The Cell

Topic Outline
I.
II.

III.
IV.

Overview
Cell Membrane
A. Lipids
B. Proteins
C. Carbohydrates
Cytoplasm
Organelles
A. Mitochondria
B. Ribosomes
C. Endoplasmic Reticulum
D. Golgi Apparatus
E. Lysosome
F. Peroxisome
G. Cytoskeleton
1. Microtubules
2. Intermediate Filaments
3. Microfilaments
H. Nucleus
1. Nuclear Envelope
2. Chromatin
3. Nuclear Pores
4. Nucleolus
5. Nucleoplasm
6. Nuclear Matrix

OVERVIEW
CELL

The cell is the basic morphological and functional unit of all living things. It
has the capacity to perform all life functions and is therefore, under favorable
environmental conditions, of independent existence.
With a cytoplasm enclosed in a plasma membrane and a nucleus located in
the center.

MAJOR TYPES
Both types of cells have a plasma membrane which encloses the cytoplasm,
genetic material
(DNA) and ribosomes.

II.

Prokaryotes -before kernel

Eukaryote -True kernel

Cell Membrane

FLUID-MOSAIC MODEL
Integral proteins have the ability to float like icebergs in a phospholipid sea
Presence of lipid rafts which move around
PLASMA MEMBRANE/ PLASMALEMMA
Trilaminar in appearance when stained with osmium (lamina externa, lamina
intermedia, lamina interna)
Composed of phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and chains of
oligosaccharides covalently linked to phospholipids and protein molecules.
FUNCTION
Maintenance of structural integrity of cell
Controlling movements of substances in and out of the cell (Selective
Permeability)
Regulation of cell-to-cell interactions
Recognition of antigens and foreign bodies via receptors
Interface between cytoplasm and external environment
Transduction of extracellular physical or chemical signals into intracellular
events
Establishment of transport systems for specific molecules
A. LIPIDS
Contains a polar head (hydrophilic), located at the surface of the membrane
and 2nonpolar fatty acyl tails
(hydrophobic) projecting into center of the
plasmalemma
Amphiphatic molecule
Phospholipids, trigylcerides, cholesterol, glycolipids
1. GLYCOLIPID
Located outside the cell\
One of the components of glycocalyx
2. PHOSPHOLIPID
Consist of 2nonpolar (hydrophobic) long-chain fatty acids linked to a
charged polar (hydrophilic) head group
Most abundant (e.g. lecithin)
Organized into a double layer (bilayer)
Exhibit trilaminar structure when stained in osmium tetrocide. Deposition of
stain in hydrophilic ends.
Predominant in plasma membrane
Stained with osmium

3. CHOLESTEROL
Breaks up the close packing of phospholipid long chains making the
membrane more fluid
Almost 2% of plasma membranes weight
Can be seen inside and outside of plasma membrane
4. SPHINGOLIPID
any of a class of compounds that are fatty acid derivatives of sphingosine and
occur chiefly in the cell membranes of the brain and nervous tissue.
FACTORS AFFECTING MEMBRANE FLUIDITY
1. Temperature (Temp = Fluidity)
2. Unsaturated Fatty Acids (UFA = Fluidity)
3. Membrane Cholesterol Content(Cholesterol = Fluidity)
Q&A: Each lipid molecule is amphipathic. -TRUE
B. PROTEINS

Constitutes 50% of membranes weight; mostly globular

1. INTEGRAL PROTEINS
Found embedded within the bilayer tightly bounded
May require use of detergents in order to extract
Cathing -accumulation of integral proteins
2. TRANSMEMBRANE PROTEINS
Passes through the thickness of the membrane
Frequently form ion channels and carrier proteins for transport
Main form of hydrophilic channel
Membrane receptors/transport
Contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic carbohydrate
One-pass transmembrane proteins -passes through membrane once
One that traverses the membrane
Multipass transmembrane proteins -long and folded proteins which make
several passes through the membrane
3. PERIPHERAL MEMBRANE PROTEINS
Loosely associated w/ the inner/ outer surface of membrane
Associated with the cytoskeletal appearance
Functions in the intracellular secondary messenger system
Also part of cytoskeleton, structural in nature

 More globular, sometimes filamentous

Usually associated with integral proteins
C. CARBOHYDRATES
Resembles a fuzzy border (glycocalyx) around the cell
Oligosaccharide moieties which project from the external surface
of the plasma membrane; glycoproteins and glycolipids
Extends to extracellular environment
Branching structure - tends to branch outward towards extracellular
matrix
o Forms the cell coat or glycocalyx
o For cell adhesion and recognition
Facilitate cell-to-cell interaction, cellular attachment of extracellular
components, and in antigen-enzyme binding
FUNCTIONS
Acts as cellular attachment to extracellular matrix components
Acts as antigen binding surface
Responsible for cell-to-cell recognition and interaction
III.

CYTOPLASM
Protoplasm enclosed in a membrane

IV.

ORGANELLES

Membrane-bound enzyme containing subcellular compartments

Actively participates in the metabolism of the cell

A. MITOCHONDRIA

Largest organelle (2to 6m in length, 0.5m in diameter)

Contains circular DNA, mitochondrial ribosomes (mRNA, tRNA) and
enzymes for expression of mitochondrial genome
Divides by fission, generated from preexisting mitochondria
FUNCTIONS
Production of ATP via oxidative phosphorylation
Considered the powerhouse of the cell
Storing energy generated from cellular metabolite
PARTS
1. OUTER MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE
Very porous membrane, smooth contour
Freely permeable to variety of small molecules
2. INNER MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE
Less porous, semi-permeable membrane
Presence of infoldings (cristae) for increase in surface area for ATP
synthase
and respiratory chain
3. MATRIX
Filled with dense fluid composed of at least 50%protein
Contains enzymes for metabolic cycles and matrix granules which are
phospholipoproteins essential in sequestering Ca2+ from the cytosol to
prevent calcium toxicity (happens during cell injury when calcium levels
are dangerously high)
4. CRISTAE
Folds in the inner membrane
Increase ATP production
Most abundant during high energy activities
5. INTERMEMBRANE SPACE
Located between two membranes
Continuous with intracristal space

6. INTERCRISTAL SPACE / MATRIX SPACE

Holds the matrix

7. MATRIX GRANULES
Mitochondrial Calcium ion conservation
Binding sites for calcium
B. RIBOSOMES

Q&A: Ribosomes are bound to the nuclear membrane. -TRUE

C. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
System of interconnected tubules and vesicles whose lumen is referred to as
cistern
Synthesizing, packaging, and processing of different cellular substances

1. SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

System of anastomosing tubules and occasional flattened
membranebound vesicles
Absence of ribosomes and ribophorins

 Abundant in adrenal cortex, liver, areas which synthesize

hormones
Specialized SER: sarcoplasmic reticulum (skeletal muscle) -regulation
and sequestering of Ca2+ ions, assisting in control of muscle contraction
FUNCTIONS
Synthesis of steroid, cholesterol, phospholipids triglycerides,
detoxification, lipid metabolism
Glycogen breakdown
2. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Site where non-cytosolic proteins are synthesized
Continuous with perinuclear cistern (space between inner and outer
nuclear membranes)
Saclike, hasribosomes (granular)
Presence of integral proteins for recognition and binding of ribosomes
towards the cytoplasmic side
o Docking protein
o Pore protein
o Ribophorin I and II -ribosome receptor protein
FUNCTIONS
Protein synthesis
Plays a role in the post-translational modifications (sulfation, folding,
glycosylation)
Manufactures lipids and integral proteins
Q&A: Smooth ER does NOT contain ribophorins. - TRUE (Ribophorin
in an integral protein of RER.)

D. GOLGI APPARATUS

Located juxtanuclear; developed in neurons and

glandular cells
Post-office of cell
3 major proteins:

o
o

Cisternae (Golgi stack) - disk shaped

Vesicles - numerous small objects
peripheral to cisternae
o Vacuoles - located peripherally to the stack
of cisternae
3 levels of cisternae:
o Cis-face (forming face) -closest to the RER; convex in shape and
considered to be the entry face
o Medial face (intermediate face)
o Trans-face (maturing face) -concave in shape, considered to be
the exit face

FUNCTIONS
Post-translational modification and packaging of proteins from
the ER
Polysaccharide synthesis
Concentration, modification, storage and packaging of secretory
products
PROTEIN TRAFFICKING
1. ER vesicles are modified by Golgi apparatus (important for signaling) as it is
transported and fused with the periphery of the cis-face of the Golgi apparatus
2. Proteins are modified upon transfer from cis to medial and finally trans
cisternae
3. Budding of vesicles containing modified proteins at the trans Golgi network

4. Migration to designated target via vesicles

Heterophagosomes contain products of heterophagy (extracellular
origin)
Autophagosomes contain products of autophagy (primarily for
digestion of senescent organelles)

MECHANISM
RER synthesizes, packages and postranslates CHON

Coat Protein Complex II (COPII) vesicles carry CHON from

RER to Cis-face of Golgi apparatus

CHON modification in Golgi apparatus starts at the Cis-face

COP I vesicles transfers the CHON from one cistern to another

for further modification until it reach the Trans-face

CHONs are packed in secretory vesicles for transfer to their

target membrane (through the guide of SNAREs)
Q&A: Golgi apparatus consists of several disk-shaped cisternae
(saccules) arranged in a stack.
E. LYSOSOMES

Sites for cellular digestion

Contains hydrolytic enzymes (acid phosphatase, ribonuclease,
deoxyribonuclease, proteases, sulfatases, lipases, -glucoronidase)
Primary lysosomes - lysosomes that have not entered into a digestive
event
Secondary lysosomes - primary lysosomes that fuse with the membrane
of the phagosome and empty their hydrolytic enzymes into the vacuole for
digestion to ensue
Residual bodies - indigestible compounds retained within the vacuoles;
accumulation of residual bodies from long lived cell are called lipofuscin
(wear and tear pigment; they appear yellow-brown).

LYSOSOMES

F. PEROXISOMES

Self-replicating organelles containing oxidative enzymes

Associates with SER
Contains more than 40 oxidative enzymes (i.e. catalase, D-and
L-aminooxidases, hydroxyacid oxidase)

FUNCTION

Beta oxidation (lipid catabolism)

degradation of hydrogen peroxide into water and
oxygenby catalase (hydrogen peroxide metabolism)
Q&A: Which of the following organelles divide by fission?
-MITOCHONDRIA & PEROXISOME
G. CYTOSKELETON
Structural framework that
provides integrity, helps
incompartmentalizing
the organelles into distinct
regions; permits transport of
materials and is essential in cell
division
Structural proteins for shaping
cells, cell movement, movement of
organelles and intracytoplasmic
vesicles

1. MICROTUBULES
Long, straight, rigid tubular
appearing structures that act as
intracellular
pathways
and tubulin make up a tubulin dimer which make up a
protofilament
and then form microtubules (13 protofilaments)

Largest of the three

A. MICROTUBULE ASSOCIATED PROTEINS (MAPs)

2 motor proteins:
Dynein -bigger (2000kD), moves towards (-) end
Kinesin -smaller (250 kD), moves towards (+) end
Movement requires ATP.
Examples:
o Basal bodies of flagella and cilia
o Centrosome
Function
o Provide rigidity and maintain cell shape
o Regulate intracellular movement of
organelles and vesicles
B. CENTRIOLES
Cylindrical in shape

350-500m in length

50m in diameter
Subdistal and distal appendages present in mother centrioles but
not in daughter centrioles
CENTROSOME
Contains centrioles and amorphous bodies
(pericentriolar matrix/body)
Centriole depolarization in S phase
Function
o Structural organizer
o Control organelle
o Vesicle and granule traffic
o Gives rise to basal bodies near nucleus

C. KINETOSOME (BASAL BODIES)

Similar to centriole even in depolarization (follows an
8-triplet arrangement)
Controls assembly of axoneme (extension from basal body to apical
region); occurs in cytoplasm
Guides formation of appendages (cilia, flagella)
Anchoring Points
D. CILIA or FLAGELLA
Composed of 9peripheral doublets and 1unjoined pair of microtubules
(9+2arrangement)
Presence of dynein arms (ATPase activity)
Radial spoke from each doublet going towards central pair
Inner sheath with the central pair in the middle
Parts
o Ciliary tip (+ end) - signaling molecule
o (9+2) axoneme
o Transition zone - conversion from doublet formation to triplet
o Basal body
During cell division, there are microtubules that form:
1. MITOTIC SPINDLE MICROTUBULE - attached to the
kinetochore
2. POLAR MICROTUBULES - not incorporated with the spindle
apparatus; from one centriole to another centriole
3. ASTRAL FIBERS - extend from poles away from spindle and are
for anchoring
2. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

Very specific array of filaments

Assist in the establishment and maintenance of the 3- D framework of the
cell

From a monomer dimmer tetramer (parallel dimer

arrangement)

8-tetramer sheet supercoiled sheet

Examples
o Keratin - seen in skin, diverse
o Vimentin - seen in mesenchyme, endothelial cells,
vascular smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts,
chrondoblasts, macrophages

o
o
o
o

Desmin - seen in skeletal and non-vascular muscle cells

Neurofilaments - seen in neurons
Nuclear lamins -fibrous network in nuclear membrane; low
bearing element; greatly affects morphology of the cell
Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) - astrocytes,
oligodendrocytes, microglia, Schwann cells, ependymal
cells, pituicytes

3. ACTIN FILAMENTS
Thinnest cytoskeleton and is located throughout the cytoplasm; forms
irregular meshwork and exhibits polarity
Made up of G-actin -globular subunits, bound by profilin and
thymosin, and F-actin
-filamentous
protein which a forms doublestranded helix
Polymerization is controlled by Ca2+ and cyclic AMP levels
Contractile activity results from interaction of actin and myosin
Function
o Cellular contraction and movement
o Tension bearing and maintains integrity of the cell
H. NUCLEUS
Largest organelle of the cell; contains nearly all of the DNA
May classified based on size (nucleus-cytoplasmic ratio), number,
chromatin pattern and location (basal, eccentric, central)
3 Major Components:
o Chromatin - genetic material of the cell (heterochromatin,
euchromatin)
o Nucleolus - center for ribosomal RNA synthesis
o Nucleoplasm - contains macromolecules and nuclear
particles involved in maintenance of cell
1. NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

Composed of 2 parallel unit membranes that fuse with each other at

certain regions to form perforations (nuclear pores), continuous with

RER
Inner nuclear membrane (lined with nuclear lamina) and outer
membranes separated by a perinuclear cistern
Function
Helps control movement of macromolecules between nucleus

and cytoplasm
o Molecular trafficking between cytoplasm and nucleus
o Allows passive diffusion of ions and molecules;
acilitate receptors mediated transport of signal bearing cargos
2. CHROMATIN

Dark patches

Less coiled portion

EUCHROMATIN
For transcription of genetic structure-where the
genetic material of the DNA molecules is being
transcribed into RNA
Light stained

Active form

HETEROCHROMATIN
Tightly coiled inactive chromatin found in irregular
clumps in the periphery of the nucleus

Dark stained

Inactive form
3. NUCLEAR PORES

Sites where the inner and outer membranes fuse

Pathways between nucleus and cytoplasm are NOT OPEN but
showcase an octagonal pore complex made of 100+ proteins.
Only ions/molecules w/ diameter of up to 9nm can pass through
w/o using energy.
Others use up ATP

4. NUCLEOLUS

Not membrane bound, not easily seen due to

heterochromatin content; site for rRNA synthesis; disappears
before mitosis and appears right after mitosis
Largest and numerous in embryonic cells; in cells
synthesizing protein; malignant cells

PARTS

A. PA (PARS AMORPHA)
Pale staining fibrillar center; associated with nucleolar
organizer region (NORs) where newly synthesized
RNA are first seen here; contains inactive DNA
B. NUCLEONEMA
Has 2 RNA components
C. PF (PARS FIBROSA)
Density packed ribonucleolic fibers; newly synthesized rRNA
appears here second
D. PG (PARS GRANULOSA)
Dense granules representing maturing rRNA; appears here
third
E. NUCLEOLUS-ASSOCIATED CHROMATIN
Heterochromatin commonly associated with the
nucleolus; no known function

5. NUCLEOPLASM

Protoplasm enveloped by the nuclear envelope

INTERCHROMATIN GRANULES (IG)

20-25 nm in diameter
RNPs and enzymes (ATPase, GTPase, etc.) are found here
Located in clusters; scattered throughout the nucleus
PERICHROMATIN GRANULES (PCG)

 30-50 nm in diameter
Located at the margins of the heterochromatin
Surrounded by halo of less dense region
Composed of densely packed fibrils
SMALL NUCLEAR RIBONUCLEOPROTEIN PARTICLES (snRNPs)
Participate in splicing, cleaving and transporting
hnRNPs
HETEROGENOUS NUCLEAR RIBONUCLEOPROTEIN PARTICLES
(hnRNPs)
Complexes with mRNA precursors (pre-mRNA)
6. NUCLEAR MATRIX
Scaffolding
Contains fibrillar elements, residual nucleoli and is supported by nuclear
porenuclear lamina complex
Associated with DNA replication sites, rRNA and mRNA transcription
and processing, steroid receptor binding, heat shock proteins,
carcinogen binding, DNA viruses and viral proteins
7. CHROMOSOMES
Chromatin fibers that become condensed and tightly coiled during mitosis
and meiosis; contains more than 99% of DNA; allows replication (using
telomerase)
6 subunits per coil in strand of chromosome
4 types of histones in core with 2each kind (H2A, H2B, H4, H3)
with H1or H5histones outside nucleosome acting as strap
166 base pairs in central DNA
48 base pairs at linker region/link DNA
At highly condensed state -1400 nm (occurs during metaphase)
Genome
o 23 pairs, of homologous chromosomes (22 autosomes, 1 sex
chromosome)
o Sex chromatin (Barr body)
o Chromatin - basis of level of activity (paler staining -more active)