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of a material.
The
specimen is held in self aligning grips and is
subjected to a
gradually increasing tensile load, the beam
must be maintained
in a floating condition by movement of the
jockey weight as the
oil pressure to the straining cylinder is
increased. An
extensometer fitted across the specimen
gives extension readings
as the load is applied.
Percentage elongation and percentage
contraction of area are
measures of a materials ductility. Ultimate
tensile stress is a
measure of a materials strength.
Hardness Test
Impact Test
This test is useful for determining
differences in materials due
to heat treatment, working and casting, that
would not be
otherwise indicated by the tensile test. It
does not give accurately
a measure of a material's resistance to
impact.
A notched test piece is gripped in a vice and
is fractured by
means of a swinging hammer . After the
specimen is
fractured the hammer arm engages with a
pointer which is
carried for the remainder of the swing of the
arm. At the
completion of the hammer's swing the
pointer is disengaged and
accurately obtained.
Brittle Fracture, is a fracture in which there
is no evidence of
plastic deformation prior to failure. It can
occur in steels whose
temperature has been lowered, the steel
undergoes a transition.
Creep test
Creep may be defined as the slow plastic
deformation of a
material under a constant stress. A material
may fail under creep
conditions at a much lower stress and
elongation than would be
ascertained in a straight tensile test. Hence
tests have to be
conducted to determine a limiting creep
stress with small creep
rate.
The creep test consists of applying a fixed
load to a test piece
Bend Test
This is a test which is carried out on boiler
plate materials and
consists of bending a straight specimen of
plate through 180
degrees around a former. For the test to be
satisfactory, no
cracks should occur at the outer surface of
the plate.
Non-Destructive Tests
Methods of Detecting Surface Defects e.g.
Cracks.
1. A visual examination, including the use of
a microscope or
hand lens.
2. Penetrant testing.
Penetrant liquids must have a low viscosity
in order to find
their way into fine cracks.
Induction Hardening
This is a method of surface hardening steels
by the use of
electrical energy.
a high frequency a.c. electromagnetic field is
shown heating up the surface of the
components to be hardened
by hysteresis and eddy currents, after
heating the surface is
quenched.
Spheroidising Anneal
Spheroidising of steels is accomplished by
heating the steel to
a temperature between 650" to 700C
(below lower critical line)
when the pearlitic cementite will become
globular. This process
is employed to soften tool steels in order that
they may be easily
(approx).
Brazing and Soldering processes are similar
in that the filler
metal must (1) wet the parent metal (2) be
drawn into the joint
by capillary action. Brazing filler metals are
alloys of copper,
nickel, silver and aluminium. Soldering
filler metals are lead &
tin or aluminium & zinc alloys.
A flux is used to dissolve or remove oxides,
in the case of
brazing, borax is used, for soldering; resin in
petroleum spirit.
GAS CUTTING
The cutting of irons and steels by means of
oxy-acetylene
equipment is a very common cutting
process. When cutting, for example steel
plate, the plate is first preheated
Calorific Value
Is the heating value from the complete
combustion of unit
mass of fuel, i.e. MJ/kg, kJ/kg. etc.
Approximate heat energy values of fuels are:
Coal 34 MJ/kg.
Fuel Oil 42 MJ/kg.
The value quoted is the higher calorific
value in every case in
preference to the lower value. The higher
calorific value includes
the heat in water vapour formed from water
as the products of
combustion are cooled, vapours condensed,
and hence latent
heat becomes re-available for heat
utilisation.
The lower calorific value is more realistic,
from the boiler
avoided.
If the boiler has to be blown down to the
sea, allow as much
time as possible after shut down before
commencing. The ships
side blow down cock must be opened first
then the blown down
valve on the boiler can be gradually opened
up.
Our senses tell us when the blow down
process is coming to a
close, the noise level falls and the pressure
will be observed to be
low. Care must be taken to ensure that no
cold sea water gets
into the boiler, the boiler when empty of
water would still
contain steam which could condense and
cause a vacuum
condition, this in turn could assist the entry
of cold sea water.
of emergency.
The main valve block contains three groups
of valves (1) Two
rudder shock (relief) valves (2) Four pump
isolating valves (two
valves for each pump A and B) (3) Four
combined ram cylinder
isolating and bypass valves connecting to
each cylinder.
When a pump is not in use it is prevented
from motoring and
relieved of a starting load by a spring loaded
discharge valve.
This valve is kept in a bypass position until
the pump is started
up and its discharge pressure is sufficient to
move the valve. The
bypass connection is then automatically
closed and the isolating
connection opened, by valve movement, so
connecting the pump
General Vibration
There are three modes of vibration,
transverse, longitudinal
(axial) and torsional.
Every 'vibration problem reduces to the
solution of an
equation of forces:
Inertia + Damping + Spring + Exciting = 0
Each force may be modified, i.e. changing
the size to alter
inertia, providing oil type dashpots to amend
damping, altering
shaft stiffness to vary spring force and
varying amplitude or
frequency of an engine exciting force.
Transverse Vibration
This occurs in the athwartships direction
with large
reciprocating engines. It is' usually due to
cylinder pressure
shaped pads extending part or all the way round the surface, this
principle being utilised in tunnel and thrust bearings.
The pads are prevented from moving circumferentially but are
free to tilt and incline to the direction of motion. Such tilt allows
a self adjusting oil film wedge giving full film lubrication. This
film fully carries the load and allows pressures of 30 bar and
shows a coefficient of friction value of 0.003.
Certain definitions and general points are now considered:
Scuffing
Breakdown of the oil film between surfaces causes
instantaneous microscopic tack welding of a surface asperity
nature. Further movement causes tearing out of the material and
the resultant condition is known as scuffing. Most liable to be
found when the lubrication film is difficult to maintain, for
example on turbine gear teeth and in I.C. engine cylinder liners.
Extreme Pressure Lubricant
Special additives to the oil to maintain oil film under most
severe load conditions and where film is difficult to maintain.
Molybdenum disulphide (moly slip) additive is often used. Such
lubricants are used to prevent scuffing.
Pitting
More a fatigue or a corrosion fatigue phenomena, usually the
result of too high contact pressures giving minute cracking at
contact surfaces.
Emulsion
Oil which is contaminated or has deteriorated in service will
not separate easily from water and may cause an emulsion, in
whole or in part. Emulsification is associated with precipitation
of sludge at an increasing rate, such sludges are formed from
accretion of resins and ashphaltenes. The oil should have a good
demulsibility when new and should retain this in service.
Oxidation
A bearing oil subject to oxidation due to a high 'heat load' on
the oil in circulation forms products in the oil which include
polar compounds, for example the fatty acids such as oleic in
which the acidic group is polar. Severe shaft and bearing
corrosion can result. Polar substances have a molecular
structure such that one part of the molecule is electrically
negative with respect to the other part. This polar form tends to
disperse one fluid in the other and stabilise the emulsion and
tends to favour' orientation at interfaces. Oxidation and
corrosion products such as oxides of iron etc., stabilise
emulsions. Anti-oxidation additives or inhibitors restrict polar
molecule formation. Pure mineral oils normally have a high
resistance to oxidation.
Lacquering
Oxidation and corrosion products plus contamination
products lead to deposit. On high temperature regions hard
deposits form thin lacquer layers on pistons or heavier deposits
for example on upper piston ring grooves .of I.C. engines.
Lacquer varnishes also form on piston skirts. On cooler surfaces
sludge of a softer nature is more liable to be deposited.
Shipboard Lubricating Oil Tests
Samples of oil for analysis should be taken from the main
supply line just before entry into the engine since it is the
condition of the oil being supplied to the engine that is of the
greatest importance.
Alkalinity Test
A drop of indicator solution is placed on to blotting paper and
this is followed by a drop of sample oil placed at the centre of
the drop of absorbed indicator. A colour change takes place in
the area surrounding the oil spot, if it is red-acid, if blue/greenalkaline,
if yellow/green-neutral.
Dispersiveness, Contamination and Water
A drop of oil is placed on to blotting paper and the shape
colour and distribution of colour of the spot gives indication of
oil condition. An irregular shape indicates water is present.
A uniform distribution of contaminants indicates good
dispersiveness. If they are concentrated at the centre of the oil
spot, dispersiveness is poor. If the colour of the spot is black,
heavy contamination is the cause.
Viscosity Test
Four equal sized drops of oil, one used, one of the same grade
unused, one with viscosity higher than and one with viscosity
lower than the unused oil are placed in a line along the edge of
an aluminium plate.
When sufficient time has elapsed so that they are all at room
temperature the plate is inclined from the horizontal and when
one of the oils has run down about 7.5 cm the plate is returned to
the horizontal.
By comparing the distances travelled by the sample of used oil
with the three reference oils an estimate of viscosity is possible.
Obviously, if the distances travelled by used and unused oils of
the same grade are equal there is no change in viscosity.
If the viscosity is reduced this could be due to dilution by
distillate fuel. Heavy contamination due to carbon and
oxidation would cause the viscosity to increase, as would
contamination by heavy fuel oil. If variations in viscosity of
30% from initial viscosity are encountered the oil should be
renewed.
A simple viscosity test of a similar nature to that described
above known as the 'Mobil Flostick' test uses equal quantities of
used and unused oils of the same grade in a testing device. Equal
capacity reservoirs are filled with the oils which are allowed to
reach room temperature, then the device is tilted from the
horizontal and the oils flow down parallel channels. When the
reference oil reaches a reference mark, the device is quickly
returned to the horizontal and the distance travelled by the used
oil in comparison to the unused oil gives a measure of viscosity.
Crackle Test for Water in Oil
If a sample of oil in a test tube is heated, any water droplets in
the sample will cause a crackling noise due to the formation of
steam bubbles-this test gives indication of small amounts of
water being present. A simple settling test would be sufficient to
detect large quantities of water in the oil.
Corrosion of White Metal Bearings
White metals are tin based, i.e. they have a larger proportion
of tin in the alloy than any other metal. A typical composition
could be 86% tin, 8.5% antimony, 5.5% copper.