Module 1, Introduction to Packaging

This module will lead you through the beginning steps in your initial study
of packaging. Like any other field of study, packaging has a specialized
language. Terms can mean something specific in packaging and something
entirely different in another context. It will be necessary for you to understand
the meanings of these terms and the times when they will be applied. You will be
introduced to some of the basic terminology of packaging in this module, along
with other material.

Why use packages

Nearly everything that you purchase comes in a package. In fact, many of
the products which you get without a package were packaged at an earlier stage.
In other cases, portions of the product were packaged earlier. For example,

A new automobile is generally not packaged. But, hundreds of parts and

subassemblies were packaged for transport from the suppliers to the
automobile assembly plant.
Many of the fresh food products that you purchase in the produce
department of a grocery store are unpacked. However, they were
packaged earlier for transport to the grocery store. Further, they will be
packaged again, usually in plastic or paper bags so that you can transport
them through the checkout and to your residence.
The previous comment is even true for most farmer markets. The vendors
often sell products that were not grown locally. For example, vendors at
the Lansing city Market frequently offer bananas, oranges, grapefruit, and
other citrus products for sale. These products are all grown in warmer
climates, hundreds or even thousands of miles away. They were
packaged for transport and sale to the market vendor. Further, after the
customer selects and purchases some products, they are packaged in a
bag or box for transportation to the purchaser's residence.

So why are things packaged? What is the function of a package?

Pause here and think about things that you may have recently purchased - new
clothes, fast food, books, a computer, cosmetics, soft drinks, beer, etc. How
were the items packaged - paper bag, plastic bag, paperboard box, metal can,
plastic bottle, etc.? Why do you think the items were packaged? Why were
those specific packages used? Did you gain benefits from the packages? Did
you incur costs for the packages? Did the packages cause problems? Did
anyone else benefit from the packages? How would you have handled these
products without packages?

What is a package
The following statement is a standard definition of a package. A package
is the enclosure for products, items or other packages, such as a wrap,

pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle, or other container form, to
perform one or more of the following four basic functions:

Containment
Protection
Communication
Utility

Each of the four basic functions of packages will be discussed in the

following section.

Containment
Many products must be contained in a package of some type to be
handled.
Liquids:
Liquids are the best example. Consider how you would go about getting a
gallon of milk or 2 liters of soft drink or a pint of water, from a grocery store to
your house if it was not packaged in a conventional can, jug, or plastic bottle. You
would have no choice but to put the liquid product in a pail, plastic bag or some
other container (e.g. a package). Pouring it in a pocket wouldnt work. You can
carry some products around in your bare hands, but that won't work with liquids.
In general, liquids must be contained to be handled.
This plastic bottle provides containment for the liquid
fertilizer. Packages often provide more than simple
containment. For example, the barrier in this package
of household chemical prevents contamination and also
prevents accidental contact with the contents. In
addition, the spout on the bottle provides a convenient
mechanism for dispensing the product.
Free-flowing solids:
Sugar, salt, and other free flowing solids behave like liquids in many ways.
Punch a hole in a paper bag of granulated sugar and the product will run out
because it will no longer be contained. Free flowing solids are a less extreme
case than liquids. In most cases, you could put a free flowing solid in your
pocket and take it home. You might not want to eat it afterwards though! In a
practical sense, free flowing solids must be contained to be handled.

Free-flowing solids, such as common table

salt must be contained for convenient
handling. A salt shaker, built into the
package adds convenience (utility)

Large, heavy machines:

A third case of containment is the handling of large, heavy motors, pumps,
and similar equipment. Such items, which are too heavy and clumsy to be
moved by hand, are often contained by fastening them securely to a pallet that
can be handled by fork lift or other equipment. In summary, containment is a
basic function of packaging. Many products are contained in packages because
it is impractical to handle them without having them contained. However, for
most products, the package also provides other functions.

Large, heavy machines, such as this

blow molder, used to manufacture
plastic bottles, are often attached to
skids or pallets to facilitate handling.

CD's are protected by a plastic box

with a plastic film over-wrap and the
individual packages are then
contained in a box for convenient
handling and marketing

Protection
Products are exposed to many hazards during packaging, storage,
handling, and transportation. The specific hazard depends on the sensitivity of
the product and the "environmental conditions. The following list highlights
some of the serious and common hazards where a package is expected to
protect a product.
Moisture level:
Many products must be protected against undesirable gain or loss of
moisture. For example, if bread loses moisture, it will dry out and get hard. It

often curls up. On the other hand, there are many products, such as potato chips,
pretzels, and other crispy snack products that lose crispiness and flavor if they
gain moisture.

Some moisture sensitive products, such as

salted crackers, of various types, must be
protected against moisture gain. Moisture
would cause the crackers to lose crispness, a
primary desirable characteristic.

In either case, the package must be constructed of a material which has a

high resistance (called barrier) to the passage of moisture. For bread, the
barrier keeps moisture from leaking out of the package. For potato chips and
similar products, the barrier keeps moisture from leaking into the package.
These are both important packaging considerations, but the material barrier is
not adequate by itself. The package must also have tight seals to prevent the
passage of moisture, and an effective reclosing system is also helpful.
There are many other effects of moisture on other products. For example,
steel corrodes in the presence of high moisture and certain pharmaceutical
products may lose efficacy (effectiveness) if the moisture level in the package is
too high.
Oxygen level:
Like moisture, many products need the proper level of oxygen. For some
products, a high level of oxygen is a hazard. For others, a low level of oxygen is
a hazard. Too much oxygen can lead to oxidation (darkening) of various
pigments in some foods. The darkening does not always make the food
inedible, but consumers often consider the darkening to indicate food spoilage.
Rancidity of fats and oils in food is another effect of excess oxygen. This type of
oxidation produces peroxides, aldehydes, and other undesirable odors, tastes,
and chemical effects.
Fresh vegetables and foods are sometimes given extended shelf life by
packing them in packages which maintain a low oxygen condition. Some
pharmaceuticals and vitamins, such as beta-carotene, are oxygen sensitive.
Fine metal parts can sometimes be protected against corrosion by excluding
oxygen.
Red meat is an oxygen sensitive product. If the meat is packaged in an
oxygen barrier package with a low oxygen atmosphere in the package, the meat
will turn blue or gray. It is still wholesome, but consumers may reject the product
because of its appearance. When the package is opened, the meat quickly

"blooms" to a red color. The low oxygen packaging system has been widely
accepted in the United Kingdom and other parts of Europe because of the longer
shelf life and the higher quality of the product. In the US, however, attempts to
market meat in low oxygen packages has failed several times. US consumers
simply do not accept the product, apparently because of the blue/gray color.
Loss of other gases:
Carbonated beverages lose the "fizz" and bubbly character if the Carbon
Dioxide (CO2) leaks out of the package. For this reason, carbonated beverages,
such as soft drinks and beer, are packaged in materials which provide a barrier to
the passage of CO2 through out the anticipated shelf life of the beverage.

Any soft drink, beer, or other

carbonated beverage, such as Pepsi,
can be packaged in containers made of
plastic, glass or metal. The package
must provide a barrier to the passage
of carbon dioxide which provides the
"fizz" in the product

Glass and metal both provide very high barriers to the passage of
moisture and gasses. Most plastics do not provide barriers that are as effective.
So, when manufacturers switched from glass to plastic bottles for carbonated soft
drinks, it was necessary to adjust distribution practices to ensure that the product
was sold and consumed before the carbonation could leak out.
Temperature:
Many products must be held in a specific temperature range to prevent
damage or spoilage. A classic example of a product that must be kept cold is ice
cream. If ice cream gets warm, it melts and is destroyed. Many other items,
such as human organs, must also be kept cold. If a heart or kidney warms up
during transport to the location where it will be transplanted into a patient, it may
lose its viability.
However, the quality of other items can be damaged by cold. For
example, many paints, caulks, adhesives, and similar products can be seriously
damaged if they are exposed to temperatures colder than a pre-set limit.
Packaging itself can be damaged by excessive heat or cold. For example,
some materials get brittle when cold. Such packages may crack as a result.
Alternatively, dual-ovenable packages, which are designed to be used in either

conventional or microwave ovens can melt and ruin the product if the oven
temperature is too high.
Light:
Many products, including certain foods and pharmaceuticals or even fine
art, degrade, fade, or change in the presence of sunlight (ultraviolet light). These
products must be offered for sale in packages which protect against exposure to
the harmful light. This is the predominant reason that beer is packaged in brown
glass bottles. Beer in clear bottles must be kept out of direct sunlight during
storage or the glass must have additives to screen out the undesirable
components of light.

This liquor can be safely packaged

in clear glass because it is not
harmed by light, but brown glass is
used to screen out harmful light
which might damage beer.
Consider another example. A small mid-Michigan company markets
sandwiches in a line of convenience stores. The sandwiches are packaged in
opaque triangular shaped plastic containers with a clear plastic film over the
open side. The packages holding ham sandwiches must be placed upon the
shelf "upside down" because the light in the refrigerated display case causes the
exposed edges of the ham to bleach out, turning a gray/green color, which is very
unappetizing.
Crushing:
Many products are stacked during storage or transportation. The item or
the package for the item on the bottom layer must support the
The bottom item in a stack must
bear the weight of all items
stacked above. If each loaded
container weighs 25 pounds, the
bottom container in a stack of 6
must be strong enough to support
125 pounds. Loaded pallets are
often stacked, increasing the
crushing force on the boxes in the
bottom layer.

of all of the items above it in the stack. There are various approaches that can
be used. The package can be made strong enough to support the stack or the
product can be modified to provide the necessary strength. Also, intermediate
supports can reduce the amount of weight carried by the bottom layer. The
following three examples will illustrate some of the approaches that have been
used to deal with the problem.
Head lettuce:
Each year, millions of boxes of head lettuce are shipped from production
areas in California, Arizona and other western states to the large population
centers in the east. Before the late 1960's, lettuce was packaged in "bulge
packs". In a bulge pack, a corrugated box was closed tightly around the lettuce
heads and stapled shut.

Bulge packed lettuce put heavy

Head of lettuce forces on the product. In a stack,

the product supported the weight,
not the corrugated box.

Corrugated box
bulge pack

Each loaded box held 24 heads of lettuce and a loaded box weighed
about 35 pounds. The lettuce boxes were stacked 12 deep in railroad cars for
transport. The boxes rapidly lost strength because of absorbed water from the
product. The result was that the bottom layers of lettuce supported the weight of
the entire stack. After several days of transport, with the shocks and vibration that
are normal in rail transport, the bottom boxes of product were virtually totally
destroyed, a loss of millions of dollars worth of product.
The solution was to use a flat pack, a stronger box, impregnated with
wax or another material to prevent softening by moisture. The lettuce was not
packed as tightly in the flat pack boxes because new regulations allowed only
of bulge on the long face of the box. The new boxes, which were strong
enough to support the load of lettuce boxes stacked on top, nearly eliminated the
product loss, saving millions of dollars per year and reducing the problem of
disposal of millions of damaged lettuce heads.
Carbonated soft drinks:
The standard aluminum can used for carbonated soft drinks is very weak
until it is filled. You can experiment by crushing an empty can from top to bottom.
But, a filled, pressurized can is very strong. The carbonation pressurizes the

cans to a level of 4 to 6 atmospheres, around 75 pounds per square inch (psi).

By comparison, the tires on an ordinary automobile are pressurized to around 30
psi. The pressurized can acts like a balloon and is easily able to support the
weight of the cans stacked on top without breaking. Billions of cans are handled
this way each year.
Appliances:
A large manufacturer of washing machines, refrigerators and other home
appliances instituted a project to reduce the cost of packaging, mostly large,
heavy, expensive corrugated paperboard boxes. The boxes were large, to fit the
appliances, and strong enough to support the weight of other appliances stacked
on top. As a result, the boxes were costly. They were also a disposal problem for
the homeowners who purchased the appliances. The solution was to redesign
the appliances, making them strong enough to support the weight of other units
stacked on top. The packaging then was reduced to a corrugated "cap", some
corner guards, and plastic stretch wrap. The individual appliances were more
expensive after the redesign, but the packaging cost reduction was greater,
providing a saving on the combined cost product and package.
Breakage:
Any product is subjected to shocks and vibration at all stages of the
manufacturing - warehousing - distribution cycle. For example, a product in a
truck vibrates at a particular frequency as the truck travels down a normal road.
In addition, there are shocks when the truck crosses railroad tracks, hits
potholes, or runs over objects in the road. Unrestrained boxes in a truck will fall
and tumble around as the truck travels normally. These shocks and vibrations
can damage or even destroy products. Common solutions involve: 1) cushioning
to protect against shocks, 2) restraints to control the movement of the packaged
products in the truck, 3) unitized loads to change the response to vibration, and
4) redesigning the product to be less sensitive. There will be more on this topic
in a later module.
Dirt and infestation:
Consumers want products to be free from dirt and evidence of infestation
at the time of purchase. One form of protection is to simply keep the product
clean. So, furniture is often placed in large plastic bags for dust protection and
food packages are closed up in shipping containers or sealed in plastic to keep
them clean.
Infestation is contamination by bacteria and other microbes, insects,
rodents, or other pests. Packages must be tight and constructed of material
which will keep such pests from gaining access to the product.
Tampering:
The final form of protection that will be mentioned in this section is
protection against unauthorized opening of packages to tamper with a product.

There are several tamper resistant approaches, such as shrink neck bands, inner
seals, etc. that can be used to make tampering difficult or to provide evidence
that tampering has occurred.

The plastic wrap on this package

protects CD cases from, theft and dirt

It can be seen that packages must protect products from many hazards.
All of these topics will be discussed further in later modules.

Communication
All packages convey information. A basic function of the information on
the labels of most retail packages is to motivate the consumer to purchase the
product. The package is often called the "silent salesman". In most stores, the
consumer can make a choice among several options of a particular product type.
For example most stores carry 3 to 6 brands of corn flakes, and often offer a
choice of several package sizes of each. The customer often makes an initial
selection based on information presented on the package. Later, the customer is
motivated to continue purchasing the same brand or acts on the information
provided in advertisements or on packages to select a different product.
To study package communication, simply visit any retail store and look
around. There are several types of information on most packages. Some of it,
such as the weight or quantity of product, nutritional characteristics, and
ingredients in a food product, is required by law. Other information, such as a
bar code or preparation instructions, is added for the convenience of the user, the
producer, or the retailer
The decoration on a package includes printed text and illustrations. The
text includes the company or product line logo. The logo is always
The printed instructions on this package of
spackling compound is a common method
of communicating information about the
product
a critical piece of printing. Companies want the logo to be reproduced perfectly
with the right print styles, colors, line weights, etc. Decoration may be drawings
or photographs. The package label must give a clear picture of the contents.

For example, the photo cannot show a picture of a cherry pie if the product is
pasta sauce.
The package shape sometimes communicates information. There are
many packages that have a distinct shape, such as certain brands of pancake
syrup. The shape is often the only information required to identify the product.
The package material also transmits information. For example a transparent
material allows the product to be seen while an opaque material obscures the
product. This is particularly important in some countries. In France, for example,
bread is often not packaged in a wrapper of the type used in the US. The French
culture requires that a customer be able to inspect the entire loaf.
Other information that is typically on the label includes the manufacturer's
name and information about the plant where the product was produced or
packaged, a toll free (800) telephone number or a web address for additional
information or complaints.

Utility
Many packages add value to the product. They do this in various ways.
Basically, any package which makes a product easier to use, more convenient,
Easy opening features on these packages
improve their utility. The can on the left has a
"Pop-top" and the one on the right has an easy
peel lid.
or safer has a higher utility. Examples are packages which are easy to open and
re-close. There are two major complaints about packages.

It's too difficult to open

It's too difficult to re-close

Adding a dispensing means is a common method to improve the utility of a

package. That is why there are hundreds of spouts, shakers, valves, pumps, and
other fitments added to packages.
Multi-packs improve utility by making a product easier to carry around and
use. The individual packs may be sized for a single serving or use. For example,
instead of purchasing a large container of two-cycle oil that must be measured
out and poured into another container along with a quantity of gasoline,
manufacturers offer 6-packs of small pre-measured containers of the oil. Each
one holds the proper amount of oil to be mixed with one gallon of gasoline. The
process of preparing two-cycle engine fuel is quicker, easier, and more accurate
as a result.

Instructions for use are a popular method of improving utility of many

products (See spackling compound above). Consider a microwavable pizza.
The preparation instructions generally tell clearly how to prepare the product to
make a satisfying snack or meal. The consequences of failing to read and follow
the instructions can include: 1) an under done product, 2) an over done (burned)
product, or 3) a pizza with melted plastic wrap in the sauce.
Safety considerations can also improve the utility of a package. The
attention to safety can be as simple as a warning statement on a cup of a hot
beverage. It can also be more comprehensive, such as ensuring that bags of pet
food or other heavy products are made of paper that has a high enough
coefficient of friction to prevent the bag from slipping off the top of a pallet stack
and possibly injuring someone standing below.
This package of candy, demonstrates the four basic
packaging functions. Candy is contained in and
protected by the the rigid injection molded plastic box
and the foil wrap. The plastic box allows the product
to be seen and recognized as candy. Additional
information, on the front and back labels, identifies
the product as "chocolate covered cherries with
peanut pieces." The cells in the tray separate the
candy pieces, making it easy to select a single piece
and to determine how many pieces remain, thus
improving the utility.

Thought questions (optional)

Does gasoline usually have to be contained? It comes from the oil well
into a pipeline, to a tanker ship, to a refinery, to a pipeline, to a terminal, to
a tanker truck, to an underground storage tank at a service station, to a
pump and to your automobile.
Does steel shot have to be contained? A company in Southern Michigan
makes steel shot (tiny spheres) in a range of sizes ranging from 0.5 to 3
mm. Currently, the company packages 40 pounds of this material, sorted
into various size ranges, in heavy paper bags. The bags are sealed and
loaded into corrugated paperboard boxes and loaded onto pallets for
distribution to many parts of the world. The bags have a high rate of failure
and it is common for a large percentage of the steel balls to escape from
the bags during transport.
Would a handle improve the utility of a watermelon? There is an
engineering professor at Louisiana State University who has worked for
years to develop a simple, economical handle that can be attached to a
melon.

How many of the products that you purchased the last time you visited a
grocery store were widely advertised? What information did you use to
make your selection? Where did you get that information?
Think about the last time you opened the box holding a new computer,
microwave oven, television, CD player or similar device. What type of
cushioning was used? Was the product damaged or was it ready to use
when it came out of the box?
Think of ten products or product lines that you could identify simply by
seeing the logo without any further information.

What is a package?
This question was asked in a previous page and a definition of a package
was presented. That definition ended with the listing of the four basic functions of
a package. This time, a package is defined as follows:
Any device that performs one or more of the four basic functions of a
package is considered to be a package.

What is packaging?
There are four primary components of work that are considered to be
packaging. They are listed below, along with some explanations.

Development of packages and packaging

o Package development involves the invention of new package forms
and new materials and processes. A development project may be
large and open ended, such as the development of a glass coating
for a plastic film or small and specific, such as the application of a
thermo-chromic ink label to indicate when a microwavable product
has been heated to the proper temperature. A development
project is usually a team effort, often involving personnel from
several divisions of a company along representatives of suppliers,
proposed customers, lawyers, and others.
Production (manufacture) of packages and package components
o Production of packages and package components is mostly carried
out by converting companies. As will be seen in Modules 3 - 7,
many companies purchase materials and make packages which
are subsequently purchased and used by other companies. There
are many examples. Some companies purchase rolls of
paperboard and manufacture corrugated board. They may also
manufacture corrugated boxes and trays. There are other
companies that purchase corrugated board and also manufacture
boxes, trays, etc. Other companies purchase plastic resin in the
form of small pellets and manufacture packaging films, bottles,
cans, cups, lids, closures and other components. In the metal
industry, some companies purchase rolls of aluminum or steel and
manufacture cans or can ends. In the glass industry, companies

purchase sand, soda and other materials and, in a combined

process, make raw glass and form it into glass containers.
o In some cases, the converting (package manufacturing) activity is
done by the same company that does the filling, closing and other
packaging line activities. For example, a milk processing company
may operate equipment to manufacture plastic jugs which will be
filled with milk products.
Filling and closing packages
o Filling and closing packages is integral to the manufacture of many
products. For example, pet food is produced in a cooking operation
which feeds the product directly to a packaging line that places it
into bags, cartons, cans or pouches which are closed, sealed,
labeled (if necessary), packed into
shipping containers and palletized
for shipment.
o

Nearly all food, pharmaceutical,

and cosmetic products are
produced and packaged in a similar
fashion. Sometimes, a product is
manufactured at one location and
then transported to another location
for packaging. For example, one
manufacturer loads water into
tanker trucks at a spring in N.
Virginia and transports it to St.
Louis where the water is bottled and palletized by a contract
packager. The loaded pallets are transported back to N. Virginia for
local sale. Another company purchases small hardware items
(nails, bolts, washers, picture hangers, S-hooks, etc.) from
manufacturers in Asia and packages the items in small plastic
boxes or bags of various sizes, suitable for hanging on pegs in a
hardware or department store. The packaged products are sold by
various large retail chains under the name of the company that
does the packaging.
Distribution and handling of packaged products
o Packaging is one step in the process of moving finished products
out to the market. Packaging in shipping containers, cushioning,
distribution testing, palletizing, transportation and warehousing are
some of the activities. A major goal of this part of the industry is to
ensure that products arrive at the right place, at the right time, in
good condition, and at the lowest possible cost.

It can be seen that the packaging industry involves many different

activities in various types of companies and by people with a wide
diversity of educational and experiential backgrounds.

Who does packaging

There are many highly trained and educated professionals working in the
field of packaging. Most of them are NOT packaging graduates. For example,
polymer scientists, chemists and chemical engineers may work in plastics
manufacturing companies. Mechanical and electrical engineers may work for
packaging machinery manufacturing companies. Lawyers work with companies
of all types to assure adherence to regulations, to develop and enforce contracts
and to defend or prosecute lawsuits. Graphic artists develop labels and package
decoration. Many other examples could be quoted. While they work on
packaging projects, they may also be working on non-packaging activities.
Packaging graduates are also highly trained and educated professionals.
Packaging graduates work throughout the industry, both in companies which
manufacture and package products and in the companies that convert materials
into packages. The focus of their work tends to be more specifically oriented
toward packaging applications than is the case for the other professionals
discussed above. Packaging graduates often serve a coordinating function,
directing packaging projects which also involve others in a teamwork activity.
In addition, there are many "nonprofessional" packaging workers. These
are the people who operate packaging machines, install and maintain equipment,
collect quality assurance and quality control data, drive lift trucks and over the
road trucks, and perform the many other technical activities required to keep a
packaging system operating smoothly.

Types of packages
The systems and people described in the preceding sections produce and
use packages of three main types: Retail/customer packages, Industrial
packages, and Military packages. Each is described briefly below.
Retail packages:
Retail packages are the packages that sit on the shelves in grocery stores,
hardware stores, and other retail establishments. Other retail packages are used
for catalog sales, e-commerce sales, and similar functions. Retail packages are
characterized by elaborate decoration. Retail packages are usually relatively
small and are manufactured in large numbers. Retail packages are often used in
point of purchase marketing programs, the special displays in stores that are
used to introduce new products or encourage sales in conjunction with holidays,
the superbowl, or other events. There are many issues connected with retail

packaging, such as targeted marketing programs, concerns about the

environment, competition, etc.
Industrial packages:
Industrial packages are used to transport products from one company to
another. For example, industrial packages are used to transport components
from suppliers to automotive assembly plants. Industrial packages tend to be
plain, with little or no decoration. Industrial packages made of corrugated board
are often characterized as "brown boxes". Actually many industrial packages are
made of other materials, such as wood, plastic and metal. Industrial packages
have only limited communication capabilities, such as notations about the
contents, handling instructions, the source, and the destination.

Usually there also are bar codes which are used for remote identification of the
contents, tracking through the inventory system, and preventing loss or theft.

Protection is a primary function. Industrial packages tend to be larger than retail

packages. In some industries, the packages are often returnable and reusable.
Military packages:
Military packages are used to transport military products and supplies from
the supplier company to a specific military base
or depot. Military packages are often made to
very careful specifications to ensure that the
military product will be protected while it is
being stored or transported to the place where
it will be used. Some types of military hardware
are very expensive. Many pieces of military
hardware are "mission critical" - they must work
as expected. That means that the missile,
instrument, engine part, or other device must
be protected from shocks, vibration, corrosion,
dirt or any other hazard that could damage the
item.
Military products are often manufactured
and placed into storage for later use. At the
time of purchase, no-one knows whether it will be used in a jungle, desert, or in
the arctic. The packaging must protect the product against any of these
conditions.
Like the nonmilitary component of the economy, the military has concerns
and regulations about the environment protection. In fact there are several US
laws and regulations aimed specifically at the effect of military activities on the
environment. For example, shell casings must be collected and taken away from
the battlefield. Also, the navy cannot throw garbage overboard. This is to prevent
polluting or littering the ocean with used packaging and other materials,
particularly plastic. Each ship must store trash until it can be brought to a depot
ship or to port. It can be a serious problem on a submarine!
Military packaging involves more than weapons. There are also food
packages, pharmaceutical items and mundane supplies, such as paint, furniture
cushions, and clothing. However, all military packaging is characterized by being
high quality, carefully selected for top performance at containment, protection,
communication and utility. As a result, military packaging is frequently quite
expensive, when compared to equivalent civilian products.

Thought questions

Why is a pallet considered to be a package?

Is a plastic pallet a package? Why or why not?

Why would a purchasing agent be included as a member of a package

development team?
Would a company that stamps aluminum can ends out of aluminum sheet
be considered to be a converter? Why?
What is the difference between a tray and a box?
Is a company that manufactures plastic pouches which are immediately
filled with brown sugar a converter? Why?
Describe the process of getting a can of soft drink from the filling line to
the consumer?
Why are there more non-packaging professionals working in the field of
packaging than packaging graduates?
Describe three retail packages for soft drinks, dry breakfast cereal, and ice
cream.
How would you package an air launched missile which has a value of
about $5 million, is about 10 inches in diameter and is about 8 feet long?
What would be the advantages and disadvantages of packaging 1,000
steering wheels in separate boxes, or packing them in 5 boxes that each
held 200 wheels? Which method would you pick if your customer is an
assembly plant? Which would you pick if your customer is a replacement
parts retail store?
How would you go about dealing with the collection of used artillery shells
after a battle?
What is thermochromic ink?

A few brief comments about the history of packaging

Man has had the same packaging needs since the beginning of human
activity on earth. Ancient nomadic people often carried items with them as they
traveled from place to place. Most of the necessities of life were collected along
the way, but they would be carried to a camp site or to a stopping place for a
meal or snack. Carrying these material required packages of some sort.
Later, cave and tent dwellers lived in a single location for longer periods of
time. To obtain food and the other necessities of life, the people ranged out from
home base to hunt, fish, and gather grains and other materials for food,
medicines, and other requirements. These materials had to be stored until
needed during the winter or other times of need until new supplies could be
located or until new "crops" of wild plants could grow to maturity.
These ancient peoples followed similar procedures to do their packaging.
They worked with the available materials, using the available technology. They
worked with naturally occurring materials, such as large leaves, wood, bamboo
segments, and animal skins, horns, bladders, intestines, and bones. They also
used grass to make baskets, some with lids.

Later, new materials and technology were developed. Pottery was

developed around 6,000 BC. Pottery was used to manufacture jars, amphorae,
cups, dishes, and other containers. Glass containers were made as early as
3,000 BC in Egypt. Later, paper was invented in China.
More materials and technology were discovered or invented and applied in
the 19th century as the pace of development accelerated. Metal cans,
collapsible tubes, packaging machines, corrugated paperboard boxes, and crown
closures were all used for the first time in the 19th century.
Developments came even faster in the 20th century. Most of the machines
used for packaging were developed in the last 100 years. Automation, such as
PLC's and computer controls were developed and applied in the last 30 years.
There have been many package developments in the same time frame. The first
package considered to be a modern retail pack was produced for Uneeda
biscuits. This package signaled the beginning of the end of the cracker barrel
era in food stores. Graphic arts came into common use and retail packages in
self-service retail stores replaced many of the sales functions that formerly
involved clerks. New materials were developed. The best example is plastics.
The advantages of plastics will be discussed later, but plastic has been able to
displace metal, paper and glass for many products. Finally, there has been rapid
growth of flexible package forms, replacing rigid packages for many products.

Types of packages
Earlier, packages were classified into 3 groups according to the type of
product that is contained in the package: Retail, Industrial, and Military. In this
section, we'll discuss another three groups of packages, classified according to
function. The three groups are: Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary. Each is
described and discussed in the following section.
Primary packages:
Primary packages are in contact with the product. The primary package is
the first layer of protection and containment. The primary package may also play
important roles in the communications and utility functions. Examples of primary
packages include: plastic tubes of hand lotion, potato chip bags, metal soup
cans, envelopes for mail, bread wrappers, blister packs for pills, tablets and other
pharmaceutical products, paint cans, and boxes for software.
Secondary packages:
Secondary packages are packages that hold other packages. In some
cases, a secondary package performs the communications function and may
influence the utility of the product/package combination. Examples of secondary
packages include: paperboard cartons for tubes or bottles of make-up,
paperboard sleeves around plastic packages of meat, paperboard wrappers to
hold 6 or more cans or bottles of beverages and other products, plastic rings to

hold 6 or 8 bottles of beverages, plastic or metal crates which hold 4 gallon jugs
of milk, six packs of aseptic fruit juice drink boxes, and variety packs of cereal.
Tertiary packaging:
Tertiary packaging is any layer of packaging that is outside of the
secondary pack. Examples are Pallets,
plastic stretch wrap, corrugated board
shipping containers, and metal or plastic
banding.
Packaging may simultaneously
satisfy two or even all three of these
functions. For example, a television set
is packaged in a corrugated box which
serves as the primary package and also
is the shipping container, a tertiary
package. It should also be noted that the
definitions are not always clear in
application, but it is beneficial to
recognize that different types of
packages serve different functions.

Thought questions

Is a box for a computer a primary, secondary or tertiary package?

Would the development of pottery jars have tended to encourage nomadic
behavior or a lifestyle linked to a primary location?
If you set out to hike the Appalachian trail from Maine to North Carolina,
and planned to carry camping gear and enough water and food to sustain
you for 5 days at a time, What would be important packaging
characteristics for your food?
What is the modern equivalent of the Uneeda Biscuit?
List 3 - 5 important characteristics of a primary package for milk, ketchup,
ice cream, hand lotion, and an acetominophin headache tablet.
What is stretch wrap?
What is shrink wrap?

Modern packaging materials

Today, virtually all commercial packages are made of one of the following
five materials: glass, metal, paper, plastic and wood, or a combination of two or
more materials. Combinations are very common. For example, a glass bottle
may have a metal or plastic closure and a paper or paper/plastic lamination label.

Within each of these general types of materials, there can be several (even
many) variations. A metal can, for example, may be made of steel or aluminum.

Packaging industry sectors

As discussed briefly in a previous section, there are two major sectors of the
packaging industry: 1) Converting and 2) Filling and closing. Some examples of
each are listed below.

Converting sector
o Bag making
o Can manufacturing
o Bottle manufacturing
o Pallet manufacturing
o Corrugated board manufacturing
o Corrugated box manufacturing
o Label printing
o Glue manufacturing
o Etc.
Filling, closing sector
o Beer plants
o Food plants
o Cosmetic plants
o Pet Food plants
o Furniture plants
o Ammunition plants
o Automobile parts plants
o Printers (books and magazines)
o Electronic commerce and mail order companies
o Etc.

Packaging use in the USA

The pattern of use or consumption of packaging depends on many factors,
including economic status, location, lifestyle, age, and marital status. In the US,
each person, on the average, consumes about 500 pounds of packaging per
year. This is equivalent to about 1.5 pounds per person - day. After being used,
this material is either recycled, disposed on in a land fill, incinerated, reused, or it
degrades into other, more basic, materials. As you will see in a later module,
packaging creates a significant amount of waste, but other waste streams are
much larger.

Packaging industry today

Today, the packaging industry is made up of all or part of some 200 other
industry groups. There are about 300,000 companies involved in the packaging
industry, either as suppliers, users, or waste managers. The industry has an

economic value of $90 to $140 billion per year in the US and about $450 billion
worldwide. There are more than 1,000,000 people employed in packaging in the
US, making packaging the largest employer industry.
Packaging uses about 45 percent of all glass manufactured in the US,
about 50% of all the paper and paperboard, and about 30 percent of all plastic.
Packaging is generally considered to be the third largest industry in the US.

Thought questions

List three companies that manufacture cosmetics, soft drinks, liquor, paint,
camera, televisions, and automobile parts.
List three companies that manufacture corrugated board, corrugated
boxes, plastic bottles, packaging tape, pallets, and steel cans for
aerosols?
Considering your answers to the first two questions, which segment of the
packaging industry is less well known? Why?
Do you participate in recycling programs? What do you recycle?
In your room or apartment, pick up five products and see what materials
are used for the primary packages.
What are the two largest industries in the US?
Consider the following products: a fresh beef steak, a bottle of ginger ale,
a tube of toothpaste, a can of aerosol spray paint, a golf ball. If you were
the manufacturer, how would you package these items if the current form
of packaging was suddenly banned?