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INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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7.
8.
9.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.
10. CONCLUSION.
11. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
12. APPENDIX.
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1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
Unit 19 is primarily aimed to examine in English the verb phrase semantics in terms of real time,
verbal tenses, aspect, mood and another relevant verbal feature, voice, namely achieved by means
of verbs, adverbs and other clause structures. In doing so, the study will be divided into eleven
chapters.
Thus, Chapter 2 provides a theoretical framework for the notion of verb phrase semantics, first, by
examining the linguistic levels involved; second, by introducing the notion in terms of how it is
achieved and what it is; and finally, by presenting the grammatical categories involved in it. Once
this key terminology is defined in syntactic terms, the reader is prepared for the descriptive account
in subsequent chapters.
Chapter 3, then, is presented as an introductory chapter for the notion of verb phrase semantics,
which include a review of (1) the definitions of verb and verb phrase ; (2) the major verb classes:
lexical vs. auxiliary verbs; (3) within le xical verbs we shall examine the main morphological verb
forms; and consequently, (4) the functions of verb forms: finite vs. nonfinite. Then, (5) we shall
present finite and nonfinite verb phrases in terms of structural features in order to introduce (6) the
major contrasts expressed in verb phrases out of which the relevance of semantics will be stated in
relation to the interrelated contrasts of our study: time, tense, aspect and mood, and also that of
voice.
Then, Chapters 4, 5 and 6 will offer a descriptive account of the expression of verb phrase
semantics through the paradigms of time, tense, aspect and mood, respectively. So, Chapter 4
presents, first, the distinction between real time vs. verbal tense and then, we shall offer a typology
of the different tenses, that is, (2) present tense and (3) past tense as inflectional tenses, and (4) the
future time as part of the concept of time by other means rather than the simple and past tenses and
aspect. This analysis of tenses includes, namely for the inflectional tenses, definition, types, use and
morphological, phonological and syntactic comments in all of them.
Similarly, Chapter 5 introduces the expression of verb phrase semantics with reference to aspect. In
doing so, we must introduce first (1) a definition of aspect; (2) the different types of aspects, which
be further classified into (a) the perfect aspect, (b) the progressive aspect and (c) a mix of both, the
perfect progressive aspect, which will be examine d in relation to the two types of tenses, the present
tense and the past tense. This analysis of aspect also includes morphological, phonological and
syntactic comments when necessary.
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And Chapter 6 does the same on the expression of verb phrase semantics with reference to mood. In
doing so, we must introduce first (1) a definition of mood in contrast to modality; (2) mood
approached from two different perspectives: (a) the grammatical view and (b) the semantic view,
called respectively mood and modality. This analysis of aspect includes morphological,
phonological and syntactic comments when necessary.
Chapter 7, then, provides an account of the verbal feature of voice as the final verb phrase semantic
element, which offers the distinction between active and passive voice. This verbal paradigm may
be combined with the verbal features of tense, aspect and mood in order to complement the whole
number of verbal form constructions.
Chapter 8 presents the main coocurrence patterns of varying degrees of complexity at lexical level
depending on the semantic feature we intend to express, that is, tense (verbal tense), aspect
(progressive or perfect) or mood (indicative, subjunctive, imperative). Hence, thanks to the
combination of all these paradigms, we get all the verbal forms we know today.
Chapter 9, then, provides an educational framework for the expression of verb phrase semantics
within our current school curriculum, and Chapter 10 draws on a summary of all the points
involved in this study. In Chapter 11 bibliography will be listed in alphabetical order and, finally, in
Chapter 12, the only appendix of this study is presented.
English Language (2002); and. Angela Downing and Philip Locke, A University Course in English
Grammar (2002).
2.
Before examining in detail the notion of verb phrase semantics in English, that is, time, tense,
aspect and mood, it is relevant to establish first a theoretical framework for this notion, since it must
be described in grammatical terms. In fact, this theoretical chapter aims at answering questions such
as, first, where this notion is to be found within the linguistic level; second, what it describes and
how and, third, which grammar categories are involved in its description at a functional level.
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On the other hand, lexis deals with the notion of verb phrase semantics regarding the choice
between different types of verbal aspects (i.e. present vs. past forms, finite vs. nonfinite forms,
progressive vs. nonprogressive aspect, etc), and other means such as other formal realizations of
these notions (i.e. a noun phrase, a verbless clause, a finite clause, etc); and finally, semantics deals
with meaning where syntactic and morphological levels do not tell the difference (i.e. He is coming
tomorrow: present continuous with future sense).
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3.
This descriptive section will be devoted to an introduction to verb phrase semantics where we shall
approach key notions involved in the study of time, tense, aspect and mood, from the four main
linguistic levels: morphology, phonology, syntax and namely semantics in order to offer a wider
view on this issue. In fact, we shall particularly focus on the latter one since it is this field that
examines the relationship between time, tense, aspect and mood within verbal forms, and the one
which shall offer us the core of our study with an individual analysis of each verbal feature.
Yet, it should be borne in mind that all the key notions to be presented below are particularly
relevant to the study of time, tense, aspect and mood since they explain where these verbal elements
come from, that is, from the verb and verb phrase as main sources to the influence of semantics on
them. Moreover, these four elements, though examined separately in subsequent sections are
closely interrelated in order to form all the verbal forms we know today.
Therefore, we shall start by (1) defining the notion of verb and verb phrase in order to understand
how verbs are combined at sentence level; (2) we shall approach the major types of verb classes
(lexical and auxiliary ) since the reference to time, tense, aspect and mood is mainly drawn from
their interrelationship. Then, (3) we shall examine the main morphological forms of lexical verbs,
followed by (4) an analysis of their syntactic functions, regarding finite and nonfinite forms.
After that, (5) we shall examine the distinction between finite and nonfinite verb phrases regarding
their structural features since time, tense, aspect and mood are drawn from finite forms; and then,
(6) we shall offer the major contrasts expressed in verb phrases among which we find the ones we
need for our analysis: tense, aspect, mood and also, voice. Finally, in (7) we shall relate the
relevance of semantics to the verb phrase in order to conclude our introductory chapter as a link to
next section.
Regarding the verb main features, Huddleston (1988) states that, in general terms, the notion of
verb is applied to a grammatically distinct word class in a language having two main properties:
first, that (1) they are morphologically simplest words denoting actions, processes or events which
in clause structure are placed in predicative position and, when functioning as head of the predicate,
will normally belong to the class we call verb; and second, and relevant for our study, that (2) the
members of this class carry inflections of tense, aspect and mood if the language has these as
inflectional categories.
Secondly, Aarts (1988) states that the verb phrase consists of verbal forms only, except in the case
of multi-word verbs (i.e. turn on, look at, etc). Moreover, the verbal phrase may be constituted by a
sequence of one or more verbs where the maximum number of verbal forms is five, that is,
maximum four auxiliaries + a lexical verb (i.e. the e-mail was sent, someone was sending it, anyone
can send it, it may be sent, it has been being sent, it may have been being sent -this latter is rare-)
depending on the semantic feature we intend to express, that is, tense (verbal tense), aspect
(progressive or perfect) or mood (indicative, subjunctive, imperative).
More recently, Quirk and Greenbaum (1990) substituted the category of auxiliary verbs for the very small closed classes
of primary verbs and modal auxiliary verbs since they both belong to the same class and, therefore, they namely
distinguished three main types (full, primary and modal auxiliary verbs).
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auxiliaries ought and used are followed by a to-infinitive. However, used may co-occur with
do in negative and interrogative sentences (i.e. Did he use(d) to drive a car?)
The second subclassification, (b) primary auxiliaries comprises the items: do, have and be. First,
do differs from have and be in that it usually co-occurs with lexical verbs only. This means that
verb phrases with do contain only two verb forms, since verb phrases cannot have more than one
lexical verb (i.e. Do you believe him?/ Do come, John!). Moreover, it is used as an auxiliary of
periphrasis (i.e. He does not realize what he is doing/Who did he see?/ Only then did he realize his
position) and of emphasis (i.e. He DOES know what he is saying/ I DID lock the door).
On the other hand, have and be co-occur not only with lexical verbs but also with modal
auxiliaries, always following the latter (i.e. He may have escaped). Both function as auxiliaries of
aspect. Thus, have is auxiliary of the perfective aspect when followed by the ed participle of
another verb (i.e. He has written a new article), and be is auxiliary of the progressive aspect when
it combines with the ing participle of another verb (i.e. He is writing a new article ). Moreover,
be is also used as auxiliary of the passive voice when followed by the ed participle of a transitive
(lexical) verb as in The theatre was built in 1909.
Yet, the further distinction of modal auxiliaries and primary auxiliaries (i.e. have, be, do) show
important differences as follows:
1. the former are always finite (when the verb phrase show tense, mood, aspect and voice)
whereas the latter have and be have finite as well as non-finite forms (an infinitive, an
ing participle or an ed participle);
2. the former invariably occur as the first element of the verb phrase (i.e. John will travel to
Paris) whereas the second and may occur in initial as well as in medial position in the verb
phrase (i.e. She has travelled / Has she travelled?);
3. moreover, in English modal auxiliaries are mutually exclusive (i.e. I shall come BUT NOT:
I shall can come) whereas primary auxiliaries are not (i.e. She has been playing).
4. finally, it is worth distinguishing the primary auxiliary do from the primary auxiliaries
have and be since it always occurs initially (i.e. Do you dare to do it?), is invariably
finite, does not generally co-occur with other auxiliaries (i.e. She does her homework ) and
finally, it is used for emphasis (i.e. She does write) and periphrasis (i.e. Do you smoke?)
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First of all, we shall follow Aarts (1988) and Quirk and Greenbaums (1973) classification, whereby
we distinguish five morphological forms, among which four are inflexional morphemes: thus (1) the
base form, (2) the s form, (3) the ed past tense, (4) the ed past participle and (5) the -ing
participle. Yet, other authors like Greenbaum and Quirk (1990) later on, reduced the number of
morphological forms to four (i.e. base form, -s form, -ing participle and ed form).
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So, from a structural point of view the verb forms operate in finite and nonfinite verb phrases from
which we shall examine their main structural features, following semantic, morphological and
syntactic guidelines. Thus:
First of all, (1) a nonfinite verb phrase contains a non-finite verb form: an infinitive (speak or to
speak ), an ing participle (speaking) or an ed participle (spoken/called). Yet, any phrase in which
one of these verb forms is the first or only word (disregarding the infinitive marker to) is a
nonfinite verb phrase. Alike finite verb phrases, nonfinite phrases do not normally occur as the verb
phrase of an independent clause. For instance, To dance like that deserves an award, I found him
dancing like crazy or Having been insulted before, he was more sensitive than ever.
Secondly, (2) a finite verb phrase is a verb phrase which contains a finite verbal form, usually
formed by an only word which is able to show tense, mood, aspect and voice (i.e. He always laughs
with me). If this verb is not first in a sequence of more verbs, this would be nonfinite (i.e. He is
always laughing ). The finite verbal forms are morphologically marked for the category of tense and
which may, in addition, be marked for the categories of mood and concord. The form he drives,
for example, is marked for all three categories. It is marked for tense becuase it contrasts with he
drove, for mood because it contrasts with he drive, and for concord because it contrasts with
I/you/we/they write. A form like may, however, is marked for tense only since it merely shows a
morphological contrast with might. Yet, the finite verb phrase features are as follows:
(1) finite verb phrases can occur as the verb phrase of independent clauses;
(2) finite verb phrases have tense distinction (i.e. present: He studies vs. past: He
studied);
(3) as well as mood, which indicates the factual, nonfactual, or counterfactual status of
the predication. We may distinguish between the unmarked indicative mood and
the marked forms of the imperative (commands and directive speech acts) and
subjunctive (wish, recommendation, etc).
(4) generally, there is person concord and number concord between the subject of a
clause and the finite verb phrase. In most lexical verbs, concord is restricted to a
contrast between the third person singular present and other persons or plural
number (i.e. You go/He goes), but particularly clear with the present tense of be
(i.e. I am, you are, he/she/it is, we are, they are). However, there is no overt
concord at all with modal auxiliaries (i.e. You may go/He may go).
But, let us focus on some syntactic features of simple and complex finite verb phrases since this will
be the core of our study. The simple finite verb phrase consists of only one word without ellipsis
whereas the complex one consists of two or more words. When dealing with verb phrase semantics,
we deal with the modal, perfective, progressive and passive auxiliaries which follow a strict order in
the complex verb phrase.
For instance, (a) modal verbs are always followed by an infinitive (i.e. He might go); (b) perfective
forms with the auxiliary have are always followed by an ed form (i.e. He has gone, he must have
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gone); (c) progressive forms with the verb be are always followed by an ing participle (i.e. He
was talking too loud/He would have been visiting us now); and (d) passive forms with the verb be
again are always followed by an ed participle (i.e. He was visited/He must have been being
visited ). However, although the above order is strictly followed, we find some exceptions, such as
with (a) modal + progressive (i.e. may be visiting ); (b) perfect + passive (i.e. has been built); and (c)
modal + passive (i.e. may be visited).
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each other and how, for example, the expression of time present and past cannot be considered
separately from aspect, and the expression of the future is closely bound up with mood.
However, according to Aarts (1988), we must include in our study another verb feature which is not
found in any other phrase type, that of voice. Of these, as stated before, tense and mood are typical
features of finite verb phrases only whereas aspect and voice can occur in finite as well as non finite
verb phrases. Another feature of the finite verb phrase is that ti often exhibits concord, that is,
agreement in person and/or number between the verb phrase and the subject.
As seen, morphological and syntactic levels offer important information for the analysis of relations
in a time line, but in fact, the relationship between semantics and time reference is the most relevant
for an appropriate classification of figurative time dimensions. Mainly based on the category of
verbs, according to Huddleston (1988), the semantic time reference may be drawn from verbal
tenses, since the field of semantics will approach this dimension in terms of tense inflections and of
certain aspectual and modal catenatives.
In addition we will consider, in the light of this semantic discussion not only the nature of tense,
aspect and mood/modality as general linguistic categories, but also that of voice. So, in next
sections, we shall discuss the contrasts of these verb phrase paradigms and, in doing so, we shall
start by reviewing the difference between real time and verbal tense, and then we shall examine
mood, aspect, and voice.
between the grammatical category of tense and the semantic category of time, since the fairly
complex relation between them shows the importance of distinguishing between real time as a time
line and, second, time as a grammatical category, which is then called tense.
Real time is thought of as a universal abstraction from any given language with three temporal
divisions: past, present and future. This non-linguistic concept is conceived as a line on which the
present moment is located as a continuously moving point from which anything behind of that
present moment is in the past, and anything ahead is the future. It is when we relate this semantic
view of time to the grammatical field that we reformulate it and then, we talk about present, past
and future in terms of tenses.
Then, by verbal tense we understand the corresponding tenses regarding our concept of time, for
instance, the term present moment becomes the present time (including now); the past becomes
the past time (in relation to the preceding now); and the future becomes the future time (in
relation to the following now). Hence, tense, in opposition to time, is considered to be a
grammatical category that is realized by verb inflection.
Huddleston (1988) states that a language has tense if it has a set of systematically contrasting verb
inflections where the primary semantic function is to relate the time of the situation to the time of
the utterance. Tense thus involves the grammaticalisation of time relations when situation is
understood as a general term covering states, actions, processes or whatever is described in the
clause by means of the inflectional category of tense. Following Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), since
English has no future inflected form of the verb, the threefold semantic opposition is reduced to two
tenses: the present tense and the past tense, which typically refer to present and past time
respectively 2 .
Tense is particularly relevant when we address to its functional role. For instance, Palmer (1981)
distinguishes three main functions. First, as a purely marker for temporal relations of past and
present time (i.e. My dad left home early; I like cats); secondly, as a marker of reported speech (i.e.
from Daniel is writing a novel to He said that Daniel is writing a novel / He said that Daniel
was writing a novel, meaning respectively the statement is still valid or is just a deictic tense);
and finally, as a marker of unreality, especially in conditional clauses to express wishes (i.e. I wish
you had luck/If I were you...).
Therefore, we shall examine in turn the various uses of the present and past tenses in English only
as simple inflectional form since the complex forms (perfect and progressive) are to be analysed
within the analysis of aspect and mood. Moreover, the analysis of future time will be enclosed as a
part of our concept of time in opposition to tenses, though some aspects are included in the present
tense with future meaning. Yet, it will be fully included in the analysis of mood.
We must bear in mind, however, that future meaning may be conveyed by various means, including the present tense
(i.e. Tomorrow is Wednesday).
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4.2.1.
Definition.
The present tense refers to present time situations, where the primary use of the present tense is,
according to Huddleston (1988), to locate the situation in present time, where the term situation
must be understood as the time of the utterance describing states, actions, processes or any other
situation in the clause, that is, simple or progressive.
4.2.2.
Within the inflectional category of present tense, the following uses may be distinguished: (1)
simple present tense for present time situations, (2) simple present tense for past situations and (3)
simple present tense for future situations.
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In this type, habitual actions, that is, actions that are regularly repeated and indicate routine (i.e. He
always works at night/My dog barks a lot) are to be included 3 since they are understood as a state of
affairs characterised by the repeated or habitual behaviour, and again this state of affairs extends
beyond the time of utterance, just like the more obviously static situation (i.e. Kim washes her hair
with Clarins shampoo). This type of present tense is often used with adverbs or adverb phrases,
referring to time and frequency (i.e. always, never, occasionally, often, sometimes, usually, every
week, on Sundays, twice a year, as a rule, etc ) and also with time clauses (i.e. Whenever it rains the
roof leaks/When you open the door a light goes on).
Moreover, following Eastwood (1999), this type also includes references to thoughts and feelings
which cannot be expressed with the present continuous (i.e. I think so, I like it, I believe it, I see,
etc) and universal statements, that is, facts and things that are true for a long time (i.e. Dogs hate
dogs/Whales are mammals) and which usually refer to scientific facts (i.e. Water boils at 100C/The
sun sets in the west).
(2) On the other hand, dynamic situations (or according to Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), the
instantaneous present) refer to actions or events happening as a single occurrence with a definite
beginning and end (i.e. Nicole Kidman is on a new project at the moment). This type of situations
are by contrast understood to be effectively simultaneous with the utterance.
Its use is fairly restricted to dramatic narrative when describing a single event with little or no
duration that occurs at the time of speaking or writing, for instance, the action of an opera, play or
any sport (football, tennis, basketball). For instance, in running commentaries on a play (i.e. When
the curtains rise, Cristine is walking in the forest and suddenly, ...) and particulary in radio
commentaries at sports events or public functions (i.e. ...and now, Ronaldo passes the ball to
Figo...), demonstrations (i.e. I add a pinch of sugar in a cookery demonstration) and for certain
kinds of act performed precisely by virtue of uttering a sentence that describes the act (i.e. I promise
to be back before ten) or performative declarations (i.e. I name this ship Cocoa).
Huddleston (1988) classifies the present tense for present situation into two types (static and dynamic)
which, according to the classification proposed by Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) would be the state present
and the instantaneous present respectively. However, Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) distinguish a further third
type called the habitual presentwhich is included into Huddlestons static type.
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(1) First of all, the historic present refers to past time, and is characteristic of popular narrative
style. It conveys the dramatic immediacy of an event happening at the time of the narration (i.e. Just
as we arrived, up comes Sarah and says hello as if nothing has happened). This type is namely used
in fictional narrative as a stylistic marker device for imaginary events in the past (i.e. Everybody
waits at the city gate, excitement grows, and suddenly, the hero appears on a black horse with seven
knights following him...).
(2) Secondly, the simple present tense is optionally used to refer to the past with verbs of
communication or reception of communication to suggest that the information commun icated is still
valid (i.e. The French Prime Minister states that ...). Moreover, it is used namely with the verb say
in order to ask about or quote from books, notices or letters (i.e. What does she say in her
letter?/Hamlet says, To be or not to be, thats the question) and also, with other verbs of
communication (i.e. Spanish Health Care Authorities advise not to swim in Atlantic waters) and in
newspaper headlines (i.e. Mass murderer escapes/The Prestige finally sinks in the Atlantic Ocean).
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4.2.3.
We shall make some comments on spelling, phonology and syntax related to the simple present
tense.
Thus, first of all, regarding morphology, the regular spelling of the present tense suffix is s or es.
The latter spelling is found in: (a) verbs ending in s (his-s-es), -ss (kiss-es), -ch (watch-es), -sh
(fish-es) and -x (tax-es) in order to form the third person singular; (b) verbs ending in a consonant
symbol + o (echoes, goes, vetoes); and (c) verbs ending in a consonant symbol + -y, by means of
which y changes into i (cries, fancies, tries).
On the one hand, the corresponding phonological realizations of the present tense morpheme s are
regularly realized in two ways: first, /s/ after bases ending in voiceless sounds except sibilants (i.e.
walks, coughs, stops, prints) and second, /z/ after bases ending in voiced sounds except sibilants
(i.e. frees, mars, chews, purrs, snores, destroys, dries, pays, glows, rubs, begs, clims, grins, settles,
breathes).
On the other hand, the corresponding phonological realization of the present tense morpheme es is
regularly realized by /iz/ after bases ending in a sibilant /s/ (i.e. mixes, promises, tosses), /z/ (i.e.
freezes, loses, seizes), the voiceless palato alveolar fricative (i.e. fishes, rushes, washes ), the voiced
palato alveolar fricative (i.e. camouflages, rouges), the voiceless palato alveolar affricate (i.e.
catches, screeches, touches), and the voiced palato alveolar affricate (i.e. alleges, budges, lodges).
Yet, similar spelling but different phonetic realization is given with those verbs ending in a
consonant symbol + o, for instance, note the pronounciation of does /d^z/ and goes /schwa+u/.
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4.3.1.
Definition.
The past tense refers to past time situations, where the primary use of the past tense is, according to
Huddleston (1988), to locate the situation in past time, where the term situation must be
understood as the time of the utterance describing states, actions, processes or any other situation in
the clause, that is, simple or progressive.
4.3.2.
Within the inflectional category of past tense, the following uses may be distinguished: (1) simple
past tense for present time situations, (2) simple past tense for past situations, (3) simple past tense
for future situations and (4) special cases.
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when the action clearly took place at a definite time even though this time is not mentioned
(i.e. How did they manage to invade England?).
(2) Secondly, the habitual past is used with actions which refer to past events that repeatedly
occur at a certain moment in the past as habitual or routinary activities (i.e. He always
arrived on time), but since, unlike the simple present, this is not implied without a suitable
adverb, used to or less commonly would may be needed to bring out this sense by
paraphrasing (i.e. He used to/would arrive on time). We may find (a) actions whose time is
not given but which occupied a period of time now terminated (i.e. He worked in a bank for
ten years) and (b) actions whose time occurred at a moment in a period of time now
terminated (i.e. She lived in New York for a long time).
(3) Finally, the state past is used with stative verb senses to refer to a single unbroken state of
affairs in the past (i.e. I once wrote a novel). Here we may also convey the meaning of the
past by paraphrasing with used to (i.e. Once I used to write novels).
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4.3.3.
We shall make some comments on spelling, phonology and syntax related to the simple past tense.
Thus, first of all, regarding morphology, the regular spelling of the past tense and ed participle
suffixes is ed or d. The latter spelling is found when the verb ends in mute e (i.e. bake-d, love-d,
move-d).
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In four cases the spelling of the base is affected before the ending ed, for instance, (1) in verbs
ending in a consonant symbol + y, where y changes into i (i.e. denied, fancied, pitied, tried); (2) in
verbs ending in a consonant symbol preceded by a single vowel symbol. Then, the final consonant
symbol is doubled if the verb is monosyllabic or ends in a stressed syllable (i.e. hugged, nodded,
rubbed, stopped, admitted, occurred, preferred, regretted) Note the following exceptions to this rule
(i.e. humbugged, handicapped, kidnapped, worshipped); (3) in verbs ending in l, preceded by a
single vowel symbol, l is doubled (i.e. cancelled, travelled, quarrelled, rebelled, signalled); and
(4) the final c is changed into ck (i.e. trafficked, bivouacked, picnicked).
Only in three verbs final y is changed into i before the ending d (i.e. lay-laid, pay-paid, say-said).
Note that the latter one (say-said) does not follow the same pronunciation rules that the preceding
forms, thus said /sed/.
Regarding pronunciation, the past tense morpheme ed of regular verbs are realized in three ways:
first, /t/ after bases ending in voiceless sounds except /t/ (i.e. walked, stopped, kissed); second, /d/
after bases ending in voiced sounds except /d/ (i.e. played, sinned, loved); and /id/ after bases
ending in /t/ or /d/ (i.e. demanded, parted, decided).
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sometimes used with the infinitive (especially in Southern Britain) to indicate futurity with a first
person subject (i.e. No doubt I shall see you next week).
Note that these constructions are the closest approximations to a colourless, neutral future which
cover a range of modal meanings, for instance, possibility in the future (i.e. You may pass your
driving test), obligation (i.e. You will have to talk to her as soon as she comes), permission (i.e. You
will be able to enter this room next time) and so on.
We may also distinguish four types of future, one within simple constructions regarding tense, that
is, Future Simple (i.e. I will go) and two within the complex constructions regarding the perfect
aspect: (a) the Future Perfect (i.e. I will have done it) and (b) the Future Perfect Continuous (i.e. I
will be studying by then), the latter one has to do with the perfect and progressive aspects since it is
a combination of both. Moreover, when dealing with the verbal feature of voice, we find other
combinations, such as those of the passive voice: simple future tense in the passive (i.e. The
building will be finished by the year 2005), the progressive future (i.e. The children will be being
taught by the best teacher) and the Perfect Future in the passive (i.e. The children will have been
taught).
All these possible combinations are coocurrence verbal patterns which, in combination with all the
forms we shall approach in this study, will complete our study on the verb phrase semantics.
5.1. Definition.
The term aspect is defined as a grammatical category that reflects the way in which the meaning
of a verb is viewed with respect to time (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990). Yet, since the terminological
distinction between tense and time has no well-established analogue in the domain of aspect, the
term aspect as we know it, refers to the manner in which a situation is experienced, that is, as a
completed action or in progress.
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The term aspect then is widely used both for a grammatical category of the verb (present, past,
present perfect) and for the type of meaning characteristically expressed by that category (action in
progress vs. completed action). We recognize two aspects in English, the perfect and the
progressive, which This is what Huddleston defines it as the grammatical and semantic aspect:
progressive and perfect aspects,
Perfective and progressive forms are presented in complex verb phrases in present and past tenses, for
instance, present perfect (has seen) vs. past perfect (had seen); present progressive (is working) vs. past
progressive (was working); and present perfect progressive (has been working) vs. past perfect progressive
(had been working ).
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lately, recently, etc) which imply that the action happened or didnt happen at some
undefined time during this period (i.e. Have you seen him today?=at any time today).
Two main cases are distinguished:
(a) first, when the implicit time period (occurred at some more remote time in the
past) leads the events up to the present (i.e. She has never eaten oysters/Have
you ever seen any live concert?). Similarly, we may also convey the same
meaning by using always, occasionally, often, several times, since + a point in
time (i.e. since 1978), since + clause (i.e. since I was born), or since as adverb
(i.e. I havent seen her since).
(b) Second, when the events are reported as news, usually when they have occurred
shortly before the present time (i.e. The Democrats have won the elections=
recently). These past events are related to the present by their recency and
current news value (i.e. The euro has been devalued by 30%). However, in
most cases the time is not mentioned ( i.e. this year).
(3) The habitual present perfect is also used with dynamic verb senses and refer to past
events that repeatedly occur up to and including the present. This type of present perfect
refers to actions which occur further back in the past, provided the connexion with the
present is still maintained, that is that the action could be repeated in the present, for
instance My grandfather has seen wolves in the forest (=He used to see wolves there
and it is still possible to see the m), Ive been reading only horror novels (=till now),
The magazine has been published every two weeks (=since a specific point in time).
Unlike the simple past, the present perfect does not normally cooccur with adverbials
that indicate a specific point or period of time in the past. Compare John wrote a novel
last year (right) vs. John has written a novel last year (wrong).
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(2) Second, the past perfect is also the past equivalent of the simple past tense, and is used
when the narrator or subject looks back on earlier action from a certain point in the past
(Thomson & Martinet, 1986), as in Sarah was eighteen when our story begins. Her father
had served in the army for twenty years and her mother had died two years before and
since then she had lived alone. Note that if we merely give the events in the order in which
they occurred, no past perfect is necessary (i.e. Sarahs father served in the army and her
mother died two years ago) as well as if if the time relationship between the given
situations is clear (the simple past and the past perfect) in such cases, as in the previous
example.
(3) Yet, there is another special use analogous to that of the simple past: when the past perfect
also represents the past of the present perfect, for instance, compare She has lived in
London since she was born vs. She had lived in London since she was born. Note that
whereas the former sentence implies that she still lives in London, the latter entails that she
Moreover, Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) distinguish three special uses of the past perfect: (1)
backshifting in indirect reported speech, (2) the attitudinal past perfect and (3) the hypothetical past
perfect:
(4) Next, the use of past perfect in backshifting within indirect speech constructions which
gives only the content expressed, not the actual words used. Compare Jane said: James
had two cats vs. Jane said that James had had two cats where it indicates a backshift into
the more remote past.
(5) Then, the attitudinal past perfect refers more politely than the simple past to a present state
of mind (i.e. I had wondered who you are ). And finally, the hypotheticl past makes
reference to subordinate clauses, especially conditio nal clauses (second type) introduced by
if, as if, as though, it is time, if only, wish, would sooner/rather, etc so as to convey the idea
of an unreal past and the opposite to the belief, expectation or wish of the speaker (i.e. If
you knew him, you would be surprised/I wish I had more money).
(6) The hypothetical past (or actual remoteness according to Huddleston) is given by
conditional sentences where we find past perfect tenses (third conditional) to imply that the
situation did not occur (i.e. If I had been there, you would not have left).
5.2.2.
Regarding the aspectual meaning of progressive be, we must point out that the verb be takes a
present-participial complement when it is catenative (i.e. writing a letter: she is writing a letter), by
means of the structure of progressive construction be + present participle inflection (-ing).
According to Quirk & Greenbaums classification of present tense types (1973), the progressive
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aspect is to be presented in opposition to the present simple as a limited present tense which
indicates that the action is viewed as in progress and has a limited duration (i.e. He is singing now/
at the moment/ today).
Progressive be is so called because its basic meaning is that it presents the situation as being in
progress at a particular time. This implies that it is conceived of as taking place, thus as having a
more or less dynamic character, rather than being wholly static. The situation is seen not in its
temporal totality, but at some point or period within it, that is, that the situation has limited duration,
and that it is not necessarily complete.
Following Huddleston (1988), in English there are quite a number of items that express the
aspectual meanings of progressive which, unlike the perfect aspect of have, can head the
complement of various other aspectual verbs, such as begin, stop, etc. Most of them are catenative
verbs, that is, lexical verbs which express beginning or end such as begin, finish, commence, start,
stop, cease, use, start, continue, be, have, carry on and keep on. Aspectual meaning involves not the
temporal location of the situation, but rather its temporal flow or segmentation, in other words,
focusing in the initial and final segments: beginning (begin) and end (stop). With some other verbs
indicate the situation is presented as ongoing, usually with repetition (keep, be, carry on, keep on,
etc).
Now let us move on to an analysis of the progressive aspect regarding the present and past tenses.
This analysis will be carried out simultaneously since the two constructions only differ, first, in
using different tense inflections (present: am, is, are, being; past: was being, were being) and,
secondly, in their semantic meaning, that is, referring to present and past actions which are taking
place at the moment of speaking. But before, we shall review an important point, the verb senses in
relation to the progressive aspect.
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states of perception (i.e. taste, see, smell, hear, feel); and (v) states of bodily
sensation (i.e. feel sick, ache, hurt, itch, etc).
(b) Secondly, dynamic verbs are classified into two main types: durative and punctual.
On the one hand, (1) dynamic durative verbs are usually taking place over a period
of time as in (i) activities performed by inanimate forces (i.e. wind:blow,
engine:run, rain:fall down, etc); or (ii) by animate agents (i.e. sing, dance, eat,
drink, play, etc); (iii) processes denoting change of state which are taking place
over a period (i.e. change, widen, grow, etc ); and (iv) accomplishments as actions
or activities that have the goal or endpoint (i.e. finish a book, read the newspaper,
write an essay, etc).
On the other hand, (2) dynamic punctual verbs have little or no duration in (i)
momentary events and acts (i.e. jump, knock, tap, nod, etc) which indicate repetition
when expressed by the progressive aspect (i.e. He was nodding); and (ii)
transitional events an acts (i.e. land, leave, stop , arrive, etc) which, again, when
expressed in the progressive, refer to a period leading up to the change of state (i.e.
the bus is arriving at the station).
(c) Third, stance verbs may be used with either the progressive or the nonprogressive
forms, often with little to choose between the variants (i.e. lie, live, sit, stand, etc).
When used with the nonprogressive (i.e. He lives in Oslo ) it expresses a permanent
state whereas when used with the progressive (i.e. He is living in Oslo), it denotes a
temporary state.
(d) And finally, just mention some special cases. Note that certain verbs, although the
verb is non-progressive, as in rain (i.e. It rained), denote a dynamic situation and
is presented in its totality, as an event.
(1) First of all, we shall refer to those verbs which are normally stative but become
dynamic when used in the progressive. They may indicate a type of behaviour with
limited duration (i.e. They were being quite rude). Note that verb expressing emotion or
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attitude, which are ordinarily stative, denote tentativeness when they occur in the
progressive (i.e. I am/was wondering whether you would come).
(2) The event progressive is related to dynamic verb senses to refer to events or situations
that have duration and are not completed (i.e. I am/was dancing like cracy last night).
Whereas the simple past cannot replace the past progressive (danced-was dancing)
because they are not compatible in meaning, the present progressive is more commonly
used than the simple present for situations in present time, because present events are
usually considered to have some duration (i.e. What is he doing? He is writing an email).
(3) The habitual progressive is also used with dynamic verb senses and refer to events that
repeatedly occur and take place over a limited period of time (i.e. My grandma is/was
telling some ghost stories ) in contrast with the simple present and past tenses (i.e. My
grandma tells/told some ghost stories). Again, whereas the progressive implies
temporariness, the simple tense implies permanence.
Moreover, and similar to the comments on the progressive forms, we must pay special attention to
contracted forms of has, have, had which become almost inaudible in colloquial speech (i.e. Hes
driven too fast/Youve got a headache/Youd better stop). This feature is not especially problematic
for Spanish students when producing oral speech, but when detecting it in others oral speech.
These three moods are not so clear-cut in English as they are in other languages such as Spanish,
French or Italian. For instance, in English the indicative and the subjunctive forms in the present
share the same spelling (i.e. It is true vs. I hope it is true, respectively) whereas in the past forms,
only the verb be has distinct forms for the indicative and the subjunctive (i.e. He was a sensible
man vs. He would not go if he were a sensible man), although this trend has recently changed into
the duality of usage between was and were. But let us examine the three types of mood.
proposal, intention and so on (i.e. I prefer/recommend/propose/it is desirable/etc). Note that this use
is more characteristic of American English than British English. Secondly, (b) the formulaic (or
optative) subjunctive mood is used in certain expressions such as God save the Queen, Long live the
King, Come what may,...;Heaven forbid that, Be that as it may,...; Suffice it to say that... and so on.
On the other hand, (2) the past subjunctive is used in formal style and is hypothetical in meaning. It
is namely used in conditional and concessive clauses and in subordinate clauses after wish ,
suppose and imagine (i.e. If I were rich, I would.../I wish you were here/Just suppose everybody
were rich for one day). In nonformal styles, the hypothetical past (second conditional) replaces
subjunctive were (i.e. I wish she was not married).
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You can have a chocolate); we have must to impose an obligation (i.e. You must be in bed
before midnight); and we have shall to put oneself under an obligation (i.e. You shall have
your money back).
(3) Subject-oriented uses involve some property, disposition or the like on the part of whoever
or whatever is referred to by the subject, as in She can run faster than me , concerning her
physical capabilities, and She wouldnt lend me the money I need, concerning her
willingness.
In the verb phrase, the passive follows the structure auxiliary be + the ed participle of the main
verb (i.e. takes-is taken, has taken-has been taken, may be taking -may be being taken). At a clause
level, changing from active to passive has the following results: first, the active subject becomes the
passive agent; second, the active object becomes the passive subject; and finally, the preposition
by is to be placed before the agent (i.e. Picasso painted the Guernica=the Guernica was painted
by Picasso).
Note that this prepositional phrase (agent by-phrase) is an optional element and is commonly
omitted when it is an indefinite pronoun (somebody), personal pronouns (I, you, he) or general
nouns (people, everybody). Moreover, sometimes the agent is implicitly understood in the verb
(arrest=the police; correct=the teacher; report=a journalist, etc).
Moreover, in sentences where there is a choice between active and passive, speakers or writers use
the passive for the following reasons: (1) they do not know the identity of the agent of the action
(i.e. A nice advert was launched yesterday); (2) they want to avoid identifying the agent because
they do not want to assign or accept responsability (i.e. The TV has been broken this morning); (3)
they feel that there is no reason for mentioning the agent since the identification is unimportant or
obvious from the context (i.e. The murderer was arrested); and (4) in scientific and technical
writing so as to avoid constant repetition of the subject I and we, and to put emphasis on
processes and experimental procedures (i.e. The report was folded and placed on the table ). Other
uses are (5) to put emphasis on the agent of the action; and finally (6) to avoid a long active subject;
(7) to retain the same subject in later parts of teh sentence.
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auxiliary with do 5 which may convey periphrasis (i.e. Does John swim?) or (c) an auxiliary with
do which conveys emphasis (i.e. John does swim); (d) the auxiliary have for the perfective
aspect (i.e. John has swum); (e) the auxiliary be for the progressive aspect (i.e. John is swimming);
and again (f) the auxiliary be for the use of passive voice (i.e. A car was bought by John).
Regarding the second possibility, a lexical verb + two or more auxiliaries, it can range in
complexity from three to maximally five verbal forms, including the lexical verb. Thus, with two
auxiliaries (i.e. may have bought, may be buying, may be bought, has been buying, has been
bought, is being bought); with three auxiliaries (i.e. may have been buying, may have been bought,
may be being bought, has been being bought); and finally, with four auxiliaries + lexical verb (i.e.
may have been being bought) although this type is quite rare.
In those verb phrases which contain a combination of these categories, the suffix is invariably
attached to the verb immediately following the auxiliary which, together with the suffix, realizes the
category in question. It is worth remembering at this point that if there is only one verb in the verb
phrase, it is the main verb (i.e. He believes in ghosts). On the other hand, if there is more than one
verb, the final one is the main verb, and the one or more verbs that come before it are auxiliaries
(i.e. The e-mail has been being (auxiliaries) written (main verb)).
9. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.
The different verbal paradigms dealt with in this study are so relevant to the learning of a foreign
language since differences between the vocabulary of the learner's native language (L1) and that of
the foreign language (L2) may lead to several problems, such as the incorrect use of verbal tenses,
especially because of the syntactic, morphological, and semantic processes implied in these
categories.
This study has looked at the expression of the main verb phrase semantics: time, tense, aspect and
mood, and also to another verbal feature which complements the previous ones, voice, within
lexical semantics, morphology, phonology and syntax in order to help Spanish-speaking students
establish a relative similarity between the two languages that would find it useful for learning
English.
According to Thomson & Martinet (1986), a European student may find especially troublesome the
use of verbal tenses when communicating in English since, first, he has to know whether in any
construction a verb is required or not (i.e. I saw him two days ago I have seen him recently) and,
This structure with do cannot contain a modal auxiliary nor an auxiliary of the perfective aspect, the progressive aspect
or the passive voice. However, negative imperatives are an exception (i.e. Dont be taken in).
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second, whic h verbal form to use when certain time adverbs are nearby (i.e. He hasnt arrived/has
been arriving yet).
This choice becomes problematic for our Spanish students when they deal with the wide range of
verbal forms which verb phrase semantics offer. For instance, the most common mistake for
Spanish students, both at ESO and Bachillerato level, is to construct a certain verbal form in English
(i.e. She was studying when I arrived) with serious grammatical mistakes (i.e. Does she be studying
when I arrived?) or sometimes by omitting certain elements (i.e. She working at the office). Often,
they do not correspond literally to the translation the students make.
It has been suggested that a methodology grounded in part in the application of explicit linguistic
knowledge enhances the second language learning process. In the Spanish curriculum (B.O.E.
2002), the expression of time by means of verbal forms is envisaged from earlier stages of ESO in
the use of simple tenses (simple present, present continuous, past simple, past continuous) to talk
about their everyday life or any specific topic, up to higher stages of Bachillerato, towards more
complex verbal forms, such as present perfect progressive, the three types of conditional, modal
verbs and nonfinite constructions (infinitive, -ing forms), and above all, idiomatic expressions in
certain verbal forms (If I were you, I wish I was..., It is said that..., etc).
So, the importance of how to handle these verbal forms cannot be understated since you can
communicate but not successfully, for instance, the intonation in imperative forms may sound rude
if not well toned. Current communicative methods foster the teaching of this kind of specific
linguistic information to help students recognize the main differences with the L2 words. Learners
cannot do it all on their own. Language learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, do not
automatically recognize similiarities which seem obvious to teachers; learners need to have these
associations brought to their attention.
So far, we have attempted in this discussion to provide a broad account of the expression of time by
means of verbal forms within verb phrase semantics in order to set it up within the linguistic theory,
going through the localization of verbal forms in syntactic structures, to a broad presentation of the
main grammatical categories involved in it. We hope students are able to understand the relevance
of handling correctly the expression of verbal time, tense, aspect, mood and voice successfully in
everyday life communication.
9. CONCLUSION .
All in all, although the question What is a verbal form? may appear simple and straightforward, it
implies a broad description of the verb phrase in terms of semantics so as to get to the paradigms of
time, tense, aspect, mood and voice which, combined, give way to the whole set of verbal forms we
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know. The appropriate answer suitable for students and teachers, may be so simple if we are dealing
with ESO students, using simple grammatical verb structures or so complex if we are dealing with
Bachillerato students, who must be able to handle more complex verb structures.
So far, in this study we have attempted to take a fairly broad view of verb phrase semantics since
we are also assuming that there is an intrinsic connexion between its learning and successful
communication. Yet, we have provided a descriptive account of Unit 19 dealing with The verb
phrase semantics, whose main aim was to introduce the student to the different paradigms that
shape the whole set of verbal forms in English.
In doing so, the study provided a broad account these notions, starting by a theoretical framework in
order to get some key terminology on the issue, and further developed within a grammar linguistic
theory, described in morphological, syntactic and semantic terms. Once presented, we discussed
each paradigm individually but always in relation to each other not to lose track of it.
In fact, the correct expression of verbal forms, is currently considered to be a central element in
communicative competence and in the acquisition of a second language since students must be able
to use these forms in their everyday life in many different situations. As stated before, the teaching
of them comprises four major components in our educational curriculum: phonology, grammar,
lexicon, and semantics, out of which we get five major levels: phonological, morphological and
syntactic, lexical, and semantic.
In fact, for our students to use the verbal forms properly, they must have a good know ledge at all
those five levels. First, on phonology which describes the sound level. Secondly, since the two most
basic units of grammar are the word and the sentence, they must have good grammatical
knowledge, which involves the morphological level (i.e. the third person singular s/-es,,
inflectional morphemes of past forms ed or progressive aspect -ing, etc) and the syntactic level
(i.e. where time adverbs are placed at sentence level). Third, the lexicon, or lexical level, lists
vocabulary items, that is, different verbs (static, dynamic). Finally, another dimension between the
study of linguistic form and the study of meaning is semantics, or the semantic level, in which
students must be able to distinguish the differences in use of the different verbal forms.
Therefore, it is a fact that students must be able to handle the four levels in communicative
competence in order to be effectively and highly communicative in the classroom and in real life
situations. The expression of these verbal paradigms in form and function, proves highly frequent in
our everyday speech, and consequently, we must encourage our students to have a good managing
of it.
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10. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
- Aarts, F., and J. Aarts. 1988. English Syntactic Structures. Functions & Categories in Sentence
Analysis. Prentice Hall Europe.
- B.O.E. RD N 112/2002, de 13 de septiembre por el que se establece el currculo de la Educacin
Secundaria Obligatoria/Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.
- Bolton, D. And N. Goodey. 1997. Grammar Practice in Context. Richmond Publishing.
- Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common
European Framework of reference.
- Downing, A. and P. Locke. 2002. A University Course in English Grammar. London: Routledge.
- Eastwood, J. 1999. Oxford Practice in Grammar. Oxford University Press.
- Greenbaum, S. and R. Quirk. 1990. A Students Grammar of the English Language. Longman
Group UK Limited.
- Greenbaum, S. 2000. The Oxford Reference Grammar. Edited by Edmund Weiner. Oxford
University Press.
- Hymes, D. 1972. On communicative competence. In
Sociolinguistics, pp. 269-93. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
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12.APPENDIX
Appendix 1. Major verb classes: lexical vs. auxiliary verbs.
LEXICAL VERBS
AUXILIARY
VERBS
Primary
Auxiliaries
HAVE
BE
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periphrasis
and
auxiliary of
emphasis
auxiliary of the
perfective aspect
Auxiliary of the
progressive aspect
and
auxiliary of the
passive voice