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()
Let f x =
()
1
. Consider the graph of y = f x .
x
(Figure 2.3.a)
Lets experiment with a table:
()
f x =
1
x
0
100
1
100
10
1
10
()
1
1
10
1
10
100
1
100
0
()
x
()
()
()
()
section.
()
Similarly, lim f x = 0 .
x
()
()
()
1
is a rotated hyperbola, which is a type of conic
x
section with two branches. The asymptotes of the hyperbola are the
coordinate axes (the x- and y-axes).
()
()
lim f ( x ) = L ).
x
( lim f x = L , or
x
()
Let f x =
x
x
(Figure 2.3.b)
()
lim f ( x ) = 1 .
x
lim f x = 1 , and
x
()
(Figure 2.3.c)
()
()
()
Similarly, lim f x = .
x
()
()
(Figure 2.3.d)
()
()
lim f x does not exist (DNE). Neither does lim f x . No HAs here.
x
()
x
()
Let f x =
sin x
.
x
(Figure 2.3.e)
()
lim f x = 0 .
x
()
()
( )
()
1
1
AND
Review Example 1 on f x =
1
:
x
(Figure 2.3.f)
()
f x =
1
x
0
100
1
100
10
1
10
1
10
100
1
1
10
1
100
0
1
1
= 0 , and lim
= 0.
x x
x x
1
We can also write: 0 as x , and also as x .
x
We concluded: lim
( ) 0 if N x 1, and D x .
()
( )
D ( x)
N x
()
()
()
()
1
1
and
yield 0 as a limit.
1
1
We will write: Limit Form 0 . Also, Limit Form
0.
1
Example 6 Limit Form
Evaluate lim
x 3
x
1
.
x1/3
Solution Method
Observe that 1 1 as x .
(See Section 2.1, Example 3; also, Example 2 in this section.)
Also,
x as x .
As x increases without bound, so does its cube root.
3
(Figure 2.3.g)
Therefore, the Limit Form
1
1
applies here, and lim
= 0.
x 3
x
Solution
lim
x 3
1
x
1
=0
Limit
Form
1
3
(Figure 2.3.h)
Unfortunately, the HA at y = 0 might not have been clear in the
absence of the dashed line there. Be careful about living by
graphing calculators alone!
1
Example 7 Limit Form
lim
x 3
1
=0
Limit
Form
lim
x
x
This is because
x
1
, does not exist (DNE).
x1/ 2
1
a Limit Form. (See Footnote 3.)
DNE
The graph of y = x :
The graph of y =
(Figure 2.3.i)
(Figure 2.3.j)
( )
the Limit Form ( 2 3) 6 , and
2
2
the Limit Form .
3
3
1
0+
()
()
()
()
from the right (or from above, since were dealing with
y function values).
The 0+ notation can help us if we want to be more descriptive
about how the limit is approaching 0, or if this limit analysis is
part of a larger limit problem.
Also:
Limit Form
1
0
()
See Example 5 on f x =
written as 0+ , nor as 0 .
sin x
for a case where a limit is 0, but it cannot be
x
1
0
1
Limit Form
0+
Limit Form
The graph of y =
1
; see what happens as x and as x :
x
(Figure 2.3.k)
1
yields 0 (or, more precisely, 0+ ) as a limit,
2 3
1/ 5
so the Limit Forms , , and
all yield 0 (or 0+ ) as a limit, also.
1
yields 0 (or, more precisely, 0 ) as a limit, so
2 3
1 / 5
,
, and
all yield 0 (or 0 ) as a limit, also.
the Limit Forms
The Rescaling Property does not apply to Limit Forms that yield a limit that
1
is a real nonzero constant. For example, the Limit Form yields 1, but the
1
2
Limit Form yields 2. We will discuss similar Limit Form properties in a
1
later section.
Limit Form 1 .
As a consequence, by our rules for signs and rescaling, we can also
write:
( ( ))
( ( ))
1
0+
1
(We will see this in Section 2.4.)
0+
1
0+
0+
0+
( )
Limit Form ( )
Limit Form 1
( )
Limit Form ( + c ) for any real constant c
(
)
Limit Form ( )
Limit Form +
Limit Form
Limit Form 0+
Limit Form 0 0
Classic Indeterminate Limit Forms
(We will discuss these in later sections.)
0
, , 0 , , 0 , 00 , 1
0
Note: Limit Form 2 ; it is not indeterminate.
1
Limit Form 0 ; it is not indeterminate.
2
x
c
xk
1
1
= 0 , and lim
= 0.
x x
x
x
1
1
=
0
lim
= 0.
,
and
x x1/3
x1/3
x
lim
x
1
= 0 , but
x1/ 2
1
does not exist (DNE). Warning 1: Be aware of this issue!
x1/ 2
More generally:
lim
x
2
2
=
0
lim
= 0.
,
and
x x 3
x3
Example 10
= 0 , but
x x 3/ 4
lim 3/ 4 , also written as lim
x x
x
lim
( x)
4
lim 2 = 2 .
x
()
(Figure 2.3.letter l)
There is a HA at y = 2 , but we will omit the dashed line here.
(See Example 3 in Section 2.1.)
More generally:
If c is a real constant, then:
x
()
Also, lim f ( x ) = or .
x
lim f x = or .
x
Granted, explode may be too strong a term for our linear function
given by f x = x + 3 in Example 3.
()
Evaluate lim x 8 x 6 .
x
Solution Method
There is a tension between the two terms, x 8 and x 6 , because
x 8 approaches as x , while x 6 approaches .
(Review graphs of polynomials such as these in Precalculus.)
Is someone in charge here? In the long run, yes! The dominant
term here is x 8 .
Warning 2: x 8 is the leading term because it is the term of
higher degree, not because it is written first.
lim x 8 x 6 = lim x 8
x
x
=
A More Rigorous Solution: The Factoring Principle of Dominance
We can factor out the dominant term, x 8 (not the GCF), and
c
we can apply the Long-Run Limit Rules for k from Part F.
x
x6
8
6
8
lim x x = lim x 1 8
x
x
x
1
= lim x 8 1 2
x
x
Now, as x , x 8 , and
1
1
0 , and thus 1 2 1 , so we
2
x
x
have the Limit Form 1 .
1
Essentially,
x8 1 2 .
x
0
1
=
(Figure 2.3.m)
()
()
()
()
direction.
Therefore, the graph of f can have either no HAs or one HA, but
not two. (See Examples 1, 3, and 11.)
If f is not rational, then its graph could have zero, one, or two HAs.
Example 13
4x 3 + x 1
Evaluate lim f x , where f x =
.
x
5x 3 2x
()
()
()
Let D ( x ) = 5x
()
Then, f x =
( ).
D ( x)
N x
()
()
()
()
c
from Part F.
xk
4x 3 + x 1
lim f x = lim
x
x 5x 3 2x
()
x
1
4x 3
+ 3 3
3
x
= lim x 3 x
x
2x
5x
x3
x3
0
0
1
1
4+ 2 3
x
x
= lim
x
2
5 2
x
0
4
, or 0.8
5
()
Because lim f x =
x
4
4
, we have a HA at y = .
5
5
()
(Figure 2.3.n)
()
()
Again, N x = 4x 3 + x 1, and D x = 5x 3 2x .
()
Then, f x =
( ).
D ( x)
N x
()
()
1
1
1
3
4x
1
+
4x 2 4x 3
4x 3 + x 1
lim
= lim
x 5x 3 2x
x
2
5x 3 1 2
5x
1
4x 3 + x 1
lim f x = lim
x
x 5x 3 2x
4x 3
= lim
x 5x 3
4
=
5
()
x2 3
Evaluate lim f x , where f x = 3
.
x
x + 4x 2 + 1
()
()
x2 3
lim f x = lim 3
x
x x + 4x 2 + 1
x2
= lim 3
x x
()
= lim
x
1
x
=0
Super Short Cut: This is because the numerator, x 2 3 , has a
degree (i.e., 2) that is less than the degree (i.e., 3) of the denominator,
x 3 + 4x 2 + 1. We say that f is a proper rational function.
(The fraction is bottom heavy.)
How can graphs demonstrate this?
()
(Figure 2.3.o)
1
and also the
x
(Figure 2.3.p)
5 + 3x 2 + 6x 3
.
Evaluate lim f x and lim f x , where f x =
x
x
1 + 3x 2
()
()
()
5 + 3x 2 + 6x 3
6x 3
lim
= lim
x
x 3x 2
1 + 3x 2
= lim 2x
x
=
5 + 3x 2 + 6x 3
6x 3
lim
= lim
x
x 3x 2
1 + 3x 2
= lim 2x
x
=
A graph can demonstrate all of this.
(Figure 2.3.q)
()
()
f x = 2x + 1 +
polynomial
part, p( x )
= 2x + 1
2x 6
2
1
3x
+
proper rational
part, r ( x )
2x + 6
3x 2 + 1
We can now stop the division process here, because the degree of the
new dividend is less than the degree of the divisor. The degree of
2x 6 is 1, which is less than the degree of 3x 2 + 0x + 1 , which is 2;
2x 6
this means that 2x 6 is our remainder, and r x =
3x 2 + 1
corresponds to a proper rational function. As a result, r x 0 as
()
()
()
()
()
()
Solution
By Dominant Term Substitution, we find that:
4x 7
lim f x = lim
x
x 4x 3
4x 7
lim f x = lim
x
x 4x 3
()
()
= lim x 4
= lim x 4
=
=
x
x
()
1
.
4x 5
The graph of y = x 4 + 3x 3 2 is a nonlinear asymptote that the
graph of f approaches in the long run. Observe that the leading
f x = x 4 + 3x 3 2 +
()
Graph of y = f x
(Figure 2.3.r)
()
Graph of p x = x 4 + 3x 3 2
(Figure 2.3.s)
()
Assume f x =
N x
()
()
D ( x ) is not the zero polynomial.
Let deg ( N ) and deg ( D ) be their respective degrees.
N x and D x are polynomials, and
Case 1
( )
( )
the x-axis ( y = 0 ) is the only HA of its graph.
lim f ( x ) = 0 , and lim f ( x ) = 0 .
x
x
()
x2 3
.
x 3 + 4x 2 + 1
( )
( )
( ).
the leading coefficient of D ( x )
()
()
x
x
4x 3 + x 1
.
See Example 13, where f x =
5x 3 2x
()
(to be continued)
Case 3
( )
( )
()
lim f ( x ) = or .
x
lim f x = or , and
x
( )
( )
5 + 3x 2 + 6x 3
See Example 15, where f x =
. (Think: Top heavy.)
1 + 3x 2
()
lim 5x 7 / 2 2x 3 + 1 + x 2 = lim 5x 7 / 2
x
x
=
This analysis is appropriate, because 5x 7 / 2 is the dominant term as x .
(It helps to think of 1 as x 0 , even though 00 is typically considered to be
undefined.)
Example 18
x
This is because 5x
whenever x < 0 .
7/2
, also written as 5
x = x1/ 2 .
4x 3 x10 5
( x + 3)
x
lim
x
4x 3 x10 5
( x + 3)
= lim
x
4x 3 x10
( x)
4x 3 x 5
= lim
x
x2
x5
= lim 2
x x
= lim x 3
x
=
lim
x
4x 3 x10 5
( x + 3)
5
4x 3 x10 1 10
x
1
= lim
3
x 1 +
x
1
x
= lim
4x 3 x10
2
x
4x 3 x 5
= lim
x
x2
4x 3
x 5 5 + 1
x
= lim
x
x2
1
4
x 5 2 + 1
x
= lim
x
x2
x5
= lim 2
x x
= lim x 3
x
x
=
Note: If were to consider lim
x
x10 =
(x )
5
4x 3 x10 5
( x + 3)
()
()
()
V t = 10 + 2t (in gal).
()
()
()
C t =
()
V (t )
S t
()
b) Find lim C t , and interpret the result. Discuss the realism of this
t
problem.
We will use Case 2 of the Short Cuts for Evaluating LongRun Limits for Rational Functions on Page 2.3.23.
()
3t
50 + 10t
3 lbs
lbs
=
, or 0.3
10 gal
gal
lim C t =
t
()
(Figure 2.3.t)
1
.
DNE
Although we do not call this a Limit Form, we can at least conclude that the desired limit is
not a real nonzero constant, nor can it be said to be or . In other words, the desired
limit must be either 0 or nonexistent (DNE), not even in the sense of or .
The desired limit cannot be said to be or . (Assume that D is a function.)
As, for example, x , it is possible that
Likewise, it is possible that
()
1
only if D x 0 as x .
D x
()
()
1
only if D x 0 .
D x
()
()
()
()
()
()
x, if x is a rational value
For example, let: D x =
.
x, if x is an irrational value
()
()
x
1
= 0 . If we extend the real
D x
()
number system to the real projective line, in which we collapse together and identify and
1
, then we are effectively dealing with the generic Limit Form , which yields 0 as a
limit.
c
. Assume that c is a real constant (i.e.,
xk
any arbitrary real constant), and k is a positive rational constant.
c
c
Then, x k as x . lim k has Limit Form , which implies that the limit is 0
x x
(regardless of whether c is positive, negative, or 0).
Also, x k as x , if x k is defined as a real quantity whenever x < 0 .
c
c
has Limit Form
, which implies that the limit is 0. If x k is undefined as
k
x x
c
a real quantity whenever x < 0 , then lim x k does not exist (DNE), and lim k does
x x
x
not exist (DNE), even if c = 0 .
Then, lim
23.1 = 210 =
314
10
231 8.57419
157
23.14 = 2 100 = 2 50 =
50
2157 8.81524
( )
( 2)
( 2)
( )
31
10
( )
3.1
= 2
31
has ten distinct 10th roots in C, the set of complex numbers. Refer to DeMoivres
31
Theorem for the complex roots of a complex number. See The Math Forum @ Drexel: Ask
Dr. Math, Meaning of Irrational Exponents.
6. Dominant terms. We will say that x d dominates x n as x for real constants d and n
d > n . This is because the growth of the (absolute value of) x d makes the growth of the
(absolute value) of x n seem negligible by comparison in the long run. More precisely,
xn
xn
lim d = lim x n d = 0 d > n . (If d > n , the denominator of d explodes more
x x
x
x
dramatically than the numerator does., and the limit is 0 as x .)
xn
Also, lim d = 0 ( d > n , and x n and x d are defined as real quantities
x x
whenever x < 0 ).
This dominant term analysis can be extended to non-algebraic expressions. For example,
we will see the algebraic expression e x in a later chapter. However, the identification of a
dominant term in a long-run analysis may well depend on whether we are considering a
1
limit as x or a limit as x . It turns out that lim x = 0 , so e x dominates 1 if we
x e
ex
= 0 , so 1
are considering a limit as x . However, it also turns out that lim
x 1
dominates e x if we are considering a limit as x .
In sin x + cos x , neither term dominates in the long run. Any nonconstant polynomial will
dominate either term.
7. Dominance and computer science. The issue of dominance is the foundation of the big O
notation used in algorithm analysis, which deals with the running time and space and
memory requirements of computer algorithms. There is particular interest in the long run
behavior of these algorithms as, say, the input size approaches infinity.
8. When dominance fails us, I. We will discuss exponential expressions such as 2 x in a later
2 x +3
2 x +3
2 x 23
2 x 23
.
We
obtain:
lim
=
lim
=
lim
= 8 . If we
x
x 2 x
x 2 x
x 2 x
x
2
1
( )
()
sin x +
)=
x
sin x +
sin x
) . We obtain:
sin x
(by Sum ID or Unit Circle) = 1 . If we had replaced x +
x
x sin x
sin x
with x in the argument of sin x + , we would have obtained:
lim
lim
?
sin x +
sin x
lim
= lim
= 1 , which is incorrect. What went wrong? The Factoring
x
x
sin x
sin x
Principle of Dominance should not be applied to arguments of non-algebraic functions.
Here, sin x + is not equivalent to sin x times something approaching 1.