Actuators

o Hardware devices that convert a controller command signal into a change in

a physical parameter
o An actuator is a transducer because it changes one type of physical quantity
into some alternative form
o An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command signal, so an
amplifier may be required to provide sufficient power to drive the actuator

Types of Actuators
Electric
o Electric motors
o Solenoids
o Electromechanical relays
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kt-4jJvYvzI

Hydraulic
o Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command signal
Pneumatic
o Use compressed air as the driving force

Electric motors
DC motors
o Common type: DC servomotor
AC motors
o Synchronous motors
o Induction motors
Stepper motors
Linear motors

A Rotating Electric Motor

(a) Typical configuration and (b) diagram illustrating its operation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAtPHANEfQo

DC motors
Why using DC motors?
o

convenience using of direct current

o torque-speeds relationships
Torque Formula = ?

DC motors
A DC servomotor has a torque constant of 0.075 N-m/A and a voltage constant of
0.12V/(rad/sec). The armature resistance is 2.5 . A terminal voltage of 24 V is
used to operate the motor. Determine (a) the starting torque generated by the
motor just as the voltage is applied, (b) the maximum speed at a torque of zero,
and (c) the operating point of the motor when it is connected to a load whose
torque characteristic is proportional to speed with a constant of proportionality =
0.0125 N-m/(rad/sec). d) In the previous problem, what is the power delivered by
the motor at the operating point in units of (a1) Watts and (b1) horsepower?

DC motors
DC servomotor is used to actuate one of the axes of an x-y positioner. The
motor has a torque constant of 10.0 in-lb/A and a voltage constant of 12.0
V/(1000 rev/min). The armature resistance is 3.0 . At a given moment, the
positioning table is not moving and a voltage of 48 V is applied to the motor
terminals. Determine the torque (a) immediately after the voltage is applied and
(b) at a rotational speed of 500 rev/min. (c) What is the maximum theoretical
speed of the motor?

AC motors
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LtJoJBUSe28

Step motors
provides rotation in the form of discrete angular displacement. Each angular is
actuated by a discrete electrical pulse
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KQm0rQBsiE0

Step motors
The step angle of a stepper motor = 1.8. The motor shaft is to rotate through
15 complete revolutions at an angular velocity of 7.5 rad/sec. Determine (a)
the required number of pulses and (b) the pulse frequency to achieve the
specified rotation. (c) How much time is required to complete the 15
revolutions?

Step motors
The shaft of a stepper motor is directly connected to a lead screw that drives a
worktable in an x-y positioning system. The motor has a step angle = 5. The pitch
of the lead screw is 6 mm, which means that the worktable moves in the direction
of the lead screw axis by a distance of 6 mm for each complete revolution of the
screw. It is desired to move the worktable a distance of 275 mm at a top speed of
20 mm/sec. Determine (a) the number of pulses and (b) the pulse frequency
required to achieve this movement. (c) How much time is required to move the
table the desired distance at the desired speed, assuming there are
no delays due to inertia?

Rotary-to-Linear Conversion

(a)Leadscrew or ball screw and nut

(b)Pulley system

(c)Rack and pinion

Linear motor
A linear electric motor provides a linear motion directly, without requiring rotary-tolinear conversion

(a) Flat, (b) U-channel, and (c) cylindrical.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion
An ADC converts a continuous analog signal from transducer into digital code for
use by computer. ADC consists of three phases:
o Sampling converts the continuous signal into a series of discrete analog
signals at periodic intervals
o Quantization each discrete analog is converted into one of a finite number of
(previously defined) discrete amplitude levels
o Encoding discrete amplitude levels are converted into digital code

Features of an ADC
o Sampling rate rate at which continuous analog signal is polled
o Conversion time how long it takes to convert the sampled signal to digital
code
o Resolution depends on number of quantization levels
o Conversion method means by which analog signal is encoded into digital
equivalent
Example Successive approximation method

Successive Approximation Method

Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Converts the digital output of the computer into a continuous analog signal to
drive an analog actuator (or other analog device)
DAC consists of two steps:
1. Decoding digital output of computer is converted into a series of analog
values at discrete moments in time
2. Data holding each successive value is changed into a continuous
signal that lasts until the next sampling interval

Input/Output Devices for Discrete Data

Binary data:
Contact input interface input data to computer
Contact output interface output data from computer
Discrete data other than binary:
Contact input interface input data to computer
Contact output interface output data from computer
Pulse data:
Pulse counters - input data to computer
Pulse generators - output data from computer