BIOTECHNOLOGY

SAFETY IN THE USE OF LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

Laboratory equipment can be hazardous if they are not used and
maintained properly. Laboratory personnel must be trained on the
proper use of laboratory equipment prior to using the equipment.
These general guidelines should be followed:
1
Review and follow instructions provided in the manufacturers
manuals and standard operating procedures.
The manuals and procedures should be located with the equipment
or in a location that is easily accessible to all laboratory personnel.
Maintenance or repairs to any laboratory equipment should only be
performed by a qualified individual.
Safety devices on laboratory equipment must never be disabled or
altered.
The following sections provide safe work practices for some
common types of laboratory equipment.
Glassware
The primary hazards associated with laboratory glassware are cuts
from broken glassware, puncture wounds from attempting to force
thermometers or glass tubing into stoppers, and burns from
inadvertently touching heated glassware.
1
Laboratory glassware should never be used for food or beverages.
Ensure that glassware is in good condition prior to use (i.e. no
cracks, scratches, chips).
When using glass tubing, all cut ends should be fire polished.
Use a dustpan and brush, not your hands, to pick upbroken glass.
Broken glass should be discarded in a separate designated
container.
Use the right size and type of glassware for any given operation.
Wear proper cutresistant gloves when inserting or removing glass
tubing from flexible tubing or a stopper. Ensure that stopper holes

are appropriately sized and carefully insert tubing by gently

twisting back and forth.
When cutting a piece of glass tubing, score a line using a file or
equivalent. Wrap a cloth or paper towel around the tubing and
break at the score over a piece of cloth/paper to catch any pieces.

Centrifuges
Most hazards associated with centrifuges are due to the processing
of hazardous materials and poor mechanical conditions.
1
Ensure centrifuges have an interlocking device that will prevent
both the lid from being opened when the rotor is in motion and the
centrifuge from starting when the lid is open.
Biological techniques
Biological techniques are methods or procedures that are used to
study living things. They include experimental and computational
methods, approaches, protocols and tools for biological research.

SCIENCE

Force
An objects inertia causes it to continue moving the way it is moving
unless it is acted upon by a force to change its motion.

The motion of an object can be described by its position,

direction of motion and speed.

An unbalanced force acting on an object changes its speed

and/or direction of motion.

Objects moving in circles must experience force acting toward

the center.

C 22. Calculate the average speed of a moving object and illustrate

the motion of objects in graphs of distance over time.
C 23. Describe the qualitative relationships among force, mass and
changes in motion.
C 24. Describe the forces acting on an object moving in a circular
path.

MaTHEMATICS

The square of a binomial

(a + b)2
The square of a binomial comes up so often that the student should
be able to write the final product immediately. It will turn out to be
a very specific trinomial. To see that, let us square (a + b):
(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2.
For, the outers plus the inners will be
ab + ba = 2ab.
The order of factors does not matter.
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
The square of any binomial produces the following three terms:
1.

The square of the first term of the binomial: a2

2.

Twice the product of the two terms: 2ab

3.

The square of the second term: b2

The square of every binomial has that form: a2 + 2ab + b2.

To recognize that is to know an essential product in the
"multiplication table" of algebra.
(See Lesson 8 of Arithmetic: How to square a number mentally,
particularly the square of 24, which is the "binomial" 20 + 4.)

Example 1.
Solution.

Square the binomial (x + 6).

(x + 6)2 = x2 + 12x + 36

x2 is the square of x.
12x is twice the product of x with 6. (x 6 = 6x. Twice that is 12x.)
36 is the square of 6.
x2 + 12x + 36 is called a perfect square trinomial. It is the square of
a binomial.
Example 2.
Solution.

Square the binomial (3x 4).

(3x 4)2 = 9x2 24x + 16

9x2 is the square of 3x.

24x is twice the product of 3x 4. (3x 4 = 12x. Twice that is
24x.)
16 is the square of 4.
Note: If the binomial has a minus sign, then the minus sign appears
only in the middle term of the trinomial. Therefore, using the double
sign ("plus or minus"), we can state the rule as follows:
(a b)2 = a2 2ab + b2
This means: If the binomial is a + b, then the middle term will be
+2ab; but if the binomial is a b, then the middle term will be
2ab
The square of +b or b, of course, is always positive. It is always
+b2.
Example 3.

(5x3 1)2 = 25x6 10x3 + 1

25x6 is the square of 5x3. (Lesson 13: Exponents.)

10x3 is twice the product of 5x3 1. (5x3 1 = 5x3. Twice that

is 10x3.)
1 is the square of 1.
The student should be clear that (a + b)2 is not a2 + b2,
any more than (a + b)3 is equal to a3 + b3.
An exponent may not be "distributed" over a sum.

Ang Alamat Ng Saging

Sa isang malayong lugar ay my dalawang mag kasintahan na
tunay na nag iibigan sila si Aging at Juana ngunit sa kabila nito
ay tutol ang magulang ni Juana na si mang Juan, kayat lihim
lamang siyang nakiki pag tagpo ky Aging.
Ngunit minsang nakipag tagpo siya ky Aging ay nasundan siya ni
mang juan kayat ng makita ni mang Juan ay nag siklab siya sa
galit, at bigla niyang binunot ang itak na nasa kanyang tagiliran
at sinugod ni mang Juan si Aging at sa pagka bigla ay hindi agd
na gawang umiwas ni aging kaya inabot ng itak ni mang Juan ang
braso ni aging at naputol.
Sa sobrang takot ni Aging ay napatakbo siya papalayo sa mag
amang Juana, at labis ang kalungkutan ni Juana dahil sa mga
pang yayari ngtunit ala na siyang magagawa dahil ala na si
aging. Kayat pinulot nalang niya ang naputol na braso ni Aging at
inilibing sa kanilang bakuran.
At sa paglipas ng mga araw ay wala parin si Aging ni wala na
siyang balita kung ano na ang nangyari ky aging, subalit sa pag
labas ni mang Juan sa kanilang bahay ay napansin niya ang isang
uri ng halaman na noon lamang niya nakitya kayat dali
daliniyang tinawag si juanana at itinanong kung uri ba ng halam
iyon.
At Laking gulat ni Juana nang makita niya ang tinutukoy ng
kanyang ama, dahil sa lugar mismo ng pinag libingan niya ng
braso ni Aging tumubo ang halaman.
At itoy kulay luntian, my mahahaba at malalapad na dahon, my
bunga itong kulay dilaw na animo'y isang kamay na my daliri ng
tao.
Kayat naalala nanaman niya ang kanyang kasintahan, at
nasambit niya ang pangalang Aging. At sinabi niya na iyan si
aging, kaya mula noon ay aging ang tinawag nila sa halamang
iyon. At sa paglipas ng panahon ay nabago na ang Aging at itoy
naging Saging...

Alamat ng Ampalaya

Noong araw, sa bayan ng Sariwa naninirahan ang lahat ng uri ng

gulay na may kanya-kanyang kagandahang taglay.
Si Kalabasa na may kakaibang tamis, si Kamatis na may asim at
malasutlang kutis, si Luya na may anghang, si Labanos na sobra
ang kaputian, si Talong na may lilang balat, luntiang pisngi ni
Mustasa, si Singkamas na may kakaibang lutong na taglay, si
Sibuyas na ma manipis na balat, at si Patola na may gaspang na
kaakit-akit.
Subalit may isang gulay na umusbong na kakaiba ang anyo, siya
si Ampalaya na may maputlang maputlang kulay, at ang kanyang
lasang taglay ay di maipaliwanag.
Araw araw, walang ginawa si Ampalaya kung hindi ikumpara ang
kanyan itsura at lasa sa kapwa niya gulay, at dahil dito ay
nagbalak siya ng masama sa kapwa niyang mga gulay.
Nang sumapit ang gabi kinuha ni Ampalaya ang lahat ng
magagandang katangian ng mga gulay at kanyang isinuot.
Tuwang tuwa si Ampalaya dahil ang dating gulay na hindi
pinapansin ngayon ay pinagkakaguluhan. Ngunit walang lihim na
hidi nabubunyag nagtipon tipon ang mga gulay na kanyang
ninakawan.
Napagkasunduan nilang sundan ang gulay na may gandang
kakaiba, at laking gulat nila ng makita nilang hinuhubad nito isaisa ang mga katangian na kanilang taglay, nanlaki ang kanilang
mga mata ng tumambad sa kanila si Ampalaya.
Nagalit ang mga gulay at kanilang iniharap si Ampalaya sa
diwata ng lupain, isinumbong nila ang ginawang pagnanakaw ni
Ampalya. Dahil dito nagalit ang diwata at lahat ng magagandang
katangian na kinuha sa mga kapwa niya gulay.
Laking tuwa ni Ampalaya dahil inisip niya na iyon lamang pala
ang kabayaran sa ginawa niyang kasalanan. Ngunit makalipas
ang ilang sandali ay nag iba ang kanyang anyo.
Ang balat niya ay kumulubot dahil ang kinis at gaspang na taglay
ni upo at kamatis ay nag-away sa loob ng kanyang katawan
maging ang mga ibat-ibang lasa ng gulay ay naghatid ng di
magandang panlasa sa kanya at pait ang idinulot nito, at ang
kanyang kulay ay naging madilim.
ALAMAT NG LANSONES

Noong unang panahon, sa isang bayan sa Laguna matatagpuan

ang napakaraming mga puno na may mga bilog-bilog na bunga.
Mukhang masarap ang prutas ngunit wala sino man ang
mangahas na kumain nito sapagkat ang mga bunga ay lason. Ni
lumapit sa nasabing puno ay ayaw gawin ng mga taong bayan.
Napatunayan nilang lason ang mga bunga nang isang araw ay
may napadpad na manlalakbay sa kanilang bayan. Dahil sa
pagod, naupo ang matanda sa ilalim ng nasabing puno upang
makapagpahinga. Nang makita ng manlalakbay ang mga
nakasabit na bunga ay bigla niyang naalala ang kanyang gutom
at pumitas ng mga ito.
May isa sa mga taong bayan ang nakakita nang isubo ng
matanda ang bunga. Tinangka niya itong pigilan ngunit huli na
ng naabutan niya ang matanda. Nakain na nito ang lasong bunga
at unti-unti na itong nangingisay at bumubula ang bibig. Dahil sa
pangyayaring ito, mas lalong natakot ang mga taong bayan na
lumapit sa puno.
Sumapit ang isang matinding tagtuyot sa lugar. Namatay ang
mga pananim at ang tanging natira ay ang mga lasong puno na
hitik na hitik sa bunga. Taimtim na nag-dasal ang mga taong
bayan na matapos na sana ang tagtuyot upang sila ay muling
makapagtanim at makapag-ani ng makakain sapagkat malapit ng
maubos ang naka-imbak nilang pagkain.
Isang araw sa kainitan ng tanghali, isang mahiwagang babae ang
dumating at kumatok sa mga pintuan ng mga taong bayan.
Nanlilimos ang magandang babae ng makakain. Ngunit walang
maibigay ang mga tao sapagkat salat din sila sa pagkain. Isang
bata ang lumapit sa magandang babae at nagbigay ng
kapiranggot na makakain. Pagpasensyahan na daw niya ito dahil
iyon na lamang ang natitira niyang pagkain.
Napangiti ang babae at kinuha ang pagkaing inabot ng bata.
Pinanood ng bata ang babae habang ito ay kumakain.
Pagkatapos kumain, tinanong ng babae ang bata kung bakit nila
nasabing salat sila sa pagkain samantalang marami namang
bunga ang kanilang mga punong-kahoy. Ikinuwento ng bata sa
babae na lason ang mga bungang ito. Napangiti ang babae at
umiling ito.
Pumitas siya ng bunga at pinisil ito hanggang sa lumabas ang
laman. Bago pa man napigilan ng bata ang babae ay naisubo na

nito ang puting laman ng bunga. Nagtaka ang bata sapagkat

walang nangyari sa babae; sa halip nakangiti nitong ibinigay ang
prutas sa bata na siya namang tinikman din ang bunga.
Masarap at manamis-namis ang prutas. Sa tuwa ng bata ay
napasigaw ito at tinawag ang mga kapitbahay upang matikman
din nila ang prutas. Nagsilabasan ang mga taong bayan. Noong
una ayaw nilang paniwalaan ang bata ngunit di naglaon ay
tinikman din nila ito at napag-alaman ngang matamis ang bunga.
Hinanap nila ang magandang babae upang pasalamatan ngunit
wala na ito.
Naniniwala silang tinanggal ng mahiwagang babae ang lason sa
mga bunga. Simula ang dating "lason" ay naging "lansones".

Alamat ng Mangga
noong araw ang mga punong manggang tanim ni Tandang Isko ay
pare-pareho lamang ang bunga. Ito'y maliliit at ang tawag dito ay
"pahutan". Matamis kapag hinog, kaya gustong-gusto ng mga
bata ang pahutan.
Marami ang natutuwa kapag panahon ng pamumunga, dahil ang
matandang may-ari ay hindi maramot. Minsan, may magandang
dalagang sa manggahan ni Tandang Isko ay dumaan. Kusang loob
na inalok ito ng mga hinog na mangga ni Tandang Isko. Sa
kasiyahan ng binibini ay itinanim nito ang mga buto ng pahutan
sa bukid at sa paanan ng bundok.
Agad tumubo ang dalawang buto at pagkaraan lang ng ilang
araw ay ganap na itong isang puno. Labis na nagtaka si Tandang
Isko sa pagkakaroon ng punong mangga sa hangganan ng bukid
at sa ibaba ng batuhang bundok. Balak sanang putulin ng
matanda ang dalawang puno, subalit sa tuwing siya ay lumalapit,
wari'y may bumubulong ng...
"HUWAG PO! HUWAG MO AKONG PATAYIN."
Dala rin ng panghihinayang kaya hinayaan na lang nitong lumaki
at lalong lumago ang dalawang puno ng mangga. Malaking
pakinabang tuloy ito sa mga magsasaka at kalabaw na roon ay
sumisilong.

Ang madalas magpahinga sa punong manggang nasa bukid ay si

Kalabaw, kaya nagkaroon sila ng pagkakataong magkausap
palagi ng puno.
"Hulog ka ng langit sa akin, punong mangga. Dati-rati'y init sa
katanghaliang tapat ay aking tinitiis, subalit nang ikaw ay
sumibol, pagal kong katawan ay binigyan mo ng ginhawa. Kaya
kapag sa iyo ay may nagtangkang pumutol, humanda sila sa
sungay kong matutulis."
"Salamat sa iy, Kalabaw at ako ay iyong ipagtatanggol. Noon pa
man ay hinahangaan ko na ang iyong kasipagan, kasisigan at
kalakasan," nahihiyang wika ng mangga.
Hindi nagtagal, sa dalas ng kanilang pag-uusap ay
nagkaintindihan ang kalabaw at ang punong mangga.
Samantala, nagkaroon na rin ng kagustuhan ang punong
manggang nasa paanan ng bundok at ito ay si "manggang
pahutan" na malapit sa kanyang kinatutubuan.
Sa panahon ng paglilihi ni Pahutan ay palaging sumisilong sa
lilim niya ang isang magsasakang may dalang "piko" at ewan
kung bakit gustong-gusto ng mangga na titigan ang piko.
Sumapit ang araw ng pamumulaklak at pamumunga parehong
pinausukan at inalagaan ni Tandang Isko ang magkahiwalay na
puno. Ang lahat ng mga punong mangga ay pawang nagbunga.
Nang bumalik ang matanda upang anihin ang mga bunga ng
mangga, ito ay lubhang nagulat. Ang dalawang puno na hiwalay
sa karamihan ay magkaiba ng hugis at laki ng kanilang mga
bunga. Hindi maisip ni Tandang Isko kung bakit nagkaganoon.
Muli, ang magandang dalaga ay nagbalik, at...
"Sapagkat ang malalaking mangga ay bunga ng pagkakaunawaan
nina Kalabaw at Pahutan kaya tatawagin itong Manggang
Kalabaw. Bagama't magkawangis sa laki ang mga bunga nila ng
kabilang puno ay may pagkakaiba pa rin sa hugis at sa anilang
sukat. Dahil ipinaglihi ito sa piko, kaya makikilala ito sa tawag na
Manggang Piko."
"Binibini, paano mo nasabi ang bagay na iyan?"
"SAPAGKAT AKO ANG DIWATA NG MGA PRUTAS", ngumiti ang
dilag at biglang nawala.

Ang sinabi ng diwata ay paulit-ulit ding ikinukuwento ni Tandang

Isko sa mga namimili ng mangga. Datapuwa't hindi na mahalaga
iyon kahit pahutan, manggang kalabaw o manggang piko basta
ag mga ito ay pare-parehong mangga:
Pusong bibitin-bitin mabangong amuyin, Masarap kainin, lalo
na't hinog.

Alamat ng Makahiya
Ang mag-asawang Mang Dondong at Aling Iska ay mayaman at
may kaisa-isang anak. Mahal na mahal nila ang labindalawang
taong gulang na si Maria. Napakabait at masunuring bata si
Maria. Sa kabila ng magandang katangiang ito ni maria, ang
pagkamahiyain ay kaakibat ng kanyang katauhan. Ayaw niyang
makipag-usap sa ibang tao kung kaya't nagkukulong lamang siya
sa kanyang silid para lamang makaiwas sa mga tao.
Si Maria ay may taniman ng mga magagandang bulaklak. Ang
kaniyang mga bulaklak ay sadyang napakagaganda kung kaya't
ang mga ito ay kilalang-kilala sa kanilang bayan.
Isang araw, ang kanilang bayan ay pinasok ng mga bandido.
Pinapatay nila ang bawa't masalubong at kinukuha ang anumang
mahahalagang bagay. Sa takot na mapahamak si Maria, itinago
siya ni Mang Dondong at Aling Iska sa bunton ng mga halaman.
Si Aling Iska ay nagtago sa loob ng kabahayan, samantalang si
Mang Dondong ay nakahandang salubungin ang pagdating nga
mga bandido.
"Diyos ko! Iligtas mo po ang aking anak." Dasal ni Aling Iska.
Nang walang anu-ano'y bumukas ang pintuan ng kanilang bahay.
Si Mang Dondong ay walang nagawa nang pukpukin siya sa ulo
ng mga bandido. Nagtangkang tumakas si Aling Iska nguni't
tulad ni Mang Dondong, siya rin ay nahagip at nawalan ng malaytao. Naghalughog ang mga bandido sa buong kabahayan.
Matapos samsamin ang mga kayamanan ng mag-asawa ay
hinanap nila si Maria nguni't sila ay bigong umalis. Hindi nila
natagpuan si Maria.

Nang matauhan ang mag-asawa, ang kanilang anak na si Maria

ang agad nilang hinanap. Patakbo nilang tinungo ang halamanan.
Laking lungkot ni Aling Iska ng hindi matagpuang ang anak. Nang
walang anu-ano'y may sumundot sa paa ni Mang Dondong.
Laking pagtataka niya nang makita ang isang uri ng halaman na
mabilis na tumitikom ang mga dahon.
"Anong uri ng halaman ito? Ngayon lang ako nakakita nito!" Ang
may pagkamanghang sabi ni Mang Dondong.
Tinitigang mabuti ng mag-asawa ang halaman, at doon nila
napagtanto na ang halamang iyon ay dili-iba't si Maria. Ginawa
siyang halaman ng Diyos upang mailigtas sa mga bandido.
Hindi mapatid ang pagluha ni Aling Iska at laking pagkagulat na
muli ni Mang Dondong na bawa't patak ng luha ni Aling Iska, ito
ay nagiging isang maliit at bilog na kulay rosas na bulaklak.
Magmula noon, ang halamang iyon ay inalagaang mabuti ng
mag-asawa sa paniniwalang ito ang kanilang anak. Tinawag nila
itong Makahiya, tulad ng isang katangian ni Maria.

Acceleration
Acceleration, in physics, is the rate of change of velocity of an
object. An object's acceleration is the net result of any and all
forces acting on the object, as described by Newton's Second
Law.[1] The SI unit for acceleration is the metre per second
squared (m/s2). Accelerations are vector quantities (they have
magnitude and direction) and add according to the parallelogram
law.[2][3] As a vector, the calculated net force is equal to the
product of the object's mass (a scalar quantity) and the
acceleration.
For example, when a car starts from a standstill (zero relative
velocity) and travels in a straight line at increasing speeds, it is
accelerating in the direction of travel. If the car turns there is an
acceleration toward the new direction. For this example, we can
call the accelerating of the car forward a "linear acceleration",
which passengers in the car might experience as force pushing
them back into their seats. When changing directions, we might
call this "non-linear acceleration", which passengers might
experience as a sideways force. If the speed of the car
decreases, this is an acceleration in the opposite direction of the
direction of the vehicle, sometimes called deceleration.[4]
Passengers may experience deceleration as a force lifting them
away from their seats. Mathematically, there is no separate
formula for deceleration, as both are changes in velocity. Each of
these accelerations (linear, non-linear, deceleration) might be felt
by passengers until their velocity and direction match that of the
car.
VELOCITY
The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its position with
respect to a frame of reference, and is a function of time.
Velocity is equivalent to a specification of its speed and direction
of motion, e.g. 60 km/h to the north. Velocity is an important
concept in kinematics, the branch of classical mechanics that
describes the motion of bodies.

Velocity is a physical vector quantity; both magnitude and

direction are needed to define it. The scalar absolute value
(magnitude) of velocity is called "speed", a quantity that is
measured in metres per second (m/s or ms1) in the SI (metric)
system. For example, "5 metres per second" is a scalar (not a
vector), whereas "5 metres per second east" is a vector.
If there is a change in speed, direction, or both, then the object
has a changing velocity and is said to be undergoing an
acceleration.
SPEED
In everyday use and in kinematics, the speed of an object is the magnitude
of its velocity (the rate of change of its position); it is thus a scalar quantity.
[1]
The average speed of an object in an interval of time is the distance
travelled by the object divided by the duration of the interval;[2] the
instantaneous speed is the limit of the average speed as the duration of the
time interval approaches zero.
Like velocity, speed has the dimensions of a length divided by a time; the SI
unit of speed is the metre per second, but the most common unit of speed
in everyday usage is the kilometre per hour or, in the US and the UK, miles
per hour. For air and marine travel the knot is commonly used.
The fastest possible speed at which energy or information can travel,
according to special relativity, is the speed of light in a vacuum c =
299792458 metres per second (approximately 1079000000 km/h or
671000000 mph). Matter cannot quite reach the speed of light, as this
would require an infinite amount of energy. In relativity physics, the concept
of rapidity replaces the classical idea of speed.

DISTANCE
Distance is a numerical description of how far apart objects are. In physics
or everyday usage, distance may refer to a physical length, or an estimation
based on other criteria (e.g. "two counties over"). In mathematics, a
distance function or metric is a generalization of the concept of physical
distance. A metric is a function that behaves according to a specific set of
rules, and is a concrete way of describing what it means for elements of
some space to be "close to" or "far away from" each other. In most cases,
"distance from A to B" is interchangeable with "distance between B and A".

DISPLACEMENT

A displacement is the shortest distance from the initial to the final position
of a point P.[1] Thus, it is the length of an imaginary straight path, typically
distinct from the path actually travelled by P. A displacement vector
represents the length and direction of this imaginary straight path.
A position vector expresses the position of a point P in space in terms of a
displacement from an arbitrary reference point O (typically the origin of a
coordinate system). Namely, it indicates both the distance and direction of
an imaginary motion along a straight line from the reference position to the
actual position of the point.
A displacement may be also described as a 'relative position': the final
position of a point (Rf) relative to its initial position (Ri), and a displacement
vector can be mathematically defined as the difference between the final
and initial position vectors:

Forces can make an object to accelerate only if the resultant force (vector
sum of all forces) is non-zero. If you ask why, it is the effect in order to
neutralize the cause. For example, if there is a potential difference between
two points, electric current flows from high potential to lower one, provided
there is a path, to bring both the points at same potential. It seems that
nature favors equality and does action whenever wherever possible to
attain that.
Forces do really exist in nature and they are measurable. As we all know its
SI unit is Newton. I would like to say, when an object is disturbed by a force
and with no resistance in the path, it will move (accelerate) in order to show
its opposition to the source which is creating force. The source has to
impart some energy to it, thereby it is weakened. Force can be viewed as a
disturbance and the objects react to eliminate/de-magnify it.

Do objects have inertia only when they are moving?

Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist a change in motion. An object
would have inertia while moving and also while at rest.

Why Do Some Objects Fall Faster Than Others?

Gravity is a major player in the study of physical science. It is, of course, the
force of gravity that causes objects to fall. One object always exerts a force
of attraction on another object. This force of attraction is a pull, like the pull
of gravity.

The larger an object is, the greater is the force of its attraction. Consider
the fact that the sun, which is much, much larger than the earth, can, even
at 90 million miles away, hold the earth and the other eight planets in orbit.

Balanced Forces
But what exactly is meant by the phrase unbalanced force? What is
an unbalanced force? In pursuit of an answer, we will first
consider a physics book at rest on a tabletop. There are two
forces acting upon the book. One force - the Earth's gravitational
pull - exerts a downward force. The other force - the push of the
table on the book (sometimes referred to as a normal force) pushes upward on the book.
Unbalanced Forces
Now consider a book sliding from left to right across a tabletop.
Sometime in the prior history of the book, it may have been
given a shove and set in motion from a rest position. Or perhaps
it acquired its motion by sliding down an incline from an elevated
position. Whatever the case, our focus is not upon the history of
the book but rather upon the current situation of a book sliding
to the right across a tabletop. The book is in motion and at the
moment there is no one pushing it to the right. (Remember: a
force is not needed to keep a moving object moving to the right.)
The forces acting upon the book are shown below.

Gravity and the Normal Force

There are many different kinds of forces in the world. Some common
ones are gravity, friction, magnetism.

Gravity is a very simple force: it causes an attraction between all

bodies which contain mass. The strength of the attraction between two
bodies is given by

G * m1 * m2
F = ------------r*r
where G is the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are the masses of
the bodies, and r is the separation between them.

The direction of the gravitational force between two objects lies along
the line connecting them.

As forces go, gravity is pretty weak: even a puny human can overcome
the gravitational pull of the entire earth.

The strength of the gravitational force between the Earth and an

object of mass m on its surface can be written as

G * M(earth) * m
G * M(earth)
F = ----------------- = -------------- * m
R(earth)^2
R(earth)^2

*m

where g, the gravitational acceleration at the surface of the earth, has

a value of about 9.8 meters per second squared, downwards.

Gravity is a long-range force; other forces only occur when objects

come into contact. One example of a contact force is the normal force.

The normal force is just the component of a contact force which is

perpendicular to the plane of contact. It prevents objects from moving
through each other.

The other component of a contact force, parallel to the plane of

contact, is called friction.

The normal force often acts in a vertical direction, since objects on the
earth's surface are usually resting on some surface.

Concurrent Force
In a concurrent force system, all forces pass through a common point. In the
previous case involving the application of two forces to a body, it was
necessary for them to be colinear, opposite in direction, and equal in
magnitude for the body to be in equilibrium. If three forces are applied to a
body, as shown in the figure, they must pass through a common point (O),
or else the condition, SMo = 0, will not be satisfied and the body will rotate
because of unbalanced moment. Moreover, the magnitudes of the forces
must be such that the force equilibrium equations,
SFx = 0, SFy= 0, are satisfied.

NORMAL FORCE
In mechanics, the normal force
is the component, perpendicular to the
surface (surface being a plane) of contact, of the contact force exerted on

an object by, for example, the surface of a floor or wall, preventing the
object to fall. For example, consider a person standing still on the ground, in
which case the ground reaction force reduces to the normal force. In
another common situation, if an object hits a surface with some speed, and
the surface can withstand it, the normal force provides for a rapid
deceleration, which will depend on the flexibility of the surface.
Gravitational Force

The weakest of the four fundamental forces of nature, being the

attractive force that arises from gravitational interaction.
Newton's law of gravity states that the gravitational force
between two bodies is proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
Balanced Forces
Force diagrams
We can show the forces acting on an object using a force
diagram. In a force diagram, each force is shown as a force
arrow. An arrow shows:
the size of the force (the longer the arrow, the bigger the
force)
the direction in which the force acts.
The arrow is usually labelled with the name of the force and its
size in newtons. Text books often show a force with a thick
coloured arrow, but it is best if you just use a pencil and ruler to
draw an arrow with a single line.
Balanced forces

When two forces acting on an object are equal in size but act in
opposite directions, we say that they are balanced forces.

LYKA ANDREA RANESES G8-STEM(B)