PRE-UNIVERSITY

SEMESTER 1
CHAPTER 3
CHEMICAL
BONDING

Chemical Bonding can be generally divide to 5 main group

Electrovalent bonding (ionic)

Covalent bonding
Metallic bonding
Hydrogen bonding
Van der Waals bonding

To represent the types of bonding, a Lewis diagram (dot-andcross) is used. Each dot or cross represent one electron in valence
shell and its a more convenient way in showing electrovalent.
For both ionic & covalent bonding, octet rule must be fulfill where
tendency of atoms to achieve noble gas configuration. Table 6.2
show some cation/anion with difference number of valence
electron.

Electrovalent bond (ionic bond)

Formed by transfering 1 or more e- from outer orbital to another.
The atom donate electron is name as cation and the atom who
receive electron is name as anion. The bond form when
electrostatic attraction occur between 2 opposite charge ions.

Formation of ionic compound involving a metal with low IE and a
non-metal with high EA. Example for lithium fluoride (LiF). The
electronic structure of the lithium and fluorine are :
Lithium (Li) = 1s2 2s1
Fluorine (F) = 1s2 2s2 2p5

Practice : Draw the Lewis dot and cross diagram for these ionic compound
Sodium chloride

Magnesium fluoride

2+

+
Na

Mg

Cl

_
F
2

Na

Cl

Mg

2+

Aluminium oxide

3+

2O

Al

Al

3+
2

23

Covalent Bonding : Sharing of Electron

Covalent bond is bond that formed in between atoms by sharing
electron from its atoms in order to achieve a stable electronic
configuration of ns2 np6 for atoms involve. (hydrogen achieve 1s2)

Some non-metallic elements exist naturally as diatomic molecules
like hydrogen, and halogens groups.
Hydrogen molecule

Chlorine molecule

Oxygen molecule

Nitrogen molecule

From example above, we can see that in covalent bond, molecules

may form single bond, double bond or triple bond in order to
achieve stable valence electrons. Though, there are some
molecules with the exceptions of achieving stable valence electrons.

Electron deficient compounds compounds which the molecule

(especially the center atom) does not achieve octet electron arrangement.
Examples of these molecules are BeCl2 ; BF3 and AlCl3.
Beryllium dichloride

Boron trifluoride

Aluminium trichloride

Electron rich compounds compounds which have more than 8 electrons

at center atom of molecules, such as PCl5, SF6 and ICl5.

Phosphorous pentachloride

Sulphur hexachloride

Iodine pentachloride

However, not all compounds can have more or less than 8 electrons in the
center of the atom. There are certain limitation towards the application of
the expansion of center atom

For example, nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) are both from Group

15phosphorous can exist as PCl3 and PCl5 while nitrogen can

@@@ but
only have NCl3 but not NCl5. This is because
nitrogen
which only have 2 shell, do not have empty d-orbital available,
@@@@.....................@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
but
phosphorous contain d-orbital to fill in more electron
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@..................................

Same things occur when it come to hydrolysis of CCl4 and SiCl4. SiCl4
can undergoes hydrolysis with water according to the equation

SiCl

+ 2 H O  SiO + 4 HCl

4
2
2
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@.

while CCl4 cannot. Despite the factors that they are from the same group

14 cannot undergoes hydrolysis as

(Group @@@), CCl
4
carbon which only have 2 shell, do not have empty d-orbital available, so
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@...@@@@@@@@@
water cannot form coordinative with carbon hence cannot undergoes
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
hydrolysis.

Examples : Draw the Lewis structure for the following molecules.

CO2

HCN

CH3COOH

C2H2

NH3

CO32-

SO42-

C3H6



6.2.1
Dative bond
Now, try drawing the Lewis structure for these molecules : SO2, SO3,
NO3- or CO.
SO2

SO3

NO3-

CO

Dative bond is formed when an atom that has lone pair electrons
which can donate to molecule/ion that has empty unhybridise
orbital.
Following are a few applications of dative bond in covalent molecules

1. Dative bond in helping molecule to achieve octet.

NH4+

BF3.NH3

Dative bond in forming dimer ~ 2 monomer combine forming a dimer.

Forming Al2Cl6

Forming polymer of BeCl2

3.

Dative bond in formation of complex ion.

Molecule / ion form dative bond (also known as coordinative bond) by
ligand
donating lone pair electron, which act as a @@@@..
in the formation of
complex ions. For example
hexaaquacopper (II) ion ;
[Cu(H2O)6]2+

tetraamminenickel (II) ion ;

[Ni(NH3)42+]

Hexacyanoferrate (III) ion ;

[Fe(CN)6]3-

6.2.3 Resonance ~ a molecule/polyatomic ion in which two or more

plausible Lewis structure can be written but the actual structure cannot be
written at all
Sulphur dioxide, SO2

Ethanoate ion, CH3COO

Nitrogen dioxide, NO2

Sulphur trioxide, SO3

Carbonate ion, CO32-

Since the resonance structure cannot be determined as it does not have

a permanent structure so it is expressed as a combined of resonance
structure known as resonance hybrid

Resonance hybrid

Covalent Bonds : Overlapping of Orbitals

2 ways in explaining how covalent bond are attached :

Valence bond theory

Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR)

Here we can explain and predict what type of molecular bond and
shape will form through the bonding formation but it does not
explain the stability of covalent bond.
For valence bond theory, it used atomic orbital overlapping that
result the formation of a new molecular orbital embracing both
nuclei. The strength of covalent bond is proportional to the area
where the atomic orbital overlap. Larger the area overlap, stronger
the covalent bond.

Hybrid Atomic Orbitals

3 basic types of hybrid orbital

sp3 hybrid orbital (tetrahedral arrangement)

sp2 hybrid orbital (trigonal planar arrangement)
sp hybrid orbital (linear arrangement)

6.3.2 sp3 hybridisation

The term sp3 gives an impression of the hybridisation involved _____ s
1 and _____ p orbitals
3
orbital

Examples of molecules which give sp3 hybridisation are
Methane
sulphate ion

CH4
SO42-

silicon tetrachloride

SiCl4

Perchlorate ion

ClO4-

14 the
For example, in methane, CH4, since carbon is in Group _____so
2s2 2p2
valance electron of C is _______

State of
molecules

Orbital diagram

_____ _____ _____

2p
Ground state

____
2s

Excited state ____

2s

Hybridisatio
n state

____ ____ ____

2p

_____ _____ _____ _____

sp3

Illustration / Explanation

109.50
tetrahedral

6.3.3 sp2 hybridisation

The term sp2 gives an impression of the hybridisation involved _____ s
1 and _____ p orbitals
2
orbital

Examples of molecules which give sp2 hybridisation are

Sulphur trioxide

SO3

Boron trifluoride

BF3

Nitrate ion

NO3-

Carbonate ion

CO32-

13 element so the electron valance of B

Since boron is Group ______
2s2 2p1
is _________

State of
molecules

Orbital diagram

_____ _____ _____

2p
____
Ground state 2s

____
Excited state 2s

Hybridisatio
n state

____ ____ ____

2p

_____ _____ _____

sp2

____
pz

Illustration / Explanation

Formation of sp2 Hybrid Orbitals

Shape of molecule
Trigonal planar
Angle between bond
pair
120o

6.3.4 sp hybridisation

The term sp gives an impression of the hybridisation involved _____ s
orbital
1 and _____ p orbitals
1

Examples of molecules which give sp hybridisation are
Carbon dioxide

CO2

Beryllium chloride

Cyanic acid

HCN

Ethyne

BeCl2
C2H2

Lets use beryllium chloride as example.

2 element so the electron valance of

Since beryllium is Group ______
Be is ___________2s2

State of
molecules

Orbital diagram

_____ _____ _____

2p

Ground state
____
2s

____
Excited state 2s

____ ____ ____

2p

Hybridisatio _____ _____

sp
n state

___ ___
py pz

Illustration / Explanation

Formation of sp Hybrid Orbitals

Shape of molecule
Linear
Angle between bond pair
180o

6.4
Hybridisation in organic molecules

In this subtopic, were going to witness how is the formation of the bonding
that exist in some organic molecules. The 3 organic molecules which will
be discussed in this sub-topic are :
 methane, CH4

ethene, C2H4
 ethyne, C2H2

All of the molecules above has carbon in it
14 element. It has the electronic configuration of

Carbon is a group _____
2s2 2p2
______________
The orbital diagram

Ground state of carbon : _____
_____ _____ _____
2s
2p

Methane, CH4

Type of hybridisation :

Excited state of carbon

_____

_____ _____ _____

2s
Hybridised state

2p

_____ _____ _____ _____

sp3

Molecular shape

tetrahedral
@@@@@@@@@@@@@
Angle between the bonding pair :
0
109.5
@@@@@@@@@..

Ethene, C2H4

Type of hybridisation :

Excited state of C : _____

2s

Hybridised state

_____ _____ _____

2p

: _____ _____ _____

sp2
Molecular shape
Trigonal planar

Angle between bond

pair bond pair

120o

sp2

_____

pz

Ethyne, C2H2

sp

Type of hybridisation :

Excited state of C : _____

_____ _____ _____
2s
2p
Hybridised state : _____ _____
_____ _____

sp
Molecular shape
Linear

Angle between bond

pair bond pair
180o

py pz

As a conclusion, the formation of double bond

one bond () and
(C=C) is due to ______sigma
one ()
_____pi bond

While the formation of triple bond (CC) is due
one
two
to ______sigma
bond () and _____pi bond
()

3.5
Hybridisation in water, H2O and ammonia, NH3

The hybridisation of ammonia is similar to that in methane (sp3
hybridisation). Nitrogen, N which has the electron valence as
@@@@@@@@. where the ground state can be stated in the orbital
diagram below

Ground state : ____

2s

____ ____ ____

2p

Excited state : ____

2s

____ ____ ____

2p

Hybridised state : ____ ____ ____ ____

sp3

*Compare the angle between the bonding pair of NH to NH in
ammonia and CH to CH in methane

Angle between HNH < Angle between HCH

Shape :

Same goes to the hybridisation of water (sp3 hybridisation). Oxygen, O,

which has the electron valance as @@@@@@@.., where the ground
state can be stated in the orbital diagram below
Ground state : ____ ____ ____ ____

2s
Excited state : ____
2s

2p
____ ____ ____
2p

Hybridised state : ____ ____ ____ ____

sp3
*Compare the angle between the bonding pair
of HOH in water and HCH in methane
Angle between HOH
Angle between HCH

From the 2 examples above, we can tell how the lone pair electrons
affecting the angle between the bonding pair and bonding pair. In
ammonia, not only that there is the repulsion between bonding
pair and bonding pair but theres also the repulsion between
bonding pair and lone pair.
Since the angle between the bonding pair and bonding pair
decrease, theres a probability that its due to the effect of stronger
repulsion between the bonding pair and lone pair electron. This
statement is supported as in the repulsion between the HOH in
water is smaller than in ammonia, NH3. as a conclusion, we can
conclude that

lone-pair vs. lone pair

repulsion

>

lone-pair vs. bonding

pair repulsion

>

bonding-pair vs. bonding

pair repulsion

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

~ state that the electron-pair repulsion stated that electron pairs
around central atom repel each other

3 main rules

Bonding pairs and lone pairs of electrons arrange themselves to be as far

apart as possible.
The order of repulsion strength of lone pair and bond pair are
lone-pair & lone-pair > lone-pair & bond-pair > bond-pair & bond-pair
Double / triple bond are considered as 1 bonding pair when predicting the
shape of molecules or ions

Diagram below shows the type of bonding and the molecular

shape predicted.

No of
Class surround
atoms

AB2

AB3

AB4

No of
lone pair
electron

Molecular shape

Diagram of the molecular

shape

Example of
molecules

Linear

BeCl2
CO2
HCN

Trigonal
Planar

CO32AlCl3
BF3

Tetrahedral

CH4
SiCl4
SO42-

No of
Class surround
atoms

No of
lone pair
electron

Molecular shape

Diagram of the molecular

shape

Example of
molecules

AB5

Trigonal
bipyramidal

PCl5
BiCl5

AB6

Octahedral

SF6
TeCl6

VSEPR

Class

# of atoms
bonded to
central atom

# lone
pairs on
central atom

AB3

AB2E

Arrangement of
electron pairs

Molecular
Geometry

trigonal
planar
trigonal
planar

trigonal
planar
bent

10.1

VSEPR

Class

# of atoms
bonded to
central atom

# lone
pairs on
central atom

AB4

AB3E

Arrangement of
electron pairs

Molecular
Geometry

tetrahedral

tetrahedral

tetrahedral

trigonal
pyramidal

10.1

VSEPR

Class

# of atoms
bonded to
central atom

# lone
pairs on
central atom

AB4

Arrangement of
electron pairs

Molecular
Geometry

tetrahedral

tetrahedral

AB3E

tetrahedral

trigonal
pyramidal

AB2E2

tetrahedral

bent
O
H

10.1

VSEPR

Class

AB5
AB4E

# of atoms
bonded to
central atom

5
4

# lone
pairs on
central atom

Arrangement of
electron pairs

Molecular
Geometry

trigonal
bipyramidal

trigonal
bipyramidal

trigonal
bipyramidal

see - saw

10.1

VSEPR

Class

AB5

# of atoms
bonded to
central atom

# lone
pairs on
central atom

AB4E

AB3E2

Arrangement of
electron pairs

Molecular
Geometry

trigonal
bipyramidal

trigonal
bipyramidal

trigonal
bipyramidal
trigonal
bipyramidal

distorted
tetrahedron
T-shaped
F
F

Cl
F
10.1

VSEPR

Class

AB5

# of atoms
bonded to
central atom

# lone
pairs on
central atom

AB4E

AB3E2

AB2E3

Arrangement of
electron pairs

Molecular
Geometry

trigonal
bipyramidal

trigonal
bipyramidal

trigonal
bipyramidal
trigonal
bipyramidal

distorted
tetrahedron

trigonal
bipyramidal

T-shaped
linear
I
I
I

10.1

VSEPR

Class

# of atoms
bonded to
central atom

# lone
pairs on
central atom

AB6

octahedral

octahedral

AB5E

octahedral

square
pyramidal
F
F
F

Arrangement of
electron pairs

Molecular
Geometry

Br
F

10.1

VSEPR

Class

# of atoms
bonded to
central atom

# lone
pairs on
central atom

AB6

octahedral

octahedral

AB5E

octahedral

AB4E2

octahedral

square
pyramidal
square
planar

Arrangement of
electron pairs

Molecular
Geometry

F
Xe
F

10.1

5 GENERAL STEPS TAKEN WHEN WRITING LEWIS

STRUCTURE FOR MOLECULES AND IONS
Calculate the total number of valence electrons from all atoms

Arrange all the atoms surrounding the central atom by using a pair of
electron per bond

Assign the remaining electrons to the terminal atoms so that each
terminal atom has 8 electrons (H = 2 e-)

Place any left-over electron on the central atom.
@ Form multiple bonds if there are not enough electrons to give the
central atom an octet of electrons.

i)

PCl3

1 P => 1 (5)
3 Cl => 3 (7)

= 5 electrons
= 21 electrons
Total = 26 electrons
Step 2 : place 1 bond from surround to
center atom
e- used = 3 (2) = 6
e- remained = 26

Step 3 : placed each surround atom

with 6 ee- used = 3 (6) = 18
e- remained = 2
Step 4 : place remained e- at center of
atom

ii)
SF6
1 S => 1 (6)
6 F => 6 (7)

= 6 electrons
= 42 electrons
Total = 48 electrons
Step 2 : place 1 bond from surround to
center atom
e- used = 6(2) = 12
e- remained = 36

Step 3 : placed each surround atom

with 6 ee- used = 6 (6) = 36
e- remained = 0

SO42-

b)

4 Surround Atom + 0 Lone pair eArrangement : tetrahedral

Shape : tetrahedral

d)

SF6

6 Surround Atom + 0 Lone pair eArrangement : octahedral

Shape : octahedral

c)

POCl3

4 Surround Atom + 0 Lone pair eArrangement : tetrahedral

Shape : tetrahedral

e)

I3 -

2 Surround Atom + 3 Lone pair eArrangement : trigonal bipyramidal

Shape : linear

f)

ICl3

g)

3 Surround Atom + 2 Lone pair eArrangement : trigonal bipyramidal

Shape : T shape

i)

PCl5

5 Surround Atom + 0 Lone pair eArrangement : trigonal bipyramidal

Shape : trigonal bipyramidal

SbCl52-

5 Surround Atom + 1 Lone pair eArrangement : octahedral

Shape : square pyramidal

j)

CO32-

3 Surround Atom + 0 Lone pair eArrangement : trigonal planar

Shape : trigonal planar

6.6
Electronegativity and Polar Molecules

Electronegativity are measurement of ability of an atom in molecules to
attract a pair of electron

For 2 identical atoms, since they have same electronegativity so they
have no difference in electronegativity. These molecules are called polar
molecules

While if 2 not identical form a covalent bond, the bonding electrons will
attracted more strongly by more electronegative element. We can
indicate the polarity of hydrogen chloride molecules in 2 ways.

H

Cl

The separation of charge (between + and ) in a poplar molecule is

called dipole
When 2 electrical charges of opposite sign are separated by small
distance, dipole moment is established



Molecules that are polar have large dipole moments.

Molecules that are non polar have zero dipole moment.
Still, for some molecules, even there are different in electronegativity
but it doesnt mean that these molecules there are polar molecules.
When the surrounding atom are symmetrically surrounded by
identical (same) atom, they are non-polar
Example of molecules which are non polar

Dipole Moments and Polar Molecules

electron poor
region

electron rich
region

=Qxr
Q is the charge
r is the distance between charges
1 D = 3.36 x 10-30 C m

Which of the following molecules have a dipole moment?

H2O, CO2, SO2, and CH4
O

dipole moment
polar molecule

dipole moment
polar molecule
H

no dipole moment
nonpolar molecule

H
no dipole moment
nonpolar molecule

Nitrogen dioxide, NO2

Methane, CH4

Ethene, C2H4

Benzene, C6H6

Boron trifluoride, BF3

Cyanide acid, HCN

Sulphur dioxide, SO2

Sulphur trioxide, SO3

Ammonia, NH3

Ammonium ion, NH4+

Ethane, C2H6

Chloroethane, C2H5Cl

Cyclohexane, C6H12

Chlorocyclohexane,
C6H11Cl

Carbon dioxide, CO2

Carbonate ion, CO32-

Phosphorous trichloride,
PCl3

Phosphorous
pentachloride, PCl5

cisbut-2-ene

transbut-2-ene

A simple experiment which can be

used to determine either a
molecule is polar or non polar is
illustrated below
By using the liquid form of the
compound, it is flow out slowly
from burette while a negative
charged rod is bring close to the
flow of the liquid.
If the liquid is deflected to the
direction of negative charged, this
polar
liquid is @@@@
If it remain undeflected, this liquid
non-polar
is @@@@@.

From the example above, classified which compounds can be deflected

and which cannot

Compound which can be deflected by

charged rod

Compound which cannot be deflected

by charged rod

Nitrogen dioxide,
Cyanide acid,
Sulphur dioxide,
Ammonia,
Chloroethane,
Chlorocyclohexane,
Phosphorous trichloride
Cis-but-2-ene

Methane, ethene, benzene,

Sulphur trioxide,
Ammonium ion,
Ethane, cyclohexane,
Carbon dioxide,
Carbonate ion,
Phosphorous pentachloride,
Trans-but-2-ene

Electronegativity and Type of Chemical Bond.

Actually, the type of bond that would form can be tell by using the
difference of electronegativity (EN). More larger the difference,
the more tendency of electron form low EN move an electron to
higher EN atom and ionic compound is formed.

The relationship between the ionic character and the difference in
the electronegativity of the bonded atom is shown on next slide (or
page 220).

The presence of dipoles gives ionic character to polar covalent
molecules. When the polarity of the covalent molecule increases,
the ionic character also increase.

An ionic bond is formed if the cation has a small ionic radius
anion has a large ionic radius both cation & anion carries a low
electrical charge.

Polarisation ~ the distortion of the charge cloud of the negative ion
by a neighbouring positive ion.

Fig. 9.18

3.6.1

Covalency Properties in Ionic Molecules

From the graph above, the dotted line represent the arbitrary
line between ionic and covalent characteristic of a molecule.
To be more specific, there more likely an ionic compound may
have high covalent characteristic (exemplified by LiI), or
conversely covalent compound having high ionic characteristic
(exemplified by HF).
The covalent characteristic of a molecule is dependent on the
ability of a cation to polarise an anion. Polarisation indicates
the ability of a cation to attract the electron density of an anion
when put next to the cation involved. When a cation is able to
pull the electron density of the anion closer to it, as if the anion
wanted to share electron with cation, hence increase the
covalency of the molecule

A+

Highly ionic compound

Large cationic size

Small anionic size

B+

Highly covalent compound

small cationic size

large anionic size

The covalency properties of a molecule is dependent on the

cation and anion where they can be explained qualitatively via

Polarisation power of cation

Polarisability of anion

3.6.1.1
Polarisation Power of Cation

Polarisation Power of Cation measure the ability of a cation to
polarise the electron cloud of the anion.

2 factors determining the polarisation power of cation
Charge of cation
Greater the charge of ion, higher the
effective nuclear charge of cation, hence it
will be able to attract the neighboring
electron density of anion. This will caused
the polarization power of cation increase,
hence increase the covalent characteristic
of cation.

Size of cation
Smaller the size of cation, closer the
neighboring anion to the nucleus of cation,
hence easier for the cation to polarise the
anion and result an increment in the
polarization power of cation, and increase
the covalent characteristic of cation.

Both factors can be explained in another term called as charge density where
Charge Density = Charge / Ionic Radius
From the equation above, Charge Density will have a greater value, provided that cation has
a high charge and small cationic radius.
Greater the charge density, higher the polarization power, greater the covalent characteristic
of the cation.

3.6.1.2
Polarisability of Anion

Polarisability of an anion ~ ability of the anion to allow the electron density
to be polarised by cation.

2 factors determining the polarisability of an anion
Charge of anion

Size of anion

Greater the charge of anion, lower the

Larger the size of anion, further the
effective nuclear charge of anion. This will
outermost electron from the nucleus of
weakened the electrostatic attraction forces
the anion, easier for the cation to
between nucleus and the outermost electron in
polarise the anion, and cause the
anion, and increase the polarisability of the
polarisability to increase, hence increase
anion, hence increase the covalent
the covalent characteristic of anion.
characteristic of anion

Unlike cation, anion does not have a term that combined both factors of
charge and ionic radius. However, information of polarisability of anion
enable the prediction of the covalent characteristic of a molecule, since in
order to form a covalent bond, it depend on both polarisation power of
cation and polarisability of the anion

3.6.2
Prediction of Chemical Bond :Fajans Rule

In 1923, Kazimierz Fajans formulated an easy guidance to predict
whether a chemical bond will be covalent or ionic, and depend on the
charge on the cation and the relative sizes of the cation and anion. They
can be summarized in the following table
Ionic compound

Low positive charge

Large cation

Small anion

Covalent compound

High positive charge

Small cation

Large anion

Based on these guidance, the bonding of a few compounds shall

be discussed to understand the application of Fajans Rule in the
chemical bonding

Lithium halide (LiX)

Lithium ion, Li+ (1s2) has a small size due to only 1 shell present in
its ion. But since it has a low charge, so its charge density is not too
high. That is why, all lithium halide are ionic compound. The
covalency of lithium halide varies from a highly ioniccharacteristic to
highly covalency, depending on the polarisability of the anion next
to Li+

When a group of halide, F ; Cl; Br; I is put close to Li+, the
covalency of lithium halide increase when going down to Group
17 halide. LiF is highly ionic, since the fluoride ion has small ionic
size and low charge, hence has low polarisability. Ionic size
increase with the increasing shell when going down to Group 17
halide, hence increase the polarisability, which allowed lithium ion
to polarise the anions electron density, hence increase the
covalency

Cl
Br

Li+

Aluminium halide (AlX3) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3)

Aluminium ion (Al3+) has high charge density, due to its high charge unit
and its small ionic radius. So, depending on the anion, aluminium has a
high tendency to form covalent compound. For example, when going
down to Group 17 halide, aluminium fluoride (AlF3) forms ionic
compound (since F- has a low polarisability), while aluminium trichloride
(AlCl3), aluminium tribromide (AlBr3) and aluminium iodide (AlI3) form
covalent compound (since chloride, bromide and iodide have high
polarisability). This explained why aluminium fluoride has a high melting
point (10400C), while aluminium trichloride and tribromide are 1920C and
780C respectively.

As for aluminium oxide (Al2O3), it is an ionic compound with high
covalent characteristic, as aluminium ion has high covalent characteristic
due to its high charge density. This explained the high melting point of
Al2O3 (20500C) yet it is insoluble in water. It also explained the
amphoteric properties of aluminium oxide where aluminium oxide can act
as an acid (covalent characteristic), as well as a base (ionic
characteristic).

Metallic Bonding

The properties of metals cannot be explained in terms of the ionic
/ covalent bond. In ionic / covalent compound, electron are not
free to move under the influence of applied potential (charge)
difference. Therefore, ionic solid and covalent compound are
insulator.

In metal, electron are delocalised and metal atoms are effectively
ionised.

Metallic bond ~ electrostatic attraction between the positively
charged metal ion and the electron delocalised.

Because of this, electron now can freely move from cathode to
anode when a metal is subjected to an electrical potential. The
mobile electron can also conduct heat by carrying the kinetic
energy from a hot part of the metal to a cold part. This electron
delocalised can also use to explain the electrical and thermal
conductivities of metal

The Band Theory : Overlapping of Orbital

The number of molecular orbitals produced is equal to the number
of atomic orbitals that overlap.

In a metal, the number of atomic orbitals that overlap is very large.
Thus the number of molecular orbital produced is also very large.

The energy separations between these metal orbitals are
extremely small. So, we may regard the orbital as merging
together to form a continuous band of allowed energy state. This
collection of very closed molecular orbital energy levels is called
an energy band. This theory for metal is called band theory

Electrical Conductors

Molecular orbital model == 2 group of energy level.

Lower energy level valence band form from overlap of outer most
orbital containing valence electron of each atom.
Higher energy level conduction band energy level filled with mobile
electron

But there are some case where valence band can also serve as
conduction band (caused by the movement of delocalised
molecular orbital)
Electrical conductivities decrease when temperature increase
vibration of the lattice of ion impedes the free movement of
electron in conduction band.
conduction band
valence band

Insulator

Difference between conductors, semi-conductors, and insulator
depend on the energy gap between the 2 bands.

Conductor 2 bands overlaps so conduction band always partly
filled.

Insulator gap between the band is large and no electron exist in
the conduction band. E.g. insulator diamond

When 2s and 2p orbital of C is combine to form 2 energy bands,
valence band is filled with electron.

In insulator, the energy gap between the band is large. Under
normal condition, few electrons in valence band can jump across
to conduction band. If electron cannot reach conduction band
across the gaps, the electrical conduction cannot take place.

Semiconductor

Theres still energy gaps between 2 bands in semiconductor, but it
is smaller than insulator.

In semiconductor, some electrons have sufficient energy to jump
across the energy gaps and electron can move freely in
conduction band thus enable electrical conduction.

Still, the electrical activity is not as good as metal (conductor)
Increasing temperature can help to improve the conductivity
because electron gain thermal energy and are able to reach
conduction band.

It can also improve its effectiveness by adding small amount of
substance. This adding is what we called doping. It can help to
increase electrons to fill in valence band.

Example of doping is Si dope P (n-type). Si dope Ge (p-type)
Depend on the needs, this process can help to create the various
type of semiconductor in electronic characteristic.

7.1
Van der Waals forces

Van Der Waals forces are the intermolecular forces formed
between covalently bond molecules which exist as simple
molecules.

There are 2 types of Van Der Waals forces namely
Permanent Dipole Permanent dipole forces
Temporary dipole induced dipole forces

7.1.1 Dipole-dipole attraction forces

1. Polar molecule possessed dipole moment. Each of the polar
molecules have an overall magnitude. For example in hydrogen
chloride
H Cl
+

2. The dipole inside polar molecules is permanent and the forces

between the molecule form as the positive end of dipole will attract to
the negative end of another molecules dipole.

3. This kind of forced are called permanent dipole-dipole forces.

4. The strength of the attraction depends on two factors : dipole moment
and relative molecular mass

5. Higher the dipole moment the more polar the molecule

stronger the Van Der Waals forces
6. Comparisons were made between 4 molecules that have nearly
equaled of molecular mass, but with different dipole moment
Compounds
Propane , CH3CH2CH3
Methyl methoxide, CH3OCH3
Chloromethane
Methyl cyanide, CH3CN

RMM
44
44
50.5
41

DM
0.1
1.3
1.9
3.9

Boiling point (C)

- 18.0
4.0
6.0
56.0

7. Methyl cyanide exhibit the highest boiling point among the 3

molecules as it has the highest dipole moment among these
molecules, which makes the attraction between the dipole-dipole
attraction become stronger, and required a higher temperature to
break the attraction forces among CH3CN-----CH3CN.

8. Another factor which influence the strength of permanent dipoledipole forces, are the factor of relative molecular mass.
9. Higher the mass, stronger the forces of attraction ( Van Der Waals
forces ), higher the boiling point or melting point of the substance

Hydrogen chloride, H Cl

36.5

Melting
point (C)
- 114

Hydrogen bromide, H Br

81.0

- 87

- 66

Hydrogen iodide, H I

128

- 51

- 35

RMM

Boiling
point (C)
- 85

7.1.2 Temporary dipole induce dipole forces

Non-polar molecules have a dipole moment = 0. Basically,
they wont have any attraction between the molecules as
there are no significant poles with charge in the molecule,
so how they interact ??!!!

For non-polar molecules, they may have a chance to form
asymmetrical structure, as the distribution of electron within
the molecule are not even, giving the atom a temporary
dipole moment.

During the formation of temporary dipole moment, induction
process takes place where the distribution of electron are
uneven and give the atom which are temporary rich of
electron to form dipole. These dipoles also known as
induce dipole.

When induced dipole is formed , a temporary interaction
between the molecules formed and produces weak forces
among them.

This theory is introduced by Frite London in 1930. It is known as

London dispersion forces.

In (a) the non-polar molecule which does not have a dipole within
the molecule begin to fluctuate and thus forming a temporary
dipole as in (b). Thus the forces of attraction will formed between
the temporary dipole and this forces is named as London Forces

7.2 Effect of the intermolecular forces ( Van der waals ) on the physical
properties of the molecules


H vapourisation  give a quantitative measurement of strength of
attractive forces present in liquid. So, 
H vapourisation ,  the boiling
point ,  the intermolecular forces among its molecules.

When a molecule increase in size, the number of electron also
increase, so the attraction between the electron valence and nucleus
become less. This distortion of electron cloud can easily occur and
increase the polarisability of the negative ion.

This can be relating with the dispersion forces among molecules
therefore
H vapourisation  , e.g. : Value of boiling point of halogen gas
increase. ( from F2  I2 )

In hydrocarbon, boiling point increase with relative molecular mass
(RMM). Molecule with higher RMM will have a higher boiling point.

The effect of branched chain in hydrocarbon will also affect the boiling
point of hydrocarbon involved

Structure

RMM

Boiling point
(C)

2,2dimethyl
propane

72

2-methylbutane

72

18

72

36

npentane

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

This is due to a larger surface area in a straight chain of

hydrocarbon, and allows greater forces between the molecules
giving larger Van der Waals forces compare to branch chain
hydrocarbon

7.3
Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen bond is a special dipoledipole interaction between H
atom with other atom with high electronegativity. ( N, O, F )

It is extra stable than normal Van der waals forces and required a
high energy to break the bond. This explained why the boiling point
of NH3, H2O and HF are higher than other hydrogen compound
from each of their particular group.


Decreasing

molar mass

Decreasing boiling point

Hydrogen bond can also be used to explain the different of boiling

point of some organic compound. In the diagram above, the trend of
the compound in the same group deviates for N, O and F, as it form
hydrogen bond among themselves.
Hydrogen bond can be compared among NH3 , H2O and HF. HF has
a higher boiling point than NH3 due to higher electronegativity of
fluorine compare to nitrogen. So the dipole moment of HF is greater
than NH, which results greater hydrogen bond. Though, O has a
lower electronegativity than F, but H2O has a greater boiling point
compare to HF because in between H2O ---- H2O molecules, they can
form 2 hydrogen bond between the molecule but between HF --- HF
can only form one hydrogen bond. So, the more the hydrogen
formed, greater the forces, higher the boiling point.
The factors of hydrogen bonding can also use to explain the solubility
of some organic compound in water, like example, ethane cannot
dissolve in water but ethanol can dissolve in water, due to the
hydrogen bonding.

Some of the molecules gain more stability by forming dimer with its
molecules. E.g. : When ethanoic acid is brought to mass
spectrometer for detection and it gives a peak at m/e at 120. This
indicates the shows that ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) has a RMM of
120, as CH3COOH , RMM = 60.

This indicate ethanoic acid exist as dimer where interaction of

hydrogen bonding between end of each functioning group COOH
occur.

There is another application of hydrogen bond, which is the

intermolecular forces and intramolecular forces. In 2-nitrophenol
and 4-nitrophenol, the boiling point of the 2 compounds can be
explain below :

Since 2-nitrophenol form strong hydrogen bond as intramolecular

forces, the interaction between 2-nitrophenol molecules are
weaker among each other, compare to 4-nitrophenol, which used
hydrogen bond as their intermolecular forces. With stronger
hydrogen bond which act as the intermolecular forces, the boiling
point of 4-nitrophenol is expected to be higher than 2-nitrophenol