DS13 11

DESIGN STANDARDS
EMBANKMENT
DAMS
CHAPTER 11
INSTRUMENTATION
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BUREAU OF RECLAMATION
TECHNICAL SERVICE CENTER
DENVER, COLORADO
NO. 13
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Bureau
of Reclamation
Denver
Office
Colorado
Denver,
80225-0007
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DESIGN STANDARDS NO. 13

EMBANKMENT DAMS
CHAPTER 11 - INSTRUMENTATION
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

BUREAU OF RECLAMATION
ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER
ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH
DENVER, COLORADO
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Chapter 11 - Instrumentation
CONTENTS
Paragraph
Page
INTRODUCTION
11.1
11.2
Purpose ...........................................
Scope .............................................
A. Analytical Reasons
.........................
B. Predictive Reasons
.........................
C. Legal Reasons ...............................
D. Research Reasons ............................
1
2
2
4
4
4
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
Deviations from Standard ..........................

Revisions of Standard .............................
Minimum Instrumentation ...........................
Instrumentation Selection and Layout ..............
Safety Evaluation of Existing Dams ................
6
7
7
8
10
PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

11.9
11.10
Verifiable Engineering Concepts ...................

A. Ground-water Levels and Pore
Pressure Observations
.....................
B. Partially Saturated Soils ...................
C. Pore Water Pressures Associated
With Dams ..................................
D. Time Lag in Ground-water Observations .......
E. Total Earth Pressures .......................
F. Earth Pressure Against Rigid Boundary .......
13
13
14
16
Types
18
.............................................
10
10
12
SEEPAGE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

11.11

A. General .....................................
B. Failure Modes and Criteria ..................
19
19
19
11.12
Types
22
.............................................
MOVEMENT
11.13
General
..........................................
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24
EMBANKMENT DAMS
CONTENTS - Continued
INTERNAL MOVEMENT MEASURING DEVICES
11.14

A. Vertical Movement ...........................
B. Horizontal Movement .........................
11.15
Types
.............................................
25
25
26
26
SURFACE MOVEMENT MEASURING DEVICES

11.16
11.17

Types .............................................
27
27
VIBRATION MEASURING DEVICES

11.18
11.19

Types .............................................
28
29
VISUAL INSPECTIONS
11.20
General
..........................................
29
DATA ACQUISITION, PROCESSING, AND REVIEW PROCEDURE

11.21
11.22
11.23
11.24
General ...........................................
Data Acquisition ..................................
Data Review .......................................
Possible Actions ..................................
APPENDIX
References
Tables
Example
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
vi
31
31
32
34
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.1
INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE
.1
The purpose of this design standard is to offer a practical

design guide which emphasizes the interrelationship between
fundamental engineering concepts that are applied in
embankment dam analyses and appropriate instrumentation for
new and existing structures. It is stressed that
instrumentation cannot be properly designed without
understanding the concepts, failure modes, and assumptions
used in the analysis. Instrumentation should be adequate to
monitor the expected and unexpected performance of the
structure. This design standard provides a general overview
of a number of instrumentation-related topics, and includes
some guidance concerning appropriate instrumentation types to
be considered in various monitoring situations. More detailed
information can be found in Reclamation's Embankment Dam
Instrumentation Manual [7] and other standard references.
When a structure, such as an embankment dam, is disturbed,
either by natural events or by the activities of man, it
undergoes a redistribution of stress, often accompanied by a
change of shape. These changes can be minor, or may
constitute cost factors or hazards which have to be promptly
recognized and dealt with. They are commonly reflected in
deformations, displacements, loads, pressures, stresses, and
strains which can be identified and measured by
instrumentation.
Instrumentation is used to gather scientific data of a
physical nature in order for decisions to be made with regard
to the design, construction, first filling of the reservoir,
and long-term performance and safety of the dam. Ideally, an
instrumentation system should provide surveillance of an
entire mass or structure so that important decisions are not
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EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.2
made on the basis of insufficient data. The type of
instrument selected is based on the engineering concept to be
verified. The number and distribution of instruments are
usually determined by the need to provide an acceptable sample
distribution at a reasonable cost.
SCOPE
.2
The usual factors or quantities which need to be monitored in

embankment dams are structural displacements, deformations,
settlement, seepage, piezometric levels, and interstitial
(pore) pressures within the structure and its foundation. The
reasons for using instrumentation can be grouped into four
general categories: analytical, predictive, legal, and
research.
Analytical
A.
Analytical Reasons. 1.
Verification of engineering concepts. - In order to

design a safe embankment dam, design engineers must
develop conceptual ideas on existing conditions and
how these conditions may change as a consequence of
the design. The margin of safety incorporated into
the design is usually directly related to the
surety of the engineering concepts. It is therefore
both economical and prudent to verify these
engineering concepts throughout the life of the
project. Instrumentation can be installed:
a.
During the exploration phases of the project

to determine existing conditions
b.
During design to observe any changes in these

conditions with time and under no load,
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EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.2A
c.
During construction to monitor the influence

of construction on the preexisting conditions,
and
d.
During the subsequent life of the project to

gather information related to specific
problems and to confirm continued satisfactory
performance of the project according to the
design intentions.
2.
Verification of suitability of new construction

techniques. - Most new or modified construction
techniques are not well accepted by the engineering
or construction professions until proven
satisfactory on the basis of actual performance.
Data obtained from instrumentation can aid in
evaluating the suitability of new or modified
techniques. Instrumentation is often installed
just prior to or after remedial work at a site in
order to determine the effectiveness of the
improvements.
3.
Diagnosing the specific nature of an adverse event.

- When a failure, partial failure, or severe
distress has occurred at a damsite, data from the
instrumentation system can be extremely valuable in
the determination of the specific nature of the
event.
4.
Verification of continued satisfactory performance.

- An instrumentation system that consistently
yields data which indicate that the dam is
performing in a satisfactory manner may, on first
thought, appear to be unnecessary. However, such
information can prove to be valuable should some
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EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.2B
performance is, in itself, valuable to consider in
future design efforts.
Predictive
B.
Predictive Reasons. - It is important to be able to use

instrumentation data as they accumulate so that
informed, valid predictions of future behavior of the
dam can be made. Such predictions may vary from
satisfactory performance to an indication of severe
future distress which may become threatening to life or
safety and necessitate remedial action.
C.
Legal Reasons. - Valid instrumentation data can be

valuable for several reasons ranging from simple
determination of actual fill placement quantities for
construction pay estimates to the establishment of an
information data bank for later possible use in
litigation. Damage claims arising from dam construction
or from adverse events can reach many millions of
dollars. The presence of a dam, reservoir or other
hydraulic structure may cause seepage or ground-water
changes that could lead to damage
of adjacent
property. Instrumentation data can be an aid in the
determination of causes of adverse events so that proper
legal adjudication can be accomplished.
Legal
Research
D.
Research Reasons. - In order to better understand the

complex nature of the multitude of forces acting in a
usually interdependent manner on a dam, it is very
desirable to study the performance of existing dams and
the instrumentation data generated thereon, which should
provide quantifiable information for use on future
designs. Such research has led to advances in
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EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.2D
construction techniques, improved and innovative design

concepts, and a better understanding of failure
mechanisms, i.e., advancement of the state-of-the-art.
We are normally interested in measuring variations in
three principal properties during the life of an earth
dam. These properties are the resistance to water
movement, resistance to deformation, and strength
characteristics. Unfortunately, neither the physical
properties of the structure nor the external natural
forces acting on a structure vary independently of each
other, making clear cause-and-effect relationships
difficult to identify. Such relationships become
apparent only as the mass of data secured by
measurements becomes rather large.
Damage to an embankment is commonly attributed to one or
more of the following:
1.
Internal erosion caused by excessive seepage

through the embankment or its foundation,
2.
Slope instability,
3.
Loss of integrity of the core due to differential

settlement-induced cracking,
4.
Deterioration and clogging of drainage systems,
5.
Longitudinal cracking due to differential

settlement along the interface between embankment
zones,
6.
Overtopping of the embankment due to unusually high

reservoir inflow and inadequate spillway capacity,
7.
Settlement or instability caused by earthquake

loading.
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EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.3
Instrumentation can become expensive to install and
obtaining measurements can be very time consuming. It
is therefore necessary to limit the amount and kind of
instrumentation used and the frequency with which
measurements are obtained. No simple rules exist to
determine the quantity or exact type of instrumentation
needed at a site. The determination of the number,
type, and location of instruments at a dam remains a
matter of experienced judgment.
There are many reasons for installing instrumentation in
both new and existing dams. The question of number,
type, and location of instruments at a dam can only be
addressed effectively by the combination of experience,
common sense, and judgement. Most dams represent unique
situations and require unique solutions to their
instrumentation requirements. The instrumentation
system design, therefore, needs to be conceived with a
great deal of care considering the site-specific
geotechnical conditions present at the dam and the
engineering concepts used in the analysis and design.
In general, it has been found that an adequate, but
cost-effective, instrumentation installation at a new
dam will constitute approximately 1 percent of the total
construction cost of the dam. At more difficult dams
sites, where there are unusual aspects to the design or
where there are unusual circumstances, this cost can be
as high as 2 to 3 percent of the construction cost.
DEVIATIONS FROM STANDARD
.3
Instrumentation design within the Geotechnical Engineering and

Geology Division should be guided by this standard; as well as
the Embankment Dam Instrumentation Manual [7]. Designs not in
accordance with this standard and/or the instrumentation
manual should be documented such that any deviations are fully
apparent during the review process.
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EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.4
REVISIONS OF STANDARD
.4
This standard will be revised periodically as its use and the

state-of-the-art indicates the need. Comments or suggested
revisions should be forwarded to the Chief, Geotechnical
Engineering and Geology Division (D-3600).
MINIMUM INSTRUMENTATION
.5
The problem of determining the minimum instrumentation for the

safety of dams can be divided into two categories, existing
dams and new dams. Each category has problems not common to
the other. Some of the important differences are:
New dams will likely have additional monitoring
requirements to demonstrate safety during construction,
first filling, and early age.
-
Additional options for installing instruments are

available during construction that cannot be considered
for existing structures.
Specific problems such as instability, seepage,

settlement, or desiccation that were unanticipated
during design may have developed that require
monitoring.
Many old dams were built using design, construction, and

performance standards significantly different from those
existing under the present state-of-the-art.
The minimum instrumentation for an embankment dam should

ideally be sufficient to detect, in a timely fashion, any
unusual performance that might eventually lead to dam failure
or serious performance problems. Though this ideal is
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EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.6
unattainable, studies of incidents and failures of embankment
dams indicate that seepage monitoring, embankment measurement
points, and structural measurement points should be routinely
provided at all dams to efficiently and cost effectively
monitor for the development of unexpected problems.
Piezometers have high informational value as well, but the
appropriateness of such installations needs to be considered
on a case-by-case basis, considering their significant expense
and the risks associated with drilling in existing dams. They
should, however, be included in all new dams during their
construction. These minimum instrumentation guidelines are in
addition to the instrumentation necessary to monitor the sitespecific concerns unique to each dam.
New dams should be designed to contain highly reliable and
sufficiently accurate instruments in the proper quantity and
located at optimum positions to determine dam behavior and
monitor important parameters over a long period of time.
Existing dams should be retrofitted with instrumentation as
dictated by their needs on a site-specific basis. The
designer should not hesitate to consider additional
instrumentation for an existing dam if any aspect of its
performance is uncertain.
INSTRUMENT SELECTION AND LAYOUT

.6
Each damsite is unique and the designer must evaluate and

decide which types of measurements are necessary for the
particular project. Also, it must be decided what type of
instrument, which manufacturer, and what installation details
should be used. These decisions must consider factors such as
risk taken if information is not obtained, costs, needed
accuracy, expected reading schedules, environmental
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.6
conditions, use of the data, and capabilities of available

personnel. Cost should include not only the cost of the
instruments, but installation costs and the cost of carrying
out the required observations, data processing, and review.
Accuracy and sensitivity requirements for instrumentation
systems are dictated by geotechnical and/or structural
criteria relevant to the project that is to be instrumented.
It is useful to make a rough estimate of the magnitudes of the
various parameters to be monitored so that the instruments
will have the proper measuring range and sensitivity.
The selection of instruments must also be based on important
details such as robustness, watertightness, corrosion
resistance, long-term stability, and preferred type of output
signal. During the design of systems, key factors such as
serviceability, remote reading capability, construction
compatibility, cable routing, lightning protection, and
mechanical protection must be carefully considered.
In order to understand general patterns of embankment
performance, instrumentation is commonly laid out with respect
to cross sections of the dam, the plan view of the dam, and a
vertical section through the dam, following or paralleling its
axis. Cross sections of the dam generally can be assumed to
be (nearly) in a state of plain strain, and the results of
two-dimensional deformation analyses can be compared to actual
data obtained at a cross section. Two-dimensional seepage
analyses can also be compared with pressure contours from
piezometers grouped at a section. Contours of surface
deformations can be effectively obtained and analyzed with
respect to a plan view orientation. Profiles along the axis
of the dam (or paralleling the axis) sometimes are useful
perspective from which to monitor foundation settlements.
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EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.7
The extent of the instrumentation program that is appropriate
for a given new dam depends to a limited degree on the height
and length of the dam, but depends more importantly on the
site conditions and the design issues and concerns regarding
the dam.
SAFETY EVALUATION OF EXISTING DAMS

.7
Reclamation's dam safety work consists of two fundamental

components: (1) identifying and addressing existing
deficiencies of dams, and (2) maintaining an on-going
monitoring program to detect the development of new problems
at dams. Instrumentation plays a key role regarding both
components. Instrumentation is used to help identify and
define existing problems, and along with dam safety
inspections, is used to monitor for the development of new
situations. Instrumentation is a major tool in Reclamation's
ongoing commitment to dam safety.
PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

VERIFIABLE ENGINEERING CONCEPTS
Ground-water Level
.9
A.
Ground-water Levels and Pore Pressure Observations. 1.
Regular conditions. - The free ground-water level,

or table, is defined as the elevation that the free
water surface assumes in a hole extending a short
distance below the capillary zone, where the water
surface is at equilibrium with atmospheric
pressure. Ground-water conditions are described
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
10
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.9A
as "regular" when the pore water pressure increases
hydrostatically with depth below the ground-water
level [2].
2.
Irregular conditions. - When the pore water

pressure does not increase hydrostatically with
depth below the groundwater level, ground-water
conditions are described as "irregular." These
conditions may result from perched water tables
caused by relatively impermeable strata above the
main ground-water level. The presence of more
pervious and better drained strata below the
ground-water level may cause irregular ground-water
conditions [2].
3.
Variation in ground-water levels and pressures. Ground-water levels and pressures are rarely
constant over an extended period of time. Natural
forces such as seepage, precipitation, and
evaporation may cause wide variations in the
ground-water level. The pore water pressure is
considered to be under positive excess pressure
when the pore water pressure at a point is more
than hydrostatic and to be under subhydrostatic
pressure when the pore water pressure is less than
hydrostatic [2].
a.
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
Artesian pressure. - Artesian pressures are

found in strata that are confined between
impervious strata and are connected to a water
source at a higher elevation. A well drilled
to a stratum having a pore water pressure
above the ground surface will flow without
pumping and is called a free-flowing artesian
well [2].
11
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.9B
b.
Induced pore water pressure. - Pore water

pressure may be temporarily changed from a
hydrostatic condition as a result of stress
changes. Stress changes may be caused by such
activities as construction loading or
unloading, induced vibrations, or natural
forces such as erosion, deposition, and earth
tremors [2].
Soil Saturation
B.
Partially Saturated Soils. 1. Below ground-water level. - Soils below the

ground-water level are generally considered to be
saturated. However, ground water is generally in
equilibrium with the atmosphere and contains dissolved
gases absorbed from the atmosphere. Ground water may
also contain dissolved and free gas resulting from
decomposition of organic matter. When dissolved gases
are partially released by a reduction in pore water
pressure or by an increase in temperature, the gas comes
out of the solution and forms bubbles which may escape
into overlying strata of partially saturated soils or
become trapped below the ground-water level to produce a
three-component system of soil solids, water, and gas
[2].
2. Above ground-water level. - Soils above the
ground-water level contain both gas and water in the
pore spaces and are, therefore, three-component systems.
When the ground-water level rises or the soil is wetted
or inundated, some gas is partially dissolved in the
pore water because of the increase in pressure, only to
be released later when the pressure is reduced.
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12
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.9C
Gas may also be expelled, trapped under pressure, and/or

absorbed in the pore water when stresses on a partially
saturated soil mass are increased [2].
Pore Pressures
C.
Pore Water Pressures Associated With Dams. - During

construction of earth dams, relatively high excess pore
water pressures may develop in impervious or
semipervious zones and foundations as the height of an
embankment is increased. Under some circumstances, this
may require stability berms, flatter outer slopes, or
control of the rates of construction. Cutoff walls and
drainage facilities are often provided in foundations
and embankments to control and/or to reduce excess pore
water pressures that develop when water is impounded.
Periodic measurement of pore water pressures associated
with such control measures and drainage facilities is
necessary to assess their effectiveness and proper
functioning throughout the life of the dam [2].
Time Lag
D.
Time Lag in Ground-water Observations. - When pore water

pressures change, the time required for water to flow to
or from the piezometer to effect equalization is called
the hydrodynamic time lag. The hydrodynamic static time
lag is dependent primarily on the permeability of the
soil type and dimensions of the device, and change in
pore water pressures. The volume of flow required for
pressure equalization in sensitive piezometers, such as
those of the diaphragm type, is extremely small, and the
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
13
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.9E
hydrodynamic time lag is very short. In less sensitive
piezometers such as open-standpipe piezometers, the time
lag may be reduced somewhat by providing a large intake
area and increasing the diameter of the drill hole the
instrument is installed in. Hydrodynamic time lag is
usually not significant when piezometric devices are
installed in materials other than impervious zone 1 core
material.
Disturbance of the soil structure may occur when
installing a piezometric device. Changes in void ratio
and water content of the in situ soil usually occur in
advancing a borehole or driving a well point. Filling
with water and flushing air from hydraulic piezometers
cause changes in the pore water pressure in the soil
mass surrounding the piezometer tip, and flow of water
to or from the affected soil mass must take place to
reestablish equilibrium conditions.
Earth Pressures
E.
Total Earth Pressures. 1.
General. - This section is concerned with the

measurement of total earth pressures. Two general
types of measurement arise in foundation
engineering: stresses in a soil mass and stresses
on a boundary at a soil-structure or
soil-foundation interface. For convenience of
measurement, the stress vector at a "point" on a
boundary or in a soil mass is resolved into normal
and shear average components.
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14
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.9E
Many problems arise when making earth pressure
measurements. The main problem is to ensure that
the earth pressure measuring device (the
earth-pressure cell) measures the average stress
acting. If the design is faulty, an erroneous,
misleading reading results. When an earth pressure
cell is introduced into a mass of soil, the stress
field in the vicinity of the cell is modified
because of strain incompatibility and special
compaction of material against the instrument
resulting in variation in soil densities. It is
this modified stress field which is recorded by the
cell. The basic problem in earth pressure
monitoring is to obtain a measure of the stress
which would have existed in the ground had the
pressure cell not been inserted. In most
instances, this cannot be successfully achieved.
Data will be obtained, but will not be
representative of actual stresses.
2.
Measurement of dynamic pressures. - The civil

engineer on occasions has to measure dynamic
pressures on structures or in a soil mass.
Comprehensive information on the problems
associated with the measurement of earth pressure
due to dynamic loading is given in the Proceedings
of the International Symposium on Wave Propagation
and Dynamic Properties of Earth Materials (1967).
3.
Measurement of normal and shear stresses. - For

directions other than those of the principal stress
directions. Shear stresses occur in addition to
normal stresses and these can be of particular
significance in embankments and on soil/structure
interfaces.
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15
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.9F
4.
Principal stresses. - In many foundation problems

the size of the cell is small compared with the
mass of soil under study and hence the cell is
assumed to measure that stress at a "point." Ko is
the coefficient of earth pressure at rest and is
found from Poisson's ratio. The value of Ko for
saturated clays in undrained loading or quick
loading is sometimes also expressed in total
stresses that include the neutral stress. In
embankment dam studies, it is possible, due to the
two-dimensional nature of the problem, to arrange
the earth pressure cells in one plane with one or
more cells at right angles to this plane. By
arrangement of four cells to form an equivalent 45rosette, the stress state in the soil can be
measured. However, considering the difficulty in
getting one cell to work accurately in a soil mass,
it may be practically impossible to get four to
work. When cells are oriented in directions which
are not principal directions the cell action factor
may depend on stress direction. Care and
experience are required in the use of earth
pressure cells for the determination of stress
state in a soil mass [3].
Rigid Boundary Earth Pressure

F.
Earth Pressure Against Rigid Boundary. 1.
General. - In the design of an appurtenant

structure (e.g., spillway or outlet works) for an
earthfill or rockfill dam, assumptions are made
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16
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.9F
concerning the magnitude and distribution of
pressures at the soil-structure interface. For
complex or unique structures, it may be desirable
to measure the earth pressure to determine the
validity of the design assumption and to develop
data for prototype analysis [4].
2.
Earth pressure on a retaining wall. - The pressure

cells should be installed at a typical section of
the wall. The number of cells required will depend
on the height of the backfill. However, a
sufficient number should be installed so that the
distribution of pressure along the entire height of
the wall may be determined even if a few cells
become inoperable. The cells should not be located
within 2 feet (600 mm) of a construction joint. If
the wall section is not constant, it may be
desirable to instrument more than one section [4].
3.
Pressures acting on and around a conduit. Ordinarily, pressures around a conduit are not
measured. However, if these pressures are to be
measured, the segment of a conduit that would be
instrumented is that section beneath the maximum
height of fill. In order to determine the
distribution of pressure along the length of the
conduit, pressures at other sections may also be
measured. Installation may also consist of
pressure cells installed around the entire outer
perimeter of the conduit [4].
In some instances, it may be desirable for research
purposes to obtain data concerning earth pressures
acting on a conduit. Generally, lateral earth
pressures and arching effects are being studied in
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17
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.10
an effort to reduce overdesign in future work due
to excessively conservative pressure assumptions.
It may be desirable to monitor water pressures in
these areas as well, so as to determine effective
as well as total pressures.
TYPES
.10
A multitude of styles and types of pressure measuring devices

are available. Table 1 lists some of the advantages and
disadvantages of various devices.
The closed-system devices used to measure pore water pressures
include HPI (hydrostatic pressure indicators), hydraulic TTP
(twin-tube piezometers), pneumatic piezometers, VWP
(vibrating-wire piezometers), and other electrically operating
piezometers while the open-system devices include PTP
(porous-tube piezometers), SPP (slotted-pipe piezometers), and
OW (observation wells).
There are two basic types of earth-pressure measuring devices,
commonly referred to as earth-pressure cells. One type is
designed for measuring earth pressure against structures such
as retaining walls and conduits and is relatively accurate and
reliable. The other type is designed for measuring stresses
in an earth mass. An earth- pressure cell generally consists
of a flexible diaphragm backed by a fluid-filled chamber and a
sensing device.
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18
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.11
SEEPAGE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
General
.11
A.
General. - Seepage through, around, or under an

embankment dam is an extremely valuable indicator of the
condition and continuing level of performance of a dam.
The quantity of seepage entering a seepage collection
system is normally directly related to the level of the
water in the reservoir. Any sudden change in the
quantity of seepage collected without a correspondingly
obvious cause such as change in the reservoir level or
heavy rainfall or snowmelt could signal a seepage
problem. Similarly, should the seepage water become
cloudy, discolored, contain increasing quantities of
sediment, or change radically in chemical content, a
serious seepage problem could be indicated. Wet spots
or seepage appearing at new locations downstream from an
embankment could also indicate a seepage problem.
Failures
B.
Failure Modes and Criteria. 1.
Excessive exit gradient will cause soil particles

at the toe of a dam to become buoyant. The
manifestation of this loss of gravitational
stability depends on the composition of the soil in
which it is occurring.
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
19
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.11B
( In a foundation soil with a high percentage of
large particle sizes, the fine particles may be
removed and deposited on the surface as "sand
boils" while the structure of the large particles
remains stable, resulting in an increase in
permeability and seepage flow [5].
( In a granular foundation soil with a narrow
distribution of relatively small grain sizes, a
mass of soil can become fluidized as the reservoir
reaches the hydraulic head necessary to produce the
critical gradient of the soil mass. Rapid
catastrophic failure can then result through loss
of shear resistance [5].
( A common occurrence in a heterogeneous foundation
soil mass that may have some cohesion in the
surficial layer is the phenomenon called "PIPING."
Piping occurs when the velocity of the seepage
water is high enough to carry soil particles away
from the fill, forming a conduit in the embankment.
It will usually start at points of discontinuity or
flow concentration such as along a poorly compacted
contact between backfill and structures that extend
from upstream to downstream, open drill holes, post
holes, root holes, and ditches [5]. These are
locations where the hydraulic gradient is higher,
due either to less head loss or to a shorter
seepage path.
2.
Excessive pore pressure can contribute to failure

modes in the embankment and the foundation.
( Embankment slope instability and deformation are
common concerns in embankment dams, to which pore
pressures and seepage forces are contributing
factors.
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
20
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.11B
( Foundation pore pressure can create unstable
uplift force on hydraulic structures associated
with an embankment.
( Foundation pore pressure can exert significant
uplift force on a confining layer of soil
immediately downstream of a dam. This occurs when
there is a more permeable layer, capable of
transmitting a large percentage of the reservoir
head to the downstream side, under the confining
layer. Failure begins to occur when the pore
pressure on the bottom of the confining layer
exceeds the overburden pressure created by the
weight of the confining layer. The resulting
uplift eventually breaches the confining layer
producing an instantaneous high exit gradient in
the lower transmitting layer.
3.
Unfiltered high internal gradients may cause soil

particles to migrate from one zone to another in an
embankment dam, or from the embankment into voids
in the foundation. Because the water barrier zones
in most embankment dams possess some cohesion, the
deterioration can be progressive, sometimes
resulting in lowered density or the formation of
pipes.
4.
The chemical content of reservoir water is often

quite different from the water within a foundation
or even an embankment. Cementation within a
foundation may offer a great deal of shear strength
toward the embankment's stability and resistance to
deformation. Relatively pure reservoir water may
tend to dissolve this cementation and carry it away
from the foundation or embankment material, leaving
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
21
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.12
a much weaker structure. The total dissolved
solids of seepage water should be compared to that
measured in the reservoir water to verify this
dissolutioning if it is suspected.
5.
Excess seepage flow without removal of materials is

usually not a structural failure mode but could be
considered in terms of project failure if it
results in inadequate reservoir storage to meet
project requirements. Downstream flooding or
destructively high ground-water levels could also
be considered as project failure due to excessive
seepage [5].
6.
Desiccation cracking of the embankment core

material results from moisture content in the core
of a dam being reduced far below the constructed or
design intended moisture content. Desiccation to a
significant depth is necessarily a long-term
process that usually occurs during extended periods
of low reservoir and there is little or no moisture
replenishment to the embankment above reservoir
level. The resulting reduction of moisture content
in the core material can cause shrinkage cracking
in the water barrier core of the dam which results
in serious leakage, erosion, and possible failure
during subsequent occurrence of high reservoir [5].
TYPES
.12
Commonly used seepage monitoring devices include quantitative

devices for measuring seepage including weirs, flumes, and
calibrated catch containers. Flowmeters, velocity meters, and
turbidity meters also are sometimes used. Geophysical methods
used for qualitative seepage analysis include thermotic
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
22
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.12
surveys and self-potential measurements. Table 2 lists some

of the advantages and disadvantages of various seepage
monitoring approaches.
Weirs are one of the oldest, simplest, and most reliable
approaches that can be used to measure quantity of flow of
water. The critical parts of weirs can be easily inspected,
and any improper operations can be easily detected and quickly
corrected. Weirs normally used are of the 90- V-notch,
rectangular, and trapezoidal (Cipolletti) types. The quantity
discharge rates are determined by measuring the vertical
distance from the crest of the overflow portion of the weir to
the water surface in the pool upstream from the crest. The
discharge may then be computed by the appropriate formula or
by reference to tables prepared for that purpose.
Flumes are a specially shaped open-channel flow section. The
discharge may be computed or determined by reference to tables
and charts prepared with throat width of flume, upstream head,
downstream head, and inclination of sidewalls as variables.
Containers with a known volume may be used to measure low flow
quantities from a pipe outlet or other freefalling,
concentrated flow location. The time required to fill the
container of known volume is measured and the flow computed.
The water may be saved in plastic or glass containers to
monitor or test its quality.
Flowmeters are sometimes used to determine quantity of flow in
a pipe or open channel. Thermotic survey techniques may in
special instances aid in identifying zones of high
permeability and ground-water flow concentrations within
fractured rock and alluvial deposits. Although these
techniques may not replace the need for borings or the need to
install conventional instrumentation, they may be valuable in
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
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EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.13
directing the location of more quantitative investigation
methods such as drill holes and pumping tests. Self-potential
or streaming potential surveys may also be useful in the
detection of discrete seepage paths.
MOVEMENT
GENERAL
.13
Movements occur when the shear strength of the soil is

exceeded by the shear stresses over a relatively continuous
surface. Instability results when shear failure has occurred
at enough points to define a surface along which the movement
takes place. Anything that results in a decrease in soil
strength or an increase in soil stress contributes to
instability and should be considered in the design of earth
structures. Causes of decreased strength are as follows:
(
Swelling of clays by adsorption of water.
Pore water pressure.
Pore air pressure in fine-grained, very dry soils.
Breakdown of loose or honeycombed soil structure

with shock, vibration, or seismic activity.
Hairline cracking from alternate swelling and

shrinking.
Strain and progressive failure in sensitive soils.
Mechanical cracking associated with large-scale

differential settlements or deformations.
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
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EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.14
Thawing or frozen soil.
Deterioration of cementing material.
Loss of capillary tension when soil becomes very

dry or saturated.
Among the most common of earth mass failures are those

resulting from unstable slopes. Gravity, in the form of the
weight of the soil mass and of any water above it, is the
major force tending to produce failure, while the shearing
resistance of the soil is the major resisting force.
INTERNAL MOVEMENT MEASURING DEVICES

.14
Internal movement readings should be watched for excessive

vertical or horizontal movement and for heave. Rate of
movement and changes in rate of movement may be even more
important than total movement. Changes in pore-water
pressures and internal or external movement will reflect
changes in stress conditions within the embankment that will
influence the stability of the structure. Because behavior
conditions originate during construction and vary continuously
throughout operation, data from the instruments may be used by
both construction and operating personnel, as well as by the
designing engineers [6].
Vertical
A.
Vertical Movement. - Settlement observations during

construction often can give warning of trouble from
other sources. Landslides, underground subsidences, and
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
25
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.14A
bearing-capacity failures usually begin with slow but
gradually increasing settlement rates. Some conditions
that necessitate the installation of measuring devices
for particular movements are:
1.
Foundations containing compressible clays or loose

deposits of sands, silts, or silty sand mixtures
2.
Foundations containing heterogeneous or lenticular

soil deposits that include soft compressible soils
3.
Zoned embankments containing soils of different

compaction and consolidation characteristics
4.
Embankments adjacent to concrete structures,
5.
Deep excavations, especially in fine-grained soils
Horizontal
B.
Horizontal Movement. - Low shear strength of foundations

and/or embankments could lead to significant shearing
movements of the embankment or appurtenant structures
within or adjacent to the embankment [4].
TYPES
.15
A number of devices for measuring internal movements are

available. Among those devices currently in use or being
considered for use are IVM (internal vertical movement)
devices, baseplates, PSS (pneumatic settlement sensors), VWSS
(vibrating-wire settlement sensors), inclinometers,
tiltmeters, MPBX (multipoint borehole extensometers), shear
strips, and radiosonde devices. Table 3 lists some of the
advantages and disadvantages of these devices.
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
26
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.16
SURFACE MOVEMENT MEASURING DEVICES
.16
It is important to observe surface evidence of stability

problems such as slope bulging, sagging crests, foundation
heave at or beyond the toe, and/or lateral spreading of the
foundation and embankment, as well as surface manifestations
of material removal by seepage flows.
TYPES
.17
External vertical and horizontal movements are measured on the

surface of embankments by use of level and position surveys of
measurement points. Measurement points may be monuments, or
designated points on the crest, slopes, or toe of the
embankment or on appurtenant structures. Measurements of
these points should be made relative to one or more absolutely
stable points located away from the influence of the
structure, preferably on rock. The human eye is another, much
less sensitive, instrument for recording surface movement. In
this connection, it is emphasized that the surface of an
embankment has to be kept free of high vegetation so that
movement can be easily observed. Short grasses or mowed
grasses are acceptable to help resist surface erosion, but
should be kept trimmed to a uniform height above the
embankment surface. Photographs are often used to record what
the human eye has observed.
Commonly used devices for measuring external movement consist
principally of reference points and targets set in concrete
off the structure and steel bars embedded in the embankment
(embankment measuring points) or reference marks or points on
structures. Measurements are made using surveying equipment
including levels, theodolites, rods, calibrated survey tapes,
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
27
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.18
and EDM (electronic distance measuring) devices. Other
approaches to monitoring surface movements include using
tiltmeters and crack measuring devices. Table 4 lists some of
the advantages and disadvantages of these various approaches.
VIBRATION MEASURING DEVICES

.18
Installations of measurement instruments include vibration

recording devices to indicate the results of transient
stresses on the embankment. The vibrations could be due to
naturally occurring earthquakes or the construction-related
vibrations from blasting or construction equipment. Problems
that can result from major vibrations at a damsite are
movements of the dam and/or foundation, or increases in pore
pressures. Increases in pore pressures can lead to excessive
seepage, settlement, shear failure, and liquefaction of the
foundation soils or the embankment resulting in stability
problems.
The physical properties of the soil that are factors in
resisting the effects of vibrations are:
(
Material type,
Material density,
Water content, and
The natural frequency of soil deposits.
The natural frequency of the structure is also a significant

factor.
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
28
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.19
TYPES
.19
Vibration or seismic instrumentation is used to record

responses of the structure, foundation, and abutments to
seismic events. The general term, seismograph, refers to all
types of seismic instruments that write a permanent,
continuous record or time history of earth motion
(seismogram). The basic components of a seismograph include a
frame anchored to the ground or embankment, one or more
transducers, timing devices, and a recorder. As the frame
moves with the ground, the transducers respond according to
principles of dynamic equilibrium. Signals of horizontal
motion in two planes and vertical motion may be sensed either
electrically, optically, or mechanically, and the motion
sensing may be proportional to acceleration, velocity, or
ground displacement.
Various commercially available instruments include several
models of digital and analog strong-motion accelerographs,
peak recording accelerograph, and other seismographs. Table 5
lists some of the advantages and disadvantages of the
strong-motion accelerographs which are used by Reclamation.
VISUAL INSPECTIONS
GENERAL
.20
The visual inspection of the condition of the dam and the

surrounding area on a regular basis by a person familiar with
that specific dam is one of the most important factors in the
continuing safety of the dam. Reclamation's SEED (Safety
Evaluation of Existing Dams) Program provides for regular
formal inspections including visual inspections. The required
visual inspections are detailed in appendix B of the SEED
publication. An extremely valuable supplement to that
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
29
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.20
program is an awareness and alertness to apparent changes by
dam tenders and the instrument readers at the regular
instrument reading intervals. Suspicions of such visible
changes should promptly be reported.
None of the instrumentation described in this design standard
will detect an impending failure if the instrumentation is not
appropriately located. Visual awareness, therefore, becomes a
most vital factor. In many instances, a visual observation
appropriately reported on the field data forms, may serve to
explain reasons for anomalies in the instrument readings.
Principal items to watch for include:
-
Cracking of the embankment in any plane or direction

Cracking or landslide-type movements of the upstream and
downstream valley walls
Bulging of the lower portion of the embankment slopes,
the abutments, or valley walls
Subsidence of any portion of the crest
Sinkholes in the reservoir bottom or the upstream face
of the dam
New boils or springs or an increase in volume from a
spring in the downstream face of the dam, the abutments,
or the downstream valley walls or floor
A persistent vortex (whirlpool) in the reservoir that is
unrelated to any outlet works operation
Seepage water that is discolored or carrying soil
sediments
Unusual cracking in any concrete appurtenant structures
If any of these items or any other physical occurrence that is
not readily explainable is noted, the Structural Behavior and
Instrumentation Section should be contacted by telephone as
soon as possible. It may also be desirable to obtain
photographs at regular intervals of any distress noted. In
general, all maintenance and operations personnel at a dam
should be constantly alert for signs of distress.
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
30
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.21
DATA ACQUISITION, PROCESSING, AND REVIEW PROCEDURE

GENERAL
.21
Acquisition and processing of a vast amount of data are

necessary to maintain effective monitoring of Reclamation's
embankment dams. The specific goals of the processing and
review procedure are to provide for accurate and timely
evaluation of data relating to the safety of the facility [7].
DATA ACQUISITION
.22
Instrumentation data are normally obtained from instrument

readings and observations by water district or Reclamation
field personnel. These data are acquired on a specific
monitoring schedule which has been established for each
instrument type at each dam and is indicated on the dam's
current "Schedule for Periodic Readings" (L-23). In most
cases, instrumentation data are recorded manually on a field
data form and promptly transmitted to the Structural Behavior
and Instrumentation Section. A number of examples of field
data forms are given in reference [7]. Mail is the most
common transmittal method and is appropriate for non-urgent
situations involving lesser data qualities. Many dams in the
process of first reservoir filling or having extensive
instrumentation programs have their data transmitted using
terminals linked to the Denver Office CYBER computer.
Interactive use of the "GO" program allows data entry,
reduction, checking, and finally transmittal.
Other less common data acquisition methods include telephone
reporting of data, reporting of data by facsimile, use of
dataloggers for taking and storing readings, and fully
automated systems that take readings and transmit the data via
satellite or telephone.
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
31
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.23
DATA REVIEW
.23
It is advisable to perform engineering analyses for various

expected conditions before the conditions arise. Instrument
"alarm" levels can then be established based upon specified
safety criteria. The engineering analysis is accomplished by
first establishing a safety criteria and then determining what
reading of the instrument would have to be observed to reflect
the specified level of safety. Examples of safety criteria
for slope stability instrumentation may be:
Condition
Safety criteria

Design stability
Factor of safety = 1.2
Impending failure
Factor of safety = 1.0
Unacceptable
movement
Total movement > 1.0 inch (25 mm)

Movement velocity > 0.25 in/d (6 mm/d)
Movement acceleration > 0.01 in/d/d
(2.5 m/d2)

Instrument readings can then be compared to alarm levels set

to represent specified safety criteria to quickly understand
the performance and margin of safety existing in an embankment
dam.
During construction it is important that piezometer data be
evaluated as soon as they are received from the field. A
rapid buildup of pore pressure in either the embankment or
foundation during construction may indicate a potentially
dangerous condition, and remedial measures such as decreasing
rate of fill placement, temporarily discontinuing fill
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
32
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.23
placement or providing berms or flatter slopes may be required

if the pore pressures become too high. To assess the
stability of an embankment during construction in a general
way, piezometer pressures may be compared with predicted
pressure [2].
Piezometer data collected after construction should be used to
check the long-term stability of the embankment. Data
collected during the reservoir filling should be used to check
the embankment stability for the partial pool and steady
seepage conditions. Piezometer data collected following a
rapid lowering from maximum reservoir level should be used to
check stability under drawdown conditions. Piezometer data can
sometimes be analyzed to look for indications of piping, but
because piezometer data is localized data, it is an
unconservative approach to monitor for potential piping.
Data from earth pressure cells should be reduced and time
plots should be maintained for each pressure cell during and
after construction. When the pressure cell is below the water
table, both water and earth pressure act on the cell. The
water pressure on the cell should be determined from a
piezometer in the vicinity of the cell, and the effective
earth pressure should be computed for each measurement of
pressure. Analysis of data should include a comparison of
observed earth pressures with earth pressure assumed for the
design of the structure. For the comparison, observed loading
conditions should be selected that are similar to loadings
used in design. By such a comparison, the validity of the
design assumption and procedures can be checked. Also, these
data will be useful in the future design of similar structures
[4].
Embankment and structural measurement point data should be
thoroughly analyzed for indications of unusual or unexpected
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
33
EMBANKMENT DAMS
11.24
behavior. Large total movements, large differential
movements, and anomalous settlements that might be associated
with transportation of materials with seepage flows deserve
special attention and analysis.
POSSIBLE ACTIONS
.24
If no unusual circumstances or potential problems are detected

in the data itself or in the potential consequences of the
data, the information is plotted and stored for future
reference. These data are used for periodic preparation of
"Structural Behavior Reports" on each dam.
Should the potential for a serious problem be detected at a
dam, the regional and ACER (Assistant Commissioner Engineering and Research) management personnel are promptly
notified of the situation and appropriate actions are
determined and implemented. These actions might include such
measures as emergency lowering of the reservoir. Regardless
of the management decisions made, it is normal to continue
monitoring at a much increased monitoring frequency until such
time as the potential problems are considered to have been
appropriately resolved.
All phases of the process of data management, review, etc.,
are obviously of great importance in dam safety. However, it
must be stressed that none of the phases are of much
significance if the initial data acquisition phase is not
conducted in an accurate and timely manner by personnel who
understand the value and use of the data and possess a strong
interest in the future safety of the facilities. The
personnel collecting the data play a key role in the process
and should be appropriately trained because they are in the
ideal position to raise immediate concerns when significant
anomalies occur.
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
34
EMBANKMENT DAMS
APPENDIX
REFERENCES
TABLES
EXAMPLE
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
35
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
EMBANKMENT DAMS
36
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Appendix
REFERENCES
1.
Proceedings of the Conference on Construction Practices and

Instrumentation in Geotechnical Engineering, "Instrumentation
for Embankments and Embankment Dams," by Stanley D. Wilson and
P. Erik Mikkelsen, December 20-23, 1982.
2.
Corps of Engineers Manual EM 1110-2-1908, Part 1 of 2, titled

"Instrumentation of Earth- and Rock-Fill Dams (Groundwater and
Pore Pressure Observations)," August 31, 1971.
3.
"Foundation Instrumentation" by T. H. Hanna, Published by

Trans Tech Publications, First Edition, 1973.
4.
Corps of Engineers Manual EM 110-2-1908, Part 2 of 2, titled

"Instrumentation of Earth- and Rock-Fill Dams (Earth-Movement
and Pressure Measuring Devices),"
November 19, 1976.
5.
Design Standards No. 13 - Embankment Dams, Chapter 8 "Seepage Analysis and Control," U.S. Department of the
Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado
6.
"Earth Manual," Second Edition, U.S. Department of the

Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado
7.
"Embankment Dam Instrumentation Manual," U.S. Department of

the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, January
1987.
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
37
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
EMBANKMENT DAMS
38
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Appendix
TABLES
Table 1. - Pressure measuring devices

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Type
What is
Advantages
Disadvantages
measured
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Standpipe
piezometers
or well
point
Pore pressure
Simple. Reliable.
Long experience
record. No
elaborate terminal
panel needed.
Inexpensive.
Occasionally slow
response time. Pipe
and tubing must be
raised nearly
vertical, causing
them to be subject to
damage by
construction
equipment. Freezing
problems. Could
involve costly
drilling and related
problems.
Closed
hydraulic
system
Pore pressure
or total
pressure
Long experience
record. Rapid
response and less
prone to damage by
construction equipment
because readout tubes
can be installed
horizontally to
centralized monitoring
stations.
Location of terminal
well. Freezing and
corrosion problems.
Periodic de-airing
required. Maintenance
problems. Often
substantial losses of
instruments with time.
Complex flushing
procedure.
Pneumatic
system
Pore pressure
or total
pressure
Level of terminal
independent of tip
level. Rapid response.
No freezing problems.
Must prevent humid air

from entering tubing.
Shorter experience
record than hydraulic
system. Complex
reading procedure.
Tubing vulnerable
during construction to
damage; not effectively
repairable.
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
39
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Table 1
Table 1. - Pressure measuring devices - Continued

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Type
What is
Advantages
Disadvantages
measured
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Vibratingwire system
Pore pressure
or total
pressure
Resistance
strain gauge
system
Pore pressure
or total
pressure
Simple to read and

Sensitive to
maintain. Level of
temperature. Risk
terminal independent
of zero drift.
of tip level. Rapid
Sensitive to
response. Potential
barometric changes.
high sensitivity.
Vulnerable to
Suitable for automatic
lighting damage.
readout or data logger.
Frequency signal
permits data
transmission over long
distances. No freezing
problems. Can be used
to read negative pore
pressures. Less vulnerable
to construction damage.
Level of terminal
Risk of zero drift.
independent of tip
Sensitive to
level. Rapid
temperature,
response. Potential
moisture, splices, cable
high sensitivity. Suitlength, and changes
able for automatic readout. in connections that
No freezing problems.
would affect circuit
Can be used to measure
resistance. Not normally
negative pore
recommended for longpressures.
term installations.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
40
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Table 2. - Seepage measuring approaches

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Type
What is
Advantages
Disadvantages
measured
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Weir
Flow quantity
Simple. Reliable.
Long experience
record. Little
maintenance.
Some materials
transported with
flow may settle out in
front of the weir
allowing recognition of
the materials transport.
Significant head loss.

Requires a
fairly accurate estimate
of flow before the
appropriate weir is
selected. Non-standard
installations can
produce misleading data.
Parshall
flume
Flow quantity
Simple. Reliable.
Long experience
record. Little
maintenance. Small
head loss.
Insensitive to
velocity of approach,
degree of
submergence.
Cannot be used in
close-coupled
combination
structures consisting
of a turnout, control
and measuring device
because of length of
flume. Installation
requires high quality
workmanship involving
greater costs. Must
be built on a solid,
watertight
foundation.
Trapezoidal
flume
Flow quantity
Particularly useful in
measuring a potentially
large range of flows.
Commercially available
in precast units of
molded plastic.
Must be constructed
within watertight
materials.
Velocity
meter
Flow velocity
Useful in measuring
flows in unusual
situations.
Usually avoid
installation and
maintenance costs of
permanent structures.
Equipment easily
portable.
To derive flow
quantity, the crosssectional area of the
flow needs to be
determined. Lesser
accuracy and
sensitivity than
other approaches.
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41
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Table 2
Table 2. - Seepage measuring approaches - Continued
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Type
What is
Advantages
Disadvantages
measured
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Calibrated
container
devices
Flow quantity
Simple. Reliable for

fairly low flows.
Inexpensive.
Requires that the water

be in freefall.
Difficult and inaccurate
for all but very
low flows.
Thermotic
surveys
Ground
temperature
changes due
to groundwater flow
concentrations
Inexpensive.
Equipment is easily
portable. The system
can be automated.
Minimal maintenance
and environmental
impact. Data are for
an area rather than a
point.
Requires a
significant period
of monitoring before
conclusions can be
drawn. Significant
analysis required.
Self
potential
surveys
Electrical
current
anomalies due
to groundwater flow
concentrations
Inexpensive. Monitors
Requires noncomplex
a large area in detail.
geologic setting.
Effective up to a depth
Influenced by water
of about 1,000 feet.
chemistry. No longMay be used to map the
term monitoring
origins of seepage in
experience.
reservoir bottoms or
Significant
delineate seepage paths
interpretation
outside of the reservoir.
required, with different
interpretations possible.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
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EMBANKMENT DAMS
Table 3
Table 3. - Internal movement measuring devices

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Type
What is
Advantages
Disadvantages
measured
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Internal
vertical
movement
device
Vertical
movement in
the embankment.
Movement can
related to
interval.
experience
be
a specific
Long
record.
Cannot be installed
through a drill hole.
Must be installed
during construction.
Susceptible to
corrosion problems.
Relatively expensive
to install.
Foundation
baseplate
Vertical
movement due
to foundation
settlement.
Readily site
Yield a limited amount
adaptable. Rugged.
of information. May
Easy to install and
rust or develop other
read. Some types may be
maintenance problems.
installed through a drill
hole after construction.
Pneumatic
settlement
sensor
Vertical
movement in
the embankment
or foundation.
Construction interference
associated with
vertical standpipes
is eliminated.
Relatively long reading

time. Needs the
elevation of the
terminal reservoir
for each set of
readings. Limited
experience record.
Liquid reservoirs may
become frozen. Data
generally are not
sufficiently
accurate and sensitive
for monitoring small
movements.
Vibratingwire
sensor
Vertical
movement in
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
Easy reading.
Construction
interference
associated with
vertical standpipes
is eliminated.
43
Needs the elevation of

the terminal reservoir
for each set of
readings. Limited
experience record.
Liquid reservoirs may
become frozen. Accuracy
and sensitivity may not
be suitable for monitoring
small movements.
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Table 3
Table 3. - Internal movement measuring devices - Continued
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Type
What is
Advantages
Disadvantages
measured
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Inclinometer
(normal
installation)
Lateral
movement in the
embankment,
abutment, or
foundation.
Vertical movement
in the embankment
or foundation.
Location of shear
plane.
May be installed during

or after construction.
Reliable and accurate.
Adequate experience
record.
Significant degree of
specialized training
required for
monitoring personnel.
Settlement data can
only be obtained if
installed during
construction.
Inclinometer
(fixed
position)
Lateral
movement in
the embankment,
abutment, or
foundation.
Can be installed in
locations that later
become inaccessible.
Automatic readings
possible. Easy
to read.
Only selected points

along a drill hole
are measured. High
purchase and
installation costs.
Extensometers
Axial
displacement
between points
within an
embankment,
abutment, or
foundation.
Very accurate and

precise. Highly
sensitive. Can be
remotely read
electrically if
reference head is
inaccessible.
Careful reset of the

reference head may
be required if
range is exceeded
and reference head is
accessible.
Shear strip
Differential
(shear)
movements in
soil, rock,
or concrete.
Identify when and approx.

where a failure has
occurred. Can be
wired into an automated
system. Easy to read.
Relatively inexpensive.
Does not measure amount

or rate of movement
to indicate impending
failure.
Radiosonde
system
Deflection in
the embankment
Difficult and expensive

installation and
maintenance. Time
consuming to read.
Accuracy is uncertain.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
44
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Table 4
Table 4. - Surface movement measuring devices

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Type
What is
Advantages
Disadvantages
measured
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Tiltmeters
Rotational
movement of
the embankment,
soil, or rock
masses.
Lightweight. Compact.
Can be portable or
permanently
attached.
Translational movements
not monitored.
Embankment
measuring
points
(monuments)
Total vertical
and horizontal
movement of the
embankment
surface.
Inexpensive to install.
Simple. Reliable.
Can be installed at
any time.
Measurements, though infrequent,

can be labor intensive,
thus, a continuing
significant expense
is involved in
securing long-term
data. Expensive surveying
equipment may be required.
Structural
measuring
points
Total vertical
and horizontal
structural
movement.
Inexpensive.
Reliable.
Measurements, though infrequent,

are very labor intensive.
Expensive surveying
may be required.
Crack
measuring
devices
Relative or
total movement
of intact masses
on either side
of a crack.
Variety of approaches
available which can
be simple, inexpensive,
and reliable. Remote
readout possible.
Simple.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
45
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Table 5
Table 5. - Vibration measuring devices
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Type
What is
Advantages
Disadvantages
measured
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Strongmotion
earthquake
accelerographs
Acceleration time
histories;
velocities,
displacements,
and response
spectra can be
derived.
Can be placed in
strategic locations
away from, near, or
on an embankment
to measure the effects
and response of the
dam. Automatically
triggered when a preset
level is exceeded.
High reliability.
Simple operation.
Low maintenance.
Requires power source (a.c.

or solar) for charging
batteries, hardwire
interconnect
between units for
simultaneous triggering,
time code generator
for common time base.
Periodic site visits
for operational
checks and for
retrieval of
acceleration time
histories.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
46
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Appendix
EXAMPLE
I.
The Problem
An existing 100-foot (30-m) high, semipermeable embankment dam is

located in a wide but steep-sided river valley. Its purpose is
hydroelectric power generation. The community using the power will
expand within the next 5 years and will need to accommodate three
times as many users of electricity. The powerplant associated with
the embankment dam is being modified to meet the increased demand.
Peaking operations in the future will result in a rapid drawdown of
the reservoir that would lower the upstream stability of the
embankment below generally accepted factors of safety. However,
slope stability analyses show that the upstream slope should not
fail if the water level and pore pressures within the dam decrease
as expected during rapid drawdown due to the semipervious nature of
the fill. Therefore, it has been decided not to design any
additional stabilization features at the dam, but to monitor its
performance during peaking operations. Instrumentation needs to be
selected and laid out for this purpose.
II.
Analysis
Further stability analysis has identified a critical circular shear

surface encompassing the dam's full height (see fig. E-1). Because
there are no distinctively different boundary conditions that would
control the shape of this failure in three dimensions, one can
assume that the failure mass would be about as wide as it is long.
Outlines of possible locations of this failure mass are shown as
circles on the face of the embankment on figure E-2.
The slope stability analysis assumed that the water pressures
within the embankment would be hydrostatic and respond quickly to
the reservoir drawdown because the embankment is semipervious.
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
47
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Example
This assumption is shown on figure E-1. If the response is slower,
such that high excess pore pressures remain in the vicinity of the
critical failure surface when the reservoir reaches its lowest
point, failure may result. Therefore, it is important to verify
that the pore pressures drop during drawdown to at least the level
assumed and shown on figure E-1.
The instrumentation plan for this problem will serve two purposes.
The first purpose is to verify the pore water pressure assumptions
made for the analyses. Both the static water level within the
embankment and the effect that rapid drawdown has on it should be
verified. The second purpose of the instrumentation would be to
provide a warning if the critical failure mass is about to move.
This warning would allow for corrective measures (such as raising
the reservoir to buttress the slope, or decreasing the rate of
drawdown, or increasing the embankment's ability to resist
shearing) to be taken.
III.
Instrumentation Selection and Layout
Vibrating-wire-type piezometers will be used on two sections

through the dam to verify the pore water pressure assumptions made
in the slope stability analysis. Two of the piezometers will be
placed within the upstream portion of the embankment beneath the
reservoir. The vibrating-wire type are selected because they can
be read without having access to the top of the hole in which they
were placed and they should be free of lag time difficulties which
can be associated with open-standpipe piezometer installations.
Lag time effects may cause one to believe that high pore pressures
exist in a dam during drawdown when high water levels in a
standpipe piezometer are actually due to the slow drainage of water
out of the instrument. Because it is important to know the
embankment pore pressures as the reservoir is drawn down,
vibrating-wire piezometers are used to obtain accurate, real-time
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
48
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Example
data. The piezometers will be located in the zone of the

embankment where drawdown is expected to occur. Pore water
pressure under the upstream edge of the crest should be quite
indicative of the assumed rapid response to the reservoir level
change. Pore water pressures further upstream will also record the
pressures in the vicinity of where shearing would most likely
occur. Piezometers will be separated by bentonite seals in the
holes so that pressures at one instrument will not influence the
other. Two sections of piezometers provide the redundancy needed
to allow for cross checking. The location of the sections will be
controlled by the location of inclinometers as described in the
following paragraph.
Two holes will be drilled through the upstream portion of the dam
to install fixed-position inclinometers such that at least one
location will be within the potential slide mass. Because the
embankment dam is longer than the failure mass is wide, the exact
lateral location of the potential failure mass is not certain. The
two outside circles on figure E-2 show the limits within which the
failure masses may occur. The circles indicate possible locations
of the likely failure mass. In order to ensure that the
inclinometers would be located within the failure mass, wherever it
decided to fail, the least amount of drilling required would be one
inclinometer hole for each area of overlap of possible failure mass
locations. No failure at least as wide as what is expected could
avoid detection if inclinometers were located as shown on figure
E-2. Fixed position inclinometers were chosen because it is
necessary to continuously monitor for the possibility of rotational
movements deep within the embankment. Continuous monitoring is
required so that immediate action can be taken if movement is
observed. Rotational movements are expected because the material
is homogeneous, favoring no particular failure geometry.
Horizontal movements are not anticipated and would not be readily
observed by this system. These instruments are also able to
operate and be read even when submerged beneath the reservoir.
Measurements for the magnitude and direction of internal
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
49
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Example
displacements can be obtained from these instruments. One
instrument should be fixed in each hole below and two or three
should be placed within the anticipated failure mass. The number
of instruments placed in each hole should be minimized because of
their high cost. Horizontal and vertical positioning of the
instruments is controlled by a balance of strategic and economic
concerns.
Embankment surface measuring points will be spaced 100 feet apart
on four lines parallel to the dam centerline. One line will be
along the dam centerline. Another line will be in line with the
inclinometers and piezometers out on the upstream face. Another
line will be placed between the two lines just mentioned and a
fourth line will be placed on the downstream face as shown on
figure E-2. Consideration may be given for smaller spacing where
the slide mass is most likely to occur and measurements can easily
be taken. Fixed reference points should be installed at the end of
each line off of the dam in the rock of the abutments.
Measurements for surface deflections and settlements should be
obtained from these monuments.
IV.
Monitoring and Evaluation
After installation and before peaking operations begin, the

piezometers should be read monthly and all other instruments should
be read semiannually. The existing outlet works are capable of
drawing down the reservoir fast enough to simulate future peaking
operations. A phased test peaking program should be performed to
study the response of the embankment and check it with the response
that was assumed. This test should be conducted as soon as
possible after the instrumentation is installed so that
corrections, if necessary, can be accomplished without delaying the
actual peaking operations. One month before peaking operations
begin, all instruments should be read weekly. This should provide
an adequate set of base data. As peaking operations begin,
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
50
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Example
readings on all instruments should be obtained at both the high

water level and low water level until the maximum drawdown has been
achieved twice. Thereafter, for the first year, readings on all
instruments should be obtained biweekly. Visual observations
should also be recorded during this entire time period.
If pore water pressures are higher than those that were assumed in
the slope stability analysis, further analysis is required.
Decisions regarding the safety of the dam and the actions to take
due to higher than expected pore pressures will be based on the
stability analysis and the readings of the other instruments.
If any point within the embankment that is monitored by a movement
device shows total movement greater than 1.0 inch, or movement
velocity exceeds 0.25 inch per day (6 mm/d), or movement
acceleration exceeds 0.01 inch per day per day (2.5 m/d2), then
peaking operations should be curtailed and the possibility of
stabilization treatment should be considered. If curtailing
reservoir drawdown does not stop the embankment movement, then the
reservoir should be raised and stabilization treatment recommended.
This example is a simple demonstration of a minimal type of
instrumentation design. It is not complicated by geologic,
seismic, embankment material or any other uncertainties. It does
not have a budget. It is included in this standard as an example
of the relationship between engineering concepts and the selection
and placement of instruments. It emphasizes the fact that a valid
understanding of the engineering concepts involved is essential
before instrumentation to verify these concepts is selected.
DS-13(11)-8 - 7/1/90
51
Chapter
Example
Fig.
EMBANKMENT
E-l
LEGEND
I - Piezometer
hriticol
Failure Surface
Section
Figure
E-l.
- Stability
showing
pore pressure
surfaces,
and
DS-13(11)-8
- 7/l/90
A-A
and
B-B
section
for
example
assumptions,
critical
piezometer
locations.
52
problem
shear
DAMS
EMBANKMENT
DAMS
Chapter
Example
Fig.
E-2
LEGEND
1 -Piezometer
l -Inclinometer
A -Surface
48
-+A
Cwnstrem
Outline of Embonhmnt
Toe
Dam
Mline
of Wble
failure
Figure
E-2.
- Plan of example
embankment
dam showing
possible
locations
of slope
failure
and locations
of instrumentation.
DS-13
(11)
-8
7/l/90
53
Manument

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DESIGN STANDARDS

DESIGN STANDARDS NO. 13

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Deviations from Standard ..........................

PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

Verifiable Engineering Concepts ...................

SEEPAGE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

Verifiable Engineering Concepts ...................

Verifiable Engineering Concepts ...................

SURFACE MOVEMENT MEASURING DEVICES

Verifiable Engineering Concepts ...................

VIBRATION MEASURING DEVICES

Verifiable Engineering Concepts ...................

DATA ACQUISITION, PROCESSING, AND REVIEW PROCEDURE

The purpose of this design standard is to offer a practical

The usual factors or quantities which need to be monitored in

Verification of engineering concepts. - In order to

During the exploration phases of the project

During design to observe any changes in these

During construction to monitor the influence

During the subsequent life of the project to

Verification of suitability of new construction

Diagnosing the specific nature of an adverse event.

Verification of continued satisfactory performance.

Predictive Reasons. - It is important to be able to use

Legal Reasons. - Valid instrumentation data can be

Research Reasons. - In order to better understand the

construction techniques, improved and innovative design

Internal erosion caused by excessive seepage

Loss of integrity of the core due to differential

Deterioration and clogging of drainage systems,

Longitudinal cracking due to differential

Overtopping of the embankment due to unusually high

Settlement or instability caused by earthquake

Instrumentation design within the Geotechnical Engineering and

This standard will be revised periodically as its use and the

The problem of determining the minimum instrumentation for the

Additional options for installing instruments are

Specific problems such as instability, seepage,

Many old dams were built using design, construction, and

The minimum instrumentation for an embankment dam should

INSTRUMENT SELECTION AND LAYOUT

Each damsite is unique and the designer must evaluate and

conditions, use of the data, and capabilities of available

SAFETY EVALUATION OF EXISTING DAMS

Reclamation's dam safety work consists of two fundamental

PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

Ground-water Levels and Pore Pressure Observations. 1.

Regular conditions. - The free ground-water level,

Irregular conditions. - When the pore water

Artesian pressure. - Artesian pressures are

Induced pore water pressure. - Pore water

Partially Saturated Soils. 1. Below ground-water level. - Soils below the

Gas may also be expelled, trapped under pressure, and/or

Pore Water Pressures Associated With Dams. - During

Time Lag in Ground-water Observations. - When pore water

Total Earth Pressures. 1.

General. - This section is concerned with the

Measurement of dynamic pressures. - The civil

Measurement of normal and shear stresses. - For

Principal stresses. - In many foundation problems

Rigid Boundary Earth Pressure