Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
FOR BEGINNERS
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
FOR BEGINNERS
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
BY
JOSEPH EDWAEDS,
M.A.
MACMILLAN AND
AND NEW YORK
1896
All rights reserved
CO.
GLASGOW
reprinted 1896.
BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE
AND
CO.
PREFACE.
THE
present volume
is
introduction to a study of
the Integral
Calculus,
Like
its
it
which
also
the
solids
of
revolution.
Some
indication
is
also
be
employed
in
obtaining
As
the
Moment
method
position
of
of Inertia.
want
it
methods of solving
M298720
PREFACE.
vi
tematic
all
Dynamics
reading
of a Particle,
of
is
likely to
Analytical
Statics,
is
number
of these
sets at
originality
considerable difficulty.
PREFACE.
My
vii
the works of
subjects
treated
of,
but
more
especially
to
the
Calculus,
may
My
who have
me
kindly sent
JOSEPH EDWARDS.
October, 1894.
CONTENTS.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
CHAPTER
I.
......
Determination of an Area,
Integration from the Definition,
Volume
4
10
of Revolution,
CHAPTER
GENERAL METHOD.
II.
.......
......
Table of Results,
CHAPTER
14
19
20
21
22
METHOD
13
STANDARD FORMS.
Fundamental Theorem,
Nomenclature and Notation,
,
PAGES
1
3
2326
2628
III.
OF SUBSTITUTION.
......
29
32
33
36
3741
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
IV.
INTEGRATION BY PARTS.
Integration
"by Parts"
of a Product,
....
PAGES
4347
4849
5052
Geometrical Proof,
Extension of the Rule,
CHAPTER
V.
PARTIAL FRACTIONS.
........
Standard Cases,
General Fraction with
Rational
55
57
5861
nominator,
CHAPTER
VI.
...
f^L
Integration of
6568
J \/K
Powers and Products of Sines and Cosines,
Powers of Secants or Cosecants,
Powers of Tangents or Cotangents,
.....
.....
a + cos x
/rfv
75
76
77
78
7983
etc.,
6974
CHAPTER
VII.
REDUCTION FORMULAE.
m
Integration of x
-l
XP, where
....
dx,
8789
90
93
94
95
IT
j"z
/
dx,
sin^a; cos^a:
7T
Evaluation of
X = a + bxn
x m ~ l Xp
sii\
xdx,
-i
96
102
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
xi
VIII.
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS.
Integration of
x
/ ^).f
J X. i\f
.......
Some Elementary
Definite Integrals,
CHAPTER
....
....
PAGES
109117
118
119
120
124
125
127
128
129
IX.
RECTIFICATION.
.......
.....
........
........
........
135137
13S
Arc
of
an Evolute,
Intrinsic Equation,
Arc of Pedal Curve,
CHAPTER
139
140
143
144
149
150
X.
QUADRATURE.
........
.......
.......
.....
.........
........
.......
Cartesian Formula,
Sectorial Areas.
Polars,
'.''-.
of
153
157
158160
161163
164165
Areas of Pedals,
166167
168175
Corresponding Areas,
176
Evolute,
CHAPTER
177
XI.
Volumes
of Revolution,
Surfaces of Revolution,
.......
.......
183184
185187
CONTENTS.
xii
.......
......
Theorems
of Pappus,
Revolution of a Sectorial Area,
CHAPTER
188
PAGES
191
192
XII.
MISCELLANEOUS
APPLICATIONS.
.....
.....
195
198
199
201
202203
204
207
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
CHAPTER
XIII.
.....
211214
215
Linear Equations,
CHAPTER
216
219
221
226
XIV.
Homogeneous Equations,
One Letter Absent,
Clairaut's
227229
230233
Form,
CHAPTER XV.
EXACT DIFFERENTIAL
235
236
237238
Removal
of a
Term,
.
239
240
241242
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
xiii
XVI.
General
Form
of Solution,
An
.....
243244
245
251
252263
264265
Coefficients,
CHAPTER
ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORIES.
XVII.
MISCELLANEOUS EQUATIONS.
Orthogonal Trajectories,
Some Important Dynamical Equations,
Further Illustrative Examples,
....
266269
270
271
272277
278308
Answers,
ABBREVIATION.
To
which many
of the
examples are
(a)
= St.
Peter's,
Pembroke, Corpus
Christi, Queen's,
and
St.
Catharine's.
= Clare,
= Jesus,
(7)
(d) = Jesus,
= Clare,
(e)
(j8)
and King's.
Magdalen, Emanuel, and Sidney Sussex.
Christ's, Emanuel, and Sidney Sussex.
Caius, and King's.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
CHAPTER
I.
1.
The Integral Calculus is the outcome of an endeavour to obtain some general method of finding the
area of the plane space bounded by given curved
lines.
number
infinitely increased.
It will be found that when
summation
E.
i.
c.
is
<E
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
all
supposed rectangular,
all
2. Determination of an Area.
be Summed. Notation.
Form
of Series to
BM
0,0,0,0,
Fig. 1.
LM
Let
be divided into
LQ V
LA, QiPp
Q v Q2
etc.,
P P
AQ
.4
MB is supposed finite.
a+rh=b-h
<>(a
+ rJi.h
or
limits
indicated.
a+rh as
may be
Regarding
increment h
summation when h
is
and the
diminished
<f)(x)dx,
series
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
the term h(f>(a+nh) or A0(6) which vanishes when
the limit is taken.
Hence the limit of this series
may also be written
f
<t>(x)dx.
Cb
Ex.
1.
Calculate
Here we have
e*dx.
to evaluate
Lth==Qh[e a + e a+h + e a+
+
b = a + nh.
where
. . .
This
&
&
[By
Diff.
r=n-l
and
Lt
r=
(+rA)A, where
2(a + rh)h =
in the limit
becomes
2
6
/a $x we
indefinitely diminished of
22'
is
>
b+h
a-h
&'
becomes
II
a
Thus
b'
f*JL2 /&==*.*
.r
a b
Ex.
4.
Prove ab
initio that
sin
6.
/&
We now are
[sin
sinf
\
a+n
. . .
to
terms]A,
l- Jsin n2,
2/
sin
*
This
expression =
cosf
cos <
J
a + (2n -
1)-
2JJ sinj-
smwhich when A
is
cos
cos
b.
form
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
EXAMPLES.
Prove by summation that
2.
/
/
sir
sinh
xdx
cosh b
cosh
a.
3.
/b
cos
OdO = sin 6
m
Integration of x
As a further example
4.
m+
(a
sum
we next
+ h} m + (a + 2h)m +.
a
6
-n
h=
made
is
propose to consider
of the series
where
and n
sin a.
indefinitely large,
fy
v>/
I\m+l
m+1
_ yin + 1
2
is m + 1 when A is
m
Ay
indefinitely diminished, whatever y may be, provided it be of
finite magnitude.
For the expression may be written
[Lemma.
The Limit
of
-1
y
and
since
less
Theorem
to
is
to
be ultimately zero we
expand
we may
+l
^\7?l
1 -J-J
may
consider - to be
m+I
In the result
put
i/
success! vely
= a, a+h,
a+2h,etc....a + (n
l)h,
and we get
l
-am +
~
_ r,
- (a + n^
h(a+n-Ui)
or adding numerators for a new numerator and denominators for a new denominator,
fe[a
w+
(a
/t)
w+
(a
+ 2h)m +
+ (a + n^l
or
Lt h=Q h[am + (a + A) m + (a
m+1
'
may
'
xmdx=
7
m+1
2,
this
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
8
The
a and
letters
may
ever, provided
infinite
x=a
between
and
When
is
order, for
all
When
=1
is
zero for
comes
xm dx=
if
m+1
be positive,
= oo
or
This theorem
may
if
m + 1 be negative.
be written also
r
according as
or,
which
differs
and
m+1
is
positive or negative.
is
-Lst
n= oo
positive or negative.
be discussed later.
limit
M4-'
1
is
The
-?, or
The
i.e.
oo
case
by
in the limit,
according as
when
m+1
m + l=0
is
will
NM
PR
be drawn parallel to
when n
is infinite
of the
Lt^PN.NM
i.e.
NM,
sum
of such rectangles as
is
the limit
PM (Art.
2),
[By Art.
4.]
or
where nh = c.
Now
Area =f
of the rectangle of which the
of the area are adjacent sides.
=f
extreme ordinate
arid abscissa
2.
Find the mass of a rod whose density varies as the
power of the distance from one end.
Let a be the length of the rod, o> its sectional area supposed
Ex.
with
uniform.
length
of
1
Its
of the
zero densitv
m
(7+la\
\
The volume
-.
is
coa** 1 -
and
**
to
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
10
Thus the mass
of the
whole rod
lies
between
and
and in the
limit,
when n
ra+1
5.
may
Fig. 3.
AQ
AR^^
nrP^ Q&,
PEP
.
11
length
NB is supposed finite.
or as
it
may
be written
Cb
7r\
is
infinite), of
Cb
or
2
y dx.
1.
The portion of the parabola y 2 = 4a,r bounded by the
# = c revolves about the axis. Find the volume generated.
Ex.
line
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
12
Then dividing
we
have
re
4a:r
/cy^dx
xdx
[Art. 4.]
AN
'
=J
[Or
if
cylinder of radius
expressed as a series
[c
Volume = 4a?r
x dx
r
.
Ex.
2.
= 2a?rc 2.]
[Art. 4.]
=l
~+^2
*
about the
#-axis.
Fig. 5.
Try^dx.
-a
a
Now
which, according to Article
4, is
equal to
5[a*.(-0)-^]
and the whole volume
is
- x*)dx
or
whose
if
desirable
we may
13
EXAMPLES.
Find the area bounded by the curve
the ordinates #=a, #=&.
1.
y^^ax
by the revolution
of
(a)
7/3
(8)
aty
= a *a
of a circular disc of
CHAPTEE
II
n
I
<p(x)dx
Summation.
PROP. Let </)(x) be any function of x which is
and continuous between given finite values a
and b of the variable x let a be < 6, and suppose the
difference b
a to be divided into n portions each
equal h, so that b a = nh. It is required to find the
limit of ike sum of the series
7.
finite
is finite,
for
if
<$>(a+rh)
<(#)
15
values of
that
<j)(x)
is
definition
and therefore
^a)*
a
where a :
is
zero
when h
=\/s(a+
h(j)(a)
7i)
+ha
t/r(a)
lt
Similarly
h<f>(a
etc.,
=
Ih) \[s(a + nil)
indefinitely.
By
addition,
h[<f>(a)
+ 0(a + h) + <f>(a
Afoi+ag+^.+On]
is
<nha,
limit.
i.e.
<(&
Thus
. . .
a)a,
an
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
16
The term
fc</>(6)
desire, it may be
this result, and it
.e.
This result
notation
</)(x)dx
\[s(b)
= \ls(b)
frequently denoted
is
\fs(a)
\ls(a).
by the
p\/r(a3)
From
rb
The
letters b
<j)(x)dx
may
be
notation so as to
let
<f>(x)dx
when
becomes
infinitely large of
I
^(6)
= Lt b=x
(j)(x)dx
^js(a), i.e.
<j)(x)dx.
(j)(x)dx
we
shall be understood
to
fb
-\I,(a)]
Ex.
Hence
1.
if
The
or
Lta=00
coefficient of
differential
fb
\
<f>(x)dx.
is
m
plainly x
m
<$>(x)=x we have
df(x):L^ '
m+l
and
m+1 m + \
m+l
2.
known
cos
Ex.
x dx = sin
3.
Ex.
a?
is
to be sin x.
itself e
17
x
.
sin a.
differential coefficient
is
e* is
4.
EXAMPLES.
Write down the values of
rl
1.
X CiX)
/Vdr,
2.
2i,
/b
a
,-2
X Cf/JCm
/Vcfo?,
3.
o.
4.
cfo,
d/X^
1
ir
it
rA
cos
/2
x dx,
6.
r4
7.
ia
8.
The proof
AB
NM
AP ,PQ QR ,...,
2
parallel
to
the
y = ^r(x\ and
then
let
<f>(a\ <$>(a
E.
I.
C.
,r-axis,
and
2J
let
V^') = <M>
<$>(a + Zh\ etc., are respectively
tanP.JPj, taii^Pft, etc.,
+ h\
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
18
and
-h), ...,
Now
it is
P P,
R R,
2
is
...,
sum
of
MB-NA,
i.e.
Hence
s,
L
Fig.
6.
Now
R^
Q^
But
if
the abscissa of
is
<nR R,
1
be called
#,
and
(x)
[Diff.
R^R =
so that
and
which
(6
is
=
"(x 4- <9A)
i.e.
<(b-a)-}~.
then
+ -^"(x + Qh\
(x
+ Oh),
a)
first order.
19
Thus
Lth=0
or
Also since
9.
Z^=
A^(6)
= 0, we
have,
by
addition,
culus.
how
given
we
shall
fb
I
cf)(x)dx
i.e.
fb
I
\l/(x)dx,
\fr(x\ substituting
latter
<j)(x)dx
= \ls(x)
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
20
Nomenclature.
The nomenclature
of these expressions
is
as follows
r (p(x)dx
is
or
<f>(x)
between limits
a and
fx
I
<j)(x)dx
or
\{s(x)
left
or
\[s(a)
undetermined
is
called
-^(x)
Addition of a Constant.
Accordingly
we might
This constant
is
write
21
in-
13. Different
will
instance
I-
dx
sin' ^ or
is
cos~%, for
}*/I-x 2
is
Vl
pressions.
sin" 1
^^
is
cos' 1 ^.
cos" 1 ^
differ
so that
or
Vl-a
,
J/s/l-a;
dx =
sin
dx=
cos-^
Inverse Notation.
Agreeably with the accepted notation for the inverse Trigonometrical and inverse Hyperbolic functions, we might express the equation
or
and
j5^)
it is
= ^);
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
22
Symbol
\dx.
(1) It
will
be
plain
symbols that
s
but that
(2)
is <j>(x)
l-y- (fi(x)dx
is
distributive;
of integration is
commutative
for if u, v,
-T-j
|u^+l^^+l^^r
|i;cfe-f
The operation
\wdx =
For
if
-j
= v,
d
so that (omitting
du
au =
or
which
\av dx 9
a\vdx=\avdx,
establishes the theorem.
23
We
By
xn
Integration of
17.
differentiation of -
n +^1
d x
_
dx n +
n+l
Hence
Art.
7,
we
obtain
nrfll
the
index
so increased.
For example,
/nA
X X = ~''
X
}
x=
11
if
r
;
x~^ =
T4
EXAMPLES.
TTn'^e
down the
integrals of
1.
^"J
#"
a
O.
999
^7
#1000
-^"Jf
"4^4-
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
24
18.
remembered that x~ l or x
coefficient of log x.
Thus
It will be
ential
is
the differ-
fl
\-dx = logx.
Jx
This therefore forms an apparent exception to the
general rule
f
^n+l
n dx =
\x
19. The result, however, may be deduced as a limiting
Supplying the arbitrary constant, we have
n
/x dx
=
n+l
A = C+
where
+ C= ~
-I-
n+l
case.
n+ l
and
as
tively
arbitrary we may suppose that it contains a negainfinite portion together with another arbitrary
is
7i
~\~ J.
portion A.
Thus
20.
In the same
as in the integration of x n
way
we have
1
and
= (n + V)a(ax + b)n
+ 6) =
^-log(a%
&v
+ &)n+1
'
(n+l)a
and
'r
Jax + b
we
fFor convenience
printed as
25
-r,
Jax + b'
= -\og(ax
+ b\
6V
a
shall
Jja +x*
dx
often
as
,-
find
jdx
Jax + b
o,
J*Ja* + x*
etc.]
EXAMPLES.
Write down the integrals of
of a+x, a
1. ax,
a x_ a+x
1
ax?
3.
a+x
'
a?
x,
a-\-x
bx
(a-#)
2>
n*
(a
coefficients of
x)
(a+x)
xY
(a
[<f>(x)]
and
n
we have
{[<t>(x)] <t>'(x)dx
and
The second
It
may
log (denominator).
For example,
is
of great
the integral of
is the differential
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
=
/co\,xdx
.#
dx
*"
/tan
Sill
x
dx
X
-a?^
log sin #,
cosx
EXAMPLES.
Write down the integrals
n x
e ,
of
~-,
(a
~\~ Ct
supplementary
list
given
later.
tUj
(e
U/^
dx
cos
x dx
27
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
28
them.
as
For
instance,
linear,
i
is
va
of zero
X"
dimensions.
tegral.
integration
d~" -\-
must be
of dimensions -1.
is
Thus the
of zero dimensions).
integral could
is
to be prefixed.
EXAMPLES.
Write down the
tions
'
2.
*
3.
cos -,
2
4.
cot
cos s# sin #,
.
x + tan x,
#e + e*
'
cos^f
V
-+-^snr^/
\sin^7
log sin x
CHAPTER
III.
METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
Change of the Independent Variable.
The independent variable may be changed from x
to z by the change x = F(z), by the formula
25.
V being any
Or
if
we
function of
write
x.
V=f(x),
To prove
this, it is
u = \Vdx\
then
=F.
dx
du
r dx
-- = du-_-=
dz
dz dx dz V-j~r
But
whence
u=
-j-.
dz
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
30
Thus
to integrate
1
-dx, let tan~ #=;s.
dx
and the
Then
integral becomes
*
dz
26.
it
equation
j^=F'(z)
as
dx = F'(z)dz]
may
*=d*
and
I+x*
l+.r
27.
is
we
write
Let
then
and
if
a;
be a and
b,
we have
METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
x = a,
x = b,
Now when
and when
Also
z = F~ \a)
31
z = F~ \b}.
f{F(z)}=-j^,{F(z)},
and
whence
so that the result of integrating f{F(z)}F'(z) with regard to z between limits F~\a) and F~\b) is identical
with that of integrating f(x) with regard to x between
the limits a and 6.
Ex.1.
Evaluate
cos \Txdx.
J N /a?
^x
Ex.
2.
Let ^
cosfjxdx
J z
Evaluate
=2;,
/.
Put ^?=tan
cos z dz
= 2 smz
.Aos x^dx.
cos x*dx
e,
-cos2. 2-2(^2=2
= 0,
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
32
ir
:.
f-T^=- dx =
ir
\J\+*
P *?| sec
sec#
= fsec
Ex.4.
Evaluate
x
dB
= sec - - sec = V2 - 1.
_x
[i.e.
\ Tsech^^].
j
fsec B tan
{
dx
f ex
'
Let 6^ = ^, then
3=e. Hence
dB =
dx = dz.
When #=0,
Ji
The
indefinite integral
is
tan~V.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Integrate
cose
- cos(log x)
x
2.
(Pat log x =
Evaluate \-=-,dx
(Put x*=z\
"
4
1+^
acos# + -
reintegrate
Evaluate f
^=4
(Put
-,
a^sin
I*
J
e
l-f#6
(Put
a*=z).
v
+ b tanh x.
(Put
^+1=4
5.
Evaluate
/"
6.
Evaluate
7.
Evaluate
dx
-
(Put
a*
(Put x-\=z).
da?
/*
J
8.
Evaluate [
9.
Evaluate
2V^(1+^)
-
2W# - 1
dx.
dx.
(Put
^=0 2).
METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
33
Definitions.
By
_ _ __
&
-*
ex
+e~ x
2
-e~ x
PTP
e?+e-*'
cosh
tanh#,
x,
29.
Elementary Properties.
We
clearly
etc.
have
tanh x
coth x
-,
C/
-
CJLJ.iJ.l
e~ x
sinho?
t&rihx
-=cosh
2 sinh x cosh x = 2
AM
^
-^
^
^
i.
c.
= sinh2#,
common
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
34
30.
Inverse Forms.
Put
x = smh y =
then
and
&=x
Thus
y = log(x
and we
with a positive
and
cosh y ==
= y, we
have
ty+e-y
JL
e*y
= x*Jx*-l,
and
ey
whence
y = log
and we
(x
*Jx l
/# 2
as
l
Again, putting i&nh- x
x = tanh y =
e2
and therefore
y,
whence
tanh
-l
we have
y=1
1),
with a positive
viz.,
32.
sign,
as sinh" 1 ^.
x = 4-" log
S^
1
05
sign,
METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
coth
Similarly
33.
.
sinh"
x = J log ---r-.
X
JL
We
,
~ l
,x
1
-
.,,
synonymous with
log
tanh
35
X
-
log"
Ct"^~X
and
coth" 1- synonymous with ^ log
34.
C ""
Cfc
The Gudermannian.
is
called the
Guder-
mannian
^=c
If
sin
a
and
sech 2 u = tanh
\/l
tan x =
tanh u
-,
seen
it,
= sinh u.
.
Hence
gd u = cos
sech
35. Further, if
sin
u = log tan( -r + ^ ),
\Qf
we have
"
+ tan|
;
2t/
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
36
whence
x c u -l
tan- =
2 tan
tan a; =
and
^TTT
=2
0_ e ~2~
Hence
Thus
~4^-
^ = tan
-l
.e!
u = gd u.
sinh
logtan(j+|)=gd-^
x.
EXAMPLES.
Establish the following results
1.
2.
/cosh#cfo?=sinh#.
4.
xdx = cosh x.
5.
sinh
sm
3.
2
(sech A'dr=taiihtf.
.^ o?.r
sech x.
cosh%
6.
J
7.
results
(a)
etc.,
METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
37
,*
and
Integrals of
36.
X -4-
The
differential
.,
dx
bimilarly
..
Jx/^
= log
-^
= smh .
-a
= logx + \/x
,
of log e
coefficient
a?
1l
-.
=cosh -1^
a
,
37.
is
Va -*
I
^, viz.,
sin' 1 -*
We
)*Jx*+a^
dx = a cosh u du and
Hence
W^ +
2
Similarly
dx
f
!
tt
\/x 2 + az = a cosh u.
= leZu = t6 = sinh"
J
putting a? = a cosh u, we
/
Jx/x 2
=
a2
I-
39.
Let
To integrate
*A
-tf 2
= a sin
dx = a cos
a?
-.
have
u du = f
11^
laK =u = cosh~ 1 -.
ri
a
sinh u
J
Fa sinh
Integrals of
then
is
d$,
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
38
{+/tf-^dx =
and
0+
ia sin 6 a cos
.
or
40.
sin-
To integrate
Let
then
-^
= a sinh z,
cf^ = acosh0
2
2
1 + sinh = cosh z,
cc
then since
we have
J^^dx = a
2
\
cosh 2 z dz
= |a sinh
.....
Va
2-smhx
METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
41.
39
To integrate
x
Let
a cosh z,
dx = a sinh z dz
then
then since
cosh%
2
1 = sinh 0,
2
2
Jsif^cPdx = a sinh dz
J
= Ja sinh z
or
C62?
a cosh
a2
^-,
-log42. If
we put tan# =
and therefore
we have
__
[by Art. 40.]
tan x sec 05
or
.,
h J log(tan a?
_snce_ +
&1
2 cos 2 # J log^
n
-,
+ sec ^),
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
40
43.
Let tan ^ = z
2t
2tan
Thus
sec x.
x7
dz
^dx =
^
2
or
dx
dz
-;
smx
cosec
In this example
xdx\
^.
x = -= + y.
let
2*
dx = dy,
Then
and
Hence
44.
x and
Integrals of cosec
We
sec
sec
or
&
~*
dx
.
,
Jx/^+o
f
x+\/x*+a?
a
dx
,x
JTP^l
+/x
=1
x 2 dx =
4 a 2 die =
a2 dx =
\\/a
l+Jx
METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
I
cosec
x dx = log
Isecsccfo
tan^.
=log tanf ^-
EXAMPLES.
Write down the integrals of
3.
4.
5.
7.
8.
^'
10.
Deduce
/
/
11.
-sin2^'
tanV 3sin^-
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
42
12.
Show
13.
Integrate
that
/
/
sec x dx
= cosh
1
tflogtf'
when
... ^7,
r times.
15.
Prove
[ST.
PETER'S COLL.,
etc., 1882.]
CHAPTER
IV.
INTEGEATION BY PARTS.
45,
"
Integration
u - +v-,
d
(uv}
,
Since
it
"
by Parts of a Product
= dv du
t
uv = u^- dx +
follows that
dv
lu-j-dx = wu
J dx
or
f
\
du
v-j- dx,
7
v-j~ dx.
dx
If
u = <f>(x) and
above rule
may
\<}>(x)\ls(x)dx=
the
so that
^- =\{s(x),
^=jT/r(#)cfe,
be written
$(x)\ \\ls(x)dx\
or interchanging
0'(oO| J^H[aj)da5Jcte;
^(35)
'
J^(oj)^(a?)dte=^(aj)
<f>(x)dx
j^'(^)
\dx.
:
J0(a?)efcB
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
44
which
may be more
0'(#)
lx/r(#)cfo
dx
product.
The
-the
Ex.
1.
Here
Integral of
Integrate
[Diff.
Co. of 1st
of 2nd].
x cos nx.
important to connect
it is
x Int.
if
xcosnxdx with
possible
Thus by the
rule
(x vxnxd**,*!*?- /"l.5
J
- n
'
sin 9^7
sin
'
If
cosn&N
"~~~~\
nx
n\
cos nx
Thus
log
xdx
log x dx
= x log x
=x log x
\dx
-(log x)dx
Thus
f
/
# 2 sin nx
n
?
#29cos nx dx
f
/
2#
45
by parts may be
nx 7
dx.
n
sin
and
n
finally,
Hence
x^ nx dx =****n
_
_^ COS
-*\
nL
n
#2 sin
nx
~
Zx cos nx
2 sin nx
T9
7^
Ex.
1.
and
therefore,
if
and
whence
sin bx dx
sin
bx-~\
e^cos bx dx,
ax
cos bx dx
cos
bx+-l
e^sin bx dx
P and
/
we have
ax
ax
Q stand
respectively for
$m bx dx and
ax
cos bx dx,
>
sin bx
b cos
bx
a 2 +or?2
and
w+v
(a
+6
)~ e
ax
cos ( bx
\
tan" 1 -
).
aJ
46
^)>& t^<^(^+^)'
ss < i
[Diff. Gale,
rx
inverse operation,
>
>
a
must divide out again the
_ ^=
to
if
differentiate
Va2 + 6 2 and
1
by tan" -, the integration, which
2
Integrate \/a
2.
For
obvious.
multiply
by a factor
r
factor
is
Va2 +6 2
-.
x l by the
rule of integration
by
A/o2^2
%
a2 sin~ l - -
CL
Integrate
Here
e*
v a2
2,
39.
sm x cos ^.
2
sin% cos 3# =
3x
-=
(1
_(2e
3a:
to
the
cos -x -
cos 4#)cos x
parts.
47
^
1,
e^siiA cos 3# dx
= cos
-j
tan~ r
- J_ cos(3^-^--^cosf5^-tan- 1 |)l
V
3/J
4/ ^34
V
3\/2
,:
p.
55, Diff.
EXAMPLES.
Integrate by parts
x
z
1. xe , x^e*, x e?) x cosh #,
:
5.
2
^?COS^7, ^ COS07, ^?COS2
x sin x cos #, ^ sin x sin 2# sin 3^.
#2logtf, ^nlog^7, ^n (log^) 2
e^sin^costf, e*sin x cos ^ cos 2#.
6.
7.
Calculate
8.
Show
9.
Integrate
2.
3.
4.
ax
50.
|^sin^^,
that
Isin" 1 ^^,
/^sin" 1 ^^,
Geometrical Illustration.
PN QM
QM
area
But
PNMQ = f
48
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
and
area PN^M^Q =
x dy.
cv\
Thus
ri
y
M,
N,
may
49
be written
is
'*
established
geometrically.
Integrals of the
51.
Form
a^sin nx dx,
#mcos nx dx.
may readily
Sm and Cm
.
m~
cos nx
and(7m =
Thus
and Om =
cosnx
____
+m^
,
_---
,sin7i#
m(m
-----
- l,cosnx
and Cm =
sin
nxdx=
J
E.
I.
C.
1)
>S n
v___
771(971
cos
me
m=
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
50
xv
GT
f
I
cos
at.
=
Ice
o\
sin
\x cos
7
=
nx dx
t
\
sinrac
7
=
nx dx
T^CC
eosnx
sinnx
^
=
ax
by
successive applications of
52.
Parts.
If
u and
where
by
uvdx = uvl
u^ n
~ 1^
u'v
written for
is
TI
=uvl
\u\dx,
Vufv^dx
=u'v 2
\u v^dx,
dx =u"vz
u(n -
u with
\uvdx
\vtf'v
parts,
l)
dashes; for
rf
Vuf'Vzdx,
u^'v^dx,
= etc.
Vn _ 1 dx = u(
n ~ Vv
- I vf^Vndx.
Ex.
If
1.
u v dx = uvl
we apply
u'v 2
+ u"vs
(xmea*dx=xm
Ex.
-mxm-
\x m e axdx, we immediately
this rule to
a2
2.
#msin nx dx
may be
and
m cos nx dx
EXAMPLES.
"Write
1.
down
x*e*,
the integrals of
^coshtf, ^sinh^.
Evaluate
^sin^o?^,
x^co^xdx^
*0
53.
The determination
of the integrals
may
be at once
Ja3
n e aa; cos bx
dx,
effected.
For remembering
n
where
r=
va + 6
2
and
u'"v4 +...
obtain
51
tand>=-,
ct/
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
52
we have
I
xne axsm bx dx =
e ax sin
(bx
d>)
e axsin (bx
r2
^^~
r3
n\
e ax {P sin
or
bx
Q cos
where
3- COS
Q=
xn
sin
xn ~ l
^-
sin
20 + n(n
1)
30
xn ~^
^- sin 30
...
...
Similarly
1.
Since
Integrate
ix^smxdx.
\e*smxdx
S^e^sinf
we have f^3 e
.r
-^J,
a:
a;
- ? V4
2~VsinCr- TT)
=etc.
Ex.
2.
Prove
/r=n
^Vto^ito-^-iy^j^^
^|
- rjQ
^s
EXAMPLES.
1.
Integrate (a)
~
femai lxdx.
(5)
(sfaitr^xdx.
(c)
Ixv&Pxdx.
(d)
(e)
/"
'(/) /"cos-
^.
Integrate (a) [
(&)
x sm " 1
fdx.
(c)
/^5^&'.
(d)
/sin- 1
'
r pin tan - l x
tan - l x
53
-dx.
dx.
(c)
/ptn
*-*
dx.
4.
5.
../*..
(b)
xefsm^x dx.
(c)
Integrate
Integrate
7.
Integrate
8.
Integrate
9.
Integrate (d)
log
/cos
10.
11.
Prove that
Integrate
(a) \x
(e)
(/)
^ 2 2*sin
cos
c?
(a
dx.
\dx.
- sin' 1 ^ dx.
x
201og(l+tan
0)dO.
^^
1-cos^
/"
2.
b log
-j
J*4|^.
(&)
T-
..
e(suix + cosx)ax.
6.
i /\
...
Integrate (a)
v
2
dx=u
TKJPOS) 1892<]
[a, 1892.]
c?v
sin% + 26
du
d^u
+ v-dx.
sin x cos
x + c cos 2^)e*^
[a,
1883.]
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
54
12.
Show
where the
that
if
u be a
series
is
necessarily finite.
[TRIN. COLL., 1881.]
13. If
ax
cos bxdx, v
and that
14.
(a
ax
sm bx dx, prove
that
*.
Prove that
m+L
m+1
Also that
where
15.
(m+1)
(-ir-^! ?
^"-
Prove that
(i.)
{e^w
J
ax
)&2 le ^
+^""j
J
a?+ri
2
n -'2
bxdx.
b'
[BERTEAND.]
16.
Evaluate
x* log(l
iT5
that
'
[a,
1889.]
CHAPTER
V.
Integration of
or
and
a?
a2
x2
___a
2aj\x
1,
= slog
&
2a
Ja 2
^
a;
a# 4- a
a^
9
2
(x<a\
x+a
F=
L
i^"l
.1
coth" 1
aJ
!f(-J-+_J_Yfo
a x/
2aJ\a4-a)
= ^1
2a
losr
to
a+oj
a a;
l,i
T^l
=-tanh" La
aj
1
INTEGRAL CALCULUS,
56
viz.,
dx
C
= -1 tan' 1 x\
o
!~n
a/
Jcr+or a
55.
Integration of
Let
f-H
a
J
=1
f
6
dx
dx
f.
aJ
a^a
AV_-
"
2J
^2a/
4a 2
dx
or
>
if 6 2
or
If b 2
<
coth" 1
4>ae,
I=
or
4ac,
--
tan
"
cot
-.-
form
px + q
can be obtained at once by the following transformation
pb
px + q
_p
(2ax+b)
~~
first
2a
part being
^
Za log (ax
+bx+ c),
last
article.
how
is
obtained.
'
^+
may
2).
be thrown
into the
by comparing
coefficients,
giving
X=
and
pb
--
Then
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
58
EXAMPLES.
Integrate
1.
xdx
4.
5.
^ a^
/7/y.
//y>
x* + 2x+l
3.
58.
^t
fo+ 1 )^
c^
I \2
f/v
/"
Jfl-LZ-^p.
x2 +?
6.
and Denominator.
Expressions of the form A~4, where f(x) and
9w
</>(#)
Ax+B
Ax+B
and
And when
Any
A log (x - a).
fraction of the
-.
i
integrates
form
rl
^~*
A
(xa) r
a)
~v
integrates into
Any
-- has been
g4
ax*+bx+e
form
59
dis-
+ a) +b ]
fractions such as
YT~+
\2
7>2ir
#) ~rfr
[_(#
6,
by
aid of
x+a
T)
tions of the
form
T)
r^r^.+7
r
(x+a+ib)
by
Ex.1.
59.
Integrate
We have
*2+
..
^+?
J[ (x-a)(x-b}(x-c)
a2 +pa+q
(b-c)(b-a)~^b
(x-a)(x-b)(x-c)~(a-b)(a-c)x-a
c*+pc + q
dx.
_ y a?+pa + q 1
^(c-a^c-b^x-c-^a-b^a-c^x-a:
and the integral
is
a' +
]g
ggg
log(^7
-^-
- a).
(a-b)(a-c)
Ex.
2.
Let
Then
Thus
,dx.
J(^-l
A(x* + 4) +
whence
and
Integrate
^1=1
^+
<?)(#
J5=-^,
- 1) = x.
(7=f,
_-^=1 J__l^li=i_L_i__?^.
~2
i_
'
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
60
and the
Ex.
integral
3.
is
Integrate
Put
Hence the
is
?/.
= Aj/
fraction becomes
3
Dividing out until y
Hence the
-dx.
+ 2y
fraction
1311111
and therefore
^2
Ex.4.
Let
a?
is
Integrate
= 1 +y
then
by
until y 4
2+3+3+
1+2+1
l + f+f+
i-i-i
j+t+
-f-f-i
f++f
+tf +if +
tt-A-A
551
Now
11
-5j/-5y
and by Rule 2, p. 61,
and
^.2
ijj
(a?
- 1)4 (^3 + 1)
l+#
2(^7
-L
is
3(^
I!
i
\(x)
x+1
Thus
ll-5y-
plainly
48
A7
61
8(^7
- 1) 2
+1
(2a?-l)-3
^2-
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
62
EXAMPLES.
1.
v11 *'
(iii.)
w'
^+
T~\*
a)-
^ + b)~\
V11 V
?T7
\7
~f~
"a
*--&)
(viii.)
(iv)
-/
>
"^
2.
Evaluate
3.
Integrate
W
(i)
4.
f
J (^2 +a
dx
2+62 y
(iii)'
f
J
Integrate
(i.);
v
xd*
J^+^ + l
(iii.)
v
J^+l
(iv.)
f A4
-^2 +l
J^
['
a?2
do?.
(v.)
(vi.)
/"(^-
"t
cto.
\'
Integrate
/.
xdx
dx
dx
(vii.)
(iiL >
(^&T4)-
W ^<**>
()
(
V
x
A */\
~(~&
i\/
(x*+ lX-^-4)'
6.
Integrate
J~.
~3,J~*
(VI.)
d^t?
~
/T
\o/i
~t
o\'
-7
V*-'"^*^
(viii.)
''
(#-l)
(#2
+ iy
7.
Evaluate
8.
c
o
9.
10.
cos x dx
Investigate
Show
^2 + 1)3
that
r. _f^
fa
o
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
64
11.
Prove that
dx
[+*
J
(x*
a+b
2?r
_2?r
~~
ax+ 2X^2
bx + b'2 )
V3
ab(d>
[COLLEGES
12.
Show
that the
sum
7, 1891,]
CHAPTER
VI.
60,
i.
Integration of
Case
I.
When a
-y=
Positive.
is
positive
we may
If
may
+&\
arrange as
._.
aJ 7/
+2bx+c.
dx
If ______.^= dx
=_..___^_^==
I
which we
R = ax
where
Qp
-ac
_If
__
dx
.
x/J
2
according as 6 is greater or less than ac, and the real
form of the integral is therefore (Art. 36)
+
= cosh ~ *
2
^
Vo ac
,
.,
ax
or
2
according as &
E.
T.
C.
is
>
or
<
7^
Va
smh ~ 1
.
ax + b
,
x/ac
62
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
66
be written in the
may
the constant
T= log
*J a
Also since
cosh
and
sinh
1
and
v6
= cosh ~ l
,
-7=.
V^
sinh
"
,
1
~ ac
being omitted,
~l
z = sinh
~l
z = cosh
ax + b
ax + b
7--
\/z
=.
sinh
"
= 17^ cosh
,
b2
\/ac
\/z
1,
1,
\/aR
T
1
-
x/aJi
7
\/a
\/ac
b2
Case
a Negative.
II.
If in the integral
dx
'
)*Jax
write
a=
A.
Then our
1
ZJ
or
or
7=:
sin
+2bx+c
integral
dx
a be negative
may
be written
67
or omitting a constant
- ,1
ax-+
---b
-^
n,
for
2J'
Also since
we have
cos
= sin ~
x/l
cos~
V&
when ^R
R = ax +
2
ac
\/b*
It thus appears
s that
7?
negative,
ac.
positive.
/ac^P'
and the
Ex.
real
form
is
^
1.
Integrate
We may
-7-
write this
cfo?
= - smh- i#._,
.
v/2
p=. v/UJSIl
\/2
i.e.
\/23
'
\/23
V2
log
).
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
68
Ex.
dx
2.
Integrate (
J
This integral
may
be written
dx
and therefore
= sin" -^^
1
is
which may
\/41
\/2
also be expressed as
-F=>
-^cos
V2
*/41
EXAMPLES.
1.
Integrate
--^
dx
{
JV^
+ 2a? + 3
{
J
dx
2.
Integrate
dx
-,
A/2- 3.* -2#2
/"
62.
3.
Integrate
4.
Integrate
which,
>Ja + Zbx+cx*dx
/\/a + 2&#
Functions of the
be integrated by
or
may
first
cyPdx
Form
putting
(c
positive).
(c positive).
-=====
may
x/a^
-.
+26^+c
by equating
Ax+B
ex/
69
is
A
and that of the second has been discussed in Articles
60, 61.
EXAMPLES.
Integrate
2.37
+3
x+b
63.
Odd
Integral
Index.
To
integrate
smxdx=
x = c,
dc,
Hence
fsin^+^cfo
=-
((I-c
2
)
dc
__
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
70
=
Similarly, putting since s,
we have
I
cos* n+l x
dx =
s 2 ) n ds
(1
nn
L_
'
>
\7l.
or q odd.
form
Similarly, any product
admits of immediate integration by the same method
whenever either p or q is a positive odd integer, what64.
of
the
xdx= dc.
- sin
therefore
Hence
c4 (l
cos
^7
~5~'
2 2
c )
9J
dc
cos 7^;
cos 9^?
^f~
"T"'
/^
sin
2
sin^(l sin x)d (sin x)
p+^
p+q=
2n,
being integral.
Thus
)
|
^
8
a5
p+i
Irf
4- n ~*-(j
,
__
tan^ +6 a5
I-
4--
n ~ l dt
we put
if
cot
x = c, then
71
cosec 2 ^
dx
dc,
and
\&DPxco&xdx= -
1.
Integrate f?^<fo?.
J
This
may
sura
be written
and the
It
result
may
therefore
is
CcosPx
sPx
-r-^-dx =
6
J sin ^?
f
I
/T
o
2
6
J taii
\,, an
x=-
x thus
5
tan~
#
-
Ex.
2.
/sec" (9 cosec"
66.
d<9
ftan~*0rftan0
-f tan~%=
- f cot*0.
Any
any product of
f
\
cos
7
=
nx dx
siunx
cosnx
if-sin nx dx= --7
and
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
72
r
J} x
x. 1 .
Ex.
2,
Ex.
3.
/-t-UU^^
/^^2^^r^,_
cos x c/Lx =:
Sin
2.27
cos% dx=
/
j=
(|
<**
1
%x + J sin 2# + g ^ sin Ax.
is
cos
# dx
(1
.2?)a?
4.
Integrate
I8m9xdx.
;
then
2 cos x
2t sin x
=y
-,
2i sin
nx
Thus
sin 8.??
Thus
73
irsiii8#
-
and \$n$xdx=
2i
J
Ex.
5.
Put
L_
Integrate
and
^=
6^+8
cos'8#
7
sin4#
-
Kc
-56
sin2^?
Q * "1
+35#
.
_J
2^
then
8 cos
sin 6^cos 2
= 2 cos 8#
OQ
-8O sin6^ + 28
cos
+ 4 cos 6^
4 cos kx
10,
4 cos 2^7 +5
V,
whence
68. NOTE.
It is convenient for such examples to remember
that the several sets of Binomial Coefficients may be quickly
reproduced in the following scheme
:
121
1331
14641
1
10
10
15
20
15
21
35
35
21
28
56
70
56
28
etc.,
number being formed at once as the sum of the one immediately above it and the preceding one. Thus in forming
the 7th row we have
each
0+1 = 1,
+ 5=6,
5 + 10
= 15,
10 + 10=20,
etc.;
74
1\ 6 /
(;*/
+-
and
coefficients of
(1-/)
(1
are
- t) G(l + 1)*
coefficients of (1
are
1-5+ 9- 5- 5 + 9-5 + 1,
1-4+ 4+ 4-10 + 4+4-4 + 1,
1+4 + 6 + 4 + 1,
1+3 + 2-2-3-1,
1+2-1-4-1 + 2 + 1,
and the last row are the coefficients required.
The coefficients here are formed thus
:
1-0=1,
4-1=3,
6-4 = 2,
4-6=-2,
etc.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Integrate
Integrate
3.
Integrate
4.
Evaluate
5.
2
Integrate sin 2.# cos .r,
6.
Show
ir
ir
ft
/
sin^ctr,
cos 5^?c?^,
^0
*0
7.
that
Show
/
(i.)
si
that
f
I
7
=
sm wia? cos w^ a^7
.
cos(m+?iV
v
!
cos(m
),
72-V
y
.
(11.)
'
/...
(in.)
/*
- ---
mx sin nx dx = sin(m
.
sin
[
/
n)x
sin(
-)
2(m-n)
cos mx cos
75
2(
--
7
= sin(w
dx
-)
ft.2?
%).
2m-7i)
Deduce from
(ii.)
and
(iii.)
by independent
integration.
Thus
sec 2#
dx
= tan x,
sec 4#
dx
SQCQX
dx
f
I
4
=1(1 + 2 tan%c + tan #) d tan x
= tan x+2
and generally
where
Similarly
dx
cosec 4^ (i^
(1
cot
cosec 2^
cot x,
=, eta
etc.,
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
76
and generally
2w+2aj
^3
= -cc = cot x.
dx
where
-W
C- ~
s>5
/>2n-fl
By
we have
differentiation
at once
d
and
(n + l)cosec
n+2&
n cosec
7l
o?
x cosecna
-7-(cot
doc
whence
w+2 ^j dx
(n + 1 ) sec
tan x sec n#
+^
se
and
(ti
+1
Thus
as
and
sec
we may
= log
x dx
tanf^ + ^
tan^
by
successively putting
formulae.
. .
n = I,
3, 5, etc.,
sec 3# dx
# sec 3^+ 1
Thus
cosec n# dx
cose.c n+2
-+
etc.,
in the above
sec 3^
),
77
"
"
are called
REDUCTION
will meet with many others
in Chapter VII.
postpone till that chapter the
consideration of the integration of such an expression
as sin^cos^ except for such cases as have been
already considered.
Such formulae as
formulae, and the student
71.
We
Any
73.
may
integral
power
of a tangent or cotangent
be readily integrated.
~2
tannx dx = tan n
For
l)dx
x(sec?x
= Itann - 2a3c?tan#
idM.n
~l
n -^1
And
since
and
we may
tan #
tan%c
dx =
(sec
f,
tan ?l
tan 3#cfo?=
#cfe.
l)dx = tan x
5
Thus we have
-2
ltan w
etc.
x,
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
78
[
By
we
2^-3
2?i-l
+ (-l)w ~
and
tan-+^=^^
_ tan^^
Similarly
I
coi nx
dx
cot n
^~
-711
cot 71
=
whilst
and
icot^^aj
cot 2 ^
~2
-1
r-
n-2
#CfcE,
|COt
= log sin x.
^=
2
I
(cosec
1 )dx
cot
74.
Integration of
dx
a+bcosx
etc.
as
s
- sin
|j,
79
(a
or
(fa
Thus
-AgU-j
6
or
(1)
CASE
I,
If
>
b this
becomes
tan
a- 6
/a+6
tan ?|
,
or
2J-
Since
we may
write this as
1-
1
=5-
COS
b,
g+ b
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
80
or
COS"
CASE
II.
If
<
b,
*-
+ bcosx
dian.~
(2)
in place of the
form
(1)
we have
UjiAj
fti _1_
in this case
n
a
A
b
IT.
Ib
+a
17
Ib
>
lo g
/6 2
we may
may
-a
be written
tanh~
~l
z = cosh
~1
:cosh~
-L-^
or
2'
1
still
a tan
+a vb
2 tanh
'
\J~b
Art. 33 this
+a
V6^~ tan 2
v6 + a + \/b
or, since
Art. 54
J.
A
f*na sv*
bcosx
Vf^
By
by
a.
nX
tan 2 ^
+a
^b+a
rjr>
a tan ^
We
81
therefore have
b,
i.e.
dx
bcosx
a+
er
or
cosh-
< b.
a+bcosx
Jl?-
75.
The
be im-
-r
a+ b cos x + c sin x may
integral of
tan~V
cos(x
),
b/
down
than ^/5*+c*.
dx
Ex.
13
4-
in
3 cos x H- 4 sin
dx
f
[
13 + 5 coe(# - a)
12
1
$.
I.
C.
(where tana = ^)
:-a)
/13 2 - 5 2
or
--
-i/2
.'T
a\
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
82
76.
The
dx --
integral
Ja + 6sm#
,
may
be easily deduced
by putting
then
dx
o sin x
a + j.
dv
f
=B IJ
o cos y
a + ^-
be written
may
+
a(cos |
2
cos 2
or
The
^(
sin 2
|j
down
in both
also independently
+ 26 sin | cos |,
a + 26 tan - + a tan2
^ J.
arise as before.
The integral
x
I
may
treated.
dx
dx
be similarly
this =
a,,x
lb
and
if b
<
a the integral
2
*~
+ a cosh #
a + fccosha'
,6
A___
is
,
7-27-2
62
'a 2
tanh "
la
b,
tanh
V^a+o
4.
z
r,
/)
9'
7===- cosh
a + b cosh x
and of
a + bsinhx
may
a + bcoshx + csmhx
be easily obtained.
EXAMPLES.
,
1.
2.
Integrate
8ecxdx
Integrate
(i.)
(ii.)
3.
Vtan# ax.
7
sm#cos#
Integrate
(i.)
a + b tail x
-.
J (a sin
r-
x + o cos xy9
83
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
84
Prove
4.
that,
constants involved
=L= -
/"%=
J
J(a-x)(x-(3)
.-(3
and integrate
____
v (x
a)(/3
x)dx.
a
5.
Integrate
,. v
(')
/
U11 '-'
dx
>}
.r
'
}
(
Ou27
cos a
3(l-s
v -)
^'''^
J cos a + COS.T'
(viii-)
(1
(vii.)
and
r"
SC &^%
+ cos x
prove
o
6.
Integrate
(i.)
(ii.)
(iii.)
7.
8.
9.
10.
Integrate
Integrate
Integrate
Interate
f-
^/
dk
____
C?Jt'
V a(^ - b) + V 6(^ - a)
<**
f
7
-+^-
fsm^
sm2^
cos +shl
fcos201og COS0-S1TL0
^
fa.
1+cosx
^^
2
siii
<9
+6
cos 2 ^'
.77
Integrate
12.
Integrate
13,
sm x
_dx.
VI + sin x
sec ^
Integrate
J 1
14.
dx.
+ cosec x
/- f^fl_f_.
v a + b tan 2#
Integrate
15.
^'
fVr^
1 + sin x
Evaluate
16.
[****"****&,.
Integrate
log tan ^7
J
17.
Integrate
Vsin 2(9
18.
19.
Integrate
Integrate
fcot0-3cot30
J
20.
Integrate
Wo?
/" 7
J (x si
21.
Integrate
22. Integrate
f-^
V cos
~ CQS ^
f A /_
'
(9(1
+ cos
6>)(2
+ cos 6>)
23.
Integrate
24. Integrate
.
"
Integrate
sin ^?
(sin
+ cos
f-
25.
f
J
sin
a?
mg-coeg
6y
85
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
26.
.
Integrate
sin" 1
27.
28.
Integrate
l+x2
?
J
Integrate (
J
sin
^,
2#
sin
sin&r
dx.
'
J sin
+
[THIN. COLL., 1892,]
CHAPTER
VII.
REDUCTION FORMULAE.
REDUCTION FORMULAE.
functions occur whose integrals are not
to one or other of the standard
reducible
immediately
forms, and whose integrals are not directly obtainable.
In some cases, however, sucft integrals may be linearly
connected by some algebraic formula with the integral
of another expression, which itself may be either immediately integrable or at any rate easier to integrate
than the original function.
79.
Many
For instance
it
will be
shown that
(a
+#
)^fe can
2
be expressed in terms of
+ # 2 )^fe, and this latter
J(a
itself in
terms of
J(a
+ ar)^cfe,
may
relations
80.
The student
be inferred.
are
called
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
88
method
On
X stands
be
a positive
series,
is
integrable.
/v
and
being integers
s positive.
II.
777/
when
is
a positive integer.
X = a + bxn = z
Let
.'.
n ~ l dx
bnx
and
is
s
,
dz
zs
r
bn)
\x
and when
= sz
~l
When
is
is
binomial and
(z
-a)~
n+
'
REDUCTION FORMULAE.
may
may
TD
IV. If
may
89
is
proceed thus
rn _
rn
and by cases
II.
and
III. this is
integrable
when
m-\--
is either a positive or a
negative integer by the
substitution b
ax~ n =-zs
That is, the expression is
integrable
when
777
\-- is
p a positive
(2)
integer.
an
integer.
[-p
an
777
(3)
Ex.
1.
integer.
Integrate (^(c
=an
integer.
Let
so that
Then the
%x*dx= 2zdz.
integral becomes
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
90
Ex.
2.
Here
The
Integrate
m=
n = 3,
integral
is
x*(a?
p=b
+ x^dx.
and
n +p
is
an
integerc
'
Let
-3-.
then
XT
= sec 6,
partial fractions.
however,
If,
be put
the process of putting the expression into partial fractions will be avoided and the final integration may be quickly
effected (Art. 70).
82.
\x m
x m \X
P-
1^
xm-n- IXPdx,
xm
n - lX? +l
dx,
m+n Xm+n
Let
P=
indices of x
X+1
JTya+1
and
~1
where A and
JUL
to be connected.
Find
dP
-p.
Re-
is
complete.
REDUCTION FORMULAE,
Ex.
txm
Connect
1.
P=xmXp
Let
-l
91
(x^
X\lx with
Then
dx
Hence
etc., etc."]
x m -^Xp
~l
dx,
or
Ex.
nect
/
(#
As
2.
this
with
integral
+ aPfdX)
and
(x
+ cfifdx, and
this
con-
again with
the reduction is
used
twice,
we
((a?+arfdx with
will connect
((
P=x
Let
[which
is
now "rearranged
as a linear function,
etc.,
etc."\
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
92
P=(n +
Integrating,
and
1)
I(x
+ a?fdx-na?
/"(
n+I
Putting
?i
=5
and
ft
= 3,
((
and
Then
3i
6.4
Ex.
3.
We shall
positive integer.
m
l%
mJf
Let
^(Za-x?dx
P=^m+1?(2a-^)
1r
endeavour to connect
>JZax-x'*dx
(x
i.e.
[^x^-^ax-x^dx,
m~l
with
*J%ax-x*dx
with
(x
~\2a-x*fdx.
Hence
m+
(m + 2) fx
^(2a
- xm ^(2a -
- xfdx
^ + (2m +
l)a
m
fx ~\2a - xfdx
being a
REDUCTION FORMULAE.
a
93
xm *J?Ltix
_
ra
+2
xm*j%ax -
/la,
m+2
Jo
and
x*dX)
m be
a positive integer,
2ra-l
2m -3 a3/
2m-l
-.
m+1
Now
to find
IQ
m+ 1
or
2m-3
'
fj^ax
an d
^l^ax
x^
m -z _ etc.
.
5
'
m
'
"*4
x^dx, put
x=a(\
dx = a sin
Then
J.
2m -1
'
"mT2
a sin
cos
0).
0.
Also
Hence
7=
Hence
-m-
1)...3
r_ (2m + l)!
+2?
(m+2)(m + l)...3
m!(m + 2)!
EXAMPLES,
Apply the rule stated in Art. 82 to obtain the following
reduction formulae (when
+ bxn)
X=a
1.
J
2.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
94
(,-^
3.
J
4.
(
J
(a*-*X*dx
^ ^P {x+
mm]
= xm
J
6..
Integrate out
7.
m = l, m=2, m = 3,
and
and
of integration are
83.
xm^(^Lax
when the
limits
2a.
for
x^dx
sin^a?
co&x dx.
sin^
"2
# cos?# dx,
~
sinpx cos 9 ^x dx,
si
si
'
sin^
-2
by the following
rule.
Find
-T-,
ax
the
REDUCTION FORMULAE.
Integrate and the connection
95
is effected.
Ex.
/
Let
P=s
=(p
= (p
[Note the
last
l)sm
p ~ 2x cos g
^(l
I )sin^~
two
# cos 9#
lines of
*
.
Hence
P=
/
p-I
siii^~
2
^7
sin.^ cos%^ = -
(q -f l)si
^)sin^ cosPx
rearrangement as a linear function of
sin^cos^ and
.
sin #)
(
-h
cos 9^ dx
-(
p+
8m *~^X cosq+l*
p+q
q)
si
+ zi (*
P + qJ
where either
EXAMPLES.
Connect the integral fsin*4?cos?#ei? with
1.
2.
3.
sm px
4.
/*sin^-
5.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
96
6.
fsin^^ _
Prove that
cousin- *
Employ
8.
4
Integrate sin
To
5^n
(7n
Connect
fl
I
sin n^c
P = sinn ~
dx
with
sinn
= (n
f
lsin n
^a^=
Hence
since
l )sin n
~2
dx.
--sm
n~
xcosx
sin
If
-^ cos &
2,
----712
71
3
^
71
7i
^
4
a
>w-
Ti-l Ti-3
r ~ z
n
xdx.
x = J, we have
= 711 ^
n -\sm
J
if 71
su nx
dx
.*.
~2
dP
cos w# dx,
71
Let
f^,.
J
7.
84.
-I
"~'ii^V"g
3
4
Iff
J
2j
REDUCTION FORMULAE.
Ti-1 7i-3
that
is
If
n -2
n
we
be odd
f-j
il/
^^
TT
422'
similarly get
1
-L
ll/
.v
Q
^^ O
A,
TJ
9
Z<
"P
<S
/
I
Ufl
71
and
3 1
'"
since
sin
97
<r
* * *
xdx =
dm w
w U**/j
rl w
.
-|
E*-1-11
3J
cos
2"
x r
=1
we have $n =
Ti-1
7i-3
1
In a similar
way
it
2'" 5*
may
2
3*
be seen that
/.<,, ^|.
[The student should notice that these are written down most
by beginning with the denominator. We then have the
ordinary sequence of natural numbers written backwards.
Thus the first of these examples is
(10 under 9) x (8 under 7) x (6 under 5), etc.,
easily
stopping at (2 under
1),
-.
35
E.
I.
C.
it
ter-
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
98
85.
To investigate a formula
r2
for
si
tanP^^
p+q
we
if
have,
less
then since
p + qJ
be not
than 2
GASP:
I.
If
>
6e ei>e7i
= 2m,
(2m-l)(2m-3)
/(v
2r
</v
^/^
/(O,
2) =
\
/i
7/1
^i
1 2ft
3)...l
j
and
= 2n,
1 TT
Thus
CASE
II.
/(2m,
and
If
2^-1)=
6e 6^67^
'
1,
we
If
III.
=2m
odd
be
99
and q even
= 2n,
obtain similarly
1.3.5...(
This
may
also be
II.
by putting
-J-*
( sin*<9 cos0
for
dO =
r
si
so that
CASE IV.
Ifpbeodd
=2m
l,and g odd
(2m-2)(2m-4)
27i-2)(2m + 27i-4/
=2n
2 ^_i )
1,
= e tc.
(2m-2)(2m-4)...2
A(
2^-2)(2m + 2w-4)...(2^ + 2)
7T
and
/(I,
2w -
1)
Tsin
J
(9
cos
rule as follows
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
100
T(n + 1) where
'
instance,
5 4F(4) = 5
= 5.4.3.2.ir(l) = 5!
V-) =F(f )= S PXiHf
T(6)
=5F(5)=
This function
is
called a
I-
f r(f )=
| f fr(
.
Gamma
its
function, but we
properties further
here.
The products
1.3.5...
2n-I
2.4.6
2u
...
TT
sin^0 cos?0
may
^(2n+l\_2n-l
1
\~~2~)
2n-3 2n-5
l
'
2~
so that
/y 7T
and
sothat
Hence
in Case
I.
r /l\
V2/'
d9
REDUCTION FORMULAE.
In Case
II.
In Case
III.
we
101
In Case IV.
It will
we
result, viz.,
7T
f
and that the
the
sum
This
?9
of the 1
+1
+l
#4-1
and the
is
in the numerator.
IT
Thus
f \in6
s
cos 8
dO
= -*
.,
__f f
'
j-
V^TT
j"
f f
*
i|
^/?T
_ 5?T
2.7 .6.5.4.3.2.f~~2 15
'
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
102
For
instance,
6
(sin
6>cosW6>
[sin^(l-sin
-^^,
79
761
6'Xsm6'=^
and
Similarly,
cos 2 6>(l
-2
"i
COS
-
+2Q
<9,
COS 5 <9
COS 7 6n
.jo,!
Jr 4-"-*^*s
and
^,
tt
we must
EXAMPLES.
Write down
1.
the values of
67.
REDUCTION FORMULAE.
103
sm 2m Ocos 2n 6d0
(2)
sin
J
4.
I?L_?.-_.
-Em+n
-Bm+n-l
fsitfO
indefinite integrals of
dO,
fsin 7
fsitfO
cos 2
d0
fsiu
fsitfO cos 5
dO,
cos 4 ^ dO.
Evaluate
rf
sin 5 ^cos 2
^^.
rT
sin4 #<w,
sm 2 6
__
/3"
7T
7T
7T
/-^
6.
7.
'
r(ii)r(zl)
V 2
V
y
7
result
sm
of Art. 84 for
x dx from the
of Art. 86.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Prove that
(a)
I
/
(b)
cos 2w <
= -1 tan
^^t
</>
cos-
n
c/>
+ M - ~\
\
2iii /
Jf
cos 2
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
104
2.
when
and n are
tegration
3.
if
ra=5,
7i
positive integers,
= 7.
[ST.
and by means
2
271+2
show that
of this integral
27i
+ 4 2.4
+ 6 2.4.6
271
._J_
271 + 8
adinf
2. 4. 6. ..27i
~~3. 5.7...27i +
Sum
l'
1
I
2^ + 3
271+1
1.3
2.4
1
I
1.3.5
,
_1_
>
+ 5 2.4.6
27i
271
\f
OjCll ITlrT
+7
Prove that
2n+l
(rf
*-,
6.
x(a + bx)
(a)
prove
for
*dx,
(y)
*^*+a)*r,
/2p+l
and obtain the value
7.
of
( S)
positive integer,
/*(*
[COLLEGES>
I
ax
cos
CAMR]
x dx, where n
is
and evaluate
[OXFORD, 1889.]
1 05
8.
#w sin x dx
latter a
and
ax
sin
x dx.
a* 8in"*<fe.
[COL1KGES
Jcos
189o.]
Tt
un
If
9.
rT
/
si
prove that
^-l-
and deduce
un = -
--sv +
--rC-f 1-/ --3),
-+^
/b
(^ l)(n-2)
n(
rc-
-^^
2 n+1 In
>
" \f
1)
(2ro-lX2ft-3)...3
TT
'
8'
Show
that
'
wi
2/3
n2fifJ)
Prove that
7
12.
2.4.6 ...2m
_1.3.5 ...(2w-l) TT
~2.4.6...2m
4~3.5.7...(2m + l)
Find a formula
of reduction for
f-~=L1
Show
1
'
2*
that
^ v'^
3. 5. 7. ..(27i+l)l
where a1} a 2
13.
Show
2 TO
cos
...
4-
sn^
~~ mm
~T72
m is
JOHN'S, 1886.]
mx cosm# dx
= r+where
[ST.
that
an integer.
sn^
~"
[COLLEGES
a,
1885.]
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
106
14.
Show
that
Prove that
[OXFORD, 1889.]
if
=
Im, n
cos m# sin
nx da:,
m
cos x cos nx + m/m _i
(m + n)Im) n =
92
n _i ?
9i\
93
[if
^-l^(2 +i+i + - + ^J1
If
16.
,1
prove that
/m? w =
/rm
cos%^7
-
[BERTRAM]
m^ -^^
2
cos
f-
x\
T
v
- + m(ml)
2
m*-n ./^m-2,
cEr\oos9u;/
n,
7^^;
/I
prove that
Hence
^m
'
-- m + n m
m+
dx\
_i
M _I.
?i
(when
m is a positive
cos m# sin
integer) of
2mx dx.
[7, 1887.]
/If
o
18.
Prove that
r'2cosnx
cos
nx dx=
J
19.
If
m + n be
IT
T
2 n+1
[BKRTRAND.]
co
m-n.
i
[COLLEGES, 1882.]
REDUCTION FORMULAE.
20.
107
[COLLEGES, 1886.]
/
TT
V
TT
21. If
cos m# cos
nx dx be denoted by/(m,
show that
71),
[OXFORD, 1890.]
22.
Prove that
n be a
if
ft
I
cos
n~ 2
x sin nx dx = -
Ti-l*
[OXFORD, 1889.]
23.
in nx-.
/"sin
^ -
J
24. If
n=
u m)
m is not
where
fLJlfl&pj
less
smo?
than
ft,
and
TTC, 7^
show that
- m(m - l)u m - n - = 0.
2)
2)u m) n + m?um) n _ 2
l)(n
un =
If
un = , -
show that
A= -
where
Show
being
26.
less
(n
l)(a
o 2)
^ = - 7i-2n
16
(i_ e2)|
than unity.
J
27. If
+ J5 M
-3) a
b2
(l-e
Prove that f
terms when
n-
I*
that
._:
=-,
a2
J
e
-2
[ST.
sinW<r
a+ 6 cos o?
can ^ e integrated in
finite
m is an integer.
Un =
sinm^
{-.
J(a + 6cos^)
from a formula
prove that
of reduction of the
can be calculated
form
A Un + B Un -! + (7f7w _ = sin w+
2
^7n
C.
X+
1891.]
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
108
28.
'
[OXFORD, 1889.]
(log#)
29.
30.
Prove that
if
1891.]
X=a
Z&=/n
[ST. JOHN'S, 1889.]
31.
(Q\
f
J
32. Establish
tann x dx.
dx
n
(a+&cos# + csin#)
differ-
+ (- l)n -
nu^ n
-1
[a, 1888.]
CHAPTER
VIII.
88.
The integration
dx
\^
of expressions of the
form
dx
can be readily effected in
I.
II.
III.
all
cases for
which
If
and Y be both quadratic the integration can
be performed, but the process is more troublesome.
89.
CASE
The best
I.
and
substitution
Y both
is
dx
Let
-fe
linear.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
110
Putting
cdx
,_
we nave
= at/.
ax + b = -(y 2
and
e)
and / becomes
21
jay
^
2
Jy
Ex.
Integrate
/=
ae
_^
+ bc
.
A2
is
+ b,
immediately integrable.
f
J (x-
Let
then
Thus
y-l y+lj
90.
The same
l(fi(
for
*Jy=y
substitution, viz.,
the integration of
T\f] 'IT
-^
when
will suffice
^(cc)
Ex.
.
Integrate /== f
Writing
J^-
>/^ + 2=7/,
we have
%dy
and
.r
2
?/
- 2,
is
any
X and
-L ==& + 24/-32/ + 16
so that
(by
common
division).
Thus
91.
CASE
II.
The proper
Put
X linear, F quadratic.
substitution
is
X=\
y
Let
Putting
ax + b = -
t/
we
have,
and
by logarithmic differentiation,
adx
dy
ax + b
y
ex 2 + ex +/=
- (- - 6 Y +
a 2 \/
(a\
- ft) +/
/=
discussed.
to the
known
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
112
Ex.
/=
Integrate
f
./
/=
__=_
#+1
an d
__
i+%-y
i+i-2
JI*
now appear
92, It will
form
J(
can be integrated,
<j)(x)
algebraic function of
we
x.
,,
<b(x)
in the torm
can express .
Af
Axn +Bxn ~ l +
+Z
the
being the quotient and
thus have reduced the process to the
integration of a number of terms of the class
remainder.
...
We
Eaf
and one of the
class
f
-dx.
The
reduction formula
^(^_^/)4_2r-l
TO
2r
r-lf
'
The proof
Ex.
of this
/=
Integrate
dx.
\Jcx*
^ 2 + 3 +5
^ 2 -^.
+l
(x+l)*/x
*2 +3*+5
division
+ ex+f
as an exercise.
is left
By
xr
*=x + 2 + -
Now
and to integrate
we put
Thus
93.
CASE
III.
quadratic,
is
linear.
+/Y=y.
dx
T
f
/=
Let
Putting
C.
(ax
+ bx + c) V
*Jex+f= y,
edx
E.
to the
form
+/
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
114
and I becomes
Now -j
-f
e)Ay*
2
dy
as
is
by foregoing
integrable
same substitution
may
form
__ dx>
*()
f
J
where
<p(x)
is
(ax
+ bx + c)\/ex +f
the form
and algebraic
rational, integral
"^
,/
2n-2_i
to y
y>
_i_
'
Integrate
is
for
reduces to
which by
fractions,
may
as
>L
Ex.
rules.
at once integrable.
/=
v^ + 1
_
2
divisi
'
be expressed
EXAMPLES.
Integrate the following expressions
X and F both
CASE IV.
95.
quadratic.
We
where
and
integral and
F are
^)
a
dx
algebraic, as it is
We may
(<f>x)
rational,
is
A/y
= ^'
anc^
^e
1.
Integrate
1=
Putting
y ~dx
dy
(a
*
The student may refer to Greenhill's "Chapter on the Integral
Calculus" for a general discussion of the method.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
116
Thus /becomes
(a
Also
so that
and
If
a>
6,
to
we may arrange / as
i
V^TP
Ex.
2.
-,
Integrate
/=
J (2x
2x2
~~
dy _
__
2
-2^
-2^+1) \/3^ -2^ + 1
3^-1
2#
yi-f=^-y"='2^
and
t-tfm^l-g
Thus / becomes
_ r(&g
- 2ar+l
Now
/2# - 2.37+1
)(2a7
x(x-l)
Thus
'=/(-,==
= cosh" + 2 cos" -^1
?/
N /2
EXAMPLES.
Integrate
1.
4.
2.
5.
3.
6.
_4
/3^ 2 -
\2^-
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
118
CT
Fractions of form
96.
+f
ina;
+ CCOSa;
a l + Pi sin ^ + CfiOSX
(a x + b^siu x + c-fos x)
x)
(Oj + ^sin x +
where A, B, G are constants
A + Ca^a,
and each term
is
c 1 cos
so chosen that
-Bc^ + Cb^b,
then integrable.
may
be arranged as
(a
_|
(Oj
+6
sin
x + c-[Cos x) n
immediately integrable.
98. Similar
a + b sinh x + c cosh x
ai + frisinh x + Cjcosh #'
99.
Some
'
Special Forms.
It is easy to
show that
sin
a?
Isin^r
sin
c\
a),
'sin(a
6)sin(a
c)
and
-.
T\.
-.
-,
6)sm(#
a)sin(^
c)
sin 2 a
__ r)\nY\(
^^
^^i
rt ^^ /^
U lollll (-t/
I/ I
E51111 Iv
1
whence
f
I
sin
-r,
1/
-^7
f
J
-5-7
--
lo^
v
6 sm(o3
c)
a),
r
c)
o)sm(x
sin 2 a
1\
6)sm(a
tan
a
7r
c)
_ _
_ _
8,
/(sin
a 1 )sin(0
sin($
Ti
/Y
tv^
dx
sin (a
where
^^
r
r
/,
6)sm(a
S sin 2 ^
r-^-p
a)sm(x
sin(^
7*
.
7 v
(a
cC<
# c?a?
Ssina
sm(a
and
QTTn
ollll
to
cos 9)
a2 )
a n )'
sin(0
. . .
f(x, y) is
how
of #,
y of
1 dimensions.
(*
- Oj)(t - a
x
2)
. . .
(t
- a^
/(a,, 1)
(a x
- egCoj - a3)
. . .
(a x
ax
(a2
^Xag
a 1 )(ar
a2 )
a3 )
...
(a 2
an )
__
...
(ar
aw )
a2
_a
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
120
= tan$, a1 = tana 1
Putting
theorem becomes
/(sin 0, cos 6)
a 2)
sin(0
a 1 )sin(0
sin($
a 2 = tana 2
this
etc.,
an )
. . .
/(sin a r cos a r)
,
r= isin(a r
OL)
...
sin(a r
a r)
a n ) sin($
Thus
W:
/(sin 0, cos 9)
"
/(sin
7
./
or,
cos a,)
^ism(a
%)
7
. . .
logtan
J-'-'ii
sm(a r
an)
t/ctj-j.
;-:
EXAMPLES.
Integrate
sm ^
cos
2#
cos
3#
cos
cos
cos a
sin 2^7
sin
2a
sn ^7 sn a
cos a
cos x
cos
O.
cos 2a
3a
a
D.
sin 2 a)'
GENERAL PROPOSITIONS.
101. There are certain general propositions on
integration which are almost self evident from the
definition of integration or from the geometrical
Thus
meaning.
102.
f (j)(x)dx=
J
for each
~~
equal to \^(^) \H C
is
ential coefficient of
*
\fs(x).
The
if
<f>(
x ) he the
differ-
121
103. II.
<p(x)dx
For
if \[s(x)
/&
pc
<f)(x)dx
a
(j
<p(x)
the left
and
which
side is \{s(b)
the right side is \^(c)
is
dinates
N^^
fact that
+ area
Area
104. III.
[ <j)(x)dx
a
=
[
$(x)dx.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
122
105. IV.
For
if
we put
x=a
x = a,
if
Hence
dx =
we have
and
</>(x)dx
<p(x)dx=
0(a
- x)dx
y,
dy,
y = 0,
(f>(a
y)dy
fV-2/X2/
(by in.)
<{>(a
x)dx
(by
I).
QP
O'
Fig. 9.
00
p2a
106. V.
For by
pa
pa
<f>(x)dx=\ (f)(x)dx+\
(j)(2a
x)dx.
II.
rpa
<j)(x')dx
<j>(x}dx
p2
\
and if we put 2a x = y,
dx = <%,
we have
and when
x = a, y = a,
x = 2a, y = Q.
when
/2tt
Thus
0(a)c/x
=-
pO
0(2a
- y)dy
<f>(2a
x)dx.
ooo
o
pa
pa
fa
0(#)cfo=l 0(^)cZa;+
<t>(2a
x)dx.
VI. Plainly
this proposition
if 0(a?)
becomes
p2a
I
and
if
<p(x)
be such that
<f>(x)dx
= 2\pa<f)(x)dx,
^)cZ^ = 0.
a?)=
<p(x),
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
124
Thus
since
smnx dx = 2
and
and
cos 2n+1 #
since
cos 2n#
rir
I
COS
2 'l + 1
37(jfo7
sinw ^7 dx
x\
*o
and
^7
dx.
'0
We may put
intervals
to
and
cally,
the curve
#=
^,
and
TT is
and
|.
108. VII. If
<>ti
/net
pa
<j)(x)dx=n\
<j
Thus
and
<{>(x)dx=
jwa
I
^>(x)aa;
= 71
r'(t>(x)dx=
/a
1
<p(x)dx.
)dx = etc.
125
xdx=%o
sin
Fsm
>,
\276u?
=4
A
TBin n#aa?*4A%n-I
-
2n-3
2?^
...-
2ra- 2
IT
-.
O
Fig. 10.
We
<j)(x)dx
1.
Evaluate
=
/=
{*(
Writing
we have
and
vers~ - = TT
a
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
126
Hence
1= -
Hence
/=
f\2ay ~3/
f (TT-
|
o
Putting
?/
and we obtain
= a(l-cos0),
down
to
? or
3
according as
is
22E,
even or odd.
ir
Ex.
/=
Evaluate
2.
Let
#=--#,
2
dx
then
/=
and
dy
log cos y dy =
rl
2/=
Hence
rf
logsm^<ir+
log cos
xdx
/I
o
/f
o
(log sin
2%
log
IT
"j
Put
-i
2x=z,
then
then
Io8 8inte<fo
o?^7
= ^dz
Iogsin2^^=^/
Thus
2i
/=|logl.
r~%
/? log
Ex.
3.
sin
xdx
Evaluate
1=
-\
2i
-^
6
If
r
x=l
we put
/=
have
Hence we
also
^-dy =
^'a?
havee
\-x
y,
"
^=
dx.
"o
Ex.
4.
Evaluate
-I
Put
^=tan(9,
.-.
1=1 log(tan0+cot0X0
o
/2
o
(log sin ^
4-
IT
- 2 /log sin
dO = Tr log 2.
127
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
128
110.
and independent of
c.
&
0(a?,
J
a,
For
u=
let
f
\
<f>(x,
c)dx.
u + Su =
Then
0(o3,
&
which, by Taylor's theorem,
And
if z,
which
be capable,
=
a
'
'dx.
Sc
is
indefinitely
111.
contain c
volume.
is
new
Thus
f
--L= =dx
= -*
tan- 1 \l2=2
Vc + a
(x+cyJx-a
we have, by differentiating n
Also, differentiating
(^
^
a)
c)(^
+a
o?^?
I-
2^+1
(^+c)^
+1
(^-a)
EXAMPLES.
1.
(i.)
f(i+*)-V*fo.
(v.)
J
(ii.)
An-^-xi + ar)-*^
(vi.)
(iii.)
E.
T.
C.
+ a> 0),
to a,
c,
we
obtain
obtain
(c
we
c,
many
since
/- +
be used to deduce
may
integrations
-(vii.
f
J
JI
130
2.
Integrate
(i.)
(a
+ 6 2 - ^2 )v/(a 2 - ^2 )(^2 - 6 2
)'
[ST.
1
(x2 + a2
|UL *
3.
sin 6>Vacos 2 ^
J (cos
/"
Prove
+ 67iii
ST J HN
'
S > 1889.]
[TRINITY, 1888.]
<9+V
of
fi)(cos
x + cos y )
cLx
J cotfx
4.
I~
sin x dx
x + cos a)V(cos x 4- cos
/-
)^^+^
JOHN'S, 1888.]
that,
+ a\Jcos(a;+B)coa(a:
a)\/cos(^ + ^)cos(^ + 'v}
y
C%
1890-]
constants involved,
d,L
\^
Olll
(-ap -2bp-cft
(x
- p)(b 2 - acf
[TRINITY, 188G
5.
_L ...
-r
pf
p
etu,
n-
ND
2J
series
Nft
. . .
(1
+ a)
2
,
W
(i
f
J
^2
/a(a
o
UL '\
Prove that
8.
Show
that
/y.2
+ ^72) 2
**
J
o
7.
^'
[ST. JOHN'S, 1888.]
x dx
(l+tfX 2 +^)(3 + #)
[OXFORD, 1888.]
[0x^,1888.]
Evaluate
(i.
+ cos x
dx
(ii.)
131
| 4 + 5 sin x
[I.
C. S., 1839.]
[I.
0. S., 1888.]
(iii.)
10.
Prove that
CQ&nxdx
is
equal to zero
P rOV6that
11.
^"T-f-
Prove that
(i.)
be
if c
[OXFOBD, 1890.]
< 1,
f 8in-^
(ii.)
12.
Prove that
13.
f^f.
J Vs
e~ T sin
[ST.
14.
Evaluate
ft
(i.)
JOHN'S, 1888.]
x dx.
[8, 188,5. J
HF
(ii.)
k
y
f
s
(iii.)
ooon
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
132
15.
Evaluate
dx
(i.)
[I.
C. S., 1887.]
[I.
C. S., 1891.]
16.
Prove
f^an^^
#
(i.)
a2
[POISSON.]
cos 2.2
f -2Sfc = 1
17.
Prove
18.
Prove that
(i.)
[OXFORD, 1890.]
z2)
=a
a3 +
3
"
3.5
&5
3.5.7
ctf
+ ...
[OXFORD, 1889.]
19.
Prove that
IT
2r~%
/
/-7A
<^"
being supposed
20.
Prove that
21.
Prove that
_T
<
2
1
o
1
Q2
1*3-4
1 2
1 2
o2
^>
PL2
&
x,6
1.
1.1
1
''*
22. If
-,), \*
$(x)dx=
[TRIN. HALL,
23.
*"" 6
Prove that
b
remains
finite
when x
^ f^ ~^W
c-a?)
vanishes.
[A
1888.]
etc.,
1886.]
F $(x)dx.
^-6)
provided
+ <(2a-a?)}cfci7,
and
illus-
sums
24.
$(x)dx=
/""{<##)
*
trate the
25. If
and
theorem geometrically.
illustrate geometrically.
26.
Show
that
q-pj
q-p
q-p
:
'
n+ I
n+2
n+3
(iiL)_J_ +
\/2?i-l 2
n + ri
[a, 1884.]
n
*
*_+ \/6rc-3.-+
\/4?i-2 2
+ -J*/2ri*-<n?
[CLARE,
(iv-)
i
(.
sin 2/
2n
sin 2K
2n
sin2fc
2n
+...
+sin
!-,
etc., 1882.]
K beinsr an
[S T. JOHN'S, 1886.]
integer.
28.
2K
Show
n
when n
is
increased indefinitely of
n2
3n
'2n
2*
[COLLEGES, 1892.]
29.
Show
when n
is infinite
of
i
is
Apply
/*+*.
e^a
this result to find the limit of
-('+
[CLARE,
etc., 1886.]
134
30.
31.
of the
sum
of the
of (n\} /n
is infinite
quantities
'
Ti~
T~
is infinite.
n+n
n+1 n + 2 n + 3
n
when n
"V
indefinitely great,
[OXFORD. 1883.]
CHAPTER
IX.
/
EECTIFICATION,
ETC.
finding
surfaces
and volumes of
solids
of
revolution, etc.
suffice for
115.
1.
curve.
present requirements:
symmetry
in a
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
136
no odd powers of y occur, the curve is symmetrical with respect to the axis of x.
Similarly for symmetry about the ^/-axis.
Thus y 2 = 4<ax is symmetrical about the cc-axis.
(6) If all the powers of both x and y which occur
be even, the curve is symmetrical about both
axes, e.g., the ellipse
(a) If
^2+ y*_~
62
curve.
3.
axes
first,
RECTIFICATION, ETC.
7.
is
much
137
simplified
when
reduced
116.
It is
II.
following
1.
of r
If possible,
of 9, such as 6
2.
and
form a
and 9 which
positive
as the
= 0,
^,
O
JP
negative values of
f
o
etc.
Consider both
9.
rectilinear or circular.
RECTIFICATION.
117. The process of finding the length of an arc of
a curve between two specified points is called rectification.
Any
coefficient
We
Gale,
for Beginners.}
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
138
Formula in the
Diff. Calc.
Int. Calc.
Reference.
Observations.
P. 98.
P. 98.
P. 103.
P. 103.
P. 100.
*=/(*/)
ds _
dt
Idy
l(dx\*
is
M(di)+(Tt
rdr
Pp. 103,
dr
105.
ds
P. 148.
We
119.
add
illustrative
examples
given as
y=
yi=
#=0
and
x%a.
Hence
RECTIFICATION, ETC.
139
= A/-,
/-,
and the
limits are
(Put
and
and y = a.
y=
Hence
7/
.B
7T_
Ex.
3.
cos
0).
Fig. 11.
The
from
Hence
c\irve is
to
TT
initial line,
are= 2
= 2a.
0rf0
and
varies
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
140
Ex.
4.
p = rsina between
and
r2
arc =
Here
of
any arc
Formula
120.
=r
VV2 -r2sin 2 a
Here
-^
^ at the beginning
and end
whole contour
is
\~ dj)~~]
-jy
disappears
Show
Ex.
when
tricity e exceeds
same
given by
by
area.
[7, 1889.]
Here
where
Hence
having the
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
p = c^cos ^ + 6 sin ^ = a (l - e sin ^
with
the
the angle which p makes
),
is
major
axis.
2
.A
p = a(\ I - i^sin ^ - -e*sui*\ls.
o
/
2i
Hence
,=4a{|-lA \-^-\\ f}
(very approximately)
RECTIFICATION, ETC.
The radius
(r) of
is
141
given by
vZ^ab^a^l-erf,
/
and
its
circumference = 27ra(
*.
Circumf. ellipse
- circumf
e4 ...
-e 2
circle
).
32
\lo
_ \irae*
3'2 /
2ira
t>4
'
64
[circ.
of circle], as far as
terms involving
e4 .
EXAMPLES.
1.
xa
2.
Show
is
given by
= c smh -.
.
4.
Show
.r=a(0 + sin 0)
y = a(l-cos<9)J
^
Show
is s
-b
y=(a + 6)sin
sin
=
a
5 beiijg
26
222
that
4r+y*a*j
lies
on the
and that
3
y-axis, s oc x*.
if
be
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
142
6.
meter
7.
(i.)
(ii.)
of
ellipse
# = a cos
j/
= 6sin^,
the peri-
r = acos0.
aem0
$,
as
= a6.
(iii.)
(iv.)
r = asin 2 -.
2t
8.
whose equation
9.
Two
is
r=a(l -f cos
radii vectores
OP,
\pdty to
0).
OQ
of the curve
10.
Show
be found in
integer.
11.
=xm+n can
+ -* is an
*m
or
of the curve
12.
3ay =x(x-a)
13.
2
i.
[OXFORD, 1889.]
Show
14.
>
Show
=1+0080,-^
'
=:-__^_ and
d>Y
sin^w*
hence show that the arc intercepted between the_yertex and the
extremity of the latus rectum is a{\/2-flog(l +\/2)}.
[I.
C. S., 1882.]
RECTIFICATION, ETC.
121.
143
E volute.
Fig. 12.
two
(at
A)
/>
(at
H),
AH
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
144
and
Ex.
Let
5)-p(at A) = ~-
^.
Ex.
3, p.
EXAMPLE.
in the above manner for the parabola y 2 = kax that the
of
the part of the evolute intercepted within the parabola
length
Show
is4a(3\/3-l).
122. Intrinsic
Equation.
between s, the length of the arc of a
given curve, measured from a given fixed point on
The
relation
Fig. 14.
RECTIFICATION, ETC.
To obtain the
123.
Intrinsic Equation
145
from the
Cartesian.
Then
tan -^ =/(),
also
s=\
*Jl
+ [f'(x)~]
(1)
2
dx
(2)
Ex.
1.
and therefore
Ex.
sa^r.
2.
trinsic equation is s
= c tan ^.
tan^ = dx
For
as
and
dx
P.
I.
c,
= \/ 1
K
-=
smh 2<>x
i
/-,
>
-r
in-
146
and therefore
= c sinh -,
c
124.
vanish
whence
To obtain the
= c tan
\js,
Intrinsic Equation
from the
Polar.
Fig. 16.
/
>,
^ = 0+0,
....... (1)
....................................... (2)
Ex.
Find the
r=a(l -cos
Here
and
0).
i/r
sin
RECTIFICATION, ETC.
147
Hence
and
Fig. 17.
Also
a sin
-,
r\
4a cos - + C.
and
If
or
we determine C so
that
= 4a(
= when 9 = 0, we
cos^
have
J,
INTEGRAL CALCULUS,
148
125.
we have
tan
of the Curve
dy
= ^_-^
^ = -^
ax j
(t)
is
given as
,- N
d)'(t)
and ^.
In the cycloid
ya(\ -cos t\
* mt
= tan
tan ^ =
we have
1+costf
= ax/(l + cos0
^
dt
Also
whence 5=4a
Hence
126.
sin -
= 4ot sin
if s
T/T
is
+ sin 2 * = 2a
cos -,
RECTIFICATION, ETC.
Then
*//
149
and
-^r,
ds
or
O T
Fig. 18.
127.
AQ
we have
and
whence
Ex.
The
\Is
\//,
intrinsic
is
s=ctsm\Ir
(Art. 123).
Hence the
and
'
the evolute
The
= radius of
=c p=
is
s = c(sec
intrinsic equation of
s=
(c
2v//-
y
1 ),
= c sec 2
or
an involute
tan
"fy
i/r
and T/r=0
s = c tan 2^.
is
+ A)d^r
and
if s
be so measured that
s
by
= c log(sec
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
150
128.
Ex.
Fig. 19.
Here,
if
*
2
p = OP cos = 2ctcos *.
Hence
arc of pedal =
=
/
+ C.
1 =8a.
2[4asin2 Jo
L-
and X = TT.
RECTIFICATION, ETC.
151
EXAMPLES.
of the curve
1-.
of
2.
any arc
u\a
x)=aP.
[a, 1888.]
y=a
a cos
0.
by
3. Find the curve for which the length of the arc measured
from the origin varies as the square root of the ordinate.
Show
4.
is
5.
Jw
6.
The major
^/^eccentricity
nearly.
is
an
Prove
axis of
1/10.
and
its
8.
of
an arc of the
sin 2
r _a
cos
9.
10.
ff
Show
bola 3a3/ 2
11.
cissoid
6>
=2^ is
In a certain curve
show that
5=ee\/2 + a
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
152
12.
is
Show
s =/(<9)
given by
13.
tion
Show
is s
14.
= a gd~
Show
C.
y = alogsec-
\ff.
+/"(#) +
n x
yj), (#2 ,
(a
3/2) is
#)
log
2
,
od/
y=logcoth-
^.
sinn
X-^
of that
and
1891.]
17.
Show
has for
its intrinsic
equation
is
p 2 =r2
a?
= a-.
Zi
Show
19. Prove that the length of the nth pedal of a loop of the
curve rm =amsinmO is
mn-m+1
,-m
(smmO)
a(mn+I)
dO.
1883
20.
Show
CHAPTER
X.
QUADRATURE,
129. Areas.
The process
ETC.
Cartesians.
of finding the area
bounded by any
In the same
two given
ydx
way
or
(x)dx.
abscissae [y = c,
fxdy.
130. Again, if the area desired be bounded by two
given curves [y = <p(%) and 2/ = \^(^)] and two given
ordinates \x a and x = 6], it will be clear by similar
reasoning that this area may be also considered as the
limit of the sum of a series of rectangles constructed
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
154
The expression
PQ dx
Li%
x=a
or
fj>(0)
for the
- \fs(x)]dx.
Fig. 20.
Ex.
1.
ordinates x=c,
Here
area=
ellipse
xd and the
+ ^-2 = 1,
-
the
fa^Sr
2a
For a quadrant of the ellipse we must put
the above expression becomes
.
2a
a2 ?
or
ellipse.
Ex. 2. Find the area above the #-axis included between the
curves y 2 = %ax x 2 and y 2 = ax.
The circle and the parabola touch at the origin and cut again
at (a, a).
So the limits of integration are from #=0 to
The area sought is therefore
xa.
- x2 ~
QUADRATURE, ETC.
Now, putting x=a(\
155
cos 0\
21
TT
_ira
2 2~~4~'
and
J~axdx = *Ja\
Lf Jo
is
a?(
= fa2
J.
Fig. 21.
Ex.
3.
curve and
its
asymptote.
Here
To
we observe
(1) It is
(2)
No
<-a.
is
>a
or
"
,7
where x
a^
and at
dx
infinite.
(6)
The shape
of the curve
is
therefore that
shown
in the
Hence
to a,
and
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
156
limits are
a+x
for the portion
x\l
>
/O
/v.
dx.
a+x
Fig. 22.
To
integrate
a~x
I xJ
dx, put
J
a ~p x
*
x=a cos
Then
and
dx
ftfJEfcfcl\
Va+x
J
=a
and
area of
r
/
--}
I)
a sin
c?$.
1-cos 2 ^
the
QUADRATURE, ETC.
Again,
r x J?E*dx=
>a+#
J_
a cos
J
Bd9
fl^
"^gain
2
> l-cos
#
157
is this
y=#/v/^_
*
a+x
we
In choosing the
are tracing the
portion of the curve below the #-axis on the left of the origin
and above the axis on the right of the origin. Hence y being
negative between the limits referred to, it is to be expected
that
is
[<c
J
A/fEfdfc.
*a+x
where
so that 8 is a positive small angle.
This integral
when
8 is
made
close to the
is
former result
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
158
EXAMPLES.
1.
its
latus
rectum.
2.
to
x=h.
x=b.
to
xb.
to
4.
and the
#=ccosh-,
x= a
x=a
3.
^7-axis,
X2la2 +y 2 /b 2 = l
5.
X2y2 =a2(y 2
and
x2)
its
asymptotes.
2
6. Find the area between the curve y (a+x)=(a
xf and its
asymptote.
7. Find the area of the loop of the curve y*x + (x + af(x + 2a) = 0.
Sectorial Areas.
Folars.
the area to be found is bounded by a curve
r=f(6) and two radii vectores drawn from the origin
in given directions, we divide the area into elementary
sectors with the same small angle 89, as shown in the
Let the area to be found be bounded by the arc
figure.
PQ and the radii vectores OP, OQ. Draw radii vectores
131.
When
OP OP2
OPn -i
...
by drawing with
PN P^
PNP
P ^P
QUADRATURE, ETC.
159
O
Fig. 23.
The area
of a circular sector
2
J(radius)
X circular meas.
is
of angle of sector.
= l?LZr
the initial
line.
if
xOP = a,
or
Ex. 1. Obtain the area of the semicircle bounded by r = acos
and the initial line.
Here the radius vector sweeps over the angular interval from
-.
Hence the area is
0=0 to
i.e.,
^radius)*.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
160
ra
sin 3ft
Ex. 2. Obtain the area of a loop of the curve
This curve will be found to consist of three equal loops as
indicated in the figure (Fig. 24).
The proper limits for making the integration extend over the
first
loop are
of
for
0=0 and 6 = -,
which
.-.
r vanishes.
area of loop = 1
fWn
30 dO
3~~ 12'
2
The
therefore!^.
Fig. 24.
EXAMPLES.
Find the areas bounded by
= 2cos 2 + 6 2sin 2 ft
3. One loop of r= a sin 4ft
4. One loop of r = a shift ft
One loop of r=asin2ft
coia
bounded by the radii vectores
5. The portion of r=ae^
9=13 and 0=/3 + y (y being less than 2?r).
1.
r2
2.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Any
sector of
7^0=^
Any
Any
sector of
r0&a (0=a
The
sector of
r(9
= a (9=a
cardioide r = a(l
10. If s
((9=a to 6*=^).
cos
to ^=)8).
= fi).
to
0).
r=tanh-
between the
=
origin and $ 27r, and A the area between the same points,
show that
A = a(s air).
[OXFOKD, 1888. ]
QUADRATURE,
ETC.
161
Fig. 25.
area
is
on the
direction).
Hence
curve
travelling in this
ySx).
Wxdy-ydx),
the limits being such that the point
completely round the curve.
133.
may
If
we put y =
so that
(x,
y) travels once
^M^ =
(fo)
we
is
to be expressed in terms of v and the limits of integration so chosen that the current point (x, y) travels
As v is really
once completely round the curve.
E.
i.
c.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
162
Ex.
Find by
this
ellipse
=* f
and
JV
^L= L2
f*
and therefore
area of ellipse
to
oo
Hence
-,
=irab.
Fig. 26.
the curve.
135. If
^ (xdy
I
sum
QUADRATURE, ETC.
loops.
OQl cutting
Q2
163
OP
radii vectores
P Q
3,
and
2,
Q3
X,
Then
OP
OP
OP
Now OP Q 1 -OP Q +OP3 Q3 -OP4 Q 4
= quadl. P^P^-quadL P2 Q 2 P3 Q 3
,
and
we
therefore
Fig. 27.
Similarly,
if
itself
more than
sum
once,
of the odd
Many
area of a
plane
curve,
or
proved
independently,
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
164
specially
defined
If
by other systems
PQ
is
OF
and
Fig. 28.
bounding
arc.
culus this
is
[This
may be
at once deduced
(V 2 d0
ir^ds
from |
=
\r
sin
rW, thus
ds
(where
Tangential-Polar Form.
= ds = P + d*p
Again, since P 5
137.
we have
area = \ \p ds = J
QUADRATURE, ETC.
a formula suitable for use
is
equation
138.
when
165
the Tangential-Polar
given.
Closed Curve.
the curve is closed this expression admits of
When
some
simplification.
For
Ex. By Ex. 23, p. 113, Diff. Cale. for Beginners, the equation of
the one-cusped epicycloid (i.e., the cardioide) may be expressed as
p=
Fig. 29.
Hence
its
tween limits
Putting
-^
whole area=-^
i/r
= 3$,
and
this
^=
9a 2 sin 2 ;'
and doubled.
becomes
IT
= 3a
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
166
139.
Pedal Equation.
we have
A = ip ds = i p
dr = }p sec
In the equiangular
Ex.
Hence any
p=r sin a,
sectorial area
=f
140.
spiral
dr = i
/>2
y2 s i
rcosa
r
radii
of curvature
To
first
area =
Ex.
1.
p,
to the circle
is (Fig.
31)
.e.
p\
is
|/o <S\^,
and the
or
and a tangent
QUADRATURE, ETC.
167
c.
Fig. 31.
as forming an
Fig. 32.
EXAMPLES.
1.
2.
[Limits
r=a
= ^2 + 1^2.
= 2a for one
to r
quadrant.]
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
168
its
evolute,
its
AREAS OF PEDALS.
141.
Gale,
2
expressed as J|p c^/r (compare Art. 131).
Fig. 33.
OF
YOA^,
Hence
=^
QUADRATURE, ETC.
169
where the
Thus
^l=4a a f *cos*fe^ = 4a 2
2
4222
J
o
Fig. 34.
142.
Let
be a fixed point. Let p \js be the polar coordinates of the foot of a perpendicular
upon any
tangent to a given curve.
t
OF
o
Fig. 35.
P be
>
F (=^
1
1)
the per-
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
170
ijV
taken between
and
and
cfyr
j[ft
<%
Call these
areas
and
be
the polar
Let
6
r,
l respectively
coordinates of
with regard to 0, and x y their
Cartesian equivalents. Then
A =
l
known
=
\p^d\fr
+
2
Jp
2
2/-
cos
-t/r)
x cos ifs
=p
function of
\(p
cos 2 i/r
c?i/r
i/r,
y sin \l/fd\^
^ d\/r
+ 2a32/
sin
Hence
\fs
x cos i/r
2x \p cos
Vp^d"^
+ x*
Now
limits.
P ~~ T cos($
Pi
is
definite
A
P
and p
certain
2^/
cos
\[s
|p
sin
\fs
d\fs
is
described
si
si
\/r
d\fs,
2 Ip sin
\/r d\[s,
-20,
and we thus obtain
Call
them
a,
2A,
-2/,
6,
If
its
locus
143.
section.
Character of Conic,
It is a
Hence
must be a conic
it
known
r, ...
stand for
QUADRATURE, ETC.
eos2h, cos3/i,
cos/^,
sin A, sin
made
etc.,
2/z,,
we
oo
i.e.
cos \fsd\[sX
sin
shall
and nh
indefinitely small
2
...
171
2
!//-
finite
c?^ > /
= ^,
say,
sin\/r cosi/r
cZx/^J
ab>h 2
ellipse.
ax+hy+g = 0*\
hx+by+f=0j
Hence
and is independent of the magnitude of
v
these
several
will
for different values of
conic-loci
l
all be concentric,
shall call this centre 1
We
144.
Closed Oval.
Thus
a=
p2*
cos 2
^ d\js = =
p2ir
TT
Then
2?r.
=b
and
closed
h=
cos
\/r
sin
i/r
d^/r
= 0.
i.e.
is
p27T
I
7TJ
pcosi/rcZ^,
at the point
^
/2
p sin \fsd\fs.
7TJ
Connexion of Areas.
The point 2 having been found, let us
to 2.
The linear terms
origin from
145.
transfer our
of the conic
INTEGRAL CALCULUS,
172
Thus
is
a point such
whose pole
if
we have
The area of
this conic is
Thus
*/ab
TT -= IH
s
,
h""
any
I?
(area or conic).
^7T
whence
J. 1
lies f o r
where r is the radius of the circle on which
from 2.
constant values of A v i.e. the distance of
origin,
the
integrals
\pcos\fsd\fs
and
\psui\fsd\fs
when
both vanish
cancelling),
147- Ex. 1. Find the area of the pedal of a
regard to any point within the circle at a distance
centre (a limagon).
Here
and
Hence
A = n+^,
n = 7ra2
Ai=ica*+
with
from the
circle
c
QUADRATURE, ETC.
173
Ex.
to
In this case
II is
ellipse
with regard
<9
^1
Hence
)|.
=|(
|(5sLet
be the pole,
2 c+
OF
and
the two perpendiculars
2
P respectively ; < the angle
and
pl p
c cos <,
2c').
[MATH TBIpos>187a]
the given internal point ; p and p l
and ^A l =2A
2clp
cos
<
cfc
Fig. 36.
Now
in order that
<
<
-^
p= OQ sin Y QO = OQ sin^xOQ.
2
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
174
= itf0 =
For
Hence
|-{*-(-W-|
or
|-*=f,
J-J-J,
23
/3
so
A*-
Hence
p cos
<j>
d<j>
=2
-.
2a cos 3 2 cos
</>
d(f>
'
= 4a x 3
fl
/
= 12#
rf
/
cos% - 3 cos)<iz
[4
6422
Also
fc cos
42
^^^
222
d>cta=3.2c i
2
Sir
24 = 2
Finally
4a**^*J>
642
6 3
_?ra
Al -8~
mi
148.
?rac
T"
'
When
A = 211 +
(05
cos
Hence
^ + y sin \Jsfd\ls.
+ ysm\}s) d\fs is necessarily
<2
can never be
less
than
II.
QUADRATURE, ETC.
175
149.
The formula
in Art. 138
any
is
area of
Hence
= oval + J
jp */'
jft )
2
is
- area
ellipse
of ellipse
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
176
PF=-vjr
by two
first
is
to
order of infinitesimals
Fig. 38.
and
151.
Let f(x,
2/)
QUADRATURE, ETC.
177
is
by the
line-integral
dg taken round
rj
its
contour.
And we have
l
whence
f(x
it
y) =
\y
dx
nrjm
is
152. Ex.
1.
Apply
method
this
**
a
the corresponding point
and
+,* ~ 1
=,
r
T\
area of ellipse
=~ x area of circle
r
Ex.
2.
of the curve
mx = ^
Let
or in polars
r2
ny = ij,
is
= ^-2 cos 2 +
--,
sin 2 0,
ri
i,
c.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
178
Hence the area
mn
x area of second
EXAMPLES,
1.
ay =x\a-x).
2.
[I.
C. S., 1882.]
[I.
C. S., 1881.]
of the curve
2
a?y
= a2x
-x*.
[I.
5.
C. S., 1887
a as 5 to
By means
of the triangle
area
is
and 1890.]
its
area
is
4.
of the curve
[CLARE,
6.
its
of the integral
y dx taken round
etc., 1892.]
the contour
lines
[Sir.
7.
8.
If ty
and
/r
its
PKIZE, 1876.]
asymptote.
a x
be the angle the tangent makes with the axis of
show that the area of an oval curve is
y cos "fy ds
all
or
q:
x sin ^r ds,
#,
ETC.
QUADRATURE,
9.
of the curves
= l-,
10.
179
(iii.)
}
a
Find the areas bounded by
a a +y2 = 4a 2 .??2+y 2 = 2ay, x = a.
,
[H. C.
S., 1881.]
PQR-
[OXFOED, 1889.]
15. If
is
2
the vertex,
hyperbola -x /a
-y 2/b 2 = 1,
*=
ab'
where
16.
prove that
,
ab'
a.
Show
4
(l-^-e
nearly.
[a,
1883.]
= tan a aj
where a
is
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
180
line to a point
by the
P on
the curve
9,4 2
21.
= 2rf.
of the
Folium
~sin^6>TcoW
In what ratio does the
line
C. S.,
[I.
x+y = Za
1881]
loop?
[OXFORD, 1889.]
enclosed between two
given radii vectores and two successive branches of the curve.
r=aOe be
22.
of the curve
23.
24.
Show
[TRINITY, 1881.]
-,
and
= a0cos
between
n odd, n
is
even.
4?i
25.
C. S., 1890.]
Show that the area contained between the circle r=a and
curve r=acos5$ is equal to three-fourths of the area of the
26.
the
circle.
27.
[OXFORD, 1888.]
of the curve
equal to
cos 9
+ a2sin 2 #) = aV
irac.
[I.
C. S., 1879.]
+ ^3).
[OXFORD,
1889. ]
0)
and
its
asymptote.
31. Prove that the area of one loop of the pedal of the
2
lemniscate r 2 = a 2 cos2$ with respect to the pole is a
[OXFORD, 1885.]
32. Find the area of the loop of the curve
.
(x'\-y)(x^+y
33.
= ^axy.
[OXFORD, 1890.]
QUADRATURE, ETC.
Find the whole area contained between the curve
34.
and
181
its
asymptotes.
Show
35.
[OXFORD, 1888.]
=a
*L^
2
+b 2 -r2
in-
semi-axes of the
a,
being the
[CLARE,
ellipse.
Show
36.
its
tan" 1 ^/^^-,
is
etc.,
1882.]
= atan^,
+ tan c).
<
[TRINITY, 1892.]
Show
re-
[COLLEGES, 1892.]
39.
40.
x*+y* = Za
[OXFORD, 1888.]
xy.
=*(<**- d*)l,
42.
of the curve
tf+yi = a\x*+y*).
[a, 1887.]
43.
44.
= aV
(mV +
areas
(i.)
(ii.)
(^+^2)3 =aay*.
2
4
3
(^ + 2/) = a^?/
.
[BELL,
45.
etc.,
3?
V
'
1 /
V \
7TC
2
/
SCHOLARSHIPS, 1887.]
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
182
46.
(av+w^w
47.
is
^(5+5).
[a;18900
of the curve
f")
is
&
3
+ (V2 -
a 2 ) tan- 1 -
48.
,aV
where
49.
c is less
is fTrtt
50.
are
and
62
5, is 7r(ab
of the curve ^4
c 2).
[OXFORD, 1890.]
2
,
2
,
CHAPTER
XI.
153.
It
formula
*2
Tr
154.
More
About any
if
PN
dx.
axis.
generally,
AB, and
if
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
184
if
155. Ex.
1.
and P'N' a
expressed as
AB
Here
AB
is
f=x ?^ (Art.
2
volume =/
J
7ry
J
dx=7r
130, Ex. 3)
about the
tf-axis.
a~x
x*
dx.
a+x
rf2a log z
- 5a 2z +
2az 2 - ~
3 _J
Ex. 2. Find the volume of the spindle formed by the revolution of a parabolic arc about the line joining the vertex to one
extremity of the latus rectum.
Fig. 40.
Then the
and
axis of revolution
y = 4o
y = 2^7,
2
is
P
fi
VOLUME OF REVOLUTION.
185
Also
and
volume =
dAN
4?r
75
156.
Surfaces of Revolution.
out
Fig. 41.
QM
PN
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
186
P and
+ Sy
Q.
traced out
would be
from the
if
each point of
axis,
r/^
-j-
This
as
may
= 2-7T2/
f
\
be written as
to be convenient in
may happen
from the
or
-r->
-j->
-^,
etc.,
any particular
being obtained
differential calculus.
Here
dx
dx
/
ydx
/X<1 dx
Ex.
line.
Here volume =
= TT
try^dx = TT
/
a' (l
-{-
2
?'
sin 2
d(r cos 0)
-f
cos 2 $),
initial
S URFA CE OF
RE VOL UTION.
187
the limits being such that the radius sweeps over the upper
half of the curve.
Hence volume - -
T(l + cos 0)
7ra 3
(1
+ 2 cos 0)sin
:j
dO
*o
T(l + 4 cos
2
3
(l 4-5 cos 0)sin
Fig. 42.
= 2?r
^
/
a(l
27ra 2
+ cos
0)sin
(9
2 cos
16?ra2
cos 4
EXAMPLES.
1.
(ii.)
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
188
2.
Show
and that
its
volume
= -^-(10 - 3?r).
L
3. The part of the parabola
y = ax cut off by the latus
rectum revolves about the tangent at the vertex. Find the
curved surface and the volume of the reel thus generated.
is the length
of the curve.
Fig. 43.
SA
THEOREMS OF PAPPUS.
189
a!i/cL4.
Now
of a
m m
number
X?7? II
2/i> 2/2'
>
is
y= y
-^
then
we
y=
(ydA
(yd A
_=i
\dA
Thus
2-7T
and
volume = A(2jry).
curved surface of
the
ring formed
is
equal
to that
190
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Fig. 44.
formed
an/cfe.
191
by the sum of
Lt
or in the language of the Integral Calculus
^yds
\yds
s
\ds
Thus
\yd8=8tj,
= s(afj).
But
is
surface = s( 2 -73-77).
Ex. The volume and surface of an anchor-ring formed by
the revolution of a circle of radius a about a line in the plane of
the circle at distance d from the centre are respectively
volume =
surface
Tra 2
= 2:ra
EXAMPLES.
An
3.
any
Find expressions
triangle.
solid thus formed.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
192
160.
When any
OAB
sectorial area
we may
27r(f r sin 6)
or
f irr sin
9.
Fig. 45.
volume
OAB
3
sin 9 d9.
f 7r[r si
we put
=
x = rcos9, y = rsin9, and
~
r 3 sin 9 S9 = r 3 sin (9$(tan l f)
we have
161. If
= r3 sin 9
= r*cos*9t St = xH St,
is
EXAMPLES.
193
EXAMPLES.
Find by integration the volume and surface of the right
circular cone formed by the revolution of a right-angled triangle
about a side which contains the right angle.
1.
C. S., 1887.]
[I.
C. S., 1881.]
axis
is
equal to
2 area of ellipse
.
Prove also that of all prolate spheroids formed by the revolution of an ellipse of given area, the sphere has the greatest
surface.
5.
[I.
y^x^
C. S., 1891.]
by the revolution
of
x.
[I.
C. S., 1892.]
7.
Show
y (2a
^)=x3 about
its
by the
asymptote
revolu-
is
equal
[TRINITY, 1886.]
greater than
E.
i.
c.
b.
[a, 1884.]
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
194
between 6 =
11.
Show
and
that
if
[O x TO KD 1890.]
0=|.
[OXFORD, 1890.]
that the coordinates of the centroid of the sectorial
area of r=f(0) bounded by the vectors 0=a, 6 = ft, has for its
coordinates
13.
Show
14.
Show
f
on the
initial line at
a distance
from the
cos $)
is
origin.
3^7r%
16.
+ f 7T 2
cos y.
[ST.
JOHN'S, 1882.]
e is
the pole.
Show
is
CHAPTER
XII.
SURFACE INTEGRALS.
SECOND-ORDER ELEMENTS OF AREA.
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS.
162. Use of Second Order Infinitesimals as Elements of Area.
we
AJ and BK the
QM
+
U
whose ordinates
contiguous points on the ordinate of
are y, y+8y.
And we shall suppose Sx, 8y small
quantities of the first order of smallness.
Draw JRSf, UT,
Then the
parallel to the ce-axis.
PV
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
196
RSTU
may
PNMV
and y =f(x).
In performing
PM.
all
which
may
be written
from x = a to x = b.
DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
Thus mass
197
of area
A JKB =
or
n
Notation.
164.
This
is
often written
<j>(x,y)dxdy,
f f
There
is
reverse order.
when we
y)dxdy
made
x,
and
when
Ex.
If
2
2
xP+y = a be given
The
limits for
w411 be
=
#=0
;?/
198
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Fig. 47.
Putting
x=asm0
Find the
statical
moment
r2
of a
199
quadrant of the
ellipse
4,2
=!
_+_
9
2
1,9
'
62
_Va
y=a
x* for
?/
moment =
to
x=a for x.
crxdxd'u=^\
00J
_<rbr _(a?-x
aL
166.
Gentroids.
)%-\
Jo
Thus we have
Wa
x 2 dx
_o-ba*
3
Cartesians.
. . .
_~
We
I(<rSxSy)
or, as it
may
be written
when
I
\\
J
arx
the limit
dx dy
\ardxdy
is
taken
INTEGRAL CALCULUS,
200
jja-ydxdy
~
Similarly
ff~
\\a-dxdy
jJ
<rdxdy= mass
*=
Hence
quadrant =^^-.
of the
3/4 =-
STT
y=
Similarly
167.
Moments
of Inertia.
When
/x
moment
Lt 2/i# V*&a? 8y
where the limits for y are from
or
of inertia is
//,
to
n
\y*x dx dy,
2vW, and
for
x from
to
a.
DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
201
We thus get
Mom.
In.
=
3
f*
oj
U + fo
ny\/ax
C a \~
~~l
dxdy = p\ \y\
is
given by
xn dx
-+
271
Thus we have
Mom.
In.
about 0ff=3
EXAMPLES.
2
2
2
quadrant of the circle ,27 +^ =a the surface
density varies at each point as xy. Find
(i.) the mass of the quadrant,
" centre of gravity,
(ii.) its
.()
(iii.) its moment of inertia about the #-axis.
1.
In the
first
4.
of the triangle
bounded by the
lines
Polar Curve.
Second-order Element.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
202
area
and to
this order
RSTU may
therefore be considered
RU\
Fig, 48.
Thus
if
Lt dr==Q [2o-rSr]S9,
the summation being for
r=f(9),i.e.
all
elements from r =
to
-i
<rrdr\80,
Q/(0)
DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
vectores OA(9 = a) and OB(9 = /3)
the sectorial area OAB
we
203
rpriv
or as
we have agreed
to write
it
(Art. 164),
\^ \rdOdr.
a
R (r.
0) is ur,
and mass
of element
Fig. 49.
The mass
if
these sectors be
summed
for the
have
/TFr
rVfinnaif
r2acoa&
/
/~5"[-
-|
pr*dr \dO
\
whole
circle,
we
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
204
C~%
=2/
or (Art. 164)
Centroid.
169.
rZacoaO
/
pr*dOdr
Polars.
moment about
r cos 6
a-r
the y-axis
SO
is
ST.
rcos(9. a-rdOdr
Thus
JJ
\o-rdOdr
r sin
o-rdOdr
and similarly
a-r
'~fl
dO dr
We
for
S
/*
0R
53
^^
15
'
r,
and
0=0
to
DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
and
rsm6crrd6dr=
jnsin0 -
L4 Jo
J J
205
dO
sin
cos 4
dO
/~2
Ex.
2.
cardioide
r=a(l+cos
#),
Fig. 50.
"x-
Ir cos
To
find its
rdOdr
"
'rdOdr
the limits for r being from r=0 to r=a(l+cos 0), and for
from to TT (and double, to take in the lower half).
'"
The numerator
=2
fT-1
J
a3
1
L3J
/"'(cos
cos0o?0
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
206
=
|
;
'
'
o3;r
r~ r 2
'
a(l+cos 6)
dO
2a 2
r
rf
/
x = -?ra 3
Hence
'
L2Jo
/TT
^4--
'
(l
+ cos 2 6>)d<9
-?ra 2
= -a.
moment
of inertia
=p,r".
of the element
rSOSr
is
is
n+1
S$Sr,
n+3 8$ 8r.
//,r
//,r
ffj
to
2a cos
0,
and
for
0,
double).
Mom.
its
Thus
and
Inertia
= J?^L(2a)+4 rc os+4 dO
n+4
J
(9
to ~ (and
DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
Again, the mass of the disc
207
is
/*2acos0
r"5"
^o
2|J
Mom.
Hence
Inertia = 4
EXAMPLES.
1.
when
when
of a circle
the centre.
ference.
Also
its
moments
(1)
(2)
3.
Show that
surface-density
y=mtfc +
of inertia
moment of
the
c<ft
uniform
= m x+c
bounded by the
l^
is
Ml GI-%
6 \m l m 2 J
the mass of the triangle.
'
is
where
4. Find the moments of inertia of the triangle of uniform
surface-density bounded by the lines
if
M be the mass of
bounded by
_--f fC
62
a2
--- and
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
208
7.
moment
(1)
the coordinates of
its
surface-density),
(2) the moment of inertia about the #-axis,
(3) the volume formed when this area revolves about the
8. Find the moment of inertia of the lemniscate r 2
about a line through the pole perpendicular to its plane
(1) for a uniform surface-density,
(2) for
9.
of
the
Find
(1)
(2) the
ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.
E.
I.
C,
CHAPTER
XIII.
LINEAR EQUATIONS.
common methods
equations
involving
partial
differential
coefficients.
result
we
Any
"
solution."
f(x,y,a) = 0,
(1)
in which the form of the function is known, is representative of a certain family of curves, for each individual of which the constant a receives a particular
212
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
it is
but
necessary
letter
0(,y) = a,
........................ (2)
f(x,y,a) = Q
'
ORDER OF AN EQ UA TION.
213
Solving for w,
and
differentiating,
y= Bl-
or
we have
=
yi m,
and therefore
This then
y=%yi-
ftx y,a,b) = 0,
(1)
b
two
constants
whose
values
a,
arbitrary
containing
particularize the several members of the family.
9
4(x y y l9
9
=
b)
(2)
we
\MX
V>
2/i> 2/2>
>
=
&)
>
3)
and from these three equations a and b may theoretically be eliminated (if they have not already disappeared by the process of differentiation), and there
will result a relation connecting x, y, y v y 2 say
;
F(x>y, yi>y z )
=>
Order of an Equation.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
214
x, y,
yv
...,2/ n >
an(l
is
Ex.
1.
Eliminate a and
Differentiating,
x -f yy^ = a.
l+^+y^^^
Differentiating again,
and the constants having disappeared
2.
Form
and we have
and
whence
is
this family of
x(y? + yy 2 ) -yyl =0
Now
We
VARIABLES SEPARABLE.
215
CASE
I.
by
integration.
Ex.1,
Thus
sec
if
we have
y= sec x-,
dx
cos x dx
cos y dy,
sin x = sin y
and integrating,
+A
Ex.
2.
If
y+l
we have
= xy-^*
dx
x + - ) dx = (y 2 + y)dy,
xJ
2
and therefore
2
+ log
32
x^32
+ A,
+y~-
EXAMPLES.
I
'
1.
4.
dy = x*+x+\
dx
*++l'
Show
cuts every
'
dxx*+x+l
that every
member
member
dy y*+y+l
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
216
7. Show that all curves for which the square of the normal is
equal to the square of the radius vector are either circles or
rectangular hyperbolae.
8. Show that a curve for which the tangent at each
point
makes a constant angle (a) with the radius vector can belong to
no other
9.
class
subtangent is constant,
subnormal is constant,
(3) the Polar subtangent is constant,
(4) the Polar subnormal is constant.
10. Find the Cartesian equation of the curve for which the
tangent is of constant length.
CASE
176.
[DEF.
An
when P,
Linear Equations.
equation of the form
II.
K,
Q,
said to be linear.
no
differential
R are
functions of x or constants
If this
seen that
be multiplied throughout by
we may
write
dP
Thus
is
ye
er
*
it
first
will be
it
/Pefccv
fPdx
)=<^
/Pdx
fPdx
=\Qe
dx+A,
which rendered the left-hand member of the equation a perfect differential coefficient is
"
called an integrating factor."
The
factor e
LINEAR EQUATIONS.
Ex.
1.
Here
mav
Integrate
fxd~
e-**
217
yi+xy = x.
or
e2
an integrating
is
factor,
be written
ax(ye*)=xe*,
& *2
or
ye*=e*+A,
+
y = l+Ae
i.e.
Ex.
2.
Integrate
^l + -y=x2
dx x
may be
factor
is e
2
.
Jldx
x
the equation
written
*JH-+
x*
and
xy=--+A,
177.
Many
equations,
if
form
may
be immediately reduced to
it
by change
of the
variables.
One
of the
equation
Or
Putting
we have
y-n
~n
= z,
y-^dy=^
is
that of the
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
218
or
which
is linear,
ze
(l-ri)fpdx
l-n
i.e.
(\-ri)fPdx
its
solution
=(1
ft)
\Q
ri)
dx+A,
f^
,.,
Integrate -^ + ^=?/
Here
is
,~
=(1
Ex.1,
and
(l-ri))
We
x-,
2
.
^-2^+^
or putting
= 1;
-=0,
t7
dx
and the integrating
factor being
e
we have
-fix*
j *
= e - loex
^(^=-1,
x
dx\x)
?=logi
X
X
i.e.
-=Ax
i.e.
y
Ex.
2.
Dividing by cos y
-jf.
Cv^7
+ x sin 2y =
we have
ec 2y-^
dx
+ 2# tan yx^.
tany=2,
Putting
^ + 2^=^,
we have
GW?
is
J 2xdx O r
e*
z
,
dx+A.
giving
LINEAR EQUATIONS.
x 2 = co,
2# dx = d<o,
Let
then
so that
x3 ex2 dx = %l
(ue
w o?cu
=1^(0, -1).
tan y e* = e*\x2 -l) + A
Thus
is
219
EXAMPLES.
Integrate the equations
"- *
4 ^X + -=f.
'
dy
5.
/e- 2 v-
dr
7.
cW S
Show that no
O. -77,
fr
ttC/
-?;
of Art. 176
fi
O.
- --
y
7
/s^
Vfc?
j-j
-- I
JxJdy
by adding a constant
jfpdx
integrating factor e
8. Find the curves for which the Cartesian subnormal varies
as the square of the radius vector.
9.+2= x
_--_
dx
10.
2
.
x2
U. ^- + x=xe^-^.
dx
+?=.
f
dx x x
^
dx
11.
[Put
?/
= sin~ ^.]
[put
^-
[Put
= logy.]
iny.
15. Find the curves for which the sum of the reciprocals of
the radius vector and the polar subtangent is constant.
220
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
16. Find the polar equation of the family of curves for which
the sum of the radius vector and the polar subnormal varies as
the nth power of the radius vector.
17. Show that the curves for which the radius of curvature
varies as the square of the perpendicular upon the normal
2
2
belong to the class whose pedal equation is r -p =^ + ^
* %*
being a given constant and A arbitrary.
Jc
18.
CHAPTER
XIV.
CONTINUED.
HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS.
CLAIRAUT'S FORM.
178.
CASE
III
Homogeneous Equations.
may
be written
dx
(a) In this case
we
solve
if
and
y = vx
Putting
we
obtain
v+
x^
dv
~<p(v)v
= <j>(v)>
_dx
x
'
Ax
r
1
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
222
(6)
But
solve for
if it
-. we
dx
be inconvenient or impracticable to
solve for
and
and write p for
dx
-
we have
y = x<f>(p) ............................... (1)
Differentiating with respect to
dx
=
x
or
x,
<[>'(p)dp
-<
we have x expressed as a
p and an arbitrary constant
Ax=F(p)(**y) ......................... (2)
Eliminating p between equations (1) and (2) we
1.
Solve (x*+y*)ty-=xy.
dx
and putting
y=v%,
^+v
dx
or
dv
x =dx
or
og=-
a;2
or
Ay^eW.
Ex.
2.
dx
\dx)
'
HOMOGENEO US EQ UA TIONS.
223
2
p = (p +p ) + x(l + 2p),
Then
p
-=0,
log J,#+2logp
giving
i.e.
p 2 +p= x
\
and
is
Axp*=&
<
EXAMPLES.
Solve the differential equations
.
.=.
x+y
dx
2.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
224
179.
Special Case.
The equation
~
dx
-^-
ax+oy+c
Put
readily reduced to
is
a ^+ by + (ah + bk + c)
a
dg- 'g +
TVi
Now
choose
.1
h,
b''
k so that
r-
^e. so that
oc
^- = ca
be
-^
ao
,-
ca
-^
a
^=
Then
This
'
put n~ v ^ an(i
shown.
a'
Now
let
dy
Tx=
-~
-- a* = V -n
7
dx
my + c
drj
/)
_ (am + b)rj + ad + 6c
dec""
and
c''
=m and
Then
so that
6'
-,
mrj
,
+c
>.
(am-\-o)r)-\-ac
-,
+bc
n.
h,
HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS.
225
The
may
dy _ ax + by + c
dx~
bx + b'y + c"
when
an
"
Integrate
#=+ k, y =
Put
Choose h and
Ic
dx
ri
+ k,
yx+y-Z
so that
so that
=
then
Now
put
77=0(1,
then
l+v
_
~
v+1
- 1)2 l
=#1
where
E.
I.
c.
and
p
v=^~
x\
'
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
226
Ex.
2.
*+*
f = x+y
Integrate
dx
and
where
dx
??
'
1
if]
?7=
EXAMPLES.
Integrate the equations
dy _
dx
bx+ay-b
^
1*
8
9.
Show
that a particle #,
y which moves
so that
~
will always lie
Show
10.
tion
upon a
fUL
~)
\
dx)
'
conic section.
families
of
similar
curves.
11.
Show
that solutions of
/(-,
\X
-j-}
CLX
J
are homogeneous in x,
227
(1) ya
= 4flW7.
(4)
y = a cosh -.
(2)
(5) b
182.
2/
a and
=
tan" 1
*7
= a +y.
b.
letter absent.
absent.
differential equation,
Xdy\
ZH
~ or as may be most convenient.
-
y>
we now
(i.)
solve for
If
we
solve for
y,
-^ we throw
the form
Then
and the integral
(ii.)
If this
solve for
is
be inconvenient or impossible
we may
ax
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
228
The
and
dx
Thus
i.e.
between
183.
absent.
differential equation,
fj 1J
Since
=
-^
ax ax
may
this
be written
dy
dx'
and therefore
Thus
convenient
result of the form
(i.)
if
we
dx
solve
dx
-^-,
a5T*S
dy =
7
then
for
dx
7-^,
is
dx
and obtain a
But
if
229
dy
impossible
form
we
x = (j)(q)
solve for x
and obtain a
result of the
yy /v>
-j-
Then
differen-
Thus
and
After the integration we eliminate q between this
equation and x = <f)(q). and the solution of the given
equation is obtained.
The student should note that in either case, x absent
or y absent,
we
solve for
~
ax by
But when
preference
if possible.
Ex.
1.
'
Here
dy
and
is
#= 2
the solution.
Ex.2.
Then
where
Solve
dx
=
\dx)
q=.
dy
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
230
Then
and
this equation
and the
original
required.
EXAMPLES.
Solve the equations
1.
dy =
+ I.
5.
-B
6.
4.
(2a^
184.
+ ^2 )=a2 +2a^7.
8.
dx
\dx)
Writing
^9
for -~-
\dx)
dx
=A+.
dx
^=
we have
dp
or
whence
Now
either
-f =
or cc+/ (p) = 0.
-^-=0
CLOu
/
gives
p=C
a,
constant.
231
Again,
equation
if
+/(,) = 0,
........................ (3)
y=px+f(p)}
0= x+f(p)I
is
between
= x+f(0)J
the same as the process of finding the envelope of
the line y = Cx+f(C) for different values of 0.
There are therefore two classes of solutions, viz.
i.e.
(1)
The
tive,"
(2)
"
The geometrical relation between these two solutions is that of a family of lines and their
envelope.
It is beyond the scope of this book to discuss fully
the theory of singular solutions, and the student is
referred to larger treatises for further information
upon the
subject.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
232
Ex.
Solve y=jt
JP
By
o=*-m
is
y*=ax.
i.e.
The student
y
= 4a#
tive
y=mx+
known equation
the well
of a tangent to the
parabola.
EXAMPLES.
Write down the complete primitive, and find the envelope
solution in each of the following cases
4.
5.
6.
y
y = (x
a)p
p^.
(y
The equation
185.
y=x<P(p)+*Kp),
..................... (i)
differentiating,
we have
&
-= --
whence
dp
which
is linear,
[<P(P)*P
<t*P)-P =
xee J<t*P)-P
.,,Ji
(P)
EXAMPLES.
If
(2),
233
will result.
Ex.
We
y = 2px+p
Solve
have
2
.
(1)
p^x
%p A .............................. (2)
The jo-eliminant from these two equations may now be found
by solving equation (1) for p, and substituting in equation (2).
But if it be an object to present the result in rational form, we
3
giving
+ 3p 2# + SA = 0, \
= 0. /
j9 + Ip^x -py
p*x Zpy 3 A = 0.
2p
(1)
Hen ce
And by
cross-multiplication
between
this equation
and
4(y
186.
in
many
EXAMPLES.
Solve the equations
1.
,
2.
3.
4.
y=
y=
y=
y=
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
234
T,
of
the triangle
A curve satisfies
also
that^>=0 when
x=\
equation
'
dx
14.
is
Show
that by putting x 2
V^yj
\
s
and y 2 =
[OXFORD, 1890.]
the equation
solution.
its
singular
CHAPTEE XV.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND
ORDER.
DIFFERENTIAL
EXACT
EQUATIONS.
187.
of the differential
CASE
188.
linear.
I.
dx
where P, Q,
R are functions of x.
is first
to omit
and try
y =2/0*0-
solution.
Put
to
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
236
= zj(x)+zf(x);
= zj(x)+^'(x)+zf"(x).
2/2
Then
yi
by
hypothesis.
Hence
and the
first
integral
is
Solve
da?
Here
y=x
at once obtained
dx
makes -r^
Put
then
Hence
/K
factor is e^
4-
3^
**
or x*e 4
Thus
237
x*
~(z l x^)=x^
a*
and
z 1x2
_*
whence
z=-\e
e*=~+A
+A
-e
J a?
\
is
-=
189.
A. If
<f>(y,
p, p-S-\
<f>(y,
\
and
is
yv y2) =
= Q,
dy/
B. If
y be the
y l =p,
*and
<f>(x,
yv
and again
Ex.1.
Here x
is
y%)
becomes
is
So putting
absent.
The integrating
factor
or
py
is
e^
Ay
y=p
or
2
,
y* + constant =?/
+ a4
say.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
238
Hence
or
= a sinh(2# + A).
2
i. e.
y*
Ex.
2.
Here y
Solve
is
l+#i =#y 2 #i
So putting y-^p^
absent.
dx = pdp
---5,
x 1+jtr
or
i. e.
log
^.e.
or
a? dx,
^Jx*
ady
oy
giving
=i?^ _<
EXAMPLES.
Solve the following equations
1.
^2 = 1.
6.
2.
1+3^=^2.
7.
3.
i+y!
4.
5.
10.
that
-^
^</
a y#2=#i
9y 22=4 iyi-
-#i-
[OXFORD, 1889.]
= (l+.yM
3/2
Solve the equation
(1
^ = when y = 0.
~#
)^~#(^)
= 2/>
Given that #
is
having given
[OXFORD,
ow?
11.
_L2
y2+/i-y=-e
a value of
y which
satisfies
1890. ]
the equation
[L 0.
S., 1894.]
REMOVAL OF A TERM.
190.
239
Removal of a
Term.
Let us next consider the more general equation
Pv P2
Putting y = vz,
where
. .
Q are given
we have
functions of
x.
etc.,
whence
-
n(n
--
1)
- 2
The coefficient of n _i is
If then v be chosen so that
dv
v
or
v=e
and
if
will
make
W_
is
will
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
240
Canonical Form.
y = e~
the substitution
dx
will
When
is
<
q.
x p -r~
^
is
an exact
by y q
etc.,
Thus
be.
differential.
=p
241
<p
or
the in-
#2
Ex.
2
Here, by the lemma, # y 5 and x?y are perfect differential
and obviously ocy^-\-y is the differential coefficient
of xy.
Hence a first integral of this differential equation is
coefficients,
obviously
194.
more General
more general
equation
=- cos x+A.
may
Test.
test
coefficients
P Pv
,
...
Pn V may
,
x.
n- Bysdx
=Pn
- 32/2
- Pn - 8^1 + P"n - zV -
P"'n -
etc.
i.
c.
it is
obvious that
if
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
242
is
exact;
and that
its
in-
first
is
Ex.
we have
or
which
is satisfied.
(8#
if
4^73
or
^=
But
it is
now
cos.*?+
IB
EXAMPLES.
Show
^7/3
3.
Write down
first integrals of
'(a)
(b)
(c)
4.
Show
that
if
the equation
an integrating factor
equation
//,,
then
P y + P^y^ + P y = F admits
2
//,
0<
will satisfy
of
the differential
CHAPTER
XVI.
where
x.
y=f(x)
can be guessed, or obtained in any manner.
substitution
we
obtain
z = z n to be solutions of this
Suppose z = zv z = z2
then it is plain that
,
equation
z
is
. .
constants
A A2
lt
...,
An
arbitrary
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
244
Hence
a solution of equation (1) containing n arbitrary
and is therefore the most general solution to
be expected. No more general solution has been found.
The portion f(x) is termed the Particular Integral
(P.I.), and the remaining part containing the n arbitrary
constants, which is the solution when the right-hand
member of the equation is replaced by zero, is called
If these two
the Complementary Function (C.F.).
parts can be found the whole solution can be at once
written down as their sum.
is
constants,
Two remarkable
196.
Cases.
Pv P
2,
...,
Pn
are
all
constants.
When
(2)
2+
Jn-l
ri
r7n-2n/
-'-
+ ^= F
'
>
under the
first
head.
COMPLE-
MENTARY FUNCTION.
197. Let us therefore
such an equation as
2/n+^i2/u-i
first
+ a 2/n2
+... + ^n2/ = 0,
......... (1)
COMPLEMENTAR Y FUNCTION.
As a
mx and we have
put y = Ae
-2
w
+ a 2ra +...+a n = ....... (2)
trial solution
m +a m
n
245
n-1
m m
774,
2,
all solutions,
y=
...,
s,
all different,
and therefore
A^ + A e^ + A
x
mn
then
also
mx
e *
+...+A n e m *x
...... (3)
is
2,
Two
198.
Roots Equal.
two
m =m
x
2,
the
expected.
Put
97i
Then
^r
closely.
= m 1 +A.
2
x
+ A 2e( i+*X
TO
h?x 2
l+hx+-^- +
~~\
...
and we
quantities,
may
therefore express
..
them
I.
in
we
an
will choose
First
A 2 h when
is
DIFFERENTIAL EQ UA TIONS.
246
A^+A
A^^+A^e
199.
+B
equation (2)
when
become equal,
m *x
terms,
placed
by (Bi+B^e^+Atf**.
em
l
&+A# +A f?
viz.,
ri*
m =m =m
2
The
re-
m =m +h
Let
A^ = AjPtifc = A^
x
Then
for
x
(
A+Aw + Ae'W
Ov C2
>
Thus
m m
11
AB 5
,
2,
fcZftZ
+ kx + -^- +...)
we have
and
B v that
COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION.
247
2
provided it be not absolute zero. But AJc
being chosen a finite quantity, and the series within
the square brackets being convergent, it is clear that
ultimately, when k is indefinitely diminished, the
may
be,
is
if
if
become equal,
m^ = m 2 =
. . .
. .
= mp
viz.,
+ KjxP - *)&*&,
A^ + A
x
m *x
+...+ A p ew
complementary
*>
x
.
201. Generalization.
More
generally, if
be the complementary function of any linear differential equation with or without constant coefficients,
what is to replace this expression so as to re-tain the
generality
when
Let
m =m
m
x
Then
Now
putting
two arbitrary
l <f>(m 1 )
+A
A^A^ = B
finite
ly
<p(m 2 )
become
h2
AJi =
2)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
248
ultimately disappear
when we approach
the limit in
possessed.
And as in Art. 200 we may proceed to
p roots become equal, viz. ^i 1 = 2 = ...
J. 1 0(ra 1 )
may
+ 4 0(m )+
2
. .
show that
=mp
+Ap <j>(mp
if
the terms
be replaced by
when
The
Imaginary Roots.
202.
When a root of
to be
remembered that
where
= \/
we have
1.
A^+A^e**
may
or
A^
+ A eax(cos bx
eos bx + A - ^ >6 a*sin bx
1
= ( A l + A 2 )e
ax
sin bx)
(
sm bx,
sin bx)
COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION.
249
B2
A^+ A 2
= JB* +
Then
^cos
fr#
a = tan
and
sin bx
2
replace
ijgF.
= p cos(bx
a).
We may
where C^ and
Ce
aa!
cos(6aj
+A^
m =m
^
if
3,
A^ +A^
X
m =m
If then
= a + ib
may
be replaced by
and
m =a
4
6,
we may
replace
by
that
is
by
e ax [(Bl
4 )^
sin 6
and therefore by
e^CC^cos
that is by
tf*(Ci
or which
is
aaj
((73cos
6x+ (74sin
by
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
250
Here our
1.
trial solution is
y=Ae
^dx
2
mx
y
dx
and we obtain
solutions,
Ex.2.
it
may be
by replacing
Ex.3.
written
A l by
(if
is
a2 =
with roots
a,
desired)
y = .Z^cosh ax + ^sinh ax
B^~ B
B +B* and A
i
by
Solve
is
-f-a
=0
with roots
+ai.
y = AjCos ax + ^t 2 s i
or,
which
is its
equivalent,
y = Bl
Ex.4
Solve
+ 5-2y =
?-4|
ax
ax
ax?
where
D stands
for
ax
or
(D- l) (-2)y = 0,
2
251
is
auxiliary equation
m-lra-2 = 0,
or
having roots
1, 1, 2.
Ex.
5.
Our
auxiliary equation
Solve
with roots
i,
(Z>
1,
+l)(7)-l)y=0.
?/
is
therefore
Ex.
6.
Our
auxiliary equation
has roots
is
or
is
Solve
e^L. and
2,
is
JQ
cos
2
Ex.
7.
Solve
(Z)
+ ^I 2 e sn
+ />+l) 2(Z>-2)3(/)-5)y=0.
+ (A 5 + A Qx + J.7^
2
;
EXAMPLES.
Write down the solutions
tions
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
252
3
4-
SS~ 3
9
5.
g=y.
6.
g=y.
9.
10.
11.
(-
12.
a v a2
...,
we next
We may
(or [/(D)]F),
"Z>"
206.
where
^7^
satisfies
is
fundamental
the
2/
laws
of
Algebra.
It is
shown
operator
(1)
(denoting
-y- j satisfies
(2) The
stants, i.e.
of Algebra, viz.
Commutative Law
D(cu) = c(Du}.
PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.
The Index Law,
(3)
253
i.e.
exception that
of
it is
variables.
It therefore follows that
rational algebraical
any
7?
"
T)
JL
~L
2i
if
<
ax
207.
It
Operation f(D)e
has been proved in the Differential Calculus that
.
r be a positive integer,
D~ r
to be such that
D D~ u = u.
r
Then D~ l represents an
integration,
and we
shall
l
suppose that in the operation D~ u no arbitrary constants are added (for our object now is to obtain a
particular integral and not the most general integral).
Now since D ra~ re ax = e ax = D rD- re ax it follows that
,
D~ re ax = a- r e ax
Hence
values of
it is
clear that
n positive
Dne ax = aneax
or negative.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
254
208. Let f(z) be any function of z capable of expansion in integral powers of z, positive or negative
= ^A rzr say, A r being a constant, independent of z).
(
Then
The
D by
be obtained by replaci'ng
Ex.
1.
By
therefore
-e
is
"* or
E, 2 ,
may
a.
g.
is
3a/
'=-^-e
EXAMPLES.
1.
3.
'
to
show that
2
/(Z) )sin m^7
/(Z)
=/(
m )si
2
m2)c
)cos mx =/(
ax
Operation f(D)e X.
Next let y = e ax Y, where Fis any function of
209.
x.
PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.
Then
D e ax = are ax
r
since
we have by
Leibnitz's
y n = e (a
dx
255
Theorem
F+ n (7 an - D Y+ n C D Y+...+Dn F),
2
D neax Y= eax (D + a) n F,
n
Now
so that
let
we may
write
and therefore
Hence
Dneax Y=eax(D+a)n Y
Dneax (D + a) ~ nX = eaxX,
D
negative
210.
As
is,
positive or
in Art.
f(D)e
That
e ax
may
ax
X=
by
D + a.
Ex.
2.
4D + 4
2x
sin x
= e2x ~* sin x
e~
sin x.
to
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
256
EXAMPLES.
1.
2.
Show
211.
We
(D - If*
6 h
'
D-l
'
(D-I)*
that
Operation /(7>
have
sn
2
cos
wwu = ( -
sin
)
y
cos
mx,
and therefore
Hence, as before, Arts. 208 and 210,
a^
nD
j;/
Ex.
ax
r>9\
)
'
sin bx dx
sin
cos
mx = f(
/v
= Z)-
ax
sin
6^7
sin
o\
2
)
y
cos
it
will follow
mx.
= eax (D + a)~
sin
6^ (Art. 210)
7)Wri hv
f<x/
f'Arf
xxi li,
^
X/^iSJlll
a sin &.#
-_
ea*(a?+ 6 2)
91^
1y
Zi L
6 cos bx
^sin^.r
- tan- 1 - Y
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find by
method the
ax
cosbx, e^sin ^,
Perform the operations
e
2.
this
-sin 2^,
integrals of
e^sin 3^,
-_L_cos,r,
si
_I
sin
2^7.
and
PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.
212.
257
Operation
where F(z)
is
positive integral
powers of
z.
^=
2#
L-4 + 16-64
sin
"
%x ~
sin 2#.
51
But
if
the operation
sm mx =
/T^ox
/TV,V
sin
mx
^
^m
m )sin mx mx
2
)cos
mx
writing immediately
1
\
E.
I.
C.
^ sin mx>
f)~7
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
258
mi
or'
r-y^
Ex.
1.
in/
J-'Xv
in
fjsrS
SYT^
etc.
sin 2#.
Thisis
sin 2#,
sin 2^,
J.O
^ cos 2^ ^ sin
or
Ex.
2.
=e
This expression
*-^
2^7.
-^e
cos
*cos
^p.
2
[replacing each Z>
by
1]
2*
e
____
1
=
4
(cos
sin x).
EXAMPLES.
1.
pressions
:-
Z> 3
-e*sin
x+
PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.
2.
Show
that
/T,
(D+a)
being n
3.
V=
e~ ax f [ f ... fe ax Vdx
J J J
J
259
...
dx,
there
integral signs.
Show
by
that
first
expressing
^=-r~
*W
common
integrations.
213.
rV- v
Operator
Algebraic.
If in the operation
of x, rational
This
1.
is
(1
Ex.2.
-D+ D
Again, find
This expression
10
is
- D^+ etc.)(#2
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
260
EXAMPLES.
Perform the operations
CD+l)(Z> + 2)
2
3.
J?
Cases of Failure.
In applying the above methods of obtaining a
Particular Integral, cases of failure are frequently
met with. We propose to illustrate the course of
procedure to be adopted in such cases.
214.
215. Ex.
1.
^L-y=e
dx
'
If
we apply
i^i
We may
operation
evade
or
this difficulty
of
the
which
the operation
Writing x(\
= -&
+ h)
more
carefully.
instead of #,
we have
263
CASES OF FAILURE.
Of
may be
we may regard A + /i
arbitrary
as a
new
arbitrary constan
The whole
Ex.2.
solution
is
Ct/X
is
clearly
The
two parts
and
sin 2#.
Art. 211,
we
We now
get
2HL,
i.e.
oo
and so
we apply
if
e*
the
ri
fail.
when h = Q,
of --
sin2.i'(l-
This expression
=1
_1
4 i_(i+A)a
1
JT2^
9A
J?
1 sin
= (a
2.2?
l
fi
of A
-xc
+ (terms
which vanish v
g
"
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
260
:.
3.
(D
'ere
is
iy*
viz.,
<?
_ 1
= *_ JL
~(D-I*' 4~4 'I?''
plainly
complementary function)
,^-PP,
10
6 + 2Z)
sin
x= 3-Z)
/
2(9
open
44
ie
y= A +A
l
e~ 3x + (A 3
2
e
2x
is
~~
3 sin x
cos x .3?
5# 2
+ + ""
'
"
44
h)].
Ex.
4.
The
C.F. is
To
find the
which
is
P.I.
^-?/
263
= ^sin^.
.-a
we have
the coefficient of
in
"?>. in
#*,
plX
rp
'
-4^-6/^Tr.
l
**
~^l-^D..\^
Thus the
COSJP
P.I. is
_ 3^ gin ^
8
is
c s
^'
^ sin
^p.
EXAMPLES.
1.
0) 7TTT
sina7
'
5>
/n
w^ovn-Q-x*'-
(6)
(7)
/na
COS - COS
o
o
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
264
2.
+y =
(3)
Cfc#
(4)
(D*-l)(D*-l)y=xe*.
(6)
(7)
OD
(5)
(Z)-
-%=#sin..
(8) (Z>
(9) (Z>
(10) (^>-
216.
where
x=e
In this case
-TT
at
It is
e*,
t
.
d
-ji
all
Let
are equivalent.
stand for
-j-.
dx
Then we
have
-*-
dx\
nf\
Z.
dxn
)X
__
dx
_
11 -I-
1 ]X
/
~1
___~ l
dxn
EXAMPLES.
Now
in succession
11
putting
265
2, 3, 4, ...,
we have
etc.
Hence generally
= D(D-l\D-Z)...(D-
Ex.
% + 3% -
3# =
(D -
i.e.
giving
y = Ae* + B cos
~+ ;rIog
EXAMPLES.
Solve the differential equations
1.
s
2
2.
x-
--^ +
3.
cfc
4.
a?
3^++2/=^
ote2
rfa?
dx*
dx
'
dx?
5.
dx
CHAPTER
XVII.
= is representative of a
f(x, y, a)
of
curves.
The
family
problem we now propose to
investigate is that of finding the equation of another
family of curves each member of which cuts each
member of the former family at right angles. And in
such a problem as this it has been already pointed out
that it is necessary to treat all members of the first
family collectively, so that the particularizing constant
a ought not to appear in the equation of the family.
It has been shown in Art. 17 1, that the quantity a
The equation
may
*dx
'dy
dx
This
is
first
family.
ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORY.
267
dn
t-x.i-y.g^
The
differential
of
equation
is
therefore
and when
"
this is integrated
"
The
we have
rule is therefore
Differentiate the given
:
equation,
rtnt*
constant, write
new
the family of
Orthogonal Trajectories
-7-
eliminate
the
fl 1J
in place of
-j
differential equation.
218. Polars.
df)
r-j-, so
is
dr
our rule
is
write
ite
dr
-70
dO
in place
plac of r-v-,
differential equation.
219. Ex.
1.
of the family of
circles
(1)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
268
Here
a
x+yJL=
cLx
and, eliminating
.v
#,
2
+y = 2x( x -\-y
differential equation
must be
2
^ + 2^-^2 = o,
or
),
........................... (3)
ay
which
is
separable
another set of
circles,
origin.
Ex.
2.
of the curves
n\
--
of the family.
so that
x(b*
+ A) +yy l(a? + A) = 0,
a2 + A =
and
Thus the
(at-b^yy
or
x*-y*+xyyi-
=a -5
2
................ (3)
ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORY.
Hence changing
y^ into
269
#1
familv of trajectories
is
2
(4)
But
same
primitive, viz.
as equation (3)
_-.
i.e.
Ex.
3.
cardioides
r=a(l
Here
and, eliminating
Hence
set.
r^ = l
a,
dr
~
sm
=
2
we must have
dr
n
log r
or
+ constant,
2 log cos
2t
or
r=b(l+cosO),
EXAMPLES.
1.
Show
values of
a.
is
s?
=Ay
b
.
4.
parabolas
=1 -f cos 9
and coaxial
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
270
5.
Show
are orthogonal.
6. Show that the curves
r sin 2 a = a(cos
are orthogonal.
7. Show that
if
cos a)
and
r sinh 2 /?
= a(cosh ft
cos 0)
of
/z
cosh
cut the family
/z
at right angles.
[LONDON, 1890.]
The equation
particle
dO
is
therefore effected.
form
we have
271
Integrating,
sin
nO^.
d6
- nu cos nO=
f*f(ff) sin
J
n&dff + A.
Similarly, cos nO
first integral is
is
ing
cos
f'f(ff) cos
J
nO'dO'+B.
Eliminating -^L
du
nu =
- O')d0
f(0') sin n(0
dt
<f>(x)-rr
leads at once to
i{<(^' J
^Xto
1
J
will be
found to be an
j ^x)<l>(x)dx + A,
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
272
special artifices.
Ex.
1.
^=f(ax+by).
ax
'
Let
ax+by=z.
Then
dx
Thus
dx
dx
dz
x+A=lJ a
or
Ex.2.
*..
+ bf(z)
dx\ y+a dx
Put
xy=z.
dy dz
y+^^=-y-,
dx dx
rpi
Then
or
dz
1
= X-j+-5,
dx
dz
dx
which
is
of Clairaut's form,
Ex.3.
Solve
e^
\dx
dx)
Let
6^
may
dx
77,
= s-
he arranged as
\ e *dx
is
write
which being
it
as
?7
of Clairaut's
written
or
Ex.
--
4.
(an.
Put
and
,v=*Js
y=
Jt.
ds
t=
giving
ds
as
which
is
of Clairaut's
BC
t-sG ~
1+2(7'
9J-Jy
Ex.
5,
dx
E.
I.
C.
273
lines
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
274
then x
is
known by
t.
dy
d^dL_
Now
dx
*
'
and
dx*
ax 4 f
(^ax^yJ^dx* dt*
dt dx
Thus
to
solution
complete.
[If
a be positive we have
dx
,.
sinh^Wa) =
t.
1
-[=.
>-
~j=
If
a be negative we have
1
V-a
Ex.
6.
dx
,=dt>
SIMULTANEO US EQ UA TIONS.
We may write
these equations as
(3
where
275
D stands for
at
or
giving
^=
or
a?
= ^e
To obtain y
Multiply the
let
us eliminate
first
by
-^ from the
^ + 1x +y =
This gives
original equations.
It
- 9e*.
at
y = 7^-9^-2^-^
Thus
= It - 9e* - 2( Ae~* + Be
^=^-* + ^- + 139-^--^--^V
\
= - Ae-< + 4^e - - *t + * + *fr*. )
Thus
6'
.y
7.
^+ f
dt 2
dt
dt
These equations
may
be written
This avoids
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
276
D +9
2
and by 3D and
+ 16)(D + 9) + 1 5 Z) 2> = 0,
4
2
= 0,
(Z> + 40Z) + 1 44>
(D* + 4)(D' + 36)^=0,
x = A sin ~2t + B cos 2 + C sin 6 + D cos 6*.
[(D
or
i.e.
whence
dt
of
constants,
- ^-
EXAMPLES.
Solve the equations
i.
2^-(i-*)y=**.
'cte
2.
3.
4.
5.
(1.
2
8.
tions
cosy
+ 9y - 25 cos ^
[I.
C.
S,
1804.]
EXAMPLES.
9.
277
4=0.
10. Find the form of the curve in which the tangent of the
inclination of the current tangent to the #-axis is proportional
to the product of the coordinates of the point.
11. Find the form of the curve for which the curvature varies
as the cube of the cosine of the inclination of the tangent to the
12. Show that in the curve for which the projection of the
radius of curvature on the 7/-axis is of constant length
(l) S
(2)
oclogtan(?+|),
y oc
log sec ~.
ANSWEES.
CHAPTER
PAGE
1.
Area = e 6 -ea
2.
Vol. =-(e*
-e2n
6.
12.
Area=ia
3.
= -a
Vol.
).
I.
0,
4.
Vol.^.
5
tan 2 <9.
5.
Vol.=f7ra
tan
(a)
Vol.
=|
Vol.
TT
=
VoL
(8)
JL
Vol.
25
=JL
t)
7,
7Tfia
8.
Mass
= J?r/xa26 2
3
.
ANSWERS.
CHAPTER
PAGE
279
II.
17.
a
10.
2.
^Y.
6.
1.
3.
?^1.
7.
x/2-1.
4.
Ioge |.
8.
|.
PAGE
X
ft
'
*'
c10'
.o
C>
r!000
Ht;
&
loo'
Tooo'
Tool'
_^ _^
98
100'
2
2.
a log x,
23.
r!001
r !00
PAGE
25.
PAGE
26.
,
J
~j a log ^ +#,
2.
3.
logtan"
^,
logsin' ^,
log(log^).
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
280
PAGE
9"
log2
log
>>
5.
sin- 1 *, 1
aT +
4+
'
log 6
3'
28.
logo
4.
tan-,
86
an-^, l
^!
7.
8.
-log^ + e*),
log(log sin x\
CHAPTER
PAGE
sin#
32.
1.
sine*,
3.
sin(log^).
4.
J_ tan- -JL-.
x
V2
6.
-1
?,
si
8.
/-
cosh^+l),
~.
V*
sin-V^'
PAGE
-
log cosh #.
^2
_-,
2.
III.
41.
g
-H-.-f Jain- *,
ANSWERS.
3.
-Vl=F, x/^,
281
4.
i(^ +1)4,
6.
siii-
^-2\/r^-iWl -^
2
,
1
2
| sinh- ^ + 2\/l + # +
7.
1
+ ^?x/5?^
xyJ\^3?, 4 cosh- 2
2
8.
^logtan^, -logtan
CL
a<r+&
,
^logtan(-+.A
\4
/
\
fx
13.
log(log^),
log{log(log,^)},
PAGE
sinh x
J log tan
Iog[log{log(loga7)}],
CHAPTER
^7
),
IV.
47.
cosh #, (2 + # 2 )sinh x
x sm 2<r
Zx cosh x.
CQS 2 ^
,
in 3a? + 9 sin
3.
J(sin
2a?
a?)
+ cos 3^ + 27 cos^].
- 2^ cos
2^),
~""
sin 4.f
_
~~4^ _
~""^~~
sin 6^7
/cos
2^7
cos
cos 6^7
~~
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
282
5.
6.
--^sin^-tan-^),
2
v5
^2(a + ^ )~sin^-tan- -,
1
p + q-r,
7T
I.
q + r-p,
r+p-q, -p-q-r.
_,
7T,
ct /
7T
A
-4.
339
9.
sin- 1 *?
PAGE
+ x/f^;2 -
(1
- ^2 ).
51.
- 3(^2 + 2)cosh x,
2
4
5(^ + 1 2^7 + 24)sinh x.
(rf + 20^ + 1 20#)cosh x
>3
6)sin x,
2/
84\V
\ 2
PAGE
1.
(a)
(6)
(c)
(m
4
+ l)~^rnecos(^-cot-
gsmg + cos^-
^ tan ^ + log
(d)
^tan" 1 ^
(a)
m),
sn
3
52.
where #=sin#.
-g,
3
/ \
cos x.
(e)
Jlog(l+^
2
).
(/)
+ cos0)-sin<9-logtan
(c)
2
(sin
^7
tan
_il
x-
.tT
3^7
^sin" 1 ^.
\/l
(b) 6>(sec(9
(c?)
where A = S i
</>
<^>
cos
</>),
where
^=
+ Y where ^ = sin(9.
ANSWERS.
3.
283
W <J^>*p^.
l+m
l+^
(a)!*"-*.
m
(6)'
ie*/I + A^cos^tf-tan\\
2
m//'
\m Vm2 + 4 V
(c)
-eme (
4
where tan0 = #.
JL_c
2
Vm +l
(a) e*sin^.
(6)
6.^7
sinh ax
(d)
-6~ ax
sin(6^
r*
(e)
\
+ 2</>) V, where
2 X (P sin 2# -
cos 2^),
cos
=. sin
cos 2<>
?'-
>
r2
r
r2
and
</>
= 4 + (log2) 2
cos
7*
sn
and
"log
+\/l^
x
7.
*
log
8.
sin 6 cos
9.
(a) e*tan-.
where
<
7*
and
log(l
x
6>
+ logg
(9
cot
2*
+ AVC
6.
..
Sill
C7
+ tan 0) - - + ilogsin( + - Y
(6)
-e*cot-.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
284
CHAPTEK
PAGE
2.
4.
log(^'
+ 4# + 5) - taii"
^+
2).
-log(3-.r).
1
5.
(.
6.
PAGE
62.
^-_
ct
(ix.)
58.
3.
(iii.)
V.
x+
e
1
l
27
(^Tiy
+8
(^-l)
8(^-l)
a^^ + I_L.-?-JL_.
g ^-l
+ 16
ANSWERS.
285
(ii.)
(iii.)
(i '>
.+(
tan- 1 *-
tan- 1 * VS.
(iv.)
x*J
3^2 tan-'(4r
\A/21-_)
(v,)
(viii.)
5.
2V2
(i.)
(ii.)
log^/V^T).
(iv.)
(v.)
-lo g (*
(iii.)
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
286
(ix.)
(x.)
6.
(i.)
(iii.)
ilog^
^o
17
17
ll
,+
17
ANSWERS.
CHAPTER
PAGE
1.
287
VI.
68.
sinh-^+1,
x/2
2.
3.
bx + a) 4.
2
-LRcar - b)Jc(a + 26^ - cr ) + (6 + acj
8
PAGE
74.
1 /
1 /sin 6^7
3
3 sin kx
15 sin
2.r
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
288
2H
A-O
or
Jsin
Jtan
43
157T
2\/tan#.
3.
(i.)
cos nx
sin% + f sine#,
- r^
--
cos(n
PAGE
4(n-2)
83.
2
2
(9 + 6 sin (9)]/(a + b ).
2
6
[(ac + be)0 + (be ae)log(c sinO+e cos (9)]/(c +
0*1 a*
/
6^ + J sin
(i.)
(11.)
'
'
sin
+ 44
1.
5.
x-
192
60^/2'
(ii.)
2n-3
2n-l
^,
2
4
\ cos #, f sin ^
5.
2# - 2 sin
2,
^tan3
tan- 1 /"
-V*
^\
-tan-
\3
2/
A
/
/-
i/l,
1
tan
Wo^-P
#.
'
+ - cos
@2 sin(2?a 4)^ _ )
2^-4
"*/'
~2
7r
2M
^-^sin ^,
- sin
in
3.
cos 5^
or
2.
x + co
cos
(m.)7
-:
sma
-u
1
cosh-
"f
ANSWERS.
(iv.)
( vii.)
(ii.)
(iii.)
289
^-i3co^-tan-i3)-x/10
S-vlO 000(4?- tan- z 3)
a;
cos a CO8 x
cos a + sin a cosh- 1 1 +
cos a + cos x
^v^CTW&^-V^tan-'-tan- ^^) }.
_1_
-'
if
.(
8 3
'
'
(l+2cos(9)
--
10.
1,
sec 20.
cosh x tan-.
11.
2i
12.
- 2 x/1 -
13.
15.
v6
sin
x-
- sin ^
\/2 log
+ sin #
18
-.
tan(|+|
I.
C.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
290
2
16. log log
tan x.
19.
na 2
17.
20.
-cosh-^cosfl+sinfl).
cos x + x sin
22.
23.
24. cosec-
26.
25.
(l+sin2^).
artan-^-logtl+tf
2
).
- tan x
1
CHAPTEE
PAGE
7.
If
94.
VII.
ANSWERS.
/i= _
and
Between
/r2 =
5
xax -x^f +-a
7T3 =
7
x\2ax-xrf-+-a
-g-
and
limits
2a,
A = ~^ /2 = f
4
,
PAGE
1.
fsirAEcfe=
_co^
t,
T
/
95.
3
_ sin ^ cos%
1 f
su- x -
cos
3?r
35?r
128
4'
16'
25(3'
315'
i sin 8 6> -
<>
1 /
(iii.)
tan x
2 cot x
3?r
29
1680
37T-8
'
32
3?r
'
693'
693'
60'
'
8
J sin 6>
+4
192
3
\ cot #.
//
102.
g"
a
10
r o sin 6>,
2^\ \
sin
4\2
3(x
TT
siii ^,
an
si
x cos 3#
_ sin
PAGE
Zi
2\
6
(ii.)
3/ ; _ g in2f \
4
4.
2, 3, 4, 5.
8 in%
7.
/3
fsi
291
289
'
^ sin
?r
5?r
8'
9'
192*
4480'
8(9).
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
292
PAGE
2.
If
104.
integral,
m + n+l
6.
With a
W
/
similar notation,
(K
T
~~
n>p
an
(a^bxf^
,v,m-
(y)
(m - n + l)/m
(3)
m/m =^- (^
Tn
- - (m - 2)a 3/m _
"
3,
/ = __^
Xa cos x + 4 sin #)
cos 3
+ -g-^
X acos ^+2sin^)+2.
In = -
8.
^_
7n =
,-
IH =
17
cos
2
-8llln
.
71
- li
___ra
'
-1
a sin
a sin
3m 3m(3m - S)
^7
a?
n cos #
+w - ^
-n -a
cos
sin eu?
5
2
cos
9
2
w(m~l)
3?7i(3m
-2).. .(m
+ 2)
- 2)(3m - 4)
"*"
ax
n(n 1) r
-- -win-*
^
n* - a 2
ANSWERS.
ork
20
(77?
293
ram-
PVPTIl;x
>rn
III
9VH
)
Aj2_t_92\
/...^/t
It
-TAJ
2 oosli
/^ 2 sm(tt-l)*
n-
=_
28.
(n-l)u m
29.
amlm + (2m
/
Q1
N
31.
(a)
(/?)
v
25.
(^_
l)( 7i _2)sin"-
CHAPTEE
PAGE
2,
^T
VIII.
115.
\/3
2.
-cosech- 1 ^,
x/2
v/^ 2
+2^+3 - sinh-
lo
3.
2\/2
^-
^^+l
JL
\/2
- --
'
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
294
_
x/2
f
7=tan
PAGE
*2
^=^g
<v>
--^
sinh
If a,
5.
6,
-ws
117.
3.
V2
cases.
6
p
1"
9 sinh_ T9
PAGE
120.
COS 07 - COS
1.
- -log
2.
2(sin#+#cosa).
cos ^ + cos ~
3.
sir
4.
Prove
(TZ.
cos nx
cos x
_ 2 cogec a
r,
~-\^
r=i
gin ra cos (^ _ r \ x
/
Then
cos a?
cos a
sin a r= i
?i
sin Tia
+ __
,
sin a
ANSWERS.
295
-cot
tan
5.
tan --tan"
_
6.
5
2
2sm
a
PAGE
1.
129.
(i.)2tan-V#.
2tan- 1 v/fT2^.
(ii.)
-4\/2
(iii.)
-sinh- 1 --
(iv.)
z.
x/3 l
(v.)
v/^+^+1 -l
sinh- 1
(vi.)
(vii.)
^^L
-- L inh-if2
.
no?
(ii.)
(viii.)
If
\*'
a>c
cosh-i
3.
(i.)
v (cos a
cos /5)(cos a
- cos
if
<
^ + COS a
cos a
other cases.
c.
y)
2
CQS
X mall -1
e.
> cos fi
COS a
cos
or cos
~ COS
"~
ft
cos a
~ C QS
cos a cos
y
y with modifications
for
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
296
_1
Vsin(a
/3)sin(a
y)
2
n
tan
-+,
cot a
3?
cot a
cot
x cosh" 1
Mi)
(ii.)
cot a
JL.
27.
Iog e 2.
29.
(i.)
-L.
(ii.)
2/^.
(iii-
(ii.)
(ii.)
1.
F.
(iii.)
30. e-
PAGE
(i.)^-^).
(ii.)
(iii.)
(rj-r^^S
12.
(iv.)
a
8a.
3.
The
2a(cos|-cos|^.
151.
a-x
Cycloid.
IX,
141.
*L.
PAGE
2.
CHAPTER
7.
cot y - cot a
(iii.)
(ii.)ilog2.
5^5.
15. (i.)
cot-/
t
j iogX24
(i.)
cot a
-:
cot /?
6.
ANS WERS.
r\/l+3cos 2 0_ V3,10
~~co^0~ --2-
v/1 + 3 cos
^^^
297
+ V3 cos ff~\
5.
CHAPTEB
PAGE
2.
5o.
X.
158.
2
(a) c sinh-.
G
h
(b) e
4a2
-l.
(o)
5.
e*
V^rp _ *
6.
Mog
(/)
sin-i^i
37ra 2 .
PAGE
160.
3.
2.
16
*
4.
^.
4?^
2
area=^!
Total
tan a
2 /3 cot
a/^gycot a
-i
(w even), or
(n odd).
z.
8.
a/5
PAGE
1.
37ra 2
3.
/3
6"
~^g3-
9.
167.
3
-(tan f + J- tan i/r).
-a3
a2
'
'
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
298
4.
PAGE
1.
TV*
9.
(i.)
2.
%nrab.
178.
5.
^.
(ii.)
(7r-2)a
7.
r(m + l)
128
m being supposed
11.
12.
a 2 [2log(\/2 + l)-iW2l
14.
odd.
4cV2sin- -L-
17.
^?V2.
v/3
22.
23.
25.
^7? -
24 ^ even
7r^-^".
30.
29.
^^-.
39.
32.
a2
34.
J.
^(107r + 9 x/3).
1--J.
(7r
+ 2).
bmi*s4
44.
(i.)
(ii.)
nr
7'
odd
'
'
^-.
4
12
28. TT( 6 2
'
)-
40. 7raj(a-b).
41.
a2
42.
7rV2
ANSWERS.
CHAPTEE
3.
299
XI.
PAGE
187.
PAGE
191.
2.
3.
surface
),
PAGE
1.
a = rad.
If
of base,
h = altitude,
= slant height,
surface = Tral,
volume = ^TraPk.
193.
5.
27ra 3 (log e 2
6.
Surface
8.
10.
PAGE
(i.)
fi
'ass=-g-,
)
(ii.)
(iii.)
(11.)
J7r
x=
a3
2 3
TV7T a
XII.
201.
y=^ m
(
-)
M--
J=l
a)
).
=%2-7ra
volume =irV.
CHAPTER
1.
y = 2Z
Z.
2
,
h^ h 3 the
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
300
3.
^length,
5'
PAGE
207.
1.
2.
5=
2,
about tang.,
n+4'
about diam.,
4.
If^1= _A^3,
m w
Mom.
m
m
and
In.
about ^-axis =
6.
Area
_.
2(3v/3-7r)'
Mom. In.
a
7.
(1) \
f
(i)
9
K^,
jr^,
(2) (a)
??V
R /
3v'3-7T
(2)
(2)
2
Hijfa
^^
(3)
initial line,
ANSWERS.
CHAPTER
PAGE
1.
x tan x - log
sec
301
XIII.
215.
x =y tan y - log
sec y
+ C.
3
3.
5.
6.
9.
(1)
(2)
10.
y = (7e
?y2
(3)
= 2^ + a
(4)
PAGE
1.
2ye
2
iAn ~ lx
~
==e2i&n lx
219.
+O.
+ b' )y = a sin bx
2
2.
(a
3.
rO = a
b cos bx + Ce~ ax
+ C.
-I
o.
6.
X6
ye
^=
tan
-f~ C/.
1^2.
x sin ?/
v*= 2V^7 + a
13.
x log 2
2^7 2
= ^L+
2^? 2
2
9.
-L_JLf(7.
^cy
15.
i=i+
7*
a
16.
JU= --
2.^^
(7.
"{"C/.
Cfe'
(7.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
302
18. (1)
f^
2#2
(2) (a
+C-.
(3) si
CHAPTEE
PAGE
XIV.
223.
- =
2.
2x/73
where v=yjx.
3.
i-I = a
4,
The jo-eliminant
y=
of
and
5.
<y=
The jo-eliminant
of
-1> + 0}
_
7- (B'
\/4^6Y -(^-
I)
PAGE
226.
2,
4.
5.
.r-
6.
Gy-S^-^
7.
8.
(y-^)
I)
ANSWERS.
PAGE
303
230.
3.
+ C,
4.
o~s
5.
6,
c<
2.
y = Cx + C\
3.
y=
4.
y=
PAGE
232.
PAGE
233.
5.
logp-p + C
?/
n
p x = (n-
2.y=apx+p\
]
6.
JL
1 ^
v=
3a
I
8.
3a ~ 2
3^
2
A rectangular hyperbola.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
304
9.
10.
Hyperbolae.
11.
12.
8?/=(2^-l)
13.
y=
y=c
2
2/
=&
lines
cos 3 6>
,
14.
-jTpj
3c sin
x*J^Ay =
CHAPTEE XV.
PAGE
238.
C
1.
y=x\ogx+Ax + B.
6.
2.
y = acosh(- + 6\
7.
3.
4.
x+b= J\-
2y =
,-^
+&
9.
y = 6 tan
/1
5.
(^-^)2 + (y -J5)
=a 2
11.
10.
y = Ex*
PAGE
2.
3.
(a)
^3-^2+? =
(o)
Ax log x.
242.
dy
-
ANSWERS.
CHAPTER
PAGE
bx
ax
y = Ae +Be
2.
XVI.
251.
305
all capitals
denote arbitrary
3.
y= Ae x + fie** + Ce5x
4.
y=(
cos
8.
y=A
9.
y = (A +
10.
y = (-4 +
11.
y(44-^+^^+l)^4<i^^)tf-^
12.
sin
a?
0)siii ^P
^+
+ ((7+ 7>o?)cos
Cfeajsin
a?
PAGE
PAGE 256
254.
(First Set).
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
306
Set).
-tan- 1 -), d/
^(sin
2.
x cosh #
cos
x sinh #).
^ sin %x.
PAGE
g(^
258.
4
2
a^+(a - 6a + l)cos
l)sin
2 cos a? cosh x.
PAGE
~K
10
3.
2^7
+-
PAGE
(i)
/ON
(2)
x sin 2#
(6) -(cosh
x
(7)
(4)
(8)
(2)
+-
jsin^
5/
263.
(3) -cosh;*.
(1)
^7
-* c i.
j-r-
2.
)cos^7
5/
l.\
1.
260.
*(!
y-.
y=.
- sin
t
(5
^r
+ cos
or).
(e^_e^ + e
~^~Zb
ar
sin 2 -.
2
ANSWERS.
(3)
y=A
307
sw
6
2 cos#).
-(sin#
5
(4)
y = (4 1
(5)
yr^ +
(6)
y = J jer
(7)
y=A1
+{(#
3)cos a?
a?
sin
^r
(8)
(9)
(10)
25
y = ^L
e
1
ar
+^l2 e
ar
~t cos x coshe
y=(J 1
i
+ i-^ sin^+^
8
2
PAGE
265.
>g
1.
2.
4.
5.
r2
sin(log
^7)
^7).
'
^/
2 cos(log a?)
__
~~
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
308
CHAPTER
PAGE
3.
XVII.
269.
= be~ e ^ a
PAGE
4.
= l-cos<9.
276.
2.
Put tany=2
3.
tan?/
where m^
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
..,
b{n-\-Ao)
4.
x* - no +
= tan~^ y =
Put = sin~ o? y=^
Put 6^ = ^, ^=77; (<*-ex +iy*=A.
Put
y + Z = A sin 3x + B cos 3x + C si
32= - 6(^1 sin 3x + B cos 3a?) + (C7siii 4r + D cos 4^).
10.
GLASGOW
= Ad\
11.
2/
=^
CO.
WHICH BORROWED
and
LAST DATB
j5Cs
JUL
.,.
(F5759slO)4188
n e 'al Library
niversity of California
.
Berkeley
ASTRGitiGf".;