256

223

Calibration, 264
Specimen Preparation, 266
Procedure, 267
Precision, 272
Detecting Problems with Results, 272
Reference Procedures, 273
References, 273

Chapter 16

Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Compression

275

Scope and Summary, 275

Typical Materials, 276
Background, 276
Typical Values, 286
Calibration, 286
Specimen Preparation, 289
Procedure, 289
Precision, 292
Detecting Problems with Results, 292
Reference Procedures, 293
References, 293

Chapter 17

Incremental Consolidation By Oedometer

294

Scope and Summary, 294

Typical Materials, 294
Background, 294
Typical Values, 324
Calibration, 324
Specimen Preparation, 325
Procedure, 326
Precision, 331
Detecting Problems with Results, 331
Reference Procedures, 332
References, 332

APPENDICES
Appendix A

Constants And Unit Conversions 334

Appendix B

Physical Properties Of Pure Water 338

Appendix C

Calculation Adjustments For Salt 340

INDEX

345

Contents

ix

Preface
This textbook is divided into two parts, according to a general division of test result characteristics and level of background
knowledge necessary to perform the tests. Part I focuses on relatively simple tests that are used to characterize the nature
of soils and can be performed on bulk materials. Part II increases the level of testing complexity, places more emphasis on
engineering properties, and requires a larger investment in laboratory equipment. These topics may be covered in an undergraduate civil or geotechnical engineering laboratory course.
An ancillary web site has been created for this textbook. The web site (www.wiley.com/college/germaine) is divided by
chapter and includes data sheets, spreadsheets, and example data sets. In addition, there are online resources for instructors
that provide template data sheets with embedded data reduction formulas.
There are a large number of tests that are performed on geo-materials. This book is not intended to be all inclusive, but
rather covers a selection of the most common and essential tests, while maintaining a broad cross-section of methods and
devices. In general, testing of geo-materials is a slow process according to clock time. This is mostly due to the need for
pore water to come to equilibrium. Cost-effective, high-quality testing is possible by understanding the important factors
and working with nature to use labor wisely. A goal of this text is to provide guidance for efficient testing without sacrificing the quality of results. Efficiency can be achieved by tailoring techniques to individual circumstances and understanding
when shortcuts are feasible.
The background chapter to each of the two parts provides general information that applies to the chapters that follow.
Test-specific information is included in the pertinent chapter. Each testing chapter provides background information to
understand the concepts and objectives of the method, a discussion of important factors useful for professional practice, a
list of the minimum equipment requirements, detailed procedures and guidance for performing the test, and the calculations
required to produce the results. The procedures are provided for specific situations and would be most useful for instructional purposes. These instructions could be modified for commercial application to increase productivity and efficiency.
The text is set up to allow instructors to choose which laboratories to include in their courses. The knowledge gained
through individual tests tends to be cumulative as the text progresses. However, it is not intended that all of the laboratories
would be taught, one after the other, as part of a single course.
Although this book is well suited to teaching a geotechnical laboratory course, the practicing geotechnical engineer
should find this text useful as a reference on the important details relative to testing. This is especially important when designing sophisticated subsurface characterization and corresponding advanced laboratory testing programs. The information
presented is essential to the geotechnical engineer. The text helps develop a working knowledge of laboratory capabilities
and testing methods. Laboratory testing is also a large part of geotechnical research. Perhaps the most valuable experience
is that the knowledge gained by performing the laboratories reinforces the understanding of soil behavior.
It is hoped that the practicing engineer will understand the following motto: Only perform the tests you need. But if you
need to do it, do it correctly.
Preface

xi

Acknowledgements
Several individuals in the geotechnical field have had tremendous impacts on the authors, both professionally and as family
friends.
Stephen Rudolph is the machinist and designer responsible for the equipment modifications necessary to accomplish
the experiments that appear in many chapters of this work. His dedication and skills are admired and appreciated.
Charles Ladd has been a mentor and colleague to both of us since we entered MIT as students. His guidance in
understanding soil behavior is treasured.
Richard Ladd has been a valued colleague and mentor to both of us through the years. Richard is always available and
ready to discuss the finer points of testing, and his feedback is valued dearly.
Several consulting clients deserve recognition for providing interesting work and for probing into the details relative to
geotechnical testing. Two of those individuals are Demetrious Koutsoftas and Richard Reynolds. We can never thank them
enough.
Jacks students of the past, present, and future are to be commended for asking questions and pushing the boundaries of
geotechnical testing. They keep the job of teaching fresh, challenging, and interesting.
Finally, we wish to thank Bill DeGroff and Fugro Consultants, Inc., for affording Amy the flexible schedule that allowed
for the writing of this textbook.

Acknowledgements

xiii