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Resistors
Resistors are the most commonly used component in electronics and their purpose is to create specified values of c
and voltage in a circuit. A number of different resistors are shown in the photos. (The resistors are on millimeter pap
1cm spacing to give some idea of the dimensions). Photo 1.1a shows some low-power resistors, whilephoto 1.1b
shows some higher-power resistors. Resistors with power dissipation below 5 watt (most commonly used types) are
cylindrical in shape, with a wire protruding from each end for connecting to a circuit (photo 1.1-a). Resistors with po
dissipation above 5 watt are shown below (photo 1.1-b).
The symbol for a resistor is shown in the following diagram (upper: American symbol, lower: European symbol.)
The unit for measuring resistance is the OHM. (the Greek letter - called Omega). Higher resistance values are rep
by "k" (kilo-ohms) and M (meg ohms). For example, 120 000 is represented as 120k, while 1 200 000 is repres
1M2. The dot is generally omitted as it can easily be lost in the printing process. In some circuit diagrams, a value su
or 120 represents a resistance in ohms. Another common practice is to use the letter E for resistance in ohms. The l
can also be used. For example, 120E (120R) stands for 120 , 1E2 stands for 1R2 etc.
Resistance value is marked on the resistor body. Most resistors have 4 bands. The first two bands provide the numbe
the resistance and the third band provides the number of zeros. The fourth band indicates the tolerance. Tolerance v
of 5%, 2%, and 1% are most commonly available.
The following table shows the colors used to identify resistor values:
COLOR
DIGIT
MULTIPLIER
TOLERANCE
Silver
x 0.01
10%
Gold
x 0.1
5%
TC
Black
x1
Brown
x 10
1%
100*10-6/K
Red
x 100
2%
50*10-6/K
Orange
x 1 k
15*10-6/K
Yellow
x 10 k
25*10-6/K
Green
x 100 k
0.5%
Blue
x 1 M
0.25%
10*10-6/K
Violet
x 10 M
0.1%
5*10-6/K
Grey
x 100 M
White
x 1 G
1*10-6/K
Fig. 1.2: b. Four-band resistor, c. Five-band resistor, d. Cylindrical SMD resistor, e. Flat SMD r
The following shows all resistors from 0R1 (one tenth of an ohm) to 22M:
NOTES:
The resistors above are "common value" 5% types.
The fourth band is called the "tolerance" band. Gold = 5%
(tolerance band Silver =10% but no modern resistors are 10%!!)
"common resistors" have values 10 ohms to 22M.
When the third band is silver, it indicates the value of the "colors" must be divided by 100.
(Remember: more letters in the word "silver" thus the divisor is "larger.")
Silver = "divide by 100" to get values 0R1 (one tenth of an ohm) to 0R82
e.g: 0R1 = 0.1 ohm
0R22 = point 22 ohms
See 4th Column above for examples.
The letters "R, k and M" take the place of a decimal point. The letter "E" is also used to indicate the word "ohm."
e.g: 1R0 = 1 ohm
2R2 = 2 point 2 ohms 22R = 22 ohms
2k2 = 2,200 ohms
100k = 100,000 ohms
2M2 = 2,200,000 ohms
Common resistors have 4 bands. These are shown above. First two bands indicate the first two digits of the resistan
band is the multiplier (number of zeros that are to be added to the number derived from first two bands) and fourth
represents the tolerance.
Marking the resistance with five bands is used for resistors with tolerance of 2%, 1% and other high-accuracy resisto
three bands determine the first three digits, fourth is the multiplier and fifth represents the tolerance.
For SMD (Surface Mounted Device) the available space on the resistor is very small. 5% resistors use a 3 digit code,
1% resistors use a 4 digit code.
Some SMD resistors are made in the shape of small cylinder while the most common type is flat. Cylindrical SMD res
are marked with six bands - the first five are "read" as with common five-band resistors, while the sixth band determ
Temperature Coefficient (TC), which gives us a value of resistance change upon 1-degree temperature change.
The resistance of flat SMD resistors is marked with digits printed on their upper side. First two digits are the resistan
value, while the third digit represents the number of zeros. For example, the printed number 683 stands for 68000
is 68k
It is self-obvious that there is mass production of all types of resistors. Most commonly used are the resi
the E12 series, and have a tolerance value of 5%. Common values for the first two digits are: 10, 12, 15
22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68 and 82.
The E24 series includes all the values above, as well as: 11, 13, 16, 20, 24, 30, 36, 43, 51, 62, 75 and 9
do these numbers mean? It means that resistors with values for digits "39" are:
0.39,3.9,39,390,3.9k39k, etc are manufactured. (0R39,3R9,39R,390R,3k939k)
For some electrical circuits, the resistor tolerance is not important and it is not specified. In that case, resistors with
tolerance can be used. However, devices which require resistors to have a certain amount of accuracy, need a specifi
tolerance.
If the flow of current through a resistor increases, it heats up, and if the temperature exceeds a certain critical valu
be damaged. The wattage rating of a resistor is the power it can dissipate over a long period of time.
Wattage rating is not identified on small resistors. The following diagrams show the size and wattage rating:
Most commonly used resistors in electronic circuits have a wattage rating of 1/2W or 1/4W. There are smaller resisto
(1/8W and 1/16W) and higher (1W, 2W, 5W, etc).
In place of a single resistor with specified dissipation, another one with the same resistance and higher rating may b
but its larger dimensions increase the space taken on a printed circuit board as well as the added cost.
Power (in watts) can be calculated according to one of the following formulae, where U is the symbol for Voltage acr
resistor (and is in Volts), I is the symbol for Current in Amps and R is the resistance in ohms:
For example, if the voltage across an 820resistor is 12V, the wattage dissipated by the resistors is:
In many cases, it is not easy to determine the current or voltage across a resistor. In this case the wattage dissipate
resistor is determined for the "worst" case. We should assume the highest possible voltage across a resistor, i.e. the
voltage of the power supply (battery, etc).
If we mark this voltage as VB, the highest dissipation is:
Resistance values detailed above are a constant and do not change if the voltage or current-flow alters. But there ar
that require resistors to change value with a change in temperate or light. This function may not be linear, hence the
name NONLINEAR RESISTORS.
There are several types of nonlinear resistors, but the most commonly used include : NTC resistors (figure a) (Negat
Temperature Co-efficient) - their resistance lowers with temperature rise. PTC resistors (figure b) (Positive Temperat
efficient) - their resistance increases with the temperature rise. LDR resistors (figure c) (Light Dependent Resistors)
resistance lowers with the increase in light. VDR resistors (Voltage dependent Resistors) - their resistance critically lo
the voltage exceeds a certain value. Symbols representing these resistors are shown below.
In amateur conditions where nonlinear resistor may not be available, it can be replaced with
other components. For example, NTC resistor may be replaced with a transistor with a
trimmer potentiometer, for adjusting the required resistance value. Automobile light may
play the role of PTC resistor, while LDR resistor could be replaced with an open transistor.
As an example, figure on the right shows the 2N3055, with its upper part removed, so that
light may fall upon the crystal inside.
Figure 1.5 shows two practical examples with nonlinear and regular resistors as trimmer potentiometers, elements w
be covered in the following chapter.
Figure 1.5a represents an RC voltage amplifier, that can be used for amplifying low-frequency, low-amplitude audio s
such as microphone signals. The signal to be amplified is brought between node 1 (amplifier input) and gnd, while th
resulting amplified signal appears between node 2 (amplifier output) and gnd. To get the optimal performance (high
amplification, low distortion, low noise, etc) , it is necessary to "set" the transistor's operating point. Details on the o
point will be provided in chapter 4; for now, let's just say that DC voltage between node C and gnd should be approx
one half of battery (power supply) voltage. Since battery voltage equals 6V, voltage in node C should be set to 3V.
Adjustments are made via resistor R1.
Connect a voltmeter between node C and gnd. If voltage exceeds 3V, replace the resistor R1=1.2M with a smaller r
say R1=1M. If voltage still exceeds 3V, keep lowering the resistance until it reaches approximately 3V. If the voltag
node C is originally lower than 3V, increase the resistance of R1.
The degree of amplification of the stage depends on R2 resistance: higher resistance - higher amplification, lower re
- lower amplification. If the value of R2 is changed, the voltage at node C should be checked and adjusted (via R1).
Resistor R3 and 100F capacitor form a filter to prevent feedback from occurring. This feedback is called "Motor-boa
it sounds like the noise from a motor-boat. This noise is only produced when more than one stage is employed.
As more stages are added to a circuit, the chance of feedback, in the form of instability or motor-boating, will occur.
This noise appears at the output of the amplifier, even when no signal is being delivered to the amplifier.
The instability is produced in the following manner:
Even though no signal is being delivered to the input, the output stage produces a very small background noise calle
This comes from current flowing through the transistors and other components.
This puts a very small waveform on the power rails. This waveform is passed to the input of the first transistor and t
have produced a loop for "noise-generation." The speed with which the signal can pass around the circuit determines
frequency of the instability. By adding a resistor and electrolytic to each stage, a low-frequency filter is produced and
"kills" or reduces the amplitude of the offending signal. The value of R3 can be increased if needed.
Practical examples with resistors will be covered in the following chapters as almost all circuits require resistors.
A practical use for nonlinear resistors is illustrated on a simple alarm device shown in figure 1.5b. Without trimmer T
nonlinear NTC resistor it is an audio oscillator. Frequency of the sound can be calculated according to the following fo
When, according to the figure, trim pot and NTC resistor are added, oscillator frequency increases. If the trim pot is
minimum resistance, the oscillator stops. At the desired temperature, the resistance of the trim pot should be increa
the oscillator starts working again. For example, if these settings were made at 2C, the oscillator remains frozen at
temperatures, as the NTC resistor's resistance is lower than nominal. If the temperature falls the resistance increase
2C the oscillator is activated.
If an NTC resistor is installed in a car, close to the road surface, the oscillator can warn driver if the road is covered w
Naturally, the resistor and two copper wires connecting it to the circuit should be protected from dirt and water.
If, instead of an NTC resistor, a PTC resistor is used, the oscillator will be activated when the temperature rises abov
certain designated value. For example, a PTC resistor could be used for indicating the state of a refrigerator: set the
oscillator to work at temperatures above 6C via trimmer TP, and the circuit will signal if anything is wrong with the
Instead of an NTC, we could use an LDR resistor - the oscillator would be blocked as long as a certain amount of ligh
present. In this way, we could make a simple alarm system for rooms where a light must be always on.
The LDR can be coupled with resistor R. In that case, the oscillator works when the light is present, otherwise it is bl
This could be an interesting alarm clock for huntsmen and fishermen who would like to get up at the crack of dawn,
if the weather is clear. For the desired moment in the early morning, the trim pot should be set to the uppermost po
Then, the resistance should be carefully reduced, until the oscillator starts. During the night the oscillator will be bloc
since there is no light and LDR resistance is very high. As the amount of light increases in the morning, the resistanc
LDR drops and the oscillator is activated when the LDR is illuminated with the required amount of light.
The trim pot from the figure 1.5b is used for fine adjustments. Thus, TP from figure 1.5b can be used for setting the
oscillator to activate under different conditions (higher or lower temperature or amount of light).
1.5 Potentiometers
Potentiometers (also called pots) are variable resistors, used as voltage or current regulators in electronic circuits. B
of construction, they can be divided into 2 groups: coated and wire-wound.
With coated potentiometers, (figure 1.6a), insulator body is coated with a resistive material. There is a conductive sl
moving across the resistive layer, increasing the resistance between slider and one end of pot, while decreasing the
resistance between slider and the other end of pot.
Wire-wound potentiometers are made of conductor wire coiled around insulator body. There is a slider moving acros
wire, increasing the resistance between slider and one end of pot, while decreasing the resistance between slider an
other end of pot.
Coated pots are much more common. With these, resistance can be linear, logarithmic, inverse-logarithmic or other,
depending upon the angle or position of the slider. Most common are linear and logarithmic potentiometers, and the
common applications are radio-receivers, audio amplifiers, and similar devices where pots are used for adjusting the
tone, balance, etc.
Wire-wound potentiometers are used in devices which require more accuracy in control. They feature higher dissipat
coated pots, and are therefore in high current circuits.
Potentiometer resistance is commonly of E6 series, including the values: 1, 2.2 and 4.7. Standard tolerance values in
30%, 20%, 10% (and 5% for wire-wound pots).
Potentiometers come in many different shapes and sizes, with wattage ranging from 1/4W (coated pots for volume c
amps, etc) to tens of watts (for regulating high currents). Several different pots are shown in the photo 1.6b, along
symbol for a potentiometer.
The upper model represents a stereo potentiometer. These are actually two pots in one casing, with sliders mounted
shared axis, so they move simultaneously. These are used in stereophonic amps for simultaneous regulation of both
right channels, etc.
Lower left is the so called slider potentiometer.
Lower right is a wire-wound pot with a wattage of 20W, commonly used as rheostat (for regulating current while cha
battery etc).
For circuits that demand very accurate voltage and current values, trimmer potentiometers (or just trim pots) are us
These are small potentiometers with a slider that is adjusted via a screwdriver.
Trim pots also come in many different shapes and sizes, with wattage ranging from 0.1W to 0.5W. Image 1.7 shows
different trim pots, along with the symbol.
Resistance adjustments are made via a screwdriver. Exception is the trim pot on the lower right, which can be adjust
plastic shaft. Particularly fine adjusting can be achieved with the trim pot in the plastic rectangular casing (lower mid
slider is moved via a screw, so that several full turns is required to move the slider from one end to the other.
As previously stated, potentiometers are most commonly used in amps, radio and TV receivers, cassette players and
devices. They are used for adjusting volume, tone, balance, etc.
As an example, we will analyze the common circuit for tone regulation in an audio amp. It contains two pots and is s
the figure 1.8a.
Potentiometer marked BASS regulates low frequency amplification. When the slider is in the lowest position, amplific
very low frequency signals (tens of Hz) is about ten times greater than the amplification of mid frequency signals (~
slider is in the uppermost position, amplification of very low frequency signals is about ten times lower than the amp
of mid frequency signals. Low frequency boost is useful when listening to music with a beat (disco, jazz, R&B...), wh
Frequency amplification should be reduced when listening to speech or classical music.
Similarly, potentiometer marked TREBLE regulates high frequency amplification. High frequency boost is useful when
consists of high-pitched tones such as chimes, while for example High Frequency amplification should be reduced wh
listening to an old record to reduce the background noise.
Diagram 1.8b shows the function of amplification depending upon the signal frequency. If both sliders are in their up
position, the result is shown with curve 1-2. If both are in mid position function is described with line 3-4, and with b
sliders in the lowest position, the result is shown with curve 5-6. Setting the pair of sliders to any other possible resu
curves between curves 1-2 and 5-6.
Potentiometers BASS and TREBLE are coated by construction and linear by resistance.
The third pot in the diagram is a volume control. It is coated and logarithmic by resistance (hence the mark log)
2. Capacitors
Capacitors are common components of electronic circuits, used almost as frequently as resistors.
The basic difference between the two is the fact that capacitor resistance (called reactance)
depends on the frequency of the signal passing through the item. The symbol for reactance is
Xc and it can be calculated using the following formula:
A capacitor has an infinitely high reactance for direct current, because f=0.
Capacitors are used in circuits for many different purposes. They are common
components of filters, oscillators,power supplies, amplifiers, etc.
The basic characteristic of a capacitor is its capacity - the higher the capacity, the
higher is the amount of electricity it can hold. Capacity is measured in Farads (F). As
one Farad represents fairly high capacity, smaller values such as microfarad (F),
nanofarad (nF) and picofarad (pF) are commonly used. As a reminder, relations
between units are:
1F=106F=109nF=1012pF,
that is 1F=1000nF and 1nF=1000pF. It is essential to remember this notation, as same values
may be marked differently in some circuits. For example, 1500pF is the same as 1.5nF, 100nF is
0.1F.
A simpler notation system is used as with resistors. If the mark on the capacitor is 120 the value
is 120pF, 1n2 stands for 1.2nF, n22 stands for 0.22nF, while .1 (or .1u) stands for 0.1F.
Capacitors come in various shapes and sizes, depending on their capacity, working
voltage, type of insulation, temperature coefficient and other factors. All capacitors can
divided in two groups: those with changeable capacity values and those with fixed
capacity values. These will covered in the following chapters.
2.1 Block-capacitors
Capacitors with fixed values (the so called block-capacitors) consist of two thin metal plates
(these are called "electrodes" or sometimes called the "foil"), separated by a thin insulating
material such as plastic. The most commonly used material for the "plates" is aluminum, while
the common materials used for insulator include paper, ceramic, mica, etc after which the
capacitors get named. A number of different block-capacitors are shown in the photo below. A
symbol for a capacitor is in the upper right corner of the image.
Electrolytic capacitors represent the exception as their polarity is important. This will be covered
in the following chapters.
Sometimes, capacitors are identified with colors, similar to the 4-band system used for
resistors (figure 2.2). The first two colors (A and B) represent the first two digits, third
color (C) is the multiplier, fourth color (D) is the tolerance, and the fifth color (E) is the
working voltage.
With disk-ceramic capacitors (figure 2.2b) and tubular capacitors (figure 2.2c) working voltage is
not specified, because these are used in circuits with low DC voltage. If a tubular capacitor has
five color bands on it, the first color represents the temperature coefficient, while the other four
specify the capacity in the previously described way.
COLOR
DIGIT
MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Black
x 1 pF
20%
Brown
x 10 pF
1%
Red
x 100 pF
2%
Orange
x 1 nF
Yellow
x 10 nF
Green
x 100 nF
Blue
x 1 F
Violet
x 10 F
Grey
x 100 F
White
x 1000 F
VOLTAGE
250V
2.5%
400V
5%
10%
The figure 2.3 shows how the capacity of miniature tantalum electrolytic capacitors are marked
by colors. The first two colors represent the first two digits and have the same values as with
resistors. The third color represents the multiplier, to get the capacity expressed in F. The
fourth color represents the maximal working voltage.
COLOR
Black
DIGIT
0
MULTIPLIER
x 1 F
VOLTAGE
10V
Brown
x 10 F
Red
x 100 F
Orange
Yellow
6.3V
Green
16V
Blue
20V
Violet
Grey
White
8
9
Pink
x .01 F
x .1 F
25V
3V
35V
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized components, meaning they have positive and
negative leads, which is very important when connecting it to a circuit. The positive
lead or pin has to be connected to the point with a higher positive voltage than the
negative lead. If it is connected in reverse the insulating layer inside the capacitor will
be "dissolved" and the capacitor will be permanently damaged.
Explosion may also occur if capacitor is connected to voltage that exceeds its working
voltage. In order to prevent such instances, one of the capacitor's connectors is very
clearly marked with a + or -, while the working voltage is printed on the case.
Several models of electrolytic capacitors, as well as their symbols, are shown on the picture
below.
Beside capacitors with air dielectric, there are also variable capacitors with solid
insulator. With these, thin insulating material such as mylar occupies the space
between stator and rotor. These capacitors are much more resistant to mechanical
damage. They are shown in figure 2.5b.
The most common devices containing variable capacitors are radio receivers, where these are
used for frequency adjustment. Semi-variable or trim capacitors are miniature capacitors, with
capacity ranging from several pF to several tens of pFs. These are used for fine tuning radio
receivers, radio transmitters, oscillators, etc. Three trimmers, along with their symbol, are
shown on the figure 2.5d.
The figure 2.6c represents a circuit diagram for a simple detector radio-receiver (commonly
called a "crystal set"), where the variable capacitor C, forming the oscillatory circuit with the coil
L, is used for frequency tuning. Turning the capacitor's rotor changes the resonating frequency of
the circuit, and when matching a certain radio frequency, the station can be heard.
The basic characteristic of every coil is its inductance. Inductance is measured in Henry
(H), but more common are millihenry (mH) and microhenry (H) as one Henry is quite
a high inductance value. As a reminder:
1H = 1000mH = 106 H.
Coil inductance is marked by XL, and can be calculated using the following formula:
where f represents the frequency of the voltage in Hz and the L represents the coil inductance in
H.
For example, if f equals 684 kHz, while L=0.6 mH, coil impedance will be:
The same coil would have three times higher impedance at three times higher frequency. As can
be seen from the formula above, coil impedance is in direct proportion to frequency, so that
coils, as well as capacitors, are used in circuits for filtering at specified frequencies. Note that coil
impedance equals zero for DC (f=0).
Several coils are shown on the figures 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4.
The simplest coil is a single-layer air core coil. It is made on a cylindrical insulator (PVC,
cardboard, etc.), as shown in figure 3.1. In the figure 3.1a, turns have space left between them,
while the common practice is to wind the wire with no space between turns. To prevent the coil
unwinding, the ends should be put through small holes as shown in the figure.
b. Coupled coils
Figure 3.2b shows a high-frequency transformer. As can be seen, these are two coils are coupled
by magnetic induction on a shared body. When the coils are required to have exact inductance
values, each coil has a ferromagnetic core that can be adjusted along the coil axis.
At very high frequencies (above 50MHz) coil inductance is small, so coils need only a few turns.
These coils are made of thick copper wire (approx. 0.5mm) with no coil body, as shown on the
figure 3.3a. Their inductance can be adjusted by physically stretching or squeezing the turns
together.
Fig 3.4 shows a "pot core" inductor. The core is made in two halves and are glued
together. The core is made of ferromagnetic material, commonly called "ferrite." These
inductors are used at frequencies up to 100kHz. Adjustment of the inductance can be
made by the brass or steel screw in the centre of the coil.
3.2 Transformers
For electronic devices to function it is necessary to have a DC power supply. Batteries and
rechargeable cells can fulfill the role, but a much more efficient way is to use a POWER SUPPLY.
The basic component of a power supplyr is a transformer to transform the 220V "mains" to a
lower value, say 12V. A common type of transformer has one primary winding which connects to
the 220V and one (or several) secondary windings for the lower voltages. Most commonly, cores
are made of E and I laminations, but some are made of ferromagnetic material. There are also
iron core transformers used for higher frequencies. Various types of transformers are shown on
the picture below.
As already stated, transformers consist of two windings, primary and the secondary (figure 3.7).
When the voltage Up is connected to the primary winding (in our case the "mains" is 220V), AC
current Ip flows through it. This current creates a magnetic field which passes to the secondary
winding via the core of the transformer, inducing voltage Us (24V in our example). The "load" is
connected to the secondary winding, shown in the diagram as Rp (30 in our example). A
typical load could be an electric bulb working at 24V with a consumption of 19.2W.
where Ns and Np represent the number of turns on the primary and secondary
winding, respectively. For instance, if Ns equals 80 and Np equals 743, secondary
voltage will be:
Relationship between the primary and secondary current is determined by the following
formula:
For instance, if Rp equals 30, then the secondary current equals Ip = Up/Rp =
24V/30 = 0.8A. If Ns equals 80 and Np equals 743, primary current will be:
Everything up to this point relates to the ideal transformer. Clearly, there is no such
thing as perfect, as losses are inevitable. They are present due to the fact that the
windings exhibit a certain resistance value, which makes the transformer warm up
during operation, and the fact that the magnetic field created by the primary does not
entirely pass to the secondary. This is why the output wattage is less than the input
wattage. Their ratio is called EFFICIENCY:
To avoid any confusion here, bear in mind that manufacturers have already taken every measure
in minimizing the losses of transformers and other electronic components and that, practically,
this is the highest possible efficiency. When acquiring a transformer, you should only worry about
the required voltage and the maximal current of the secondary. Dividing the wattage and the
secondary voltage gets you the maximal current value for the consumer. Dividing the wattage
and the primary voltage gets you the current that the transformer draws from network, which is
important to know when buying the fuse. Anyhow, you should be able to calculate any value you
might need using the appropriate formulae from above.
4. Transistors
Transistors are active components and are found everywhere in electronic circuits. They are used
as amplifiers and switching devices. As amplifiers, they are used in high and low frequency stages,
oscillators, modulators, detectors and in any circuit needing to perform a function. In digital circuits
Japanese bipolar transistor are prefixed with a: 2SA, 2SB, 2SC or 2SD, and FET-s with
3S:
2SA - PNP, HF transistors,
2SB - PNP, LF transistors,
2SC - NPN, HF transistors,
2SD - NPN, HF transistors.
Several different transistors are shown in photo 4.1, and symbols for schematics are
on 4.2. Low power transistors are housed in a small plastic or metallic cases of various
shapes. Bipolar transistors have three leads: for base (B), emitter (E), and for collector
(C). Sometimes, HF transistors have another lead which is connected to the metal
housing. This lead is connected to the ground of the circuit, to protect the transistor
from possible external electrical interference. Four leads emerge from some other
types, such as two-gate FETs. High power transistors are different from low-to-medium
power, both in size and in shape.
It is important to have the manufacturers catalog or a datasheet to know which lead is
connected to what part of the transistor. These documents hold the information about
the component's correct use (maximum current rating, power, amplification, etc.) as
well as a diagram of the pinout. Placement of leads and different housing types for
some commonly used transistors are in diagram 4.3.
If we connected an ammeter between the collector and the bulb (to measure IC),
another ammeter between the pot and the base (for measuring IB), and a voltmeter
between the ground and the base and repeat the whole experiment, we will find some
interesting data. When the pot is in its low position UBE is equal to 0V, as well as
currents IC and IB. When the pot is turned, these values start to rise until the bulb
starts to glow when they are: UBE = 0.6V, IB = 0.8mA and IB = 36 mA (if your values
differ from these values, it is because the 2N3055 the writer used doesn't have the
same specifications as the one you use, which is common when working with
transistors).
The end result we get from this experiment is that when the current on the base is
changed, current on the collector is changed as well.
Let's look at another experiment which will broaden our knowledge of the transistor. It
requires a BC107 transistor (or any similar low power transistor), supply source (same
as in previous experiment), 1M resistor, headphones and an electrolytic capacitor
whose value may range between 10u to 100F with any operating voltage.
A simple low frequency amplifier can be built from these components as shown in
diagram 4.5.
The relationship between the current flowing through the collector and the current
flowing through the base is called the transistor's current amplification coefficient, and
is marked as hFE. In our example, this coefficient is equal to:
Put the headphones on and place a fingertip on point 1. You will hear a noise. You body
picks up the 50Hz AC "mains" voltage. The noise heard from the headphones is that
voltage, only amplified by the transistor. Let's explain this circuit a bit more. Ac voltage
with frequency 50Hz is connected to transistor's base via the capacitor C. Voltage on
the base is now equal to the sum of a DC voltage (0.6 approx.) via resistor R, and AC
voltage "from" the finger. This means that this base voltage is higher than 0.6V, fifty
times per second, and fifty times slightly lower than that. Because of this, current on
the collector is higher than 1mA fifty times per second, and fifty times lower. This
variable current is used to shift the membrane of the speakerphones forward fifty
times per second and fifty times backwards, meaning that we can hear the 50Hz tone
on the output.
Listening to a 50Hz noise is not very interesting, so you could connect to points 1 and
2 some low frequency signal source (CD player or a microphone).
There are literally thousands of different circuits using a transistor as an active,
amplifying device. And all these transistors operate in a manner shown in our
experiments, which means that by building this example, you're actually building a
basic building block of electronics.
Because of that, the transistor is heating itself and everything in its proximity. When
UCE or ICE rise (or both of them), the transistor may overheat and become damaged.
Maximum power rating for a transistor, is PCmax (found in a datasheet). What this
means is that the product of UCE and IC should should not be higher than PCmax:
So, if the voltage across the transistor is increased, the current must be dropped.
For example, maximum ratings for a BC107 transistor are:
ICmax=100mA,
UCEmax = 45V and
PCmax = 300mW
If we need a Ic=60mA , the maximum voltage is:
Among its other characteristics, this transistor has current amplification coefficient in
range between hFE= 100 to 450, and it can be used for frequencies under 300MHz.
According to the recommended values given by the manufacturer, optimum results
(stability, low distortion and noise, high gain, etc.) are with UCE=5V and IC=2mA.
There are occasions when the heat generated by a transistor cannot be overcome by
adjusting voltages and current. In this case the transistors have a metal plate with
hole, which is used to attach it to a heat-sink to allow the heat to be passed to a larger
surface.
Current amplification is of importance when used in some circuits, where there is a
need for equal amplification of two transistors. For example, 2N3055H transistors have
hFE within range between 20 and 70, which means that there is a possibility that one
of them has 20 and other 70. This means that in cases when two identical coefficients
are needed, they should be measured. Some multimeters have the option for
measuring this, but most don't. Because of this we have provided a simple circuit (4.6)
for testing transistors. All you need is an option on your multimeter for measuring DC
current up to 5mA. Both diodes (1N4001, or similar general purpose silicon diodes)
and 1k resistors are used to protect the instrument if the transistor is "damaged". As
we said, current gain is equal to hFE = IC / IB. In the circuit, when the switch S is
pressed, current flows through the base and is approximately equal to IB=10uA, so if
the collector current is displayed in milliamps. The gain is equal to:
5. Diodes
As with transistors, diodes are fabricated from semi-conducting material. So, the first
letter in their identification is A for germanium diode or B for silicon diode. They can be
encased in glass, metal or a plastic housing. They have two leads: cathode (k) and an
anode (A). The most important property of all diodes is their resistance is very low in
one direction and very large in the opposite direction.
When a diode is measured with a multimeter and it reads a low value of ohms, this is
not really the resistance of the diode. It represents the voltage drop across the
junction of the diode. This means a multimeter can only be used to detect if the
junction is not damaged. If the reading is low in one direction and very high in the
other direction, the diode is operational.
When a diode is placed in a circuit and the voltage on the anode is higher than the
cathode, it acts like a low value resistor and current will flow.
If it is connected in the opposite direction it acts like a large value resistor and current
does not flow.
In the first case the diode is said to be "forward biased" and in the second case it is
"reverse biased."
Figure 5.1 shows several different diodes:
You must be able to identify each of the 4 leads on a bridge so that it can be inserted
into a circuit around the correct way. The surface-mount device above is identified by a
cut @ 45 along one side. The leaded bridge has one leg longer than the others and
the top is marked with AC marks and "+." The high-current bridge has a corner cut off
and the other surface-mount device has a cut or notch at one end.
These devices are added to a circuit as shown in the next diagram:
The 4 diodes face the same direction and this means a single diode can be shown on
the circuit diagram:
It is not possible to produce white light from any of these materials, so a triad of red,
blue and green is placed inside a case and they are all illuminated at the same time to
produce white light. Recently, while light has been produced from a LED by a very
complex and interesting process that can be found on
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED
LEDs have a cathode and anode lead and must be connected to DC around the correct
way. The cathode lead is identified on the body by a flat-spot on the side of the LED.
The cathode lead is the shorter lead.
One of the most important things to remember about a LED is the characteristic
voltage that appears across it when connected to a voltage. This does not change with
brightness and cannot be altered.
For a red LED, this voltage is 1.7v and if you supply it with more than this voltage, it
will be damaged.
The easy solution is to place a resistor on one lead as shown in the diagram below:
The LED will allow the exact voltage to appear across it and the brightness will depend
on the value of the resistor.
Zener diodes (5.2c and 5.2d) are designed to stabilize a voltage. Diodes marked as
ZPD5.6V or ZPY15V have operating voltages of 5.6V and 15V.
Photo diodes (5.2e) are constructed in a way that they allow light to fall on the P-N
connection. When there is no light, a photo diode acts as a regular diode. It has high
resistance in one direction, and low resistance in opposite direction. When there is
light, both resistances are low. Photo diodes and LEDs are the main items in an
optocoupler (to be discussed in more detail in chapter 9).
Tunnel diodes (5.2f and 5.2g) are commonly used in oscillators for very high
frequencies.
Schottky diodes (5.2h) are used in high frequency circuits and for its low voltage drop
in the forward direction.
Breakdown diodes (5.2i) are actually Zener diodes. They are used in various devices
for protection and voltage regulation. It passes current only when voltage rises above
a pre-defined value.
A Varicap diode (5.2j) is used instead of a variable capacitor in high frequency circuits.
When the voltage across it is changed, the capacitance between cathode and anode is
changed. This diode is commonly used in radio receivers, transceivers and oscillators.
The cathode of a low power diode is marked with a ring painted on the case, but it is
worth noting that some manufacturers label the anode this way, so it is best to test it
with a multimeter.
Power diodes are marked with a symbol engraved on the housing. If a diode is housed
in a metal package, the case is generally the cathode and anode is the lead coming
from the housing.
The LED in the circuit indicates the transformer is working. Resistor R1 is used to limit
the current through the LED and the brightness of the LED indicates the approximate
voltage.
Diodes marked 1N4002 protect the integrated circuit.
Figure 5.3 below shows some other examples of diodes. The life of a globe can be
increased by adding a diode as shown in 5.3a. By simply connecting it in series, the
current passing through the globe is halved and it lasts a lot longer. However the
brightness is reduced and the light becomes yellow. The Diode should have a reverse
voltage of over 400V, and a current higher than the globe. A 1N4004 or BY244 is
suitable.
A very simple DC voltage stabilizer for low currents can be made using 5.3c as a
reference.
Fig. 5.3: a - using a diode to prolong the light bulb's life span, b - stair-light
LED indicator,
c - voltage stabilizer, d - voltage rise indicator, e - rain noise synthesizer, f backup supply
Unstabilized voltage is marked "U", and stabilized with "UST." Voltage on the Zener
diode is equal to UST, so if we want to achieve a stabilized 9V, we would use a ZPD9.1
diode. Although this stabilizer has limited use it is the basis of all designs found in
power supplies.
We can also devise a voltage overload detector as sown in figure 5.3d. A LED indicates
when a voltage is over a predefined value. When the voltage is lower than the
operating voltage of the Zener, the zener acts as a high value resistor, so DC voltage
on the base of the transistor is very low, and the transistor does not "turn on." When
the voltage rises to equal the Zener voltage, its resistance is lowered, and transistor
receives current on its base and it turns on to illuminate the LED. This example uses a
6V Zener diode, which means that the LED is illuminated when the voltage reaches
that value. For other voltage values, different Zener diodes should be used. Brightness
and the exact moment of illuminating the LED can be set with the value of Rx.
To modify this circuit so that it signals when a voltage drops below some predefined
level, the Zener diode and Rx are swapped. For example, by using a 12V Zener diode,
we can make a car battery level indicator. So, when the voltage drops below 12V, the
battery is ready for recharge.
Figure 5.3e shows a noise-producing circuit, which produces a rain-like sound. DC
current flowing through diode AA121 isn't absolutely constant and this creates the
noise which is amplified by the transistor (any NPN transistor) and passed to a filter
(resistor-capacitor circuit with values 33nF and 100k).
Figure 5.3f shows a battery back-up circuit. When the "supply" fails, the battery takes
over.
voltage on their ends exceeds some predefined value. When the voltage is under this
value, a diac responds as a large value resistor, and when voltage rises it acts as a low
value resistor.
Fig. 6.2: Symbols and pin placements for: a - thyristor, b - triac, c - diac
Picture 6.5 detects when light is present in a room. With no light, the photo-transistor
does not conduct. When light is present, the photo-transistor conducts and the bell is
activated. Turning off the light will not stop the alarm. The alarm is turned off via S1.
7. Integrated circuits
Integrated Circuits play a very important part in electronics. Most are specially made
for a specific task and contain up to thousands of transistors, diodes and resistors.
Special purposes IC's such as audio-amplifiers, FM radios, logic blocks, regulators and
even a whole micro computers in the form of a micro controller can be fitted inside a
tiny package. Some of the simple Integrated Circuits are shown in figure 7.1.
Fig. 7.2: Pin-out and symbols for some common integrated circuits
Most integrated Circuits are in a DIL package - Dual In Line, meaning there are two
rows of pins. (DIL16 and DIL8 are shown in 7.2b and 7.2c). The device is viewed from
the top and the pins are numbered in an anti-clockwise direction.
High power integrated circuits can generate a lot of heat and they have a metal tag
that can be connected to a heatsink to dissipate the heat. Examples of these IC's are
shown in 7.2d and 7.2e, and 7.2f.
Symbols used to represent integrated circuits are shown in 7.2g and 7.2i. Symbol 7.2g
is commonly used to represent amplifiers.
Figure 7.2i shows an operational amplifier. Signs + and - represent inverting and noninverting inputs. The signal to be amplified is applied between one of the inputs and
ground (ground and supply aren't represented, but are necessary for the circuit to
operate).
Integrated circuits can be divided into two further groups: analog (linear) and
digital. The output voltage of a linear circuits is continuous, and follows changes in the
input. Typical representative of a linear IC is an integrated audio amplifier. When a
signal from a microphone is connected to the input the output will vary in the same
way as the voltage from the microphone. If watched on an oscilloscope, the signal on
the output will be the same shape as the mic's signal, only the voltage will be higher
depending on the amplification of the integrated circuit.
It is a different situation with digital IC's. Their output voltage is not continuous. It is
either LOW or HIGH and it changes from one state to the other very quickly.
Fig. 7.4: a - 4011 pin placements, b - symbol and the truth table for NAND
gates,
Logic circuits have many applications, but their main use is in computer circuits.
The following circuit is a simple example to show how the gates can be connected to
produce a project that turns on a globe when a finger is placed on a "touch pad."
The globe turns off after a period of time, determined by the value of the 470u and
2M2 resistor.
and C=47F, for time T = 2.2*10^6*47*10^-6 = 94 sec from the moment impulse on
input P subsided, voltage on output E is 12V.
The end result of our experiment is on diagram 7.5a. Short positive pulses appearing
on P in the time t1 caused a longer variable ulse on output E.
Schematic 7.5b displays this circuit which allows us to light a bulb using four NAND
gates interconnected in the way shown on picture 7.5a.
The sensor is two copper (or some other conducting material) plates glued to some
non-conducting material (plastics, wood, etc.) in close proximity to each other. So,
when we touch the sensor with the tip of our finger, we close the circuit. 12V appears
on input P, which in turn conducts the voltage to the output E, resistor R = 22k
conducts base current and the bulb lights. When we remove our finger, output E will
last for 94 seconds, after which it goes to logic zero and the light goes out.
Transistor T is selected so that its maximum allowed collector current is higher than
the current of the globe.
(The globes current flow value is found by dividing its power by its voltage. For
example, if its power is P = 6W and voltage is U = 12V, current through the globe is I
= P/U = 6W/12V = 0.5A or higher. One thing you must remember with a globe is the
starting or "turn-on" current. It is about six times the operating current and the
transistor must be able to pass this current for the globe to illuminate.
"junk shop" for as little as $5.00 with stereo head-phones Always look in the toy
sections of large stores for the latest technology at the cheapest price.
8.1 Microphones
There are several different types of microphone: carbon, dynamic, crystal, capacitive
(electret). Carbon microphones were one of the first to be invented and were used
mainly in telephone applications. But they are very noisy as the carbon granules rattle
when the microphone is moved and this type is being replaced by more advanced
types.
Dynamic microphones are in wide use and their quality of reproduction is superb. They
are used in the recording industry for music and speech where high fidelity is required.
Basically they are exactly the same as a speaker, the only difference being the size.
But their only limitation is the very low output. The internal structure is shown in figure
8.2. A paper cylinder, onto which fine copper wire is wound, is connected to a
membrane which moves under the force of sound pressure created by the sound
source. This coil is in a narrow gap with a high magnetic field created by a permanent
magnet. When the coil moves in this magnetic field, it produces a voltage identical to
the sound causing the movement.
Because of the low resistance
(impedance) of a dynamic
microphone, it usually needs a
transformer so it can be connected
to an amplifier (called a pre-amp).
This transformer is usually built into
the microphone's case, but if is
absent, it is necessary to connect
the microphone to a preamplifier
with low input resistance.
8.2 Speakers
Speakers vary enormously in size and shape. They can be designed as crystal or
capacitive, but most often they are dynamic (called electro-dynamic construction).
The cross-section of an electro-dynamic speaker is shown in 8.4. Ferrite rings (2, 3 and
4) are added to a large permanent magnet (1) which creates a strong magnetic field in
the narrow gap between magnets North and South poles. A Cylindrical former is added
to the gap and it holds coil (5). The ends of the coil are taken to the outside of the
speaker.
The two most important characteristics of a speaker are its resistance (we actually call
the resistance of a speaker IMPEDANCE as the value is determined at a frequency of
1kHz and the value is higher than its actual resistance) and its wattage. Common
impedances are 4, 8 and 16 ohm, but there are also 1.5, 40 and 80 ohm speakers.
Speaker wattages range from a fraction of a watt to hundreds of watts.
When choosing a speaker, it is advisable to choose the largest speaker possible as they
are more efficient and produce the least distortion especially in the low frequency
range. Speakers should be housed in a large box since it functions as a resonating
chamber and this greatly adds to the overall quality of the sound.
8.3 Headphones
There are several types of headphone: crystal and electromagnetic. The
electromagnetic type is the most commonly used. They functioning in the same way as
speakers, with
obvious
differences in
construction,
since they are
intended for
much lower
power. Their
main
characteristic is
their resistance
(impedance),
from a few
ohms to a few
thousand
ohms.
The cross
section of an electromagnetic headphone is shown in 8.5. It consists of a horseshoe
magnet with poles that hold two coils. These are connected in series. The diaphragm is
a thin steel plate. When current flows through the coils, the diaphragm is pulled
towards the coils. This moves the air and the result is heard as a faithful reproduction.
8.4 Examples
In this equation
CCB represents the
capacitance between the
collector and the base.
The value of this
capacitance depends on
the voltage on the base.
The higher the voltage,
the lower the capacitance
and vice versa. The
voltage on the base is
constant while there is no
sound, which means the
frequency of the oscillator
is constant. When the
microphone picks up a
sound, it is passed to the
base of the transistor via
C1. This causes the
frequency of the oscillator
to change and that's why
the circuit is called
FREQUENCY MODULATED
(FM).
To transmit on a
frequency away from any
other radio station, a trim
cap is included. The
transmitter has a range
up to 200 metres, depending on the length of the antenna and where it is placed.
Ideally, the antenna should be vertical and as high as possible.
The antenna can be as long as 3 metres but 180cm will work very well.
Coil L is made by winding 6 turns of 1mm enameled wire on a 6mm dia drill bit. This
coil can be stretched of squashed to adjust the operating frequency of the circuit and
the trimmer will fine tune the frequency.
High Fidelity (or Hi-Fi) sound reproduction is the main purpose for using good-quality
speakers. They are used in radios, TV's, cassette players, CD players, etc. The
speakers are housed in speaker boxes and use at least two speakers. This is because
no individual speaker is capable of reproducing the full range of frequencies. A speaker
with a large cone is called a "Woofer" and will reproduce the low frequencies. A
speaker with a small cone is called a "tweeter" and will reproduce the high frequencies.
Together, they will reproduce the full range of between 30Hz and 15kHz.
The difficulty is now to detect the low or high frequency and divert the correct
frequency to the particular speaker. This is the job of a cross-over network. In the
figure 8.7 an inductor L1 passes the low frequencies to speaker Z1 and capacitor C1
passes the high frequencies to speaker Z2. Z1 reproduces frequencies from 30Hz to
800Hz and Z2 reproduces sounds with frequencies from 800Hz to 15kHz.
Headphones are most commonly used with portable devices, such as radio receivers,
cassette players, CD walkmans, mp3 players, etc. Headphones produce a very high
quality reproduction. All modern devices have an audio-amplifier. It usually employs an
integrated circuit and most of these are designed for 32 ohm headphones. There are
also 8 ohm and 16 ohm headphones.
The schematic of a AM portable radio is shown in figure 8.8. It's built around the
ZN416 integrated circuit. The output is connected to two serially connected 32 ohm
headphones, with overall resistance of 64 ohms.
It is possible to connect the radio receiver in figure 8.8 to amplifier in figure 7.3 to
produce a radio with
speaker output.
9. Opto-electronic
components
Optoelectronic components
(or as often referred to
photo-electronic components), are electronic components which produce light or react
to it. Some components among them are LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes), photo
transistors, photo diodes, photo resistors (or LDR Light Dependant Resistors),
different visual indicators, light emitters and detectors, optocouplers, etc. Many of
those components can be recognized easily recognized because of the window on the
component's case which is used to pass the light. Sometimes, instead of a window,
there is a small lens, which directs light to some predestined location inside of the
component. Some of the most important optoelectronic components are shown on
photo 9.1.
ultra-violet emitting for different wireless communication purposes. Most common area
of application of IR-LEDs (Infra Red) are remote controllers for TVs and other devices.
Photo diodes are usually housed in round metallic or square plastic cases with a glass
window or a lens which focuses the incoming light.
Photo-transistor's internal parts are similar to internals of a regular transistor. One
main difference between them is the glass window which allows light to reach the
crystal plate which holds all transistor's parts. With changes of light intensity,
resistance between base and the collector varies, and this influences variations of the
collector current. In this component light has the same role as voltage over base of the
regular transistor. When intensity rises, current through the transistor rises as well,
and other way round, if intensity fades, current fades.
Photo electronic components are manufactured in an array of different case shapes and
sizes. Several of them, together with their schematics symbols are displayed on 9.3.
One special group of photo-electronic components are the optocouplers. These are
special integrated circuits facilitated out of an IR photo diode, and some component
which is sensitive to light (photo transistor, photo thyristor). Diode is called an emitter,
and receiving end is called the detector. This means that the only connection between
the emitter and detector is through a ray of light. This is an important property of
optocouplers, since it allows two different parts of the circuit which operate on different
supply voltages to connect to each other without actually conducting electricity, which
means that one part could operate on 9V and other on 5V without fear of burning the
sensitive lower voltage components.
Voltage to the diode on 9.4a can be variable in time, but anode must always be
positive compared to the cathode. In case this component is used in an alternating
current circuit, diode emits light only during one half of the interval in which anode is
positive comparing to cathode. It is possible to use circuit on 9.4b in case it is needed
for diode to be lit during both periods. This circuit demonstrates two diodes in antiparallel connection, so one of the two is lit during each half of the period.
Picture 9.4c is an optocoupler using a thyristor. Thyristor is connected to other
components in usual manner, and it starts conducting only upon receiving light impulse
created by the diode.
Transistor on 9.4d is controlled by regulating either the light intensity of the diode or
voltage over pin 6. Same goes when using a triac on 9.4e, light intensity of the diode
or voltage on pin6 trigger the circuit.
Dual input NAND gate circuit is used as a detector on the 9.4f, one of those inputs
controls the voltage on pin 7, and the other is controlling diode's light intensity. Logic
zero on pin 6 remains only in case pin 7 has a logic one and diode is lit, any other case
pin 6 has logic one.
9.1 Examples
We offer a schematic of a device which detects a certain level of intensity of ambient
light, and when that level is detected, it turns on a device connected to mains grid.
Data on 9.5 shows that in absence of light resistance of the LDR resistor, NORP12, is
R=1MOhm, which makes both base voltage and base current very low, so there is
practically no current flowing through transistor. Since there is no current flowing
through the coil of the relay it's other end is in switched off position. When light
intensity reaches certain point, resistance of the LDR lowers (at around 10lx resistance
is approximately 9kOhm), voltages and current of the base rise, this current flows
further through the relay's coil which connects pins 1 and 3 and this switches on the
wanted appliance to the mains.
Slider of the 5kOhm trimmer resistor sets sensitivity of entire circuit. Lower the slider's
position to lower the light level that triggers the appliance on. Greatest sensitivity is
reached when trimmer is omitted from the circuit.
There is a possibility to use a photo-diode instead of a LDR (cathode goes up, to + of
the battery), or a photo-transistor (collector up).
The device would be turned off when light is absent in case we placed 47kOhm regular
resistor instead, and LDR between points A and B.
Each relay has a coil which accords to voltage of the battery. In our case that is
12V.Resistance of the coil is several hundreds of Ohms, and it shouldn't be lower than
120Ohm. Current rate through the relay should be equal to or greater than needed by
the device plugged to mains. If, for example, we were looking at an 1kW electric
heater, it's current is equal to:
I=P/U=1000W/220V=4,5 A.
Any TUN transistor whose maximum
current rating is higher than current
through relay's rate, is alright. This
value is calculated by dividing
battery voltage with relay's coil
resistance.
When we want to employ remote
control over some device, it is
possible to utilize different
technologies, but in some cases
cable connection or radio wave
control aren't the most appropriate
ones, like the one between the TV
and it's remote controller. Some IR
emitting and receiving photo diodes
are used specifically in low range
transmitters and receivers. Block scheme on 9.6 represents usage of photo diodes
between the sound source (hi-fi, radio receiver, TV) and headphones, which removes
the need for long cables.
Low frequency signal which is to be carried is marked with uLF. Based on that
frequency, IR transmitter modulates the HF voltage, called the carrier. This modulated
HF voltage is further sent to emitting diode LD271. Variable light emitted by this diode
varies resistance of the receiving diode, and thus the HF signal created using this
variations is equal to the modulated signal on the transceivers end. IR receiver is
demodulating this signal, which transforms the received HF signal into the original LF
signal which is equal to the original sound. This signal is further amplified and brought
to headphones.
Using optical components enables safe interfacing of different devices to your home
PC. There is a schematic on 9.7 which displays a simple way to interface a random
device to the parallel (printer) port of the computer. For simplicity we chose to connect
small portable radio receiver supplied using a 9V battery.
Receiver, battery and the interface circuit are connected to the parallel port using the
male SUB-D 25 connector. Program which is to control the circuit is easily developed in
any programming language. We display a sample program written in Q-Basic, it will
turn the receiver in 7am and turn it off in 7:30 am.
REM Wake up program
10 DO
20 LOOP UNTIL TIME$="07:00:00"
30 OUT &H378, 128
40 SLEEP 900
50 OUT &H378, 0
60 STOP
At 7 o'clock, voltage on pin 9 will turn to +5V, and it will remain that way for the next
900seconds.
A bit more modern operating systems than Windows 95 will have different ways of
controlling the parallel port, and there is an extensive knowledge base on the Internet
for programming this kind of operation on any operating system. Google is your friend!
Schematic of another interface circuit on 9.8 enables connection of any device plugged
to the mains grid to be turned on or off. Control over this device is done in the same
fashion as done in previous program.
When, according to the program pin 9 is +5V (logic one), diode will conduct electricity.
Light emitted by it switches the triac inside of the optocoupler on. This current flows
through the 150Ohm resistor and creates a voltage drop which ignites the triac, which
enables current flow from the mains, which powers the device.
Maximum allowed current of the BT136 triac is 4A, which means that maximum
allowed power of the device is 990W. It is worth saying that optocouplers should be
used only with resistance load devices (light bulbs, heaters...). When connecting
inductance load devices like electro motors, transformers and such, it is advised to use
the relay interfaces.
CIRCUIT
SYMBOLS
by
Talking Electronics
Copy and save!!
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Learn BASIC
ELECTRONICS
Go to: Talking Electronics
email Colin Mitchell
12-8-2007
NOTES
Here are a few notes on the symbols above.
Fuses (10.1a) have single role in a circuit - to detect excess current and protect the device.
In most cases the excess current flows when a higher voltage is present but a fuse cannot
detect the voltage - it can only detect when a higher current flows. The higher voltage
causes the higher current to flow and this triggers the action of "blowing the fuse." Of
course, when a component fails, a higher current can flow and this will also "blow the
fuse."
Fuses come in all sizes and ratings (current flow) and it is important to know that the size of
the wire inside a fuse does not necessarily indicate the current rating.
The wire inside can be made from copper and plated to protect it from oxidizing or it can be
a low temperature material that needs to be a larger diameter.
The wire can also be wound in a spiral and formed into a spring. The end of the spring sits
in a dob of solder and when the spring heats up, the solder melts and the spring separates
from the other end.
This is called a DELAY FUSE.
Other forms of delay fuse consist of a wire joined at the centre by a dob of solder and
others are made of low-temperature-melting material.
Some pieces of equipment use expensive fuses and whenever a fuse is damaged, you must
decide if the problem is a major or minor fault.
Sometimes a fuse can go open-circuit for no apparent reason. It can "wear-out."
For instance, some equipment takes a very high current when it is turned on and you will
see the fuse heat up and stretch and dip in the middle. This causes strain on the fuse and
eventually the wire oxidizes to a point where it finally "burns out."
The equipment is not faulty and it is just a matter of replacing the fuse.
Sometimes the fuse completely explodes and the glass is thrown all over the chassis. This
indicates a short-circuit in the power supply and most often one or more of the diodes must
be replaced.
The fuse can also go off with a "bang" and the inside of the glass is coated with "silver."
This also indicates a diode is damaged in the power supply. Generally 2 or 4 diodes are
damaged.
If the fuse is damaged beyond recognition, you will not know if it is a delay fuse or a
normal fuse.
The current-rating on the end-cap can sometimes help you.
For instance, if a fuse is rated at 4A, you will need to replace it with a 4 amp normal fuse or
3.15 amp slow-blow.
When fuses are rating at 100mA to 250mA, they are very delicate and will not accept the
slightest overload.
When replacing this type of fuse, it is necessary to determine if the equipment is drawing a
heavy current when turning on or if a fault exists in the power supply. Sometimes the
switch can cause the problem if it is not making contact fast enough.
Replace the fuse and watch it as someone else turns on the equipment. If the fuse burns out
immediately, a short exists. If the fuse glows red and burns out, the equipment is drawing
too much current during turn-on. This may be due to devices you have added to the
equipment or operation on a slightly higher voltage. You can try a fuse with a slightly
higher rating to see if the fault is fixed.
Never replace a 100mA fuse with a 1 amp fuse. The 1 amp fuse will never "blow" and if the
transformer is being overloaded, the transformer will simply "cook."
Lamps (10.1b) Ordinary electric light globes heat a coil of tungsten wire inside a glass bulb
that has an inert gas such as argon. The resistance of the filament depends on the
temperature it is heated to. It can be ten to twenty times higher than when it is cold.
A neon lamp (10.1c) contains a gas (such as neon) and this gas gives off a glow when a
high voltage is applied to two plates. This glow occurs at about 70v to 90v and a resistor
must be used in series to prevent the voltage rising higher than required by the lamp. To put
this more accurately, the resistance of the neon lamp reduces when it "strikes" and a high
current will flow. To limit this current a "current limit" resistor is needed.
VDR (10.1d) The resistance of a VDR depends on the voltage across it. A VDR is also
called a VARISTOR. Its resistance is high until a critical value of voltage and the resistance
suddenly drops. They are used as voltage protection devices. If they, for example, see a
voltage higher than 220V, their resistance decreases and this soaks the excess voltage.
Their response time is only a few 10's of nanoseconds.
The symbol for a single DC cell is shown in 10.1e.
A Quartz crystal is shown in 10.1f. It is a thin sheet of quarts material between two metal
plates and packaged in a metal case. Quartz crystals are commonly used as the reference for
an oscillator circuit, such as a clock source in microprocessor designs.
An instrument for measuring current (A) and voltage (V) is shown in 10.1g. This symbol
dates from the time when analog instruments with a needle were used. The symbol remains
the same, although digital instruments have replaced analog devices.
AC voltage symbol is shown in 10.1h. The shape of the wave is shown in the symbol. It can
be sine-wave or saw-tooth or square-wave.
The simplest form of switch device is displayed in 10.1i. Because of the wide range of
switches, there are many different types in use. For example, a two pole switch (10.1j) has
two operating positions, in one position it connects points 1 and 2, and in the other it
connects points 1 and 3.
There are switches with more operating positions. 10.1k is an example of a rotary switch
with four positions.
Momentary switches, or push buttons have a built-in spring, which makes the switch
conduct only while it is being pressed (your standard doorbell has this kind of switch).
Four diodes in a single case is called a BRIDGE. Two pins are marked with sine waves,
used to connect to the AC voltage and two marked with "+" and "-"
RELAY When an electromagnet receives sufficient voltage on points 4 and 5, connection
between points 2 and 3 is opened, and at the same time points 3 and 1 are closed. A relay is
actually an electromagnetic switch.
Symbols for a receiving and transmitting antenna are shown.
Grounding symbols Grounding and common ground aren't the same thing, but if both
exist in a circuit, they are always connected to each other. With electronic devices housed in
a metal case, grounding is connected to the metal housing.
Schematic symbols representing logic gates and different digital integrated circuits are
shown above. It should be kept in mind that basic logic gates (AND, OR, XOR, Inverter,
etc.) aren't manufactured as single standalone components. They are always integrated in
groups in an IC, but for the sake of clarity, they are represented as separate blocks. These
components require a DC voltage, which may or may not be represented on the schematic.
These voltages might be different depending on the internal structure and technology used
between different family types. Detailed info on this can be found in the component's
datasheet provided by the manufacturer.
10.1 Relays
A relay is an electro mechanical device which is commonly used to connect two different
circuits. It can connect a low voltage circuit to a high voltage circuit or a low current circuit
to a high current circuit or simply to isolate two circuits.
The simplest relay has one set of contacts (commonly called "change-over" contacts).
Inside the relay is a coil (called a solenoid) and when the coil is energised, the centre core
of the solenoid becomes magnetised and moves an arm closer to the coil. A "contact" is
connected to this arm and the contact touches another contact to complete a circuit. The
contacts are labeled "common" for the moving contact, "normally open" and "normally
closed." This can be seen in diagram 10.2 a:
A relay can be connected as the collector load of a transistor, as shown on 10.3. When
sufficient collector current flows in the transistor, the relay is activated and any device
connected to the contacts will be operational.
Since a relay is an electro mechanic component which is consisted of moving parts, it has a
limited operational life span, and cannot be used for rapid switching. It would not be very
effective using it in a, for example, light show which has frequent switching frequency
(several hundreds or thousands times per hour). Each opening and closing of the contact is
followed by sparks which would dramatically shorten the life of such device.
Coil values are input values or voltage and resistance values at which
relay draws the lever and switches. Usual coil voltages are 3V, 5V, 6V, 12V
and 24V. They can be found printed on the relay's housing. These are all DC
voltages, but there are AC voltage designed relays with 230V/250V. The
current taken by the relay depends on the resistance of the coil. The coil
resistance can be measured with a multimeter. Current flowing through the
coil is calculated using Ohm's law, by dividing the relay's voltage by its
resistance. For example a 12v relay has a coil resistance of 300 Ohm, which
means the current flow is:
I=U/R=12/300=40mA.
2. Voltage on relay's contacts, also marked on the housing, is the maximum
value allowed. Over-voltage will cause sparks inside the relay and possibly
damage the contacts.
The maximum current rating for a relay is
marked on the housing with all the other
information. It is usually higher than 1A.
Digital
instruments
have a
position on
the dial to
measure
diodes, as
shown in
11.1b.
When we
connect
probes to
each other,
the multimeter should buzz, which signals a short circuit, and display tells 0. When we
separate the probes the buzzing stops, and a symbol for open circuit is displayed (this
can be either 0L or 1). Now we connect probes to the diode (11.3a). Then we reverse
the diode and connect it again (11.3b). If the measured diode was ok, one of the two
measurements would have shown a value which represents a minimum voltage that
could be conducted through the diode (between 400mV and 800mV), and the anode is
the end of the diode which is connected to probe A (red one). The diode is faulty if you
hear a buzz (closed circuit) or some value which represents infinity.
Transistors are tested in a similar fashion, since they act as two connected diodes.
According to 11.4b, the positive probe is connected to the base, and the negative
probe is first connected to the collector and then the emitter. In both cases the
resistance should be low. After that, you do the same thing, only with switched probes.
The negative probe is connected to the base and you test the collector and emitter
with a positive probe.
Both cases should produce a high
value on the meter.
When testing PNP transistors, all steps are the same, but the measurements should be
opposite: on 11.4a they are high, and on 11.4c they are low.
If you test transistors using a digital instrument, the process remains similar to the one
with diodes. Each diode should produce a value between 400mV and 800mV. Many
modern digital multimeters have a socket for testing transistors. There is, as displayed
on 11.5, a special socket where low and medium power transistors fit. If you need to
test high power transistors, thin wires (0.8mm) should be soldered to transistor's pins
and then plugged into the socket. As displayed on 11.5, a transistor is plugged into the
socket according to its type (PNP or NPN) and the switch with a hFE marking is brought
into position. If the transistor works, the display shows a value which represents the
current amplification coefficient. If, for example, a transistor is tested, and the display
shows 74, this means the
collector current is 74
times higher than the
base current.
11.3 Capacitors
Capacitors should produce an infinite reading on a multimeter. Exceptions are
electrolytics and very high value block capacitors. When the positive end of an
electrolytic capacitor is connected to the positive probe of an analog instrument, and a
negative end to a negative probe, the needle moves slightly and gradually comes back
towards infinity. This is proof the capacitor is ok, and the needle's movement is charge
being stored in the capacitor. (Even small capacitors get charged while testing.)
Variable capacitors are tested by connecting an ohm-meter to them, and turning the
rotor. The needle should point to infinity at all times, because any other value means
the plates of the rotor and stator are touching at some point.
There are digital meters that have the ability to measure capacitance, which simplifies
the process. With this said, it is worth mentioning that capacitors have considerably
wider tolerance than resistors, (about 20%).
11.4 Potentiometers
To test a potentiometer, (pot), or a variable resistor, the process is rather simple you
connect the component to the probes of a meter set to ohms and turn the shaft.
(A noisy pot can be repaired using a special spray.)
you connect points A and B using a piece of copper wire, a variable current flows
through the transistors as sequences of impulses. This means that immediately upon
connecting the points A and B, current level rapidly rises to some destined maximum
value, and then drops to zero. For certain amount of time there is no current, after
which it rises again rapidly, and whole cycle repeats itself. Since relation of times when
current is flowing and when it is not is highly in favor of the later, this kind of current is
called the spike impulse current. Collector current of a T2 transistor flows through the
speaker which generates sound, whose base frequency could be calculated using this
approximate equation.
From the equation above, it is clear that varying of the frequency is possible by varying
the resistor or capacitor value. Frequency rise is achieved by lowering the resistance or
capacitance of the circuit, and vice versa, rising the values of the resistor or capacitor,
lowers the oscillator frequency. Active variation of the frequency base is possible by
replacing the resistor with a several hundred kiloohm trimmer potentiometer. If such
modification of the circuit was needed, special care must be taken not to set the
trimmer into it's lowest position since this means zero resistance, and that could burn
the transistors. To avoid unnecessary care and further complicating the operation of
this straightforward device, low value resistor could be connected to the trimmer in
series. This resistor would act as a protection for transistors inside of the circuit since it
facilitates a minimum resistance, and thus doesn't leave transistors bare in the frying
pan when the trimmer is in it's lowest position.
In this example we used an 1.5V battery for supply, but it is possible to plug this
instrument on any battery between 1.5V and 9V.
Current flowing through the component that is being tested is lower than I=U/R, where
U is the voltage of the supply battery, and R is the resistance of the resistor in the base
circuit. In our example, these values are U=1,5 V i R=47 kW, which means that current
flow is I=32 micro amperes, which is very low, so tested component is safe from harm
from this device.
Oscillator's printed board design is on 12.2. This is viewed from the copper plated side
of the board, components are placed on the other side, so their positions are marked in
dotted lines. Component side of the board is on 12.2.
Printed board, battery and the speaker are placed in a small box, as shown on 12.3.
Miniature speaker is fixed to the upper pane of the box using two wood screws. It is
connected to the circuit board using two threaded isolated wires. Same wires are used
for all other connections as well. Battery is connected to the board using these wires,
for example. In our example, wires are soldered directly to the poles of the battery,
and the board fixed inside of the box using wood screws and two rectangular wooden
pads glued to the bottom of the box, leaving just enough space to squeeze the battery
in. These are not proper solutions, they are cheap hacks used when other options are
limited. But these are functional for people who always have their trusty soldering iron
at hand. What would be a proper solution? Buying a battery holder (with enough
battery slots as needed) or battery clips (for those square 9V batteries) would simplify
the process of changing the battery, although this circuit is very low in power
consumption. Other thing is plastic or metal mounts for boards, these are pretty cheap
and you should keep them at hand in your junk box when experimenting with
electronics.On the front side of the box, we drilled two holes, one for the switch and
the other for wires which hold probes on their ends. Probes are cheap components and
come in various shapes and sizes with various purposes in mind. Since we've been
applying dirty methods, like soldering the battery, there is no reason why we should
back from building our own probes now. Any old marker-pen will do, just slip thicker
copper wire through it's center, and sand/grind/cut protruding ends into a pointy tip. It
is advisable to make probes in different colors, red and black are dominant standards
for distinguishing them. Positive probe (red) is connected to point A, and negative one
(black) is connected to the point B. You could use alligator clips instead of probes, for
example, this would leave your hands free for other purposes, but for some precise
testing of the on-board components, go with the more precise probes we already
mentioned.
Give your new instrument the initial self-test (battery might be empty, or some other
unexpected thing happened) by connecting the probe tips together. If sound is heard
from the speaker, everything is fine and ready for work.
Ok, everything is working, now you want to play with your new toy. Check, for
example, conductivity of your own body. Hold probe tips between thumb and index
finger of your left and right hand. What you hear is a sound whose level and especially
frequency depend on your skin moistness. Wow, now instrument could be used as a
very crude an inaccurate lie detector. This probably wouldn't be accepted in a court of
law, but may be an interesting game you play on your friends. Suspect holds in
his/hers hands probes which could be made of a metal pipe for this occasion. Pipe
should be wide enough so that a large portion of palm surface is actually in contact
with metal. When the suspect starts dodging questions or lying, his palms start
sweating more than usual, and the tone produced by our lie detector is higher than
usual.
DC transistor acts in the same fashion as two connected diodes (11.4a). If both diodes
are functional, transistor is functional as well as shown on 12.5. As you can see, probe
A is connected to the base, and then probe B is connected first to the emitter, and then
to the collector. In both cases, if the transistor is ok, music would have been heard.
We then switch probe connections, A goes where B was connected to and vice versa, if
there is no music now, everything is in order. So, transistor is faulty if speaker remains
silent in the first two measurements, or if it plays in one of the second two
measurements.
FET testing is done in similar fashion as testing the bipolar transistors, which is shown
on 12.6.
One principle that is applicable when testing the photo resistors, photo transistors and
diodes is NL-NM (or, No Light No Music). Probe A is connected to the collector of the
transistor, or diode's anode or one side of the photo resistor, and the other one is
connected to transistor's emitter or diode's cathode or the other resistor's side and
some kind of sound should be heard from the speaker. If this continues when the
component is shadowed using your palm, everything is in functional order. We
displayed graphically the method of testing photo sensitive components on 12.7.