CAIRO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
AEROSPACE DEPARTMENT
THIRD YEAR STUDENTS
FIRST TERM

Course Title: AERODYNAMICS (A)

Course Code: AER 301 A
PROF. Dr. MOHAMED MADBOULI ABDELRAHMAN

AIRPLANE
ANATOMY

COURSE OBJECTIVES

External Aerodynamics

Airplane Parts Definitions

Forces on an Airplane

Airplane Components and Parts

pylons: attach
engines to aircraft

ailerons: provide
roll control

elevators: pitch
control

wings: provide lift

horizontal stabilizer:
longitudinal (pitch) stability

flaps: provide additional lift

(trailing edge)

spoilers: disrupt flow

(reduce lift & increase
drag)

Airplane Components and Parts

nacelles: enclose engines

vertical stabilizer (fin): lateral

(yaw) stability

fuselage: envelope around

payload and crew

rudder: yaw control

nose gear: ground steering
main gear: support aircraft
weight on ground

Coordinate system
Z-axis
Y-axis

X-axis

In Aerodynamic analysis the coordinate system is defined by:

x-axis (longitudinal axis) positive to the rear
y-axis (lateral axis) positive to the right
z-axis (vertical axis) positive in the upward direction

Aircraft Configuration / Arrangement

Wing location
Dihedral
Wing plan-form
Tail arrangement
General Dynamics F-16

AVRO RJX regional jet

Fairchild Republic A-10

Wing location

high wing

mid-wing

low wing

Dihedral angle
Dihedral angle
is the angle
between a
horizontal plane
(containing the root
chord) and a plane
midway between
the upper and the
lower surfaces of
the wing

Dihedral
> 0
Flat
= 0
Anhedral
< 0

Wing planform

elliptic

rectangular

tapered

swept

delta

Tail arrangement

conventional

T-tail

triple-tail

H-tail

V-tail

Definition of airfoil geometry

Z-axis

X-axis

Wing Geometry
The figure shows a typical straight, tapered wing plan-form
Z-axis

X-axis

Y-axis

 Sweep angle
is the angle between the quarter chord line and
the perpendicular to the root chord

Twist angle
is the angle of profile chord with the wing fixed
(x-y) plane

Dihedral angle
is the angle between a horizontal plane
(containing the root chord) and a plane midway
between the upper and the lower surfaces of the
wing

Geometric Construction of the

mean geometric chord (m.g.c.)

Major Aircraft Parameters

Wing area [ft2], S or Sw
Plan-form or projected
area

Wing span [ft], b

tip to tip distance

Aspect ratio, AR
wing shape

b2
AR
S

Major Aircraft Parameters

Wing loading [lb/ft2],
W0/S
measure of wing size

Wing chord [ft], c

leading edge to
trailing edge distance
at tip, ctip
at root, croot

Major Aircraft Parameters

Taper ratio, l
wing shape

ctip
croot

Mean aerodynamic chord

[ft], cmac
aerodynamic average

2
cmac croot 1 l

3
1 l

Wing Geometry

Wing Geometry

Wing Geometry

FINITE WING
THEORY

The physical mechanism for generating lift

on the wings is the existence of high
pressure on the bottom surface and a low
pressure on the top surface.

Low pressure
High pressure

As a result of this pressure unbalance, for a

finite wing, the air on the lower surface tends
to flow toward the wing tips and the air on the
upper surface tends to flow toward the wing
root.

This phenomena creates a circulatory flow

motion downstream the wing and a trailing
vortex is created at each wing tip.

This phenomena is the main difference

between finite wing and infinite wing (airfoil).
For finite wing, the flow near wing tips
tends to curl around the tip, being forced
from the high- pressure just underneath the
tips to the low- pressure region on top.

3-D Flow on the Wing

Due to the span wise
component of flow from
tip toward to root, the
streamlines over the
top surface are bent
toward root. In contrast,
the streamlines over
bottom surface toward
tip.
A trailing vortex is
created at each wing
tip.

3-D Flow on the Wing

3-D Flow on the Wing

What Happens on the Wing:

Downwash
upper surface flow (inboard)

lower surface flow (outboard)

Bottom
View

The pressure imbalance at the wingtip sets up a span-wise

component of flow, strongest at the tips, weakest in the center.
Downwash
TOP SURFACE
(relative low pressure)

(relative high pressure)

BOTTOM SURFACE

Front
View

Flow visualization of the trailing

vortices down stream the wing

The main effect of this vortex wake is to produce a downwash field on

the wing. This downwash field has several very significant effects

Flow visualization of the trailing

vortices down stream the wing

Down wash or induced velocity

These trailing vortices induce a small downward
component of flow velocity.
This downward component is called downwash or
induced velocity.
Effective free stream direction
in vicinity of the wing

Downwash

Effect of Downwash
Effective angle of attack
eff i
The tilting backward of the lift vector induce a drag,
called induced drag Di which is a type of pressure
drag.
Di
CD cd CD ,i where CD ,i
q S
Total drag = Profile drag (2-D)+ Induce drag,
therefore

Downwash effects
Redrawing the lift vector perpendicular to the new local
flow direction gives components perpendicular and
parallel to the free stream velocity. The parallel
component is drag due to lift or induced drag.
i
Chord line

Lift

Induced Drag, D

V
Local flow
direction

eff
Parallel to
chord line

Downwash effects
The presence of this downwash has two important effects on
the local airfoil section.
1) Decrease the angle of attack eff = - i where eff is the
effective angle of attack and then decrease the lift force.
2) Create a drag called induced drag Di or drag due to
Lift
lift.

Chord line

Induced Drag, Di

V
Local flow
direction

eff
Parallel to
chord line

Effect of Downwash
Effect of downwash
Wing-tip vortices
downstream of the wing
induce a small component of
air velocity, called downwash
which is denoted by the
symbol w.
Downwash causes inclining
the local relative wind in the
downward direction.

Standing on the airfoil you will feel that the flow is

approaching you at an angle of attack of eff

Induced Drag
Consequences of wingtips:
Reduced lift
Increased drag

Induced drag will be greatest when the pressure

difference between upper and lower surfaces is
greatest
High angles of attack
Takeoff and landing

Induced drag will be zero when there is no

pressure difference (i.e. at zero lift)

Finite Wing Analysis

Before study the analysis of the finite wing we
must study some important features of flows with
Vorticity.

1) Vortex line
2) Vortex surface
3) Vortex tube
4) Vortex filament

Finite Wing Analysis

Vortex line is a line whose tangent at each
point is in the direction of the Vorticity vector
at that point.

Finite Wing Analysis

Vortex surface is a
surface formed by
an arbitrary line
AB in the flow
field and the
vortex
lines
passing through
that line.

Finite Wing Analysis

Vortex tube is a tube formed by a vortex
surface with A&B coincides

A
B

Finite Wing Analysis

Vortex filament is a vortex tube of infinitesimal
cross sectional area.

Vortex Filament
The vortex filament can be curved of finite length.
The strength of the vortex filament is defined as the
circulation taken about any path enclosing the filament and is
a constant value
A segment of the vortex filament dl induces a velocity dV at
a point P equal to

dl r

( Biot Sa var t Law )

dV
4 r 3

Straight Vortex Filament

dV
4

dl r

r 3

Application of the Biot-Savart Law

to a straight vortex filament as shown in figure below gives
B dl r sin
V
where dl sin rd
3
4
r

V
4

V
4

d
A r where r sin h
B

sin d

A h 4h cos A cos B
B

where V is perpendicular to the plan of r and dl

A

dl

Straight Vortex Filament

V
4

sin d

A h 4h cos A cos B
B

(cos 1 )
4h

A = & B =
A = & B=

A = 0 & B =

4h

2h

If the vortex
filament is of
semi infinite
length
If the vortex
filament is of
infinite length

Helmholtz vortex theorem

The flow past a finite wing may represented as the
flow past a certain vortex sheet , part of this sheet is
a bound vortex and the rest is a free vortex (horse
shoe vortex)

Prandtls Classical Lifting-Line Theory

The flow field about a wing is similar to that caused by
a horseshoe vortex system.
The wing can be replaced by a horseshoe vortex system
The system consists of a bound vortex and two free
vortices.

Prandtls Classical Lifting-Line Theory

The bound vortex induces no velocity along itself, however,
the two free vortices contribute to the downward velocity
along the bound vortex.

Modified Lifting Line Theory

Lifting-line theory
Instead of a single
horseshoe vortex, infinite
number of horseshoe
vortices with a vanishing
small strength d are
superimposed to form the
bound vortices a single
line which is called lifting
line.

Modified Lifting Line Theory

According to Helmholtz theorem, a bound vortex
does not change strength between two sections
unless a vortex filament equal in strength to the
change joins or leaves the vortex tube

Free trailing
vortices

Lifting Line Theory

Lifting Line Theory

Assumptions:
1) The bound vortex sheet is approximated by a single
bound vortex line (assimilation of the wing as a line vortex)
2) The bound vortex line is parallel to y-axis
3) The surface of the free vortex sheet is in the (x-y) plane
and (z=0) plane
4) Thin airfoil theory (or 2D experimental results) is used to
determine the local vorticity at a section.
The idea of the lifting line theory :
1) Use the 2-D flow results for each section
2) Correct these results by taking the influence of the
trailing vortex wake and its downwash

Lifting Line Theory

From the 2-D result we have C L a0 2 D 0
where a0 is local lift slope and 0 is the zero lift angle
of attack of the airfoil section.
From the definition of lift in 2-D flow
1
L V V2 ( c 1 )C L
2
2
CL
a0 2 D 0
V c

2D

For infinite wing

2
0
a0V c

2 D geom

Lifting Line Theory

For finite wing the angle of attack 2D used must
be reduced through the effects of downwash so that
the effective angle of attack is the geometric angle of
attack geom. minus the downwash angle (or the
induced angle of attack) i

effec geom i
where
wi
1
i tan i

V V

4 ( y )
b / 2
b/ 2

Lifting Line Theory

The induced angle of attack i
wi
1
i tan i

V V

4 ( y )
b / 2
b/ 2

Y-axis

Z-axis

wi
d

V
X-axis

Vortex filament
of strength d

Lifting Line Theory

From

effec geom i

2
1

geom 0
a0V c 4V

Geometric
angle of
attack

Effective
angle of
attack

b/ 2

b / 2

/ d
d
( y )

Induced
angle of
attack
(3D effect)

Lifting Line Theory

b/ 2

2
1
d
0

a0V c

4V

/ d
d
( y )

b / 2

To solve this integral-differential equation, we can assume

the circulation distribution in the following general series
N

2bV An sinn
n 1

where N is the total number of series

coefficients which can be taken as we
desire for accuracy

and
the
independent
b
b

cos

&
y

cos 1
variable is related by y
2
2
or as
Using these definitions, the governing equation can be written as
4b N
1
0
An sinn

a0 c n 1

nA
n 1

cos n
d
cos cos 1

Lifting Line Theory

Using
The
governing
equation
can be
written as

cos n
sinn 1
d
cos cos 1
sin 1

N
4b N
sinn

0
A
sin
n

nA
n

n
a0 c n 1
sin
n 1

or

0 sin An n sin sinn

n 1

where
In general

ca 0
4b

monoplane
equation

with c is the local chord

2bV A1 sin A2 sin 2 A3 sin 3 A4 sin 4 ......

If we consider only symmetric loading distributions, only the odd terms of the
series need to be considered as

2bV A1 sin A3 sin 3 A5 sin 5 A7 sin7 ......

Lifting Line Theory

L
CL

q S

The lift coefficient

b/ 2

dy

b / 2

q S

with

2bV An sinn

Integrate and
using the
following
identities

The lift coefficient

n 1

and

b
cos
2

sinn sinm d

for

nm

for

nm

sinn sinm d

C L A1 AR where

b2
AR
S

Lifting Line Theory

The induced drag

Di L sin i L i

Chord line

Where i is the induced angle of

attack defined by
1
i
4V

with

d / d
d

( y )
b / 2

2bV An sinn
n 1

and

Induced Drag, Di

b/ 2

Lift

Local flow
direction

b
cos
2

eff

&

Parallel to
chord line

b
cos 1
2

we can prove that

and
cos n
i nAn
d using

cos cos 1
0
1

The induced angle of attack

cos n
sinn 1
d

0 cos cos 1
sin 1

i nAn

sinn
sin

Lifting Line Theory

The induced drag coefficient
C Di

V S

b/ 2

2b 2
i dy

S
b / 2

sinn i sin d

where i is the induced angle of attack

The induced drag coefficient
C Di

2b 2

nA

i nAn

sinn
sin

Am sinn sinm d
0

sinn sinm d

Integrate and
using the
following
identities

for

nm

for

nm

sinn sinm d

The induced drag coefficient

C Di

b
S

C
2
nAn 2 AR 1

2
L

An
n

A

n 2
1

Lifting Line Theory

L

Rolling moment
M x yL where L V dy

Change y to and substitute with

we can show that

b
b

M x V cos 2bV An sin n

sin d
2
2

After simplifications we can show that

M x V2

Rolling moment
Rolling moment
coefficient

b3
4

A sinn 2 sin cos d

n

Mx
CMx

V2 b 3
8

A2

MR

AR A2

2
0.5 V S ( b / 2 )
2

Lifting Line Theory

Yawing moment
M z yDi

where

Di

Di L i

Change y to and substitute with

we can show that
b 3 V2
Mz
2

nA

sinn Am sinm cos d

After simplifications we can show that

Yawing moment

M z V2

b3
8

2 n 1A

An 1

Yawing moment coefficient

CMz

Mz

AR 2 n 1An An 1

2
0.5 V S ( b / 2 )
2

Finite Wing
Types of problems
Design
problem
Given the load
distribution (or
circulation) along
the span of the wing
Required the
chord distribution
and the angle of
attack
(Straight forward
solution of the G.E.)

Performance
problem
Given the chord
distributions of the
wing and the angle of
attack along the span
Required the
aerodynamic
characteristics of the
wing
(Numerical solution
of the G.E.)

Optimization
problem
Minimum drag
required
Required the
geometry of the wing
to give minimum
drag

Lifting Line Theory

Design problem
Given the load distribution along the span (assume elliptic distribution)
0

2y
1

change the variable

b
y cos
2

0 sin compare with 2bV A1 sin A2 sin 2 ...

Then

A1 0 / 2bV

and

A2 A3 A4 .... 0

Calculation of the chord distribution along the span. Using the

monoplane equation
N

0 sin An n sin sinn with

n 1

We can
prove that

A1 sin / 0 A1

ca 0
4b

Lifting Line Theory

Design problem
c c0 sin

After simplifications we can prove that

where c0 is the root chord of the wing and given by

c0

2 0

0
a0V

2 bV

Then for elliptic loading and using same airfoil (same a0 and same 0)
and also keeping the same geometrical angle of attack along the
span; the required wing is an elliptic wing, with the following
aerodynamic characteristics;
2
C
2 0
a0 0
L
C L A1 AR

a \ & C Di
AR
c0V
1 a0 / AR
symmetric wing and symmetric loading

CM x CMz 0

Elliptic Lift Distribution

Induced drag coefficient

C D ,i

C L2

AR

which states that CD,i is proportional to the square of CL and

inversely proportional to AR.
For an elliptical lift distribution, the chord must vary elliptically
along the span; that is, the wing planform is elliptical.
Another solution is to have a non elliptical planform put the setting
angle of each airfoil, with respect to the free stream, is varied along
the span (twisted wing)

Elliptic Lift Distribution

Lift varies along the wing span with zero values at the
wing tips and value in the middle
Lift may be approximated by an elliptic distribution

Elliptical Wing Plan-form

The Super-marine Spitfire and

Republic P-47 Thunderbolt Fighter
Aircraft of World War II Both Had
Elliptical Wing Plan-forms

Lifting Line Theory

Optimization problem
To obtain minimum drag the value of defined by the following
equations must be zero
C Di

C L2
1

AR

An
n
A

n 2
1
N

with

This condition is satisfied when the wing has an elliptic wing shape
and for symmetrical flight has an elliptic loading
Lift Per Unit Span

-b/2

+b/2

Finite Wing
Tapered Wing

Performance problem
Example

The geometry of a
trapezoidal wing is illustrated in the
figure. The wing, which is un-swept at
the quarter chord, is composed of
NACA 65-210 airfoil sections across
the span (a0 = 2 , 0 = 1.2). Since
the wing is untwisted, the geometric
angle of attack is the same at all spanwise positions. The aspect ratio (AR) is
9. The taper ratio (i.e. ct /cr) is 0.4.
Compute the lift coefficient CL,
induced drag coefficient CDi , local lift
coefficient Cl , for = 4

The monoplane equation

N

For this symmetric problem

take N = 8 for all the wing.
The problem now is to
determine the four coefficients
A1, A3 , A5 , A7

0 sin An n sin sinn where

n 1

ca 0
4b

Performance problem
If we divide the half span by four partitions as ( = 22.5, 45.0, 67.5, 90.0) then
the monoplane equation can be evaluated

For = 22.5 0.00386 = 0.18897 A1 + 0.66150 A3 + 0.86686 A5 + 0.44411 A7

For = 45.0 0.00921 = 0.60150 A1 + 0.80450 A3 1.00752 A5 1.21000 A7
For = 67.5 0.01611 = 1.03101 A1 0.57407 A3 0.72100 A5 + 2.09600 A7
For = 90.0 0.02263 = 1.24933 A1 1.74800 A3 + 2.24605 A5 2.74531 A7
The solution of these 4 equations gives
A1 = 0.016459 , A3 = 0.000073218 , A5 = 0.00085787 , A7 = 0.000096964

The values of at these 4 stations are

=22.5 = 0.00711 , =45 = 0.0111 , =67.5 = 0.01475 , =90 = 0.0173
The local lift coefficient (as 2D analysis) at the 4 stations are
Cl =22.5 = 0.4028 , Cl =45 = 0.4882 , Cl =67.5 = 0.483 , Cl =90 = 0.437

The total lift coefficient CL= 0.4654

The induced drag coefficient CDi=0.00776

3-D Effects on Lift

cl and CL

C l a0 0

Airfoil

cl
C

a0 0
CL
1 a0 / AR

Wing

Notice the slope is decreased for the wing and the zero lift
angle of attack is unchanged.

Lift Per Unit Span

Non-Elliptic (General) lift

distribution
CL2

eAR

Define span efficiency factor e

C D ,i
Note that e=1 for the elliptical lift distribution.
Elliptical lift distribution yields the minimum induced drag .

where, CD0 is the zero-lift profile drag coefficient of the wing, e is

the span efficiency factor and eo is the Oswald's efficiency factor.

Span Efficiency Versus Oswald

Efficiency
Span Efficiency from lifting line theory:
e

2
2 AR 4 AR 2 (1 tan 2 t max )

where tmax is the sweep angle of the line of airfoil

maximum thicknesses on the wing
eo is the Oswalds efficiency factor, given
by:

e depends on wing geometry while e0

requires knowledge of drag polar as well

N.B. In the figure CDp = CD0

Total Drag
Total drag now has two components
Profile drag (skin friction + pressure)
Induced drag

In coefficient form:
CL2
CD
cd
e AR
Total Pr ofile Induced

Total Drag
CD

Total
Induced Drag
Pressure Drag
Skin Friction Drag
CL

Calculating 3-D Lift

and Drag Coefficients
C L

cl

57.3cl

eAR
C L incomp C L ( L 0 )
CL

C Lin co m p
2
1 M

C L2
C D ,i
eAR
C D c d C Di

Find 3-D lift curve slope (with

cl 0.1 /deg from 2-D)
Find 3-D lift coefficient
L=0 from 2-D chart)

(with

Correct for compressibility

Find induced drag coefficient

C L2
c d
eAR

Find total drag coefficient

(with cd from 2-D chart)

Verification of Wing Theory (a)

Verification of Wing Theory (b)

For the same CL:

AR

CL
AR 5

AR1 15 & CD

AR

C DAR5

2
CL

AR1 15

Lift of the Whole Aircraft

Wing Contribution:
1. Use the lift curve slope equation from the lifting line theory:
cl

C L

57.3cl
1
eAR

2. With the empirical estimation of e:

e

2
2 AR 4 AR 2 (1 tan 2 t max )

3. Use the absolute angle of attack to calculate the lift:

C L incomp C L a
CL

C Lin co mp
2
1 M

a L 0

Measuring 3-D Effects:

Aspect Ratio
2
b
AR
S

Aspect Ratio (AR):

Note: AR = b/c for rectangular wings.

High AR

Low AR

Typical Values
Fighters: 2-5
Transports: 6-10
Gliders:
10-15

As AR increases, 3-D effects are limited, flow is approximately 2-D

Effect of Aspect Ratio

Minimizing Induced Drag

High Aspect Ratio

Minimizing Induced Drag

Winglets

Minimizing Induced Drag

Elliptical Plan-form

Note: Tapering and twisting the wing will achieve the

same result at the design lift coefficient.

Why Winglets?
Equivalent to span extension w/o increased wingspan
NASA B-727 Wingtip Vortex Test Flight
Reduces wingtip vortices
Reduces drag

Learn more about winglets:

http://www.airspacemag.com/AS
M/Mag/Index/2001/AS/htww.html

END OF FINITE
WING THEORY