EFFECT OF HEAVY TRUCKS WITH LARGE AXLE GROUPS ON ASPHALT

PAVEMENT DAMAGE

Fatigue damage caused by multiple axles, when normalized by the load they carry, decreases
with increasing number of axles per axle group. Therefore, multiple axles are more
economically efficient from the point of view of damage caused by the amount of goods
transported.
Rutting damage caused by multiple axles increases with increasing number of axles per axle
group. When normalized to the load each axle carry, the results were inconclusive.
Several factors such as traffic, environment, material and design considerations affect the
pavement damage over time. Traffic loads play a key role in pavement deterioration. Trucks
are the major consumers of the pavement network as they apply the heaviest loads to the
pavement surface. Truck loads are transferred to the pavements through various combinations
of axle configurations depending on the truck type. The current AASHTO pavement design
guide converts different axle load configurations to a standard axle load (18 kips) using Load
Equivalency Factors (LEFs). These LEFs are based on loss of Pavement Serviceability Index
(PSI), and were developed for a limited number of pavement and axle types, load
magnitudes, load applications, age and environment. The PSI is widely based on the
functional performance of the road Surface (rideability), and accounts to a low degree for
other key performance measures such as fatigue and rutting for flexible, and faulting for rigid
pavements. Also, increased demands due to economic growth have led to changes in the
designs of heavy vehicles and in their weights. Therefore, there is a need to examine damage
caused by newer axle and truck configurations using laboratory as well as field data from inservice pavements.

EFFECTS OF TRUCK SIZE AND WEIGHTS ON HIGHWAY INFRASTRUCTURE AND

OPERATIONS A SYNTHESIS REPORT

Finding 3. The pavement damage from vehicle traffic depends mainly on the number of axle
passes over the pavement and axle weights. The consensus in engineering literature is that
pavement damage is a function of the number of axle passes over the pavement and axle weights.
As Crockford (1993) put it:
The fundamental cause of pavement failure is the application of a tire contact pressure that
exceeds the load carrying capacity of the pavement. The tire contact pressure (or the next best
indicator, axle load) is important to the minimization of damage. To the trucking industry, this
means that the gross vehicle weight is almost unlimited by the pavement structure (within reason
of course) The reason gross vehicle weight is almost unlimited by pavement structure is that
tire contact pressure can be reduced by increasing the number of axles, the number of tires, or by
using low inflation pressure tires.
An increase in the weight of a given vehicle will, of course, exacerbate the stresses on pavement
by adding to axle weights. If a switch to a vehicle with additional axles accompanies an increase
in gross weight, however, the pavement can be neutral or even benign.
Finding 4. An increase in axle weight generally causes a more than proportional increase in
pavement damage. The relationship appears to approximate an exponential function, and
various studies have assumed the power of the exponent to be about 4 as a rule. Estimates of
the exponents power vary substantially, however.
Finding 5. The effects of axle spacing on pavement damage are complex and generalizations
elusive.
Finding 6. An increase in truck speed tends to have mixed effects on pavements. For a truck
moving over a smooth pavement, the load transmitted to the pavement would be static. An

increase in the vehicles speed would not affect the intensity of the stress on the pavement, but
would reduce its duration and, hence, the amount of pavement damage.
The pavements of actual roads are somewhat uneven, however, which causes vehicles traversing
them to move up and down. These movements cause the load transmitted to the pavement to
vary, increasing as the vehicle moves down and makes greater contact with the pavement, and
decreasing as the vehicle is lifted up. Because pavement damage tends to increase more than
proportionally with vehicle load (finding 4), these dynamic fluctuations add to pavement
damage.
Finding 7. The pavement cost per mile traveled by a heavy vehicle varies greatly between
pavements, being greater on pavements designed for light duty than on sturdier pavements.
Finding 8. Increases in TS&W limits that lead to higher axle weights can have quite large
pavement costs.
Finding 9. Increases to TS&W limits that encourage the use of trucks with more axles do not
necessarily lead to higher pavement costs; they can even produce savings in pavement costs.
EVALUATION OF TRUCK IMPACTS ON PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE COSTS

This study thus establishes that one heavy truck is approximately equivalent to 90 light
trucks or passenger cars in terms of its impact on pavement maintenance cost
The most important finding is that the coefficient of heavy truck annual average daily traffic
is positive and highly significant (heavy trucks are defined in this study as those with 5 or
more axles). In fact this variable has the largest t-statistic, implying that it is the single most
important variable that influences pavement maintenance costs. The estimated coefficients
also indicate light truck and passenger car traffic does not significantly contribute to
pavement maintenance costs.
The most important finding is that heavy truck traffic has much larger impact on pavement
maintenance cost than does light truck or passenger car traffic () In addition, the model
indicates that the effect of weather on pavement maintenance costs is relatively small, with
maintenance cost decreasing with the average annual temperature. The model also indicates,
other things being equal, fewer funds are spent per mile on pavement maintenance in
mountain areas. () As expected, maintenance cost increases with the age of the
pavement. The study found, however, that this increase is small, presumably because routine
pavement maintenance is performed at a certain rate regardless of the gage of pavements.

MAJOR RECOMMENDATIONS
Extending the conclusions one can arrive at three major recommendations. First, the State of
California should review its highway taxation policies. Second, effort should be directed to refine and
improve this analysis and results contained herein. Finally, a national study should be taken to
evaluate the applicability of this approach for other states.

GUIDELINES ON MAXIMUN WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF MECHANICALLY

PROPELLED VEHICLES AND TRAILERS, INCLUDING MANOEUVRABILITY CRITERIA

HEAVY VEHICLES VS URBAN PAVEMENTS

The damage to a pavement structure is directly related to the magnitude and frequency of
the load applied. Pavement performance (and design) is governed by environmental
conditions as well as truck, buses and other heavy vehicles to the exclusion of light,
passenger vehicles. The heavier a vehicle utilizing a pavement, the more extensive the
damage induced. In pavement design, all axle loads (ESALs) representing the standard
18,000 pound single axle design load to simplify analysis. Result of the AASHO Road Test
concluded that the ratio of damage induced by an axle load is proportional of that axle load to
a standard 10,000 pound single axle load raised to the fourth power. () For many of the
streets evaluated which had already been in place for 30 or more years, the reduction in
pavement life induced by the overweight buses is negligible because they are close to or past
their design life.
Bus system routing should recognize that some of the thinner asphalt concrete streets in the
urban area are less capable of sustaining the heavy loading induced by overweight vehicles.
Routes should be developed to avoid these streets if at all possible. If the street cannot be
avoided, the routes utilizing the street should be using lighter vehicles in the bus fleet, or
consideration should be made for rebuilding the street to sustain the increased loadings.
Future street designs should accommodate the overweight vehicles such as buses, fire trucks
and waste vehicles which utilize them. During the course or the study it was found that the
loads induced by the City of Seattle fire trucks are the greatest of any vehicle considered
(although because these loads are generally infrequent, their contribution to pavement
deterioration is usually not significant). Pavements can be designed to accommodate for
heavier loads of the bus fleet and other overweight vehicles. The increased initial cost of the
slightly thicker pavement sections which might be required would be a more effective means
of dealing with overweight vehicles rather than frequent, disruptive rehabilitation.
As new vehicles are added to the bus and other fleets, every effort should be made to ensure
they will meet legal axle loads. While future pavements can be designed to meet heavier axle
loads, many local streets are composed of relatively thin asphalt concrete pavements to
heavier loads, their service life is shortened, thereby requiring expenditure of rehabilitation
funds which are in short supply.

HOW VEHICLE LOADS AFFECT PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE (Me parece que todo el artculo
es importante, conviene leerlo)

Three elements work to cause road deterioration: traffic loads, the environment, and aging.
While we have little or no control over the environment and aging, we can control traffic
loads.
Pavement damage increases rapidly with higher axle loads, and actually increases faster
than the loads increase. One nine-ton axle load, for example, causes about ten times more
damage than a five-ton axle load.
Tandem axles can carry much greater pay loads with little increase in pavement damage.
() Tridem (three) axles are even better for reducing road damage. () Since different
truck configurations can carry greater loads without necessarily causing more road damage, it

makes sense to post several load limits on roads which regularly carry different truck
configurations.
Changing from dual tires to single tires, on a single axle load truck, will increase the
pavement stress by 10-% because the load is now concentrated in one spot rather than in two.
The effect of dual wheels depends in part on pavement thickness. As depth increases, the
stress caused by dual wheel loads becomes equivalent to single wheel loads. () Tire
pressure is also important. Tire pressure increases with truck weight and the higher the
pressure the greater the stress on the pavement. Furthermore, the effects of tire pressure are
more pronounced in upper pavement layers.

the strength of the aggregate base becomes very important in the roads ability to support
loads. A good base increases the overall strength of the road by distributing load effects to the
soil beneath it and provides drainage to help protect against frost heave (see figure 4). Any
weakening of the underlying soil by moisture of freeze-thaw action will greatly diminish the
roads strength. Because underlying soils, field conditions, and pavement materials vary, a
deflection (strength) test can be very helpful in evaluating a pavement for future maintenance
and improvement.
The major component of fatigue is deflection or bending. Thicker pavements suffer less
stress and deflection, and therefore, will last longer under heavy loads. Weakened roads are
commonly strengthened by adding thickness through overlays or complete rebuilding.

THE INFLUENCE OF OVERLOADING TRUCK TO THE ROAD CONDITION

The result of analysis of sensitivity show that 150% overloading of single, dual, and triple
axle truck, will bring about 500, 135, and 122% level of damage respectively.
Overloading is very often assumed as the factor that affects the level of pavement
structure damage. Even though that assumption is not wrong but the other factors need to
be thoroughly and proportionally studied before take the conclusion. Generally factors
that influence the road damage can be described as follows:
1. Traffic load (overloading of the heavy vehicle or truck and frequency of the traffic).
2. Stress on the surface layer of the pavement (cause by higher tyre pressure which
account for the higher stress on surface layer)
3. Characteristic of pavement materials (their quality that expressed as number of
relative strength)
4. Thickness layers factor

5. Subgrade or roadbed soil (the bearing capacity of soil)

6. Regional or environment factor
7. Failure criterion

Traffic load is dominant function because the function of the pavement is to directly resist
the traffic load. The mention of traffic load covers traffic volume or frequency of the
traffic, and weight of vehicle as well as intensity of the vehicle. Traffic volume
accumulatively shows the number of repetition of the load and function the time (service
life). Intensity of the weight of vehicle is depending on weight of axle load, axle
configuration, and wheel configuration.
Tyre pressure is remarkably influence the stress to the surface layer of pavement under
tyre contact area. The higher of tyre pressure, the higher the stress on surface layer of the
pavement.
Characteristic of pavement layers materials (strength, stiffness, elasticity) extremely
influential to the performance of pavement layers to response the traffic load. The higher
quality of the materials, the higher the ability to response the load will be.
Improperly of pavement structure construction often cause the layer thickness are not
fulfill the thickness as required in the design specification. The thickness of one layer
unquestionably will influence performance of entirely pavement structure. The thicker of
the pavement layer over the design requirement, the higher the performance of the
pavement to response traffic loading will be.
Change of the properties of road-bed soil is extremely affecting the performance of
pavement structure. The smaller of ability or the smaller of bearing capacity of existing
road-bed soil, the weaker ability of pavement to response traffic loading, and on the
contrary.
Condition of road-bed soil is extremely influence by environment condition that
specifically is influenced by change in water content. Such as the graph in relation
between water content and density, the highest or the lowest of water content from the
optimum condition, the smaller of the bearing capacity. This condition is not only
occurring in road-bed soil but also in base and sub-base layer.
Parameter of failure criterion use in this paper is permanent deformation or rutting.
Rutting is the signal of pavement failure as a result of excessive of the fatigue strain on
asphalt surface pavement or because of excessive of vertical compressive stress on the
top of base, sub-base, and of roadbed soil layer.

Besides using analysis of sensitivity, the influence of overloading truck to the road condition also
can be shown by using vehicle damage factor (VDF). VDF is the ratio between capacities to
damage by axle load of vehicle to the standard axle load. This ratio is not linear but exponential
ratio (Source: DGH) and expressed as follows:

The detrimental effect of single axle trucks is high compare to dual or triple axle trucks.
Relative strength of pavement structure cause by overloading of single axle truck
decrease much more than cause by overloading of dual or triple axle truck.
The higher the overloading, the higher decreasing of relative strength of pavement
structure.
To prevent early damage of pavement structure, some efforts are needed to be conducted:
1. Anticipation occurring of early damage on pavement structure caused by overloading truck,
especially single axle truck, is needed.
2. Strict on quality control during construction period to insure that all specifications are met the
requirement is required and is very important.
3. Strict control on overloading truck by controlling limited truck load is required.
4. Regulation to call for using multi-axle truck instead of single-axle truck is needed to be
considered.
USING REGIONAL FREIGHT TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT MODELING TO QUANTIFY THE
VARIABILITY OF PAVEMENT DAMAGE FOR HIGHWAY COST ALLOCATION AND
REVENUE ANALYSIS

It was confirmed that pavement segments that are subjected to higher traffic loading
levels or located in a region which has higher climatic severity (higher precipitation
and/or freeze index) deteriorate faster and thus incur higher M&R expenditures albeit in
magnitudes that vary significantly across the pavement segments.
The parameter estimate for total traffic (total ESALs over treatment service life) was
found to be normally distributed with a statistically significant mean and standard
deviation (random parameter), indicating that the influence of the traffic on the response
variable is significantly different for the different pavement segments. This is an

important result because it indicates that it is appropriate to charge highway users

different fees not only across the different highway functional classes but also across the
different road segments in a given functional class.
The results also suggest that the life-cycle damage cost (life cycle cost of pavement
upkeep associated with the traffic loads), on average, is approximately $85,000/lane-mile,
$70,000/lane-mile and $55,000 per lane-mile, for the vehicles that use the pavements on
Interstates, non-Interstate NHS, and non-NHS, respectively.
It is necessary to address the lingering question on how best to achieve reliable future
traffic volumes. This can be realized using regional freight assignment models,
particularly those of a dynamic nature. Appropriate and accurate assignment of future
freight traffic on the highway network system on the basis of projected socio-economic
developments, could yield more reliable estimates of truck traffic volumes at each
individual link on the highway system. That way, it will be possible to report the total
damage costs not for families of pavements but for individual pavement segments within
a family highway agencies can establish appropriate segment-specific costs of pavement
damage and thus establish a foundation upon which existing fees for overweight vehicles
could be reviewed.
PAVEMENT LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE AASHO ROAD TEST AND
PERFORMANCE OF THE INTERSTATE HIGHWAY SYSTEM

MAJOR TECHNICAL FINDINGS OF THE AASHO ROAD TEST

Surface Thickness
The AASHO Road Test gave quantitative value to the importance of pavement surface thickness
in increasing the number of load repetitions that can be carried to pavement failure. It tied
pavement surface thickness to pavement performance, where performance is defined as the
service provided by the pavement or the number of load repetitions that can be carried to an
unserviceable level.
Load Equivalency
Pavement engineers had long had trouble dealing with various axle loads in pavement design.
Some methods used only the heaviest load (CBR), and others including the Texas Design
Method used the average of the 10 heaviest loads that were expected to be carried on the
pavement. The AASHO Road Test provided quantitative information about the relative damaging
effect of heavy loads, and immediately after the Road Test, Paul Irick and Frank Scrivner used
the Road Test equations to generate load equivalencies called ESALs. Francis Hveem of the
California DOT had earlier hypothesized a load equivalency concept tied to 10-kip axles. The
Road Test equivalencies validated and extended the Hveem hypothesis statistically. The load
equivalency concept (ESAL) is by far the most widely used pavement concept in the world. We
as authors have collectively visited more than 50 countries and all 50 states in the United States.
All of these agencies use the ESAL concept in pavement design.
PSI: Performance Concept
Before the AASHO Road Test there was no good definition of pavement failure. This seems hard
to believe but please check the literature; you will find it to be true. After the WASHO Road Test,

Paul Irick and Bill Carey developed the Present Serviceability Index (PSI) concept and defined
performance as accumulated traffic to a fixed level of PSI. The selected level of PSI was
failure. While many agencies adopted this concept, some have continued to refer to
roughness. Therefore, a defined level of roughness is sometimes accepted as failure in the form
of an International Roughness Index (IRI) level. The technical literature shows that IRI and PSI
are inversely related to each other.
The present serviceability concept (PSI) relates pavement failure directly to riding quality and
the acceptance or satisfaction of the riding public. It is indeed more definitive of true
performance than roughness alone and strong consideration should be given to resurrecting it in
pavement studies and designs.
Layer Equivalencies: Material Properties
The AASHO Road Test included four types of base under asphalt pavements: (a) river gravel, (b)
cement stabilized, (c) asphalt stabilized, and (d) crushed stone. These were compared to define
the levels of performance that resulted from improving the quality of the base layer. Francis
Hveem had also hypothesized such relative benefit of stronger layers as part of a gravel
equivalency concept and he was instrumental in getting the wedge-shaped base sections added
to the Road Test to validate that concept. The structural number concept, developed based on
layer equivalencies, is widely used around the world and is the basis for layer selection in all
AASHTO Pavement Design Guides up to 2002.
The Road Test of course was not perfect because it was impossible to make it large enough to
solve all possible factors. We dont know if these layer equivalencies would be the same with
different subgrades and in a different environment. These questions have been the subject of
considerable research in the past 50 years.
Value of Subbase to Reduce Pumping in Rigid Pavements
At the Road Test those PCC pavement sections that had a gravel subbase under the slab
performed much better than those that were placed directly on the clay subgrade. This occurred
regardless of the thickness of the gravel subbase layer. However, there were no stabilized
subbases used on the rigid pavements and we can only hypothesize what improvement would
have resulted.
Pumping of Subbase and Subgrade Materials
Before the Road Test the PCC paving industry had strongly hypothesized that the problem of
pumping of subgrade material from beneath pavements could be solved by placing a granular
subbase beneath the slab. This was proved to be incorrect at the Road Test, where under heavy
loads and high rainfall, even the gravel subbase layer pumped and caused early slab failure.
Effectiveness of Dowels for Load Transfer
Before 1960 most people were of the opinion that it was necessary to put some form of positive
load transfer across joints and cracks in PCC pavements. Yet the concrete industry continued to
claim that thicker pavements would solve the problem. The Road Test used load transfer dowels
in all pavement sections. There was no faulting at the AASHO Road Test at cracks or joints, thus
validating the effectiveness of dowels for load transfer under extremely heavy loads up to 30,000
pounds on a single axle.

Joint Spacing
Two joint spacings were used at the AASHO Road Test: 15-ft joint spacing with no
reinforcement steel and 40-ft joint spacing with mild reinforcement. Both of these joint spacings
performed well under heavy loads up to 30-kip single axle and both contained dowels across the
joints. The 40-ft slabs cracked at approximately 12- to 15-ft spacing, and no faulting occurred at
those cracks during the test. However, 15 years later, field studies of some of these same sections
left in service on IH 80 did show faulting as the mild reinforcement steel rusted and lost its
effectiveness.