Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
STEEL CONGRESS
1964
LUXEMBOURG
2 8 - 3 0 OCTOBER, 1964
XK0360000ENC
Luxembourg
28-30 October,
1964
Work
Contents
Page
105
107
177
S t r u c t u r a l Steel F r a m e w o r k
289
P r f a b r i c a t i o n of Steel Building C o m p o n e n t s
397
455
23
535
Building-Site O r g a n i z a t i o n and I m p r o v e m e n t in P r o d u c t i v i t y
623
693
For detailed contents of the various sections ol this report see pp. 8, 24. 106, and 694.
Figures in brackets refer to the photographs which follow the speeches.
Raised ligures refer to the bibliographic references listed at the end of the speeches.
Footnotes are marked by asterisks.
713
Official
CONTENTS
Address by Mr. Dino Del Bo, President of the High
Authority
11
15
13
21
Their Royal Hignesses The Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Luxembourg
at the official opening of the Congress.
Dino DEL BO
President of the High
Authority
I am here today simply to say a few words about the reasons which caused the High
Authority of E.C.S.C, to decide to convene this Congress. In this connection I must naturally refer to the
provisions of the Treaty of Paris, by which the High Authority is required to deploy its energies in the coal
and steel sector, and so, within its terms of reference, help ensure in the national economies of the six
Community countries the maximum improvement in the standard of living and the creation of more and
ever more new jobs in short, to help ensure prosperity.
Since 1952, the High Authority has so applied itself to its duties that very real progress has been made as
compared with the position in which the six countries then were, when steel production was insufficient
to match the requirements of reconstruction and of social advance. In other words, the great object was
to enable enough steel to be produced to meet demand.
From 1952 to 1961, the combined labours of the Community workers, economic operators, technicians,
responsible Civil Servants and others resulted in some exceedingly striking achievements. Crude-steel
production rose from a mere 42 million tons in 1952 to 72 million in 1961, and production of special steels
from 3 100 000 tons to 6 100 000. Also during this period, in accordance with the Treaty's requirements,
the High Authority established rules on price publication, rules on publication of forecasts, rules on cartels
and concentrations, while in addition it made available very substantial funds to aid investment and to
finance essential technical research.
From 1952 to 1961 the member countries' efforts may be said to have been concentrated on enabling supply
to balance demand. In 1961, however, a certain alteration in the trend began to develop. Steel production
rose steadily in the six countries; so also did exports. But it was found that the flow of imports from third
countries was starting to speed up.
The High Authority and the member States have always pursued a large and liberal commercial policy
in regard to steel production : the E.C.S.C, tariff wall has always been, and still is, one of the lowest in the
world. Nevertheless, it is necessary to safeguard the immense sums sunk in steel production, to safeguard
also the livelihood of our workers, above all to remember that a basic producer industry such as steel is a
vital component in European civilization and power, and to see to it that the Six shall not be a mere pawn
in the game of opposing ideologies, but shall retain its ability to choose and act for itself.
The steel production of the third countries has been growing larger and larger. Now many of these countries
enjoy a very considerable degree of tariff protection against imports. In some of them technology is highly
11
advanced ; others have the advantage of lower production costs, others again of lower-cost and higher-grade
iron ores than the Community's.
Our problem now is once again to establish a balance between demand and supply. The High Authority,
in accordance with the policy of the six E.C.S.C. G overnments, declines to regard the protectionist solution
as either appropriate or, more particularly, worthy of a politically responsible democratic Europe. On the
contrary, the High Authority and the six G overnments are convinced that what is needed is to create new
forms of demand and develop new uses for steel, and that meeting these demands and using steel for these
purposes will at the same time help to better the lot of men and women in all the countries of the world.
Such is the prime reason for this Congress. Our aim has been on this occasion the first, we hope, of
many to focus the attention of scientists, technicians, specialists, G overnment representatives and public
servants on one particular use for steel, its use in the building sector, in which new aesthetic values and
new technical properties may well ensure a tremendous market for steel. We cannot foresee today what
the results of the Congress will be, but the presence of those who have accepted the High Authority's
invitation to attend, the presence of such men as Mr. Jeanneney, so outstandingly qualified not only in the
field of economics but in the political interpretation of the problems raised by economics, makes the success
of our labours here a foregone conclusion.
May I end with one observation. Iron and steel were, alas, very much to the fore at a time, only a very few
years back, of which ineradicable traces still remain. Iron and steel as it were stood as the symbol of stubborn
enmity among men and the instrument of their violence. We who are met here today, at this Congress for
the study of new and peaceful uses for steel, wish that its peaceful use shall serve at the same time to bring
about better understanding among peoples.
W i t h this expression of our profound conviction and with your permission, I now declare open this first
Conqress on the Utilization of Steel in Construction W o r k .
12
Pierre WERNER
Prime Minister of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
13
14
Fritz HELLWIG
Member of the High
Authority
For the first time for some years, the production of the E.C.S.C, steel industry,
will in 1964 show a renewed substantial increase. For four years, from 1960 to 1963, Community crude-steel
production remained stationary at around 73,000,000 tons a year: this year it will total approximately
82,000,000.
However, this most heartening development must not obscure the fact that certain all-important things
on which our steel industry's future hinges, have altered during these years. Direct exports of steel by the
Community play no part in the recent improvement: they are lower than in 1960. The share of Community
steel exports in total world trade in steel amounted during the last few years to barely one-third. For the
first time, indirect exports in manufactured form have exceeded net direct exports. The current increase
in production is very much more due to the movement of internal demand.
As is clear from these few indications, the steel industry has for some years been definitely in a state of
technical and economic flux. Technological advance, competition and shifts in the pattern of the world
market have caused a process of rapid evolution, which is going on even in those sectors of production where
as recently as ten years ago technical and economic development appeared to have settled in some sort
into a rut.
This surprising trend is due to a variety of causes. Within the Community, we have the vigorous revival
which set in after the war, and the good effects of the six countries action in joining to form a wider market
for steel. The abolition of Customs duties and impediments to trade among these countries stimulated com
petition, and by allowing natural locational relations to take effect, served to reorient supply and demand.
Other, outside influences are also at work, which have by now affected in varying degree all the steel-pro
ducing countries. International competition has stiffened; this, the most powerful driving-force in techno
logical progress, has resulted in major innovations at practically all stages of steel production improved
ore preparation, continuous casting, oxygen steelmaking, fully continuous rolling, to name only a few.
Changes in the raw-material situation have also faced the Community with new problems to master. New
deposits have been opened up from which high-grade foreign ores are being furnished at lower cost than
ever; the general drop in maritime freight-rates is favouring the transport of ore and overseas coal to our
shores. Consequently, the Community steel industry derives less advantage from the presence of indegenous
ore and coal. Numbers of large firms have reacted by building new plants in coastal areas.
15
This is not t o say t h a t the coast is the only possible f u t u r e location for the i n d u s t r y . O n the c o n t r a r y , the
changes in the w o r l d steel m a r k e t themselves indicate the present and f u t u r e i m p o r t a n c e of the C o m m u n i t y
m a n u f a c t u r i n g industries as a d e t e r m i n i n g element in the l o c a t i o n of steel p r o d u c t i o n .
As regards the a l t e r a t i o n s in the sales s i t u a t i o n , these began g r a d u a l l y and so almost i m p e r c e p t i b l y : not
until a year o r t w o ago did the s t r u c t u r a l change in progress become clearly a p p a r e n t .
To t a k e the e x p o r t m a r k e t first: the t u r n r o u n d which has t a k e n place t h e r e is due p r i m a r i l y t o t h r e e cir
cumstances :
(a) t h e emergence of new e x p o r t e r countries,
(b) the development of a w o r l d surplus, and
(c) changes in relative c o m p e t i t i v e positions.
As a result of t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of new capacity, w o r l d steel p r o d u c t i o n p o t e n t i a l has increased f r o m 256,000,000
tons in 1953 t o 480,000,000 in 1964. It is n o t a b l e t h a t the largest increases have been in Japan and in various
small e x p o r t e r c o u n t r i e s ; t h e expansion in C o m m u n i t y , British and A m e r i c a n p o t e n t i a l has been below
the w o r l d a v e r a g e .
As p r o d u c t i o n p o t e n t i a l has been rising faster t h a n c o n s u m p t i o n , a considerable surplus has resulted, w h i l e
at the same t i m e i m p o r t r e q u i r e m e n t s have g r o w n c o m p a r a t i v e l y slowly. In consequence, idle capacity in
the w o r l d o v e r a l l , w h i c h in 1953 a m o u n t e d t o 16,500,000 i n g o t tons, was up by 1963 t o 67,000,000 a four
fold increase in ten years. Some of the countries w h i c h have expanded t h e i r p o t e n t i a l the most are in a d d i t i o n
n o t a b l e for t h e i r l o w r a w - m a t e r i a l and l a b o u r costs. So it is not surprising t h a t the share of C o m m u n i t y
e x p o r t s in w o r l d t r a d e in steel has slumped in t h e last ten years f r o m 46 % t o 32 % . This is, incidentally,
a t r e n d d a t i n g f r o m before the w a r : a bare f o r t y years ago the share of the six countries n o w f o r m i n g the
C o m m u n i t y t o t a l l e d no less t h a n 70 % .
As the C o m m u n i t y ' s e x p o r t s have fallen its i m p o r t s have risen. Its net e x p o r t s the excess of e x p o r t s over
i m p o r t s have d r o p p e d in the last f o u r years alone f r o m 12,000,000 t o 7,800,000 tons, a decrease of 35 % .
In c o n t r a s t , net i n d i r e c t e x p o r t s e x t e r n a l t r a d e in i n d u s t r i a l finished products, expressed in i n g o t tons
have increased t o 9,200,000 tons, thus o u t s t r i p p i n g net direct e x p o r t s . C o m m u n i t y e x p o r t s are hence
coming t o be c o n c e n t r a t e d m o r e and m o r e on i n d u s t r i a l finished products, and e x p o r t s of rolled products
of special q u a l i t y grades. The o r d i n a r y steels which the e m e r g e n t countries used t o i m p o r t , are now in
creasingly produced locally. A n d as these countries, by reason of t h e i r l o w r a w - m a t e r i a l and l a b o u r costs,
are i n s t a l l i n g basic industries of t h e i r o w n , the products d e m a n d i n g less technical k n o w - h o w are more
and m o r e being made t h e r e . From the expansion p r o g r a m m e s a n n o u n c e d , it must be expected t h a t the
coming years w i l l see a f u r t h e r considerable increase in new p r o d u c t i o n p o t e n t i a l : t h a t is t o say, the changes,
I have referred t o , in the p a t t e r n of t h e w o r l d steel m a r k e t w i l l continue.
I n t r a - C o m m u n i t y steel c o n s u m p t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n e x p o r t s of rolled products, is becoming more and more
t h e mainstay of E.C.S.C, steel sales: as I have m e n t i o n e d , the present revival is due almost e n t i r e l y t o the
increase in i n t e r n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . But the t r e n d in i n t e r n a l steel c o n s u m p t i o n t o o has been noticeably
c h a n g i n g . In the first five years of E.C.S.C.'s existence it rose faster t h a n t o t a l i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n ; since
1958 it has lagged behind it.
This change is d u e :
(a) firstly, t o a r e l a t i v e deceleration in the g r o w t h of the most i m p o r t a n t steel-consuming sectors, and
(b) secondly, t o l o w e r specific consumption of steel.
Below-average g r o w t h is p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p a r e n t in the forges, the foundries,
various branches of mechanical e n g i n e e r i n g . In the t r a n s p o r t sector, steel
p o r t i o n a t e l y raised by t h e vigorous expansion in vehicle p r o d u c t i o n , but this
s h r i n k a g e in the use of steel for p e r m a n e n t - w a y m a t e r i a l and rolling-stock in
16
The steel i n d u s t r y is thus itself in p a r t responsible for the r e d u c t i o n in specific c o n s u m p t i o n , since it has
been m a k i n g its products l i g h t e r in w e i g h t and b e t t e r in q u a l i t y ; on the o t h e r hand, these i m p r o v e m e n t s
have helped t o create new sales outlets for steel in a n u m b e r of m a r k e t s .
The r e d u c t i o n in specific c o n s u m p t i o n can best be indicated by a few examples. It takes 20-30 % less steel
t o make one square m e t r e of r o a d bridge t h a n it did fifteen years a g o . Since 1950 the a m o u n t of steel going
i n t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a steam boiler w i t h a useful steam r a t i n g of 30 tons has been cut by a b o u t 20 % .
Specific c o n s u m p t i o n of steel is also affected by changes in t h e size of t h e a c t u a l objects produced f r o m it.
For instance, t h e increasing p o p u l a r i t y of t h e small car has b r o u g h t t h e c o n s u m p t i o n per p r i v a t e car of
rolled steel and castings d o w n in G e r m a n y f r o m 1,300 k g . in 1950 t o only 1,000 in 1963. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
in t h e case of objects w h i c h a r e being b u i l t bigger and bigger, such as boilers, specific steel c o n s u m p t i o n
is also being reduced. A n y a m o u n t of s i m i l a r examples could be q u o t e d .
As regards the use of r i v a l m a t e r i a l s in place of steel, it is dificult t o give precise details. C a l c u l a t i o n s t o
date indicate t h a t slightly o v e r 3 % of steel c o n s u m p t i o n is at present being lost t o a l u m i n i u m and plastics,
and a f u r t h e r 3 % t o concrete, t i m b e r and t e r n i t a t o t a l of f r o m t h r e e and a half t o four million i n g o t
tons. It must, h o w e v e r , be borne in mind t h a t new uses for steel have been opened up by its e m p l o y m e n t
in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h plastics. O n e i m p o r t a n t instance of the ousting of steel by a c o m p e t i n g m a t e r i a l is the
preference now given t o concrete c o n s t r u c t i o n in fields w h i c h used t o be very largely the preserve of steel.
The steel i n d u s t r y having succeeded in p r o d u c i n g steels w i t h very high upper yield points, it became possible
by using these t o build large-span concrete s t r u c t u r e s m o r e cheaply t h a n t h e i r all-steel c o u n t e r p a r t s . H o w
ever, here t h e d i s t i n c t i o n is no longer clear between a c t u a l displacement of steel by its c o m p e t i t o r and
technical progress in the q u a l i t y of the steel m a t e r i a l supplied.
17
T h e r e a r e various ways by w h i c h the steel industry can check o r offset the shrinkage in steel c o n s u m p t i o n .
O n e is technological i m p r o v e m e n t :
(a) by m a k i n g products l i g h t in w e i g h t ,
(b) developing steel w i t h b e t t e r mechanical and m e t a l l u r g i c a l properties, and
(c) e x t e n d i n g the range of products.
It w o u l d t a k e t o o long t o e n u m e r a t e all the advances achieved these respects in the last few years. It
w i l l give only one e x a m p l e , in the d e v e l o p m e n t of w h i c h the H i g h A u t h o r i t y itself played a p a r t . Some years
ago a w o r k i n g p a r t y was set up, w i t h H i g h A u t h o r i t y c o - o p e r a t i o n , w h i c h in 1957 devised a new series of
beams, the IPE beams, n o w progressively t a k i n g the place of sections t h a t have in some cases been used for
many years. As c o m p a r e d w i t h the older products, t h e IPE beams represent a 7 % saving in w e i g h t on height
of section, and a 22 % saving on modulus.
Considerable strides have been and are being made in the i m p r o v e m e n t of mechanical and m e t a l l u r g i c a l
characteristics.
A t the same t i m e w o r k is going ahead on the technical processes involved a t t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g end, for
instance on w e l d i n g .
18
the subject "Progress in Steel Construction W o r k " was chosen because the building trade and steel con
struction absorb something like one-quarter of the steel produced, and because the technical problems in
volved in the utilization of steel for these purposes are of specially obvious economic importance.
The Congress, then, is intended to direct attention to the new angles of approach to matters connected with
the steel market and steel utilization.
19
Jean-Marcel JEANNENEY
Chairman oj the Congress
This is a technical Congress. The papers and debates fall primarily within the purview
of engineers and architects. But in offering the Chair to an economist the High Authority has sought to
show that it is not departing from what is, by rule, its own great concern that of raising the standard
of living in the member States.
Technology trills by its many-sided potentialities. It bears witness to the mastery man is gaining over nature.
For thousands of years all he managed to do was to wield a few implements, domesticate a few species,
smelt a few ores and now in the last two centuries, and more marvellously yet in the last twenty years,
he has been striving with passion to subjugate nature to his service. He is working to fathom all the mysteries
to penetrate the infinitesimal and to explore outer space. He is thinking up ways of bringing into play
all possible manner of forces and materials. And he is contriving so to interconnect them that the means
of production and the centres of production are changing from decade to decade with sometimes bewildering
rapidity.
All this would be purely academic juggling with thoughts and with things, proof of the intellectual genius
of the few, but valueless and indeed harmful to the many, were research not sensibly directed and the new
techniques organized to serve, as Article 2 of the Treaty of Rome, confirming and supplementing Article 2
of the Treaty of Paris, well puts it, " t o promote throughout the Community a harmonious development
of economic activities, a continuous and balanced expansion, an increased stability, [and] an accelerated
raising of the standard of living."
It was with this end in view that the High Authority decided to convene this Congress on Steel Utilization.
A congress of technical experts, yes, but of experts met for the benefit of the iron and steel sector, and hence
of the economy as a whole, so great to it is the importance of steel. Consequently, the implications of this
occasion go far beyond the actual matters to be discussed during these three days. Taking this particular
opportunity, the High Authority of E.C.S.C, is demonstrating that it is the duty of the European Institutions
to ensure that technical innovations shall be a source of prosperity and not of disturbance.
That innovation can bring prosperity is clearly apparent, in Europe, in the United States and elsewhere.
Quite manifestly, it is increasing the productivity of human effort. To reduce the demands on men themselves,
it is drawing more extensively on natural energy; it is rendering production processes now more intricate,
now more straightforward; it is even enabling work to be machine-done which until very recently seemed
to be for ever possible only to the human brain calculations, preparation of decisions, involving powers
of memory and reasoning previously supposed to be found only in thinking beings. Again, innovation creates
new employment opportunities, by the capital investment it induces and the requirements it brings in its
21
stimulates
22
CONTENTS
Hubert
Petschnigg: Functional and Aesthetic
Trends n A r c h i t e c t u r a l Design in Steel Constructlon
57
25
Letterio F. D o n a t o : Official Regulations concerning
41
87
71
Hubert
PETSCHNIGG
P h o t o g r a p h 3 shows the B u r g t h e a t e r in Vienna, designed and built by Semper and Hasenauer in 1870-1888.
Semper was able t o w a t c h h o w , o u t of purpose m a t e r i a l s and p r o d u c t i o n techniques, f o r m w o u l d emerge
and g r o w and t a k e shape, u n t i l it stood f o r t h as sheer a r t detached f r o m mere m a t t e r . Much as w e w o u l d
like t o do t h e same, we c a n n o t . This may be u n f o r t u n a t e . H o w e v e r , t o moan a b o u t it serves no purpose,
and after a l l , even if the d i c h o t o m y I speak of is n o w a p e r m a n e n c y , t h a t is not t o say t h a t w e architects
have t h r o w n in o u r hand : w e have not done a n y t h i n g of t h e s o r t . It c a n n o t be disputed t h a t many buildings
which a r e now being constructed are indeed a pleasure t o l o o k a t and a pleasure t o use; buildings w h i c h
do very successfully m a r r y beauty w i t h u t i l i t y . The secret of achieving such buildings lies in c o - o r d i n a t i o n ,
c o - o p e r a t i o n and concerted effort. Here a r e t w o examples, the Seagram B u i l d i n g , designed by Mies van der
Rohe, and Lever House, N e w Y o r k , the w o r k of S k i d m o r e , O w i n g s and M e r r i l l (4,5).
25
Of crouse, the creative mind t o o changes w i t h the passage of t i m e . Building is no longer purely the affair of
the master builder, the a r c h i t e c t himself. Since the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y his d o m i n a n t , indeed often
sovereign influence on s t r u c t u r e has steadily declined : since the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h a t is t o say,
since t h e b i r t h of steel c o n s t r u c t i o n . The r e v o l u t i o n w r o u g h t by the development of the s t r u c t u r a l steel
f r a m e w o r k in the last century destroyed the predominance of the a r c h i t e c t . In those early days, the a r c h i t e c t
viewed w i t h the strongest suspicion the engineer's s o a r i n g i m a g i n a t i o n and specialized t r a i n i n g a t r a i n i n g
w h i c h enabled him t o devise e n t i r e l y unprecedented structures of steel, and w h a t was m o r e t o build t h e m .
(Thus the H a l l i d a y Building in San Francisco still shows traces of past influences). W h i l e t h e engineers
w e r e logically f o l l o w i n g this course all kinds of o u t s t a n d i n g examples spring t o mind (6) architects
w e n t on for many years building as t h e i r fathers and forefathers had b u i l t before t h e m . The buildings t h a t
typify this p e r i o d , w i t h t h e i r e t e r n a l i m i t a t i o n s of the g r e a t styles of the past, r a r e l y show the slightest
sign of a creative a p p r o a c h : they are for the most p a r t purely conservative, in the d e r o g a t o r y sense of the
t e r m . (For e x a m p l e , the Vienna City Hall built by Schmidt at the end of the nineteenth century) (7).
N e w , f o r w a r d l o o k i n g design developed, as it w e r e , on the f r i n g e . As w i t h t h e T o w e r of Babel, the experts
w e r e at cross purposes : they w e r e not speaking the same l a n g u a g e , and t h e i r w o r k m e a n i n g , here,
a r c h i t e c t u r e as the w o r k of t h e m all just s t a g n a t e d .
W e do not need however t o concern ourselves t o o much a b o u t the sins of the past, p a r t i c u l a r l y as w e all
k n o w the sins of o u r o w n t i m e w i l l p r o b a b l y not appear so very much less heinous t o o u r descendants, w h o
are c e r t a i n like all descendants t o k n o w e v e r y t h i n g much b e t t e r t h a n t h e i r forebears. H o w e v e r ,
I t h i n k it is f a i r t o say t h a t w e have l e a r n t a c e r t a i n a m o u n t and w h e n I say " we, " I mean b o t h
architects and engineers. W e k n o w , of course, t h a t the h o m o g e n e i t y of e a r l i e r centuries has gone for ever.
But a t least it is n o w possible for architects and engineers t o do a c r e a t i v e j o b t o g e t h e r . To t h a t e x t e n t ,
in fact, it is not of such very g r e a t m o m e n t t h a t I should have t o discuss the aesthetic and the f u n c t i o n a l
aspects of m o d e r n c o n s t r u c t i o n a l s t e e l w o r k separately. W e have w o r k e d o u t how t o live w i t h o u r d i c h o t o m y ,
t o learn f r o m it and t o use it as a source of creative i n n o v a t i o n (10, 1 1 , 12).
26
that the architect is always finding new ways of bringing it in. Since the war the European steel industry
has been supplying components on a massive scale more especially for industrial buildings. I must say I feel
not enough has been done to work out methods for multi-storey structural steel buildings (13, 14).
As a result, the use of reinforced concrete for superstructures has become still more common, especially
as this method has been regarded as the natural development from the traditional solid-stone building :
it could be carried out by the old type of craftsman, and the planning system too did need to be much altered,
changes during building being quite feasible with reinforced concrete. The architect also frequently did not
feel quite happy with the meticulously exact planning required for steel construction, and preferred to stick
to the apparently easier method with reinforced concrete.
Structural steel framework is quite different. It is less " conservative ", and it certainly needs exceedingly
accurate and time consuming advance planning; it takes months for the architect and engineer between
them to finalize in detail the core of a multi-storey building. But it offers a number of possibilities which I
feel to be of considerable importance for our own time and for the future (15, 16, 17).
The reason why many architects are so dubious about building in steel is undoubtedly partly that they just
have not got the hang of this long, detailed planning. I will venture to suggest in this connection, that the
universities and technical colleges might make more of a point of training their architectural students
in the necessary fundamentals. Incidentally, our hosts, the High Authority, could do a very valuable job
by promoting this in the Community countries.
Structural steel framework of course is only one of the possibilities in the building field today, and its pros
and cons must be weighed up against those of other methods. Initially, high building costs are something
of a deterrent. W h a t really matters however, is not the cost of the shell as such, but the total cost of thee
completed building. If provision can be made in the load-bearing structure for the finishing stages, the result
is a saving in time and money. By its very accuracy, structural steel is ideal for the preparatory work for
the finishing stages : precision of measurement is the key to prefabricated industrial building.
It must also be borne in mind that industrial fabrication of components has a considerable advantage in
the present economic situation of manpower shortage and spiralling costs of labour and materials. Res
trictions on the space available at the site can also be an argument for prefabricated components.
Considerations of weight are not very important. The lightest structure is not necessarily the most economic
and serviceable, and the more conservative building methods will certainly continue for some time to present
various advantages which may be preferred by some clients.
Life can appear quite different seen from the new lightweight structures. In these thin-walled buildings
of steel and glass one is more exposed to external influences than behind thick, chill- and warmth-retaining
masonry. On the other hand, greater expenditure of technical skill and know-how is involved.
Speaking very generally, building can be said during the last few years and the last few decades to have
moved away from the solid stone or brickwork style in the direction of the structural framework. It has on
occasion been pointed out that a comparable trend is observable in Gothic (18), that the human spirit always
feels the urge to master matter, and the argument runs structural-framework building gives it a
change to do just that. I do not feel, myself, that historical parallels of this kind are very illuminating, par
ticularly as it tends to be forgotten that the apogee of Gothic was comparatively brief: its vitality soon
evaporated more and more, until ultimately it gave place to the very solid, earthly, material building of
the Renaissance and later the equally material Baroque; as example: the Residenz in Wrzburg, built by
Balthazar Neumann in 1720) (19).
27
W e stand at the b e g i n n i n g . Such advances in s t r u c t u r a l steel building as have been achieved are no more
than rungs, of v a r y i n g i m p o r t a n c e , on t h e w a y up the ladder. I should like just t o m e n t i o n one o r t w o
constructions for w h i c h I have myself been responsible, and which I am n o w only t o o well a w a r e w e r e d e f i
cient in c e r t a i n respects (46, 47).
But in practice the fact remains t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n a l side has t o be considered first : it is on the basis of its
function t h a t an aesthetically pleasing s t r u c t u r e must be evolved. To this consideration we o w e the very
28
29
D e s c r i p t i o n of p h o t o g r a p h s
1 2 Crystal Palace, London 1851.
18 Reims C a t h e d r a l .
4 Seagram Building, N e w Y o r k .
19 C e n t r a l Pavilion of W r z b u r g Castle.
interior
7 City H a l l , Vienna.
8 Eiffel T o w e r , Paris.
11 V i e w
over
East
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and
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1 2 Chase M a n h a t t a n Bank, N e w York.
30
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41
thus laid, is an applied science. It exists solely in connection with the structures to be designed with its aid.
Thus it is a means that the design engineer calls to his assistance, and it is important always clearly to realise
the essential fact that structural analysis is not in itself a creative activity, as it cannot design buildings and
structures. Its task consists merely in verifying the strength of existing structures or of structures as yet
existing in the designer's mind.
Obviously, it is of fundamental importance that our structures should possess adequate safety and that
they should be reliably calculated to ensure this. A design which is not based on a detailed and realistic set
of calculations will never produce a high-quality structure.
With his Britannia Bridge, a wrought-iron solid-webbed girder bridge with a maximum span of about
142 m (3), Robert Stephenson introduced wrought iron into bridge construction. This bridge, too, which
was built in 1844-1850, was of particular importance with regard to the evolution of scientific thought:
the exhaustive and fundamental tests for clarifying the stability problems associated with the thin-walled
steelwork components introduced true experimental research into the service of the direct design of a
structure.
Finally, in the construction of the bridge over the Vistula near Fordon in 1890 (4), mild steel made its
entry into structural engineering, the designer of this bridge, Georg Christoph Mehrtens, having first satis
fied himself of the equivalence of the acid and the basic method of manufacture of this steel. As long as
structural steelwork was constructed with riveted connections, the designer did not inquire about the
method of manufacture of the steel. The decision was left to the steelworks, and the choice of manufac
turing process depended on the characteristics of the cast iron to be remelted or of the available iron ores.
Differences between the three quantitatively most important steelmaking processess Bessemer, basicBessemer and open-hearth did not assume importance until welding was introduced, more particularly
in connection with the demands as to "weldability" that came to be applied after certain serious mishaps
had shown this to be necessary.
As a background to this brief outline of the evolution of steel construction let us now consider some
remarkable present-day structures. Foremost among these is the George Washington Bridge over the
Hudson River in New York (5), which was built by O.H. Ammann and opened to traffic in 1931. W i t h
its construction an old dream of engineers, namely, to build spans of more than 1,000 m, came true. About
half a century earlier, Roebling had built the Brooklyn Bridge (1883) (6), a suspension bridge with wire
cables and a span of about 500 m. He used cables composed of parallel wires having a tensile strength of
11.3 t/sq.cm. Hence O.H. Ammann doubled the attainable span at one stroke. The wires he used had a
tensile strength of about 15.5 t/sq.cm, a value which, to date, can probably be regarded as the upper utilis
able limit for cold-drawn wires for suspension bridge construction. A further increase in strength is in itself
indeed possible, but this is associated with a reduction in the elongation at fracture, i.e., in the ductility of
the material, which is dangerous, because it can give rise to fracturing of the wires. The great step forward
taken by O.H. Ammann therefore cannot be explained by the relatively modest increase in the strength
of the wire employed. More important was the intellectual achievement, namely, the correct understanding
of the forces and deformations in the heavily loaded cables such as occur in long-span suspension bridges.
This understanding had to be backed up by calculations, and the construction of the George Washington
Bridge accordingly called for the refinement of the deformation theory of suspension bridges founded by
Joseph Melan and Wilhelm Ritter. Such refinement was no longer accurately possible with the functions
made available by analytical theory. It thus becomes clear that further development of structural design
methods, in addition to requiring analytical solutions, calls more particularly for the elaboration of nume
rical methods of calculation which can be adapted to the peculiarities of the pattern of forces acting in
the structure to be built. In this connection the words of Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827) may be of great
significance with regard to structural engineering too: "La nature se moque de nos difficults analytiques".
The great importance of the George Washington Bridge with regard to the development of steel-bridge
construction is very clearly revealed if we compare the earlier designs for bridging the Hudson River with
one another. The need for a bridge existed as far back as the eighteen-eighties, and designs were prepared
by prominent engineers 1 (Figs. 1, 2 and 3). None of these designs was carried out because none was able
to provide a suitable technical or economic solution to the problem. The credit of achieving this goes to
Othmar Ammann's design, which, as compared with all the earlier designs, embodies a new and decisively
important feature in the evolution of steel construction, namely, the trend towards clear-cut and simple
42
Fig. 2
Fig. 1
Fig. 3
43
together they represent an important period in the evolution of steel bridge building. The same evolution
is perhaps even more clearly apparent from a comparison of the O.H. Ammann's Bronx-Whitestone Bridge
(10), whose simplicity and elegance of structural form can hardly be surpassed, and a view of the interior
of the Quebec Bridge (11), which was completed during the First World W a r (1917) and is the second of
the great cantilever bridges. The trend towards simple, straightforward structural forms has become an
essential feature of present day steel construction.
Fig. 4
In the domain of the construction of steel-framed buildings the steel structural framework predominates for
buildings more than 125 m in height. For such structures the essential requirement is the use of the most effi
cient materials for the two functions concerned, namely, the structural (or load-bearing) function and the
infilling (or cladding) function. For the structural system, steel is particularly suitable because it is a highstrength material which enables columns to be designed to relatively small cross sectional dimensions even
in the lower storeys and thus necessitates only a relatively small reduction of the available effective floor
space. This, in addition to the short construction times involved (interest on building capital), is a significant
economic advantage of the steel structural framework. The tallest steel-framed building hitherto constructed
is the Empire State Building in New York (12) with a height of 381 m (not including the aerial tower on
top) and 102 storeys. This significantly exceeds the height of the Eiffel Tower (13), which is 75 years old
this year.
Shed-type single-storey buildings show a great abundance of structural forms. Two fairly minor examples,
the Palais des Expositions at Geneva (14) and a building for the Mustermesse at Basle (15), show the
adaptability of steel construction to the state of the market at any particular time. The economy of a
solution is determined by the total cost, which comprises the cost of materials and the cost of fabrication.
As these two examples show, adaptation to the state of the market can be achieved by reducing the steel
consumption in conjunction with increased fabrication cost or, alternatively, reducing the fabrication cost
in conjunction with increased steel consumption. A problem which keeps cropping up in connection with
buildings of this kind is the requisite degree of fire protection. By way of example, mention may be made
of the steelwork of an aircraft hangar at Zurich airport (16), for which the fire inspection authorities
at first insisted on complete fireproof encasement of the lattice-type roof trusses. It was then pointed out
to them that a fire was hardly likely to start in the steelwork, but would develop in one of the aeroplanes
in the hangar and that the value of one such plane was far higher than the cost of the steel structure as a
whole. This argument at any rate produced an acceptable compromise in the form of a fireproof ceiling
suspended from the bottom ties of the trusses. Admittedly, this did not improve the internal appearance
of the building from the aesthetic point of view, but it did not excessively add to the cost.
The tasks that have to be tackled in present-day structural steelwork research are very numerous and varied.
These will now be briefly outlined with regard to three main directions of research : material, structural
connections, and design methods.
Lack of time makes it impossible to give anything like a detailed account of the influence of welding on the
special requirements applicable to structural steel. However, the significance of the danger of fatigue under
live loading will, at least, be briefly indicated. The tests recently carried out by the American Association
of State Highway Officials (AASHO) clearly show that, with the present-day large traffic loads, a real fatigue
44
danger exists, not only in the case of railway bridges, but also in that of road bridges 2 (Fig. 5). The results
of these tests, in which incipient cracking and failure were found to occur after about only half a million
load repetitions, are entirely in agreement with the results obtained in laboratory tests. It should particu
larly be noted that, for low minimum stresses, the fatigue limit may fall below the permissible stresses laid
down in various Standards or Codes of Practice. This result calls for a more stringent formulation of the
design rules with regard to fatigue. It should also be noted that, with inadequate design, fatigue phenomena
are also liable to occur under wind pressure.
AASHO Road
Tests
20
ksi.
f B ridge Tests
from Laboratory Tests
Fig. 5
In addition to riveting and welding, the two methods of connection hitherto employed, highstrength boting
has increasingly come to be used. The highstrength bolt is in itself, of course, more expensive than the
rivet, but a saving can be effected because it is much simpler to use than a rivet, so that the connection
as a whole, in cases where small numbers of bolts are involved, can be formed more economically by bolting
than by riveting. This advantage becomes more pronounced as the number of erection joints in a structure
are smaller, and this is in line with a general trend of development in steel construction, namely, towards
increasing the shop work as far as possible in order to minimise the amount of expensive erection work
on the site. This calls for increased capacity of the lifting appliances and means of transport, on which the
fundamental division into shop work and erection work largely depends. The use of adhesives for bonding
in steel construction is still in its infancy, though already it is possible to use this method for connections
which do not have to transmit any large forces. Further development of the use of adhesives is a task for
the immediate future.
W i t h reference to structural design methods, some fundamental aspects of the problem must at least be
pointed out. The calculations for a structure are an integral part of the design and should therefore be
within the range of ability of those engineers who design and work out a structure.
This means that the methods employed for the structural design calculations constitute the basis of the
design of the structure in its various details. In their manner of representation they must therefore enable
the designer to visualise them directly and they must be dependable and realistic. In many cases the method
of design calculation based on analysis fail to fulfil these requirements. Thus, it is astonishing that, tor
in the case of so simple a structural element as a rectangular plate under uniformly distributed superimposed
load, analysis can offer no functions that provide a straightforward soluriou of the differential equation
of the bending ot the plate. It is for this kind of problem that numerical methods are very important. Perhaps
45
the most characteristic example of such methods is afforded by the funicular polygon, which in its basic
conception traces its origins to Leonardo da Vinci and which, when translated into mathematical language
by means of the funicular polygon equation, enables most of the differential equations occurring in structural
design to be conveniently solved, including more particularly those cases where analysis fails to provide
solutions.
As regards a first-class, up-to-date solution for a structural engineering problem, the requirement as to
economy is of major importance. Nowadays the terms industrialisation, rationalisation and standardisation
are frequently used in this connection. These represent requirements which are already largely fulfilled
by present day steel construction. The separation of the construction work into the manufacture of the
initial elements (rolled steel sections), shop work, and erection clearly shows the characteristics of a rational
division of the overall work. Recently the High Authority of E.C.S.C, introduced new standards for the
two principal forms of rolled steel sections, namely, the standard l-section and the broad flanged l-section.
For each series of sections the essential thing is to find a solution that is acceptable both to the manufac
turer and to the user (Fig. 6). The user would like to have closely graduated sizes of sections at his disposal,
whereas the manufacturer, for the sake of economical production would like to confine himself to the least
possible number of sizes. The present arrangement appears to be acceptable to both sides, as the increase
in weight per lineal metre from one size of section to the next in both types corresponds to about 15%.
In large structures a skilled designer can ensure that the steel sections are for the most part well utilised.
However, it must be emphasised that the economy of the structure as a whole is much more dependent
on whether or not the overall design is efficient than on whether or not the permissible stress can be fully
utilised in some of the sections. What is important is that, in the case of broad-flange beams, the Differdange rolling mills will, if sufficiently large quantities are ordered, also supply intermediate sections. From
the designer's point of view it is desirable that this possibility be retained, despite the overall standardisa
tion that has been introduced.
Light-gauge cold-formed sections formed by folding are coming into increasingly widespread use. In this
respect it must be noted that local buckling because of the thin walls of these sections is liable to occur
at relatively low stresses. Failure of the structural member will, however, occur only in the supercritical
range, and the design of light-gauge sections does, in fact, make due allowance for this. This means, how
ever, that full utilisation of the permissible stresses in so longer possible. Instead, we must adopt so-called
reduced widths in the calculations (b r ), so that the economy of the use of such light gauge sections is greatly
restricted 3 4 (Fig. 7). These sections may be economically advantageous with relatively small loads if, in
addition to their load-bearing function, they can be given another function to perform, e.g., for mezzanine
floors in steel-framed construction.
The prerequisite for industrialisation is the manufacture of identical products in fairly large quantities. In
steel construction this is, as a rule, possible only to a limited extent, for every structure has its own parti-
46
cular problems to solve. In a large country it would, for example, be possible to build schools of standardised
types to the same plan throughout the country. However, it can safely be assumed that in Europe the wishes
of the individual educational authorities cannot, for the present, be lumped together, ignoring all distinc
tions. Hence industrial mass production of this kind is likely to be severely limited in Europe for the time
being.
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A factor which may enter into the economical solution of a major design problem is the use of ordinary
and hightensile structural steel in one and the same structure. This is by no means a new feature in steel
construction. Thus, as long ago as 1826, Louis Navier, in his eminently fine design for the Pont des Invalides
over the Seine in Paris, made surprisingly effective use of the construction materials to suit the requirements:
cast iron for compression, wrought iron for tension ; and this division is to be regarded as the starting point
of more recent developments on these lines.
On the basis of the characteristics of steel construction noted in the foregoing, we must now consider
how future developments may be assessed. In the first place there is the question as to what are the largest
structures that can be built in the various fields of application. In the foreseeable future, bridges with spans
of more than 300 m are likely to be indisputably reserved for steel construction. A n investigation of the
relation between length of span and weight of structure by introducing the concept of the "limiting span"
which, for a given structural system and a particular material, is still just possible, and consideration of the
economy within justifiable limits of application, lead to the conclusion that with our present day structural
steels it is possible to build latticegirder bridges with intermediate hinges up to a span length of 500 m
(which has, in fact, already been achieved) and latticearch bridges up to about 600 m (for suitable soil
conditions). For suspension bridges the maximum attainable span is at present probably in the region of
1,500 m. Longer spans will become possible when steels with higher strengths than those now used become
available. It would appear that, in addition to ordinary structural steel St 37 and hightensile structural
steel St 52, for such large structures a steel of about the grade St 75 is perfectly within the limits of present
possibilities. However, the design engineer would have to stipulate that the elongation capacity, i.e. the
ductility, of this new structural steel must not be significantly inferior to that of the structural steels in
current use, that the yield point and fatigue strength can be increased in the same proportion as the tensile
strength, and that the steel can be worked and fabricated with the same means as those used for our present
day steels. This implies that its weldability must be guaranteed. W i t h regard to steel wires of the kind
used for long span suspension bridges, the question arises as to whether it would not be possible to produce
a wire of increased strength and, at the same time, improved ductility. The drawn wires as now produced
for suspensionbridge construction have a relatively high content of carbon, namely, about 0.8%, and carbon
is in fact the cheapest way to increase the strength. It should, however, be economically possible to increase
the strength by means of other added elements without entailing any greater risk of wire fractures.
47
In the domain of steelframed buildings, the Empire State Building has a height which will probably not
have to be exceeded for any compelling economic reasons in the near future. The cost of such a steelframed
building increases progressively with the height, and very great heights are economically justified only in
places where the price of land is very high. Indeed, can be assumed that in the case of the Empire State
Building, too, adequate utilisation of the plot in economic terms would have been possible with a building
of smaller overall height. In this sphere, therefore, the present resources of steel construction are likely to
be able to meet the requirements of the near future.
Singlestorey shedtype buildings which have to cover large areas, as far as possible without intermediate
supports, can nowadays also be constructed on a scale that can fulfil any reasonable requirements. In this
field the present possibilities justify the prediction that, in the foreseeable future, steel construction will
continue fully to meet the requirements applied to it, especially when it is borne in mind that new structural
forms, such as platetype structures or suspended roofs, permit further development in their range of
application to this class of buildings.
In the three abovementioned fields of structural engineering bridge construction, steelframed buildings
and shedtype buildings steel construction has in recent years been up against keen competition from
prestressed concrete. Such competition is quite necessary. It compels us to give a high qualitative perform
ance, and the competing methods of construction may also have a stimulating effect upon each other. Some
conditions must be imposed upon this competition, however : for both methods the same fundamental
requirements and the same technical quality must be stipulated for the same price. In this connection quite
a number of cases could be indicated where the principle of equality of rights of the two construction methods
in competition has not been observed. Mediumspan bridges have been built in prestressed concrete which,
under equal conditions, could have been built just as efficiently and economically in steel. But the desirable
equivalence of the construction methods has not been attained with regard to technical quality (and there
fore the expected service life of the structures) either. A steel structure does indeed require maintenance to
protect it from corrosionthe cost of which is usually exaggerated but with proper maintenance the
lite of a steel bridge is limited only by a considerable increase in the trarfic loads crossing it. A s yet we know
too little about the longterm behaviour of prestressed concrete structures. However, the problem of relaxa
tion, i.e. the decline in stress that occurs in highly stressed steel element, merits attention. Highstrength
bolts can be periodically retightened in order to offset any relaxation phenomena that occur, whereas no
retightening can be done to the cables in prestressed concrete construction, where the loss of stress is further
increased by creep of the concrete. I need not go into a detailed examination of the inferences that can be
drawn from this regarding the longterm behaviour of such structures. A ttention must be called to one
other point, however : in suspension bridges hightensile steel wires are stressed to not more than 4 0 %
of their tensile strength, whereas in prestressed concrete construction in some countries similar wires
(usually somewhat more highly drawn) are allowed to be stressed up to 70% of their tensile strength. This
definitely proves that the conditions as to technical quality are not the same in the two methods of cons
truction.
Framed buildings of reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete construction have already been constructed
to heights corresponding to about a third of the height of the Empire State Building. In the competition
between the steel and the prestressed concrete structural rramework it should be considered that, because
or the larger crosssectional dimensions of the latter (and, more particularly, of the concrete columns in
the bottom storeys), significantly more effective space is lost for a given area on plan than in steel
framed buildings. This difference should be correctly evaluated by a comparison of the economy of the two
methods of construction.
In the construction of shedtype industrial buildings, structural steelwork has the often important advantage
over concrete construction that services and equipment can more easily be fixed to the steel framework
and also that structural alterations associated with a change in the purpose for which the building is used
can be carried out more simply than in the case of concrete buildings.
The conditions to enable steel construction to compete successfully with its rival methods of construction
are therefore entirely satisfied, provided that it is endeavoured in each individual case to produce a high
quality structure. This requires, however, that the structural system should conform as closely as possible
to a natural pattern of forces and this in turn calls for realistic structural calculation. Our methods of cal
48
culation will have to be developed in this direction. The calculations constitute the basis of the structural
design, and they should therefore, at all stages, reflect the actual pattern of forces in a form that can readily
be visualised and checked. A s already stated, analytical methods often fail to satisfy this condition, and
for this reason numerical methods of calculation must also be developed. This also is intrinsically in conformity
with the nature of the problem presented by a structural design calculation : it must give us the signiricant
numerical values that characterise the pattern of forces.
In the technical literature we often find structural calculation methods which neither fulfil the requirement
that they should be capable of visualisation nor are adequately representative of the actual pattern of forces
nor again are suitable for practical application by the designer. Unrealistic methods call to mind the caustic
assertion by the British engineer Thomas Tredgold (17881829) in his fine "Practical Essay on the Strength
of Cast Iron and Other Metals", namely : "The stability of a building is inversely proportional to the science
of the builder".
The object of the design calculations is the socalled "stress analysis", which has two functions to perform :
on the one hand, it must tell us the magnitude of the stresses which will occur in the structure under working
load and, on the other hand, it must ensure adequate structural safety. In normal cases (Fig. 8), in which
the stresses increase proportionally with the loads, these two functions of the stress analysis coincide.
However, in quite a number of structures this is not so. For example, in the case of an anchored suspension
bridge, which conforms to a stress theory of second order, the stresses in the stiffening girder increase less
rapidly than do the loads; hence the determining requirement is the analysis of the maximum stresses
occuring under service conditions, and no verification of safety is needed. Conversely, in the case of, say,
a portal frame (e.g. the tower of a suspension bridge) the stresses under vertical and lateral loading increase
more rapidly than do the loads, and here it is essential to ensure adequate safety against, for instance, the
stress reaching the yield point; on the other hand, in this case it is unnecessary to check the stresses under
service conditions, since these stresses must be smaller than the normally permissible stresses.
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A further result of the existence of this dual function of stress analysis is that the design of statically indeter
minate structures by the socalled ultimateload method is incomplete and therefore inadequate, inasmuch
as such a method tells us nothing about the stresses under workingload (i.e. service) conditions and there
fore gives no information on the essential fundamentals of the structural design. Also the assumed plastic
hinges do not, in reality, develop with any precision but, at best, only very approximately.
Outstanding structures that serve as pointers in new directions of engineering development, such as
O.H. A mmann's George Washington Bridge, can be created only on the basis of a harmonic synthesis of
intuition, experience and knowledge. They are milestones in the process of evolution, and future generations
will judge the technical skill of our time by such peak achievements. However, in addition, they are perhaps
of equally great significance to ourselves : they have the general effect of widening our experience and
49
increasing our knowledge and ability, and they thus decisively contribute towards improving the quality
ot the many ordinary structures that are built too. They thus promote general development. Steel construc
t o r can point to a number of outstanding achievements and can therefore confidently look forward to
iruitful further development of this construction method as a whole.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
1
50
REFERENCES
D e s c r i p t i o n of p h o t o g r a p h s
1 Severn Bridge near Coalbrookdale 1777-1779.
2 Suspension bridge across Menai Straits, 1818-1823.
15 Mustermesse, Basle.
8 N a r r o w s Bridge, N e w Y o r k , 1964.
52
16 A i r c r a f t hangar a t Z r i c h A i r p o r t .
53
54
55
56
Improvements
in the Properties of Steel
used in Building and
Construction
(Original
text;
French)
Pierre COHEUR
The subject and scope of my talk are pretty clearly indicated by its title. At first
sight it may look easy enough to deal, in the time allotted to me, with the improvement of the various pro
perties which steel offers for exploitation by intelligent builders and architects.
When looked at more closely, however, the task is not so easy after all; in fact, before long you find that
a whole book would hardly suffice tc do justice to it.
This is because the characteristics which distinguish steel from other materials cannot be enumerated in
a few words.
While its strength properties and weldabiliry are steel's great virtues for constructional purposes, it possesses
other physical properties which are all important for certain applications, and which steelmakers have
consequently been busily extolling for the past twenty years. These include its fatigue strength, resistance
to corrosion and to ageing, creep strength, suitability for shaping, machining, enamelling, and so on.
In addition, with progress in technology and in particular rolling practice, the geometrical characteristics
of the conventional products, such as double beams, have been greatly improved; furthermore, the steel
makers have developed new cold-shaping or hot-extrusion processes, which enable them to produce new
shapes of unlimited variety, and open up a new field for the ingenuity of architects and constructors.
The field I would have to cover is therefore very wide, and in order not to exhaust your patience, I propose
to survey only a part of it by following the evolution of two constructional characteristics which are specific
to steel : its mechanical strength and its resistance to brittle fracture.
Mechanical strength
As a strengthening element in constructions, steel is unquestionably a relatively recent, modern material.
It is less than a century since acid-Bessemer, basic Bessemer and open-hearth steel first showed that it was
possible to construct framework in which the loads and principal stresses were supported by elements resist
ant to tension, bending and torsion.
Before then, civil engineering consisted essentially in utilising the resistance of materials to compress'on
stresses, and all the designs of architects, from pyramids to cathedrals, were based on th ! s fundamental
principle.
57
in
limit;
58
^^^3
Flg. 1
Fig. 2
59
100
90807060
50
40{
30
20
10
Fig. 3
This is the grade denoted, according to the E.C.S.C. symbols, by the designation Fe 52, the elastic limit of
which is 22 to 23 tons/sq. in. (34 to 36 kg/mm 2 ) according to the thickness, and the tensile strength from
33 to 40 tons/sq. in. (52 to 62 kg/mm 2 ). This European steel corresponding to the pre-war prototype St 52
mentioned earlier, is now standardised in every country from Japan to Russia, via the U.S.A.
Generally made without any alloying element apart from Mn and Si, this carbon steel owes its service pro
perties to the qualities ot a fine-grain ferritic structure.
If the means of production permit, this steel has good guarantees of regularity, and its ductility and weldabillty properties are very close to those of mild steel.
To illustrate industrial progress, it is always easier and more striking to show the performances obtained,
but these are not always the performances most useful for economic development; constancy and guarantee
of quality as improvement in the technical manufacturing balance-sheet are often more effective arguments.
This is the case for steel Fe 52 of the existing standards; its properties, shown in Fig. 6, do not differ much
from those of before the war, but these values, which were then performances, are to-day current standards,
guaranteed by statistical manufacturing controls. In numerous civil engineering constructions, such as
bridges and other structures, this first steel of high elastic limit has been found to be very economical, and
we often hear of large structures working out over 20% lighter than if they had been made of mild steel.
In shipbuilding or the construction of electric pylons, in mining equipment or rolling stock, the field of appli
cation of this steel will certainly be extended still further. Perhaps tomorrow we shall see it used in the
framework of buildings, as a permanent substitute for the current grades Fe 37 and Fe 42, as long as, of
course, the elastic strains remain permissible, and the projection of the constituent parts does not give rise
to buckling. I make this reservation because the modulus of elasticity of every type of steel depends on the
atomic structure of the iron and is, therefore, a physical constant.
As a representative application of steel Fe 52, I have taken the construction of the Atomium at the 1958
Brussels International Exhibition (although this was by no means the first construction in this steel, and
numerous examples may be quoted in European countries and in particular in Belgium). I think, however,
that this is a construction with which all of you will be acquainted.
This steel Fe 52 is only a first stage towards high strengths. The steelmaker in fact has three principal means
available for increasing the strength value, I.e.:
strain ;
addition of alloying elements;
heat treatments.
60
The first of these is employed in certain processes, and there are many cases in which strain hardening is
utilised tor obtaining high strengths. Take for example wires tor making cables, the tensile strength of which
may attain 127 tons/sq.in. (200 kg/mm 2 ); this, however, is a process which cannot be generally employed
owing to its effect on the other properties of the metal, especially its ductility and we'dability, so that its
application in steel constructional work m\\ be limited.
On the other hand, additives and heat-treatments, employed either separately or usually in combination,
have made it possible to produce sheets and sections of any gauge, the strength properties of which are
superior to those of steel Fe 52, while retaining a high ductility value.
Three examples selected from many others are shown in the three right-hand columns of figure 3.
The first relates to low-alloy steels supplied in normalised condition. The improvement in the strength
properties results more particularly from the specific action of the additives on the ferrite and pearlite.
For this type ot steel the elasric limit is generally 29 to 32 tons/sq.in. (45 to 50 kg/mm 2 ) and the tensile strength
from 38 to 48 tons/sq.in. (60 to 75 kg/mm 2 ).
The other two examples relate to the second type of steel, that is to say, heat-treated low-alloy steels.
In this case, the added elements have a threefold function : first, to displace the austenite transformation
curves and thus help to produce metastable, as quenched structures, subsequently stabilised by tempering;
second, to improve the intrinsic properties ot the structural constituents; and third, to produce a very
fine hardening precipitation. These steels are supplied and used in the treated condition, and their elastic
limit lies in the range from 42 to 48 tons/sq.in. (65 to 75 kg/mm 2 ). Owing to their composition or the state
of their microstructure, such steels, whether of the first or second type, no doubt require certain precautions
in their use for shaping or welding, and perhaps also certain adaptations in the actual design of constructions.
These are criticisms which are frequently made and merit detailed examination by the designer before any
practical work is undertaken.
These criticisms, however, are of the same order as those of former times when steel took the place of wrought
iron or when the designer developed welding; I do not think the use of these materials in sceel constructions
will be retarded by such criticisms.
The practical problems involved are merely a reason for design engineers and constructors to make a more
thorough study of metallurgical physics and an argument for closer co-operation between producer and user.
To sum up, where the elastic limit of the steels currently employed used to be 15 1/4 tons/sq.in. (24 kg/mm 2 ),
it is now 23 tons/sq.in. (36 kg/mm 2 ) and will rise as time goes on to 28 1/2 to 32 tons/sq.in. (45 to 50 kg/mm 2 ).
This advance as regards strength will, however, be of little practical value unless immediately followed by
corresponding progress by the architect, design engineer and constructor, whose plans and methods must
take the fullest advantage of these new properties the moment they become available.
I realize that this problem of utilisation is complicated and cannot be reduced to the simple arithmetic rule
of increasing the work load in proportion to the increase in the elastic limit. Nor do I wish to enter a tech
nical tield in which I would very soon find myself o ut of my depth, but I must state that by taking into account
the modulus of elasticity, choice of rections, reduction in dead weight, modification in the assemblage joints
and various other constructional factors, by resorting to new methods of calculation, the permissib'e stresses
have successfully been increased to a quite unexpected extent.
Thus, for comparable loads, the permissible stresses in welded frames, which were 10 1/4 and 11 1/2 tons/sq.
in. (16 and 18 kg/mm 2 ), respectively, for steels F 37 and F 42, have been increased to 15 1/4 tons/sq.in.
(24 kg/mm 2 ) for steels of type F 52 and to 19 tons/sq.in. (30 kg/mm 2 ) for steels with an elastic limit of
28 1/2 tons/sq.in. (45 kg/mm 2 ) (Fig. 4).
61
kg/mm2
50
Limite lastique
Taux de travail
40
20
Acier
soudoble
Fer
puddl
10
~
Fe 37
797 7927
Fe 42
Fe 52
Acier
haute rsistance
30
1964
Fig. 4
62
63
The constructor, on his part, can reduce the severity of the stresses set up by welding by operating under
the most favourable conditions. One of these is to reduce the temperature gradient by preheating the steel,
He can also suppress the harmful effects of the thermal stresses, and in particular destroy the metastable
compounds which have been formed, by carrying out treatments after welding.
This may be done on the site, but it is obvious that the working conditions will be far more favourable and
their effect more certain if they are carried out in the workshop, and this is certainly a point in favour of
the prfabrication of structures.
Apart from the embrittling phenomena in the vicinity of the weld, it is also necessary to bear in mind the
structural brittleness which I mentioned earlier. As you are aware, the combination ot these various factors
was behind the series ot terrible accidents which occurred in the years 1935-1943 not only on the steel frame
work, but also on the shipbuilding and boilermaking sides. Steel embrittlement is perhaps the physical
phenomenon which has been most studied in the past twenty years. These researches, which were costly
and long, have now culminated in new knowledge and in practical results which are permitting the problem
to be overcome. This new knowledge includes a matter which lies in the scope of the steelmaker and on
which I should like to dwell a little : the resistance of steels to brittle fracture.
Like all metals of body-centred cubic structure, the fracture of an iron crystal subjected to simple tension
generally takes place along one or other of its 48 possible slip directions. Elongation is relatively considerable
and the appearance of the fracture is fibrous (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5
If the possibilities of slip of the crystal are prevented by polyaxial stresses, or if they are frozen by reducing
the temperature sufficiently, or again if the crystal is not allowed sufficient time to recover by subjecting
it to rapid stress, fracture then takes place by another process, that of decohesion. In this case, the elonga
tions are very slight, the fracture has a crystalline appearance and the metal behaves like a brittle substance.
This phenomenon may be demonstrated by subjecting notched specimens to impact tests carried out at
decreasing temperatures. The results are plotted in a diagram similar to that of figure 6, in which the impact
strength of the metal, that is to say its toughness, is plotted as ordinate and the temperature as abscissa.
This diagram shows that at a certain temperature, called the "transition" temperature, fracture of the
metal passes from the form by simple or multiple slip to that by decohesion.
Actually (Fig. 7) this passage takes place in a temperature range, and for reasons of simplification, it has
become customary to consider the transition temperature corresponding to a certain fracturing energy " N " .
This transition temperature naturally depends particularly on the shape of the test piece, the type of the
impact test and the energy level selected. It is, therefore, a conventional temperature permitting steels to
be classified according to their resistance to brittle fracture in a relative order of merit.
64
Energie
de
rupture
f
Rupture
fragile
Rupture
J
I
Tde transition
ductile
JC
Fig. 6
By thus basing itself on this qualification criterion, metallurgical research has made it possible first to analyse
and then to control the elements of chemical composition and microstructure which are favourable to it.
The question of the brittle fracture of steel assemblies or constructions is cartainly not yet exhausted and
there still remain to be solved important problems of correlation between the conventional transition
temperature of steel and the service behaviour of structures in which the stressed state and rate ot applica
tion of the stresses play a considerable part in the behaviour of the metal.
Energie
de
rupture
Niveau de rfrence
Tde transition
conventionnelle
Flg. 7
The important point so tar established is that the quality of resistance to brittle fracture, as defined by a
transition temperature, may be used for defining "classes ot steel on a weldabMity scale" in the same way
that the strength properties tensile strength and elastic limit have served for the classification of
steels in "grades". This transition temperature, therefore, must not be confused with that of the assemblies,
still less with the service temperatures of the corresponding constructions.
I shall illustrate the classification just mentioned first of all by means of the three curves of figure 8.
65
kgfm/cm?
30
50
+50
Tc
kgfm/cm?
30
20
,y^/ /
10
200
50
-100
-50
/
't'l'
'
0 j 0 C -50
Acier haute
rsistance
(5) Acier 9% Ni
Flg. 9
66
For these applications special steels, generally h i g h - s t r e n g t h steels, have been perfected in the course of
recent years.
The t r a n s i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e s o b t a i n e d a r e quite s u r p r i s i n g . By added elements o r by heat t r e a t m e n t s , it
has been possible t o reduce the t r a n s i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e s t o 1 0 0 ' C o r 2 0 0 ^ 0 (Fig. 9).
Two
and
that
only
t y p i c a l examples are shown in this f i g u r e . The first relates t o a l o w - a l l o y steel quenched and t e m p e r e d ,
the second t o an alloy steel c o n t a i n i n g a m o n g o t h e r elements 9 % nickel. It may be noted in passing
m a x i m u m toughness is not essential; w h a t is i m p o r t a n t is t h a t t r a n s i t i o n f r o m d u c t i l i t y should occur
at low temperatures.
O w i n g t o t h e i r appreciably higher cost and the s t r i c t e r conditions of use necessary, these steels are o b
viously intended only for special appMcations. In m e n t i o n i n g t h e m here, my i n t e n t i o n above all is t o show
t h a t the steelmakers have n o w mastered the p r o b l e m of ensuring resistance t o b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e of steel
one of t h e finest examples of the effectiveness of basic research in physical m e t a l l u r g y .
It is t r u e t h a t it w o u l d be advisable t o prosecute the study of the p r o b l e m by measuring the t r a n s i t i o n t e m
p e r a t u r e s of welded assembly joints. This technique is definitely calculated t o get closer t o p r a c t i c a l r e q u i r e
ments.
The q u a l i t y of high w e l d a b i l i t y being a costly r e q u i r e m e n t for the s t e e l m a k e r , even in t h e case of plain
c a r b o n steels, economy of c o n s t r u c t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e c o n s t r u c t o r t o select the w e l d a b i l i t y class w i t h discern
m e n t in t e r m s ot t h e risks of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , such as the stresses on the various elements and the f o r m
in w h i c h the l a t t e r are employed.
In this field also, much progress has been made, and c r e d i t is due t o t h e technical c o m m i t t e e s of E.C.S.C,
whose h a r d and unenviable labours on s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n have g r a d u a l l y succeeded in classifying steel products
w i t h a v i e w t o g r e a t e r economy.
It is t o o often f o r g o t t e n t h a t t r u e i n d u s t r i a l progress is not a l w a y s s p e c t a c u l a r , and t h a t the openings f o r
i m p r o v e d p e r f o r m a n c e have sometimes t o be sought in practical o p e r a t i o n a l details o r the c h o k e of p r o d u c t s .
Conclusions
This brings me t o the end of my r e m a r k s ; it remains for me t o sum up.
Perhaps you w i l l be surprised t h a t in dealing w i t h the e v o l u t i o n of the intrinsic p r o p e r t i e s of steel, I have
n o t emphasized, or even m e n t i o n e d , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of s t e e l m a k i n g processes, w h i c h is c e r t a i n l y the Eu
ropean steel industry's p r i d e . In the field of steel c o n s t r u c t i o n and for mass p r o d u c t s , the various processes
may each supply the q u a l i t y of steel w h i c h the customers d e m a n d , so t h a t t h e c h o i : e of one process o r a n o t h e r
depends on economic, local o r r a w - m a t e r i a l - s u p p l y conditions and is t h e r e f o r e a m a t t e r f o r the s t e e l m a k e r .
F u r t h e r m o r e , it is a w e l l - k n o w n fact t h a t q u a l i t y is t o d a y largely g o v e r n e d by the ladle t r e a t m e n t , r o l l i n g
and p o s t - r o l l i n g processing of t h e m e t a l .
A n d on this subject, I t h i n k I have d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e efforts w h i c h t h e steel industry has made t o meet
consumer's wishes. (4)
These efforts, h o w e v e r , w i l l only be fully effective if the consumer is able t o make the very most of all the
possibilities offered t o h i m , and as I have t o l d y o u , this postulates in the first place a c o - o p e r a t i v e d r i v e by
a r c h i t e c t s , design engineers, constructors and steelmakers t o s t a n d a r d i z e the c o n s t i t u e n t elements of steel
c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k , and t o ensure the m a x i m u m of p r f a b r i c a t i o n in t h e w o r k s h o p and the m i n i m u m of
assembly and finishing w o r k on the site.
Increased u t i l i s a t i o n of steel also implies t h a t t h e public a u t h o r i t i e s and services should adjust t h e i r r e g u
lations t o keep pace w i t h technical progress.
67
Description of photographs
1 Fourth-century Iron Pillar near the O u t b Minar.
68
teet
69
70
italian
Letterio F. DONATO
71
The D I N 17100 lists w i d e range of products, but S t r u c t u r a l Steel Constructions use essentially type St 37,
in the varieties 37, 37.2, 37.3, and type St 52.3.
The French CM 56 Regulations envisage t w o qualities, A D x C h a r p e n t e 35/46 and A D x 35/50. For the con
v e n t i o n a l l i m i t of 0,2, now not g u a r a n t e e d , a tensile s t r e n g t h is envisaged as a provisional measure of
24 k g / s q . m m . , w i t h a reduction of up t o 20 kg/sq.mm. for thicknesses exceeding 20 m m . It is permissible
to use steels having higher p r o p e r t i e s , in any case w i t h u l t i m a t e e l o n g a t i o n not exceeding 1 8 % , provided
the a p p l i c a t i o n is laid d o w n in special specifications.
BS 449 : 1959 specifies BS 15 as a steel for c u r r e n t use and BS 548 and BS 968 (for welded constructions) as
h i g h - s t r e n g t h steels. It is advisable t o replace BS 15, also generally suitable for w e l d i n g , in the case of t h i c k
nesses exceeding one inch o r w h e n t h e r e is a risk of b r i t t l e fractures.
The Italian C N R - U N I 10011/1963 envisages the e m p l o y m e n t of t w o types of steel : t y p e 1 , also called stan
d a r d , and type 2, h i g h - s t r e n g t h . The f o r m e r comprises A 37/42 and A 42/50, both w i t h a yield p o i n t of
24 k g / s q . m m . , u l t i m a t e e l o n g a t i o n on a long bar not l o w e r t h a n 2 5 % for A 37 and 2 3 % for A 4 2 ; the l a t t e r
A 52/62 w i t h a yield p o i n t of 36 k g / s q . m m . and u l t i m a t e e l o n g a t i o n , still on a long bar, not less t h a n 2 2 % .
For both types, the C h a r p y V resilience must not go below 3.5 kg/sq.cm. a t 20 u C. It is also permissible
t o use, in e i t h e r of t h e above types, all steels belonging t o the Italian Standards in respect of w h i c h , in
a d d i t i o n t o the requirements prescribed by t h e Italian Standards, the m i n i m u m properties laid d o w n by
C N R - U N I 10011 a r e g u a r a n t e e d . Lastly, it is possible t o use n o n - s t a n d a r d steels, provided they meet the
r e q u i r e m e n t s laid d o w n in the Regulations.
These s u m m a r y indications, a l t h o u g h not a l t o g e t h e r discouraging t o the definite prospect of placing at
the disposal of the European c o n s t r u c t o r s in the near f u t u r e a small n u m b e r of steel products having w e l l defined p r o p e r t i e s . They also offer in t h e best possible w a y the r e q u i r e m e n t s of s t r u c t u r a l steel w o r k , and
in any case are sufficiently r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the considerable difficulties of the p r o b l e m . A m o n g o t h e r things,
the S t a n d a r d Regulations of t h e various countries do not always f o l l o w u n i f o r m principles in defining the
materials and when they refer t o similar features, these a r e not clear enough t o identify a given m a t e r i a l in
o r d r e t o make exact comparisons. As a p r e l i m i n a r y , it w i l l be necessary t o give a complete list of the
European s t r u c t u r a l steels so t h a t t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s may be subsequently analysed in r e l a t i o n t o the possible
applications in t h e v a r i o u s branches of the s t r u c t u r a l steel c o n s t r u c t i o n .
As far as I k n o w , this is just the m e t h o d of w o r k adopted by t h e European C o n v e n t i o n in this field. Consid
erable progress t o w a r d s s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n appears t o have been recently made by the E.C.S.C.
T y p e s of loads
N B N 1f 1959 classifies as follows, the stresses t o be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n : for p e r m a n e n t load, e x t r a
loads, d y n a m i c factors, snow, w i n d , e x t r a loads due t o the testing of lifts, goods e l e v a t o r s , hoisting e q u i p m e n t ,
maintenance e q u i p m e n t , etc. The e v a l u a t i o n of t h e w i n d influence is laid d o w n in N B N 460. The e x t r a load
due t o snow on the h o r i z o n t a l surface, constant and equal t o 35 kg/sq.m. f r o m sea-level up t o an a l t i t u d e
of 100 m., increases until it reaches 65 kg/sq.m. a t the height of 700 m. It is not t a k e n i n t o account w h e n
the pitch g r a d i e n t is equal t o , o r higher t h a n 5 0 ' , excepting where t h e r e is presumed t o be an a c c u m u l a t i o n
of snow t h e presence of which must be considered simultaneous w i t h the influence of the w i n d . The t e m p e r a
t u r e range is g e n e r a l l y envisaged t o be between 20 and + 4 0 " C , the average t e m p e r a t u r e being 1 0 " C.
A t e m p e r a t u r e differential of 1 0 " C. must be t a k e n i n t o account between the parts exposed t o the sun and
those p r o t e c t e d , w h e n calculating the hyperstatic systems, especially for continuous beams.
The said N B N 1f 1959 envisages the f o l l o w i n g cases of stress :
(1) s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n , of t h e most u n f a v o u r a b l e n a t u r e , of all cases of stress including t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a
tions and snow in the absence of w i n d ;
(2) s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n of n o r m a l w i n d t o the most u n f a v o u r a b l e influence of all cases ot stress, as in the
previous one, excluding snow, b a r r i n g special cases;
72
construction
Dynamic
loading;
The checks must be made f o r the w o r s t c o m b i n a t i o n s of both the loads only and the c o m b i n a t i o n of
loads = + C, unless one of the t w o conditions of load is u n d o u b t e d l y p r e p o n d e r a n t .
The Italian Rule is contained in C N R U N I 10012 w h i c h a few months ago entered the e x p e r i m e n t a l a p p l i
c a t i o n stage. This envisages the f o l l o w i n g types of load :
73
permanent
load,
Condit ion II, which in a d d i t i o n t o the influences of the f o r m e r embraces in the most u n f a v o u r a b l e
m a n n e r t h e complement ary influences: w i n d , t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n s , c o n t r a c t i o n , f i x i n g imperfections,
assembly faults.
The c o m p l e m e n t a r y influences a r e t o be considered as main ones w h e n , in association w i t h t h e p e r m a n e n t
load they create a p r e p o n d e r a n t influence in r e l a t i o n t o t h a t of C o n d i t i o n I.
' N0VKN
REGGIO C.
Fig. 1
60 kg/sq.m.
90 kg/sq.m.
90 + 0.15 (h
300) kg/sq.m.
74
RGION A
%
r
\Mk
f ^ i ?TRENTC\
'.'.
: '~'
'MILANO A 7 ~ ' VENEZIA
'
TRIESTE
C. Teulada
(PALERUtT
/
3 RGION D 3
3- RGION EV
Fig. 2b
Flg. 2
20) : 100,
75
() The Belgian and French specifications avoid the distinction between main and complementary
fluences;
in
(b) The others, including the recent CNRUNI 10012, maintain this distinction and include among the
main influences, those due to dynamics and among the complementary influences, those due to
wind, and temperature, also the braking and starting stresses;
(c) The Belgian and French specifications assume three conditions of load. The first condition is practically
identical in both specifications. The second includes all the influences, but not allowing for snow in
the Belgian specification, but allowing for snow in the French specification. The third, which has an
exceptional character, suggests the superimposition of exceptional wind added to the loads of
Condition II in the Belgian specification, whilst the French specification, in addition to the permanent
load but excluding snow, covers for the worst conditions all extraloads being increased by 25% and
wind being increased by 50 %.
Permissible tensions
NBN 1f 1959 lays down, that for thicknesses of up to 30 mm. and for the loading conditions I, II and III using
various grades of rolled steel, the permissible tensions are as in Table I. The data is fixed with reference
to the yield point given for each material as shown in the column under Condition III, and as a rule two
thirds of its value are deemed to hold good for Condition I and three quaters for Condition II.
N B N 1 f 1959 = ; permissible no r m a l tension in kg/sq.mm.
Table I
Condicin
Material
A 37 / 37 SC / 37 HS
A 42 / 42 SC / 42 HS
A 52 / 52 HS
( Cat. A
A 00
( Cat.
II
III
16
18
24
14
18
20.5
27
16
24
27
36
21
12
13.5
18
These identical ratios are used for thicknesses exceeding 30 mm., for A 52 with > 36 kg/sq.mm., but
generally meeting the other requirements of the regulations for materials not envisaged in the Regulations,
but are considered suitable, when they have a guaranteed average lower yield point or, when the circum
stances apply, the limit of 0.2, which is statistically determined, with a typical deviation of results not
exceeding 10%.
The safety checks for the various conditions of stress are to be made using the formulas given in Table II.
The comparison of the tensions \, are written in the usual manner assuming > a n > our, and are derived
from the energetic resistance principle of Huber, Hencky, von Mises, which limits the share of afferent specific
deformation work to the form variation only. A t the triaxial state of traction there is also the limitation
= 2a a m . as a precaution against brittle fractures. The ideal tension corresponding to triaxial states is
also expressed as a function of the plasticity coefficient according to Schnadt, which is dangerously low
for a hydrostatic type of condition and equal to one for a monoaxial state. In the flat state of tension expressed
by a single tangential parameter, the permissible tangential tension = 0.576 .
76
T a b l e II
II
o
1-
(1
principally
) 2 + ( ) 2 =
AJ{G ) 2 + (
V2
1
,-- V("x ) 2 + ( 7)- + ( ) + 6 (
generally
V2
princlpalally
3S
generally
.y,
V - + 3
Monoaxial tension
y/.
/.
(, = 0)
V a 2 + + 3
+ 2 + 2 )
xy
'
(/. = /. = = 0)
xy
( = = tyz = = 0)
xy
Txy V 3
( = = = i y z = = 0)
(, = = 0)
Plasticity coefficient : =
/ f1
/y2 V v
\2
\2
COMPRESSIONS
g , ,= a
Fig. 3
>i +
2
<~\
The said radius does n o t cut the axis of the t h r o u g h | 0 | < 0 , but cuts it t h r o u g h | 0 | > 0 . A t t h e
l i m i t of safety, the compression m o n o a x i a l states ( = = 0) and the t r a c t i o n m o n o a x i a l states
( = = 0) then p l o t on the c o n t o u r of the safe zone the pair of points 1 , 1 ' and 3, 3' having o r d i n a t e
T 0 = 0.5 | rTani | : s i m i l a r l y , the t w o a x i a l state c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a single t a n g e n t i a l p a r a m e t e r plots on the
77
by the half s t r a i g h t lines leaving point 4 = 4' and passing t h r o u g h points 3 and 3'; w i t h i n the said i n t e r v a l
the safe zones must consequently satisfy the c o n d i t i o n :
for
"
"
0.5 :1 <
""
0 < 0.5 :1
by the ellipse passing t h r o u g h poinis 1, 2, 3 and s y m m e t r i c a l points 1 ' , 2', 3', t o which applies the c o n d i t i o n
of safety :
t * + 0 . 6 9 2 < (0.65 a a m ) 2
for
by the lines passing t h r o u g h points 1 and 1 ' parallel t o the axis of the n, w i t h the c o n d i t i o n :
~o ^ 05
-)^v
ay
Fig. 4
In p a r t i c u l a r , f o r = 0, the l a t t e r becomes :
"s + ^ ' ^ T x y ^
A f u n c t i o n a l scale gives the pair of values , permissible for a&m = 16 k g / s q . m m . and = 18kg/sq.mm
For the m o n o a x i a l states the specification D I N 1050 lays d o w n different permissible tensions according t o
w h e t h e r i n s t a b i l i t y phenomena a r e t o be t a k e n i n t o account o r not, quite a p a r t f r o m any special checks
78
which such phenomena might require. The table gives the various values in the two cases and also the values
of Tam relating to an isolated tangential stress, for both the condition of load H (main influences) and HZ
(main and complementary influences).
The ratio of Tam to the permissible tension for tensile or compression stress without instability effects is
near to the figure of 0.575 to which the Belgian regulations also refer.
Table
Ml
Material
Nature of stress
St 37
St 52
Hz
Hz
14
16
21
24
16
18
24
27
10.5
13.5
15.5
Tangential tension
(xam)
In the web of compound girders, stresses must comply with the regulation figures contained in the table.
Also if the average tangential tension exceeds 0.5 T atn , the ratio of the ideal tension according to Huber,
Hencky, von Mises becomes :
=
2 + 2
+ 3 2
up to the yield point and always be contained within the limits of 3/4 for the condition and of 4/5 for the
condition HZ.
In the case of hyperstatic systems which are designed on the principle of total safety, the ideal local tension
cannot exceed the tension ,, of the table.
In sections subjected simultaneously to bending stresses along different axes ( M x and M y ), and possibly in
association with a normal force N, the maximum normal tension due to the simultaneous influence of all
stresses may be exceeded locally by up to 10% of the regulation permissible value, provided the separate
effects of the two bending stresses satisfy the conditions :
max ( + ,) ^ 0,8
The specification CNR-UNI provides, for monoaxial states and for the initial condition, the permissible ten
sions of 16and 24 Kg/sq.mm. for steels of type 1 and type 2, respectively, and tensions equivalent to 1.125 aam
for the second condition. For the multi-axial states, the specification also refers to the principle of Huber,
Hencky, von Mises. The safety check is compulsory for both conditions of load.
In conclusion, the Regulations agree in a general way, in respect of materials having comparable mechan
ical properties, also with the values of the permissible tensions for monoaxial states and the reference
to the safety principle given by Huber, Hencky, von Mises for checking the multi-axial states.
There is perfect agreement between the Belgian and Italian Regulations, the latter, however, do not envisage
a condition of load corresponding to the third condition of NBN1 f. 1959. The provision of DIN 1050, in respect
of permissible tensions for compression in given conditions reduced by 10% approximately in relation to
those for traction, has no equal in the other Regulations. Specification CM 56, although agreeing on the
essential values of common reference, departs considerably from the others owing to the complicated verifi
cation method, which, however, meets a more advanced theory and can be easily applied with the help
of functional scales given in the Regulations.
79
T h e s t a b i l i t y of e q u i l i b r i u m
The Regulations concerning the question of s t a b i l i t y of e q u i l i b r i u m , and in p a r t i c u l a r the p r o b l e m of the
bar, either plain o r c o m p o u n d , compressed in an axial d i r e c t i o n o r in a d i r e c t i o n parallel t o the axis, a r e
the ones w h i c h especially d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n , and c h a r a c t e r i z e the various Regulations.
O b v i o u s l y , o w i n g t o the shortage of the t i m e a v a i l a b l e in r e l a t i o n t o the vastness and i m p o r t a n c e of this
complex subject, I can only briefly survey the various statements.
N B N 1 f 1959 deals w i t h the combined bending and compression load by reducing it t o one of simple c o m
pression by means of a suitable reduction of the gross section of the r o d . The coefficient of r e d u c t i o n ,
represented by the r a t i o = aamp/cam between the permissible tensions for c o m b i n e d bending and c o m
pression load and for compression load only, in respect of a given type of steel, is a f u n c t i o n ot the slenderness
of t h e r o d only. The l a t t e r is defined as the r a t i o between the free l e n g t h , namely t h e distance between the
points of the axis w h i c h c a n n o t move transversally, in the bending plane, and the radius of i n e r t i a of the
perpendicular section in t h e same plane.
Excluding the combined bending and compression stress for slenderness ^ 20, the permissible tension
is believed t o v a r y according t o the line a a mp = <W v c = bX plastic field (20 < < ) , a c c o r d i n g
t o Euler's h y p e r b o l a aamn TC'"E/VCE^ 2 in the elastic field ( > ). The degree of safety vc: is the same
of simple compression, w h i l s t the VCE S constant and equal t o 2.7 as suggested by Prof. Massonnet. The
constants a and b, a r e different for the various m a t e r i a l s , and are such t h a t a a mp = !1 for = 20 and a, l m ,,
equal t o t h e Eulerian pressure divided by t h e degree of safety, t o the l i m i t of p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y . The l a t t e r
has been t a k e n t o be equal t o 8 0 % of the yield point, w h i c h f o r o s = 24. 27 and 36 k g / m m for A 37 (or A
00),
A 42 and A 52 respectively, given in t h e same o r d e r = 105. 98 and 85.
Enclosure III of the Regulations contains the values of the coefficient, w h i c h are different for the t h r e e grades
of steel. The values a d o p t e d for o t h e r kinds of m a t e r i a l s must be justified t h e o r e t i c a l l y and c o n f i r m e d e x p e r i
mentally. The use of slenderness > 175 is left t o the responsibility of the designer, but in general is not
r e c o m m e n d e d . The coefficients of the t a b l e hold good for all t h r e e types of Regulation loads, it being
assumed t h a t the in the case of types 2 and 3 can be increased in the same r a t i o as for simple
compression.
If t h e compression stress does not act along the axis, o r g e n e r a l l y w h e n in association w i t h it t h e r e is
also a bending stress, t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n for m a x i m u m tensions c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n of both
stresses is prescribed. The compression stress is evaluated as in t h e case of the a x i a l load. The bending
stress must be increased by the r a t i o P E / ( P E 2.7 P), w i t h P E , being the Eulerian load for head-on yielding
in the c o r r e s p o n d i n g plane, in o r d e r t o t a k e i n t o account t h e increase in bending moments due t o deflection.
Also a f u r t h e r increase, in the r a t i o 1 : K, t a k i n g i n t o account t h e risk of t w i s t , is t o be added t o the bending
stress in t h e plane of m a x i m u m i n e r t i a , being the coefficient laid d o w n for t h a t purpose in A r t s . 426 and
427 of t h e Regulations. Consequently, in the more general cases, t h e c o n d i t i o n to be satisfied corresponds
t o the f o r m u l a :
'
rH x c q
r]
KW
B~
2 7
y e (1
E~~ si CTi"
;
W
27
> (
1)
If t h e bending m o m e n t is highest at one end of the r o d , as w h e n t h e compression load acts on the axis,
the c a l c u l a t i o n m o m e n t in each main plane is t o be found by t h e f o r m u l a :
= T"
A t
'
Mxmax
W
Mymax
Wy
80
imperfections,
The check c o n d i t i o n of the simple compressed rod follows t h e usual f o r m u l a ^ < aam> i n which is the
average t e n s i o n , aam is the permissible tension for a simple compression and k, is the increase coefficient
which takes i n t o account both the t h e o r e t i c a l and practical aspects of the combined bending and compression
stress and is given in T a b l e IV of enclosure 7.1 of the Regulations, in f u n c t i o n of the r a t i o = <:/ of
the Eulerian pressure and t h e average pressure m u l t i p l i e d by the degree of safety.
The average pressure can also be related t o the permissible tension d l m p w h i c h takes
combined bending and compression stress by simply m a k i n g a < ,, The c o m p a r a b l e
by d i v i d i n g the tension at the yield p o i n t by the degree of safety, is given in T a b l e III of the
Enclosure, for slendernesses of 20 t o 300 and for values of , = 16 and 18 k g / s q . m m .
t o t h e yield p o i n t o s = 24 k g / s q . m m .
i n t o account the
tension, o b t a i n e d
abovementioned
corresponding t o
For t h e r o d loaded under axial compression and subjected t o a bending stress in the a x i a l compression
plane, t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o cases a r e i m p o r t a n t :
(1) S y m m e t r i c o r a s y m m e t r i c section, w i t h a bending stress af due t o compression in the m a x i m u m stressed
fibre of o r d i n a t e ^ v' (Figs. 5a, b);
(2) A s y m m e t r i c section w i t h a bending stress at due t o compression in the m a x i m u m stressed f i b r e , of
o r d i n a t e v' < (Fig. 5c)'
A
/
>
,V
>
>
si,
Fig. 5
/ < , :
81
The coefficients , f o r m a l l y similar t o the coefficients k, of C M 1 956, have here the expression =
in w h i c h aamp is equal t o the smaller of the f o l l o w i n g ratios :
CE/VCE
o"CK./vCK
Centre de pression
/, |)
1.5.
\5
tg e
Fig. 6
e = (0.05 t /500)i,
as shown in the i l l u s t r a t i o n . So t h a t in r e l a t i o n t o t h e radius of bending i n e r t i a /, the eccentricity consists
of a constant a m o u n t and also of an a m o u n t p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the slenderness . The classical theories
of deflection are deemed t o be satisfied even beyond the l i m i t of p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y , the deformed section is
reduced t o a sinusoidal section and the assumption is made t h a t : E = 21,000 k g / s q . m m . , $ = 23 k g / s q . m m .
f o r St 00 and St 37 and as = 34 k g / s q . m m . f o r St 52. U n d e r these very r i g i d assumptions, if w e have :
m = 2.317 (0.05 +
/500), =
(/(
( <).
p;
8 =
const.
82
+ a9
(2) f o r v/v'
<
0.9
3^0 + 2
"F
<V
W<
r,r,r,
M
77/ ^ s :
1000
-I
il
i
G
sa
Flg. 7
W h e n the bending m o m e n t varies along the axis, w h i l s t t h e stressing plane remains the same, under t h e
conditions mentioned above w e must put in m a x M in place of M ; h o w e v e r , if t h e m a x i m u m coincides w i t h
one of the moments M and M 2 acting at t h e ends and in correspondence w i t h t h e m t h e d e f o r m e d section
has o r d i n a t e zero, w e can t a k e an average value M = 0,5 ( M j + Mo), but not less t h a n 0.5 m a x M.
For the r o d subjected t o a combined pressure and tension stress, if an easier check is not r e q u i r e d , the f o l l o w
ing c o n d i t i o n is made t o apply :
<
( -)
which is the Eulerian load, assumed t o be valid also in the plastic field, and ,, is a coefficient w h i c h
allows for the risk of t w i s t s i m i l a r t o the coefficient of the c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r m u l a in t h e Belgian Regu
lations and is given by special tables, as a f u n c t i o n of a nondimensional r a t i o depending on t h e g e o m e t r i c
characteristics of the rod and separately f o r the t w o grades of steel. For d e t e r m i n i n g M in the case of a
v a r i a b l e bending m o m e n t , the s i m i l a r principles of t h e G e r m a n Regulations apply also.
83
We cannot say that it is always appropriate to vary the degree of safety in the useful field of slenderness,
a problem which seems to have been rationally solved in CM 1956.
As regards to the economy in the design of compressed rods, which considerably influences the general
economics of structural steel constructions, the French Regulations seem the more advantageous whilst
the Belgian Regulations, (in which the maximum degree of slenderness currently utilized is very restricted,)
the most reliable, and the German and Italian Regulations are in the intermediate position.
Conclusion
It is very difficult to draw conclusions from the overall review that has been made and from the few remarks
which I have made to follow each subject. As I said in the introduction, my exposition had to leave out
entirely, some essential aspects, both static and technological, and I should have been delighted to have
dwelt on some of them which were particularly studied whilst elaborating on the Italian Regulations, one
of which for example, was welding connections. Moreover, as regards the subjects I have dealt with, I have
had to confine myself to putting them forward, whilst leaving out details which were far from being un
important, in order to give a well founded opinion.
The conclusion, therefore, can only be given in a general manner.
As regards the definition of constructional steels, the discussion is still open.
The principle of limiting the materials to only two classes sufficiently qualified, namely one standard and one
high-strength, seems now to be general practice. In this selection, special steels do not come in, for example,
the American type 1, so far not taken into account by any of the European Regulations.
As regards the stress influences, there is justification for some of them, due to climatic or traditional causes,
for the different approaches from one Regulation to another, but it is not always easy to find a reasonable
explanation for the very marked differences which are found in the case of others. It is indisputable that it
should be most appropriate to try to reach a better understanding on the corresponding evaluations.
On the other hand, satisfactory agreement seems to exist on the two types of stress; there is hope for proof
in relation to a third type exceptional as laid down in the Belgian and French Regulations.
There are no notable differences as regards the level of the basic permissible tension, or the degrees of safety.
In this connection, it must still be decided whether, taking into account the range of the yield point with the
variation in thickness, it would be advantageous, for a given material, to adopt a single permissible tension,
thus accepting the corresponding ranges of the degree of safety or whether it would be logically preferable
to tolerate the complication of a more moderate permissible tension for thicknesses beyond a certain limit.
The principle of Huber, Henckey, von Mises for checking the safety of multi-axial stress states is generally
accepted. The criticism against it is not without foundation, nevertheless as the principle of the traditional
check of safety has been accepted, the former principle has proved satisfactory, being confirmed by experience
and represents the best that at present can be done.
The stability of equilibrium is acquiring ever increasing importance whilst the properties of the material
improve and constructional forms become more slender. It sets complex problems which often involve
difficult research methods, but of which the solution is not always in agreement with the experimental
results. In any case it does not lend itself well to being expressed in a single and quick manner as approp
riate to Regulations. In this connection, it seems to us that the French Regulations are not only the most
progressive, but they also have given a rational complete and final solution to these complex problems.
84
The various types of connections, i.e. rivets, s t a n d a r d and h i g h - s t r e n g t h bolts, welds have been left o u t
of my e x p o s i t i o n . H o w e v e r , I should like t o make a very brief reference t o t h e m in o r d e r t o underline t h e
g r o w i n g i m p o r t a n c e , for many applications, of the behaviour of f a t i g u e in joints. The specification C N R - U N I
10011 has given a d e q u a t e space t o this subject, especially in connection w i t h welded joints. A large p r o
g r a m m e of research on j o i n t fatigue for t u b u l a r steel w o r k for various types of j o i n t s , especially using f r i c t i o n
bolts, has been put under w a y on behalf of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e for the D e v e l o p m e n t of T u b u l a r
S t r u c t u r a l S t e e l w o r k (C.I.D.E.C.T.), by the S t r u c t u r a l Steel C o n s t r u c t i o n C e n t r e of Pisa U n i v e r s i t y . It is
expected t h a t a s t a r t w i l l be made as soon as the p r e l i m i n a r y static tests, now r u n n i n g , have been completed
and t h a t the w o r k w i l l be finished next year.
The S t r u c t u r a l S t e e l w o r k C o n s t r u c t i o n Industry has derived a l r e a d y e n o r m o u s advantages f r o m the Euro
pean Coal and Steel C o m m u n i t y . Interest in it, which was f o r m e r l y limited t o a small circle of specialists,
has considerably increased and is quickly increasing f u r t h e r . The same interest is noted in its a p p l i c a t i o n s ,
ever so f r e q u e n t and i m p o r t a n t , often in large w o r k s and also in fields t r a d i t i o n a l l y used t o c o n s t r u c t i o n a l
types in o t h e r m a t e r i a l s .
These results a r e already e n c o u r a g i n g , but we can be c e r t a i n t h a t w e shall see more promising developments
if t h e efforts aimed a t reaching a European Specification are t o be c r o w n e d w i t h success.
85
Problems
w x t : English )
George F. D A N F O R T H
In the Fall of 1960 I had the g r e a t pleasure t o present a series of lectures on the
C o n t i n e n t and in the U n i t e d K i n g d o m on recent developments in the a r c h i t e c t u r a l uses of stainless steel
in t h e U n i t e d States and C a n a d a . W i t h i n the f o l l o w i n g t w o years I gave a s i m i l a r series t o architects in
Japan, A u s t r a l i a and India. As I consider such occasions significant forums for the exchange of i n f o r m a t i o n
and as o p p o r t u n i t y for presenting ideas and concepts w h i c h hopefully may be conducive t o p r o v o c a t i v e
t h i n k i n g and f u r t h e r c o n s t r u c t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t , I was p a r t i c u l a r l y h o n o r e d by t h e H i g h A u t h o r i t y of t h e
European C o a l and Steel C o m m u n i t y in being invited t o p a r t i c i p a t e in this, the first, i n t e r n a t i o n a l Steel
U t i l i z a t i o n Congress.
Of course being a student of Mies van der Rohe I am m o r e t h a n a l i t t l e interested in the problems of s t r u c t u r e s
as a f a c t o r of a r c h i t e c t u r a l expression n o t a b l y steel s t r u c t u r e s .
The p r o g r a m f o r m u l a t e d tor this Congress impresses me as being a sound beginning t o w h a t I hope w i l l
be a c o n t i n u i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n t o an i n t e r n a t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the problems of a r c h i t e c t u r e , building a n d
c o n s t r u c t i o n . Being an a r c h i t e c t I w i l l of course a t t e m p t t o touch upon some of the problems and t r e n d s
of t h e use of steel in A m e r i c a w i t h more o r less a r c h i t e c t u r a l examples.
But w h a t are some of these problems and in w h a t ways do they present themselves? In my talks w i t h a r c h i
tects, f a b r i c a t o r s and builders in many parts of the w o r l d I have been impressed by the generally s i m i l a r
n a t u r e of the problems w i t h which they are concerned. But this is not s u r p r i s i n g , for slowly, w i t h i n t h e past
c e n t u r y , a r c h i t e c t u r e has come t o accept m o d e r n industry and t e c h n o l o g y as the source of m a t e r i a l s and
methods of b u i l d i n g . This i m p a c t of the scientific and technological age in w h i c h w e live has resulted in a
u n i f o r m i t y of a r c h i t e c t u r a l expression never before realized on so universal a scale; but the u n d e r s t a n d i n g
and acceptance of its relationship t o a r c h i t e c t u r e was one of the first and most i m p o r t a n t problems w h i c h
the architects and builders of A m e r i c a had t o face in s h o r t one of a philosophy of b u i l d i n g , n o t r o o t e d
in historical revivalism, but one leading t o a new scale of values in w h i c h industry and i n d u s t r i a l products
w o u l d be the sources o u t of w h i c h a new and inspiring a r t w o u l d flourish and g r o w .
The seeds for this new c r e a t i v e a r c h i t e c t u r e resulting f r o m t h e new t e c h n o l o g y of t h e Industrial Revolution
found r o o t in t h e w o r k of W i l l i a m Le Baron Jenny w h e n he invented the steel skeleton in t h e H o m e Insurance
Building in C h i c a g o in 1883 (1). The o u t w a r d expression of t h a t skeleton was unclear and lost its g r e a t force
in u n c e r t a i n t y , however, its significance was in its i m p l i c a t i o n of a new constructive o r d e r , as indiginous
t o the t i m e as was the rib v a u l t i n g of the gothic c a t h e d r a l .
Jenny's invention of the steel skeleton e l i m i n a t e d the necessity of bearing w a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n and made possible
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of the t a l l b u i l d i n g . The i m p r a c t i c a b i l i t y of the bearing w a l l for high buildings was made
87
88
Two basic structural concepts have occupied his attention for some time past : the skyscraper or multistoried building, such as in the Chicago apartment buildings just seen or the Federal Building Complex now
in construction in Chicago, and the hall of free span and of great dimensions. This latter type found its most
forceful expression in his project for a convention hall in Chicago (1954). Over 700 feet square the great
two-way truss is supported only on its periphery at 100 foot intervals permitting a completely free area
within for the multipurpose functions such a hall must accomodate (12, 13 and 14).
Whether we examine the perfection of detail, or survey the simplicity of overall form, we are cognizant
of a far-sighted intelligence at work, which has accepted as its goal, no less than the task of formulating
for our time, the arch-types" of a new architecture in steel.
Mention of Mies van der Rohe's work is prerequisite to any discussion ot the use and development of steel
in buildings in America because of the pioneering he has done in bringing this material out into the open-as
it were. Remarkable too was this early American work, not only because it suggested and clarified an en
tirely new philosophical approach to the ae thetics of structure, but that so much of it could be accomplished
in the face of inadequate and often antiquated building codes, limited knowledge of appropriate fabricating .
and erection techniques, and excessive engineering design standards, to mention a few.
This is not to infer that in some of these areas we have progressed too far from the situation as it was in
the late 1940's. To the contrary.
One instance is in the field of architectural research. In spite of the good intentions of many of our manu
facturers, architectural research is, I believe, too frequently confused with the development of a manu
facturer's product; too often applied to the service of special interests. I can think of no serious study having
been made of contemporary building problems which involved the task of bringing about a harmonious
relation between applied science and technology, and our social needs.
W i t h a material such as steel, which lends itself so well to sub-assembly, we still do not include in our quasiprefabricated structural systems those mechanical and electrical components which today comprise up to
30 or 40 percent ot the total cost of a building.
Why hasn't the building industry solved the problem of its electrical systems as has been done in the elec
tronic industry or the airplane industry? Until a wall, floor or roof building component can serve not only
as a structural and space enclosing element but also as a source of heat and light we are working with
outmoded concepts in relation to the real potential of our time.
The ultimate use of steel in building construction in the United States has been further limited by the slow
development of protective coatings against fire. No one, to my knowledge, has seriously questioned the code
restriction of a four hour fire rating (why four hours?) nor questioned the logic behind the restriction which
permits an architect to enclose a structure with glass (which has little or no fire rating) but imposes a fire
rating on noncombustible metal panels if used as a curtain wall. For a country known for its uniform stand
ards we, in fact, have no real common specification or performance standard. Again, research might
well be directed towards a more critical examination of the very principles underlying our national building
restrictions.
If the universality of manufacturing, fabrication, and construction processes which are implicit in our
industrial and technological age can be achieved, such groups as The High Authority of the European
Coal and Steel Community can be an instrumental force in bringing about more international cooperation
in defining and establishing building and construction standards.
It would be fruitful, for example, to devote time to an objective study of the fundamental differences between
the engineering design philosophies of Europe and America. Open competition in design in Europe as well
as European construction codes seem to encourage greater innovation than in America where we demand
such elaborate and to some minds excessive safeguards to protect the design. Has this been a reason
why the knowledge and particularly the acceptance of orthotropic design is so far behind in the United States?
Economic factors of course strongly enter into the problem what with the greater ratio in Europe between
the cost of the material and the wage scale. But of course this too is changing : the ratio between the two
89
factors is g e t t i n g smaller in Europe, and in the U n i t e d States the economics of steel c o n s t r u c t i o n has radically
changed for t h e b e t t e r w i t h i n the last t w o years. This l a t t e r is due, p r i m a r i l y , t o the n u m e r o u s advances
in the p r o p e r t i e s of tectonic steels and also new techniques for t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n .
D r . John B. Scalzi, s t r u c t u r a l engineer w i t h the U n i t e d States Steel C o r p o r a t i o n o p t i m i s t i c a l l y states in an
a r t i c l e " S p e c t r u m of Steels" published in the September 1961 issue of Progressive Architecture t h a t , " N e v e r
before in the history of t h e steel industry have t h e r e been so many new steels, steel products, diversified
f a b r i c a t i n g techniques, and steel design concepts at t h e call of t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l profession." Elsewhere
in his a r t i c l e D r . Scalzi notes t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n steels now range in yield p o i n t f r o m 33,000 psi t o a yield
s t r e n g t h of 100,000 psi. For the engineer this makes possible a much more efficient design t h r o u g h savings
in the w e i g h t of the m a t e r i a l (thus less cost), simplified f a b r i c a t i o n , reduced maintenance, l o w e r shipping
costs, easier handling and erection and less f i r e p r o o f i n g because the individual members are smaller.
One of these new high s t r e n g t h , l o w - a l l o y steels has an added c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h i c h enhances its use w h e r e
exposed t o a t m o s p h e r i c conditions. One of this p a r t i c u l a r type of steel, USS C o r T e n , is f o u r t o six times
b e t t e r t h a n c a r b o n steel in its resistance t o c o r r o s i o n , because its surface oxidizes thus f o r m i n g a t i g h t l y
a d h e r e n t film over t h e m a t e r i a l which in t u r n prevents f u r t h e r o x i d a t i o n . Besides its obvious applications
t o i n d u s t r i a l use w h e r e high s t r e n g t h , m i n i m a l maintenance is desirable it has recently been used in some
m a j o r a r c h i t e c t u r a l projects, t w o of which I w o u l d like t o show you.
The first full a r c h i t e c t u r a l use of C o r T e n , is the new a d m i n i s t r a t i o n building for the John Deere C o m p a n y ,
M a n u f a c t u r e r s of f a r m and road building machinery. Built near Moline, Illinois it was one of the last buildings
done by Mr. Eero Saarinen, before he died (15).
The building s i t u a t e d in the r o l l i n g countryside near the Mississippi River, is s t r o n g in its s t r u c t u r a l expression
w i t h the i n t e n t i o n , according t o the a r c h i t e c t , of symbolizing the heavy, s t u r d y c h a r a c t e r of the machinery
for w h i c h the John Deere C o m p a n y is so well k n o w n (16).
A f t e r having been exposed t o the w e a t h e r for a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w o years the p a t i n a is a p p r o a c h i n g t h a t
rich, deep b r o w n w h i c h w i l l c h a r a c t e r i z e its final color (17).
The present complex consists of t h e m a j o r eight s t o r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n building and a smaller s t r u c t u r e ,
housing e x h i b i t i o n s and meeting halls, which building is connected t o t h e office unit by a Vierendeel Truss
bridge (18 and 19).
The t r a c e r y f o r m e d of the steel sun screens and the strong s t r u c t u r a l elements of the building is, in c e r t a i n
light, sharply accented by the l a m i n a t e d , heat resistant reflective glass used t h r o u g h o u t the project (20).
The second building is a m a j o r s t r u c t u r e in m o r e t h a n one sense. It is t h e new Civic C e n t e r C o u r t h o u s e
n o w under c o n s t r u c t i o n in C h i c a g o , Illinois. W h e n completed it w i l l be the tallest building in the city, rising
over six hundred and sixty feet (31 stories) and its 48 by 87 feet bays are the largest s t r u c t u r a l bays in any
building yet designed f o r actual c o n s t r u c t i o n . These large spans and the f l o o r t o f l o o r heights of 18 feet
provide space necessary f o r w h a t w i l l e v e n t u a l l y be 162 c o u r t r o o m s and h e a r i n g rooms (21).
C.F. M u r p h y Associates are the supervising architects, w i t h S k i d m o r e , O w i n g s & M e r r i l l and Loebl, Schlossman & Bennett as associated architects. Mr. Jacques B r o w n s o n , of the C.F. M u r p h y office, and a f o r m e r
student of Mies van der Rohe is the designer. It is t h e r e f o r e no accident t h a t the c h a r a c t e r of the Civic C e n t e r
building has t h e s t r o n g s t r u c t u r a l q u a l i t y so evident in Mies' w o r k .
The building is m o n u m e n t a l in scale, but not o v e r w h e l m i n g l y so. It is a p r o u d building in the t r a d i t i o n of
the C h i c a g o School of A r c h i t e c t u r e , in which w o r k , decades before, it has its roots.
The Civic C e n t e r building w i t h its a t t e n d a n t plaza t o the south occupies an e n t i r e city block in t h e heart
of Chicago's business d i s t r i c t . It is a building e m p l o y i n g a l a r g e percentage of high strength steels w i t h
C o r Ten being used exclusively on the e x t e r i o r (22).
The columns are stepped and c r u c i f o r m in shape, arc welded and made of ASTM A-441 type steel (Fig. 1
and 2). A t the l o w e r floors they are five feet across, stepping d o w n t o a b o u t t w o feet at the upper stories.
90
What with the fireproofing and the exterior skin of Cor Ten the columns at the ground level measure
approximately 6 feet 4 inches (23).
The interior framing members are open stringers with sprayed on light weight fireproofing, and the exterior
framing is a composite of stringers and girders six feet in depth, and of 3/8 inch thick Cor Ten. On the
back of each girder steel lugs serve to bond it to the concrete fireproofing and thence to the open web
stringer.
The oxidation process of Cor Ten can be seen in photographs 24 and 25, with the lighter almost gunmetal
color being on the most recently placed plate girders.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Incidental to the architectural qualities of the high strength steels and to the use of Cor Ten and other like
oxide coated materials which will undoubtedly have a much wider use in the future is the 27,000 tons of
framing steel and 4,500 tons of exterior architectural steel (totalling 31,500 tons) being used in the Civic
Center building.
The structural concept of the International Business Machine (IBM) Building recently completed in Pitts
burgh, Pennsylvania is that each of the four enclosing wall planes is a diagonal grid truss, sheated in type
302 rigidized stainless steel with the floor beams spanning 54 feet from the exterior wall truss to a central
service core. The interior spaces are thus completely free of columns. Each wall truss is supported at the
base by only two trussed columns. There are no supplemental framing members in the walls other than the
basic diagonal and horizontal members of the truss (26, 27 and 28).
The engineers fully employed the high strength steels where stresses made them applicable and during the
construction, before the stainless steel sheathing was applied, the individual truss members were painted
in color symbols indicating the three ba^ic structural steels used : the A 36 being an improved carbon steel
with a minimum yield point of 36,000 psi, the A 441 with a yield point near 50,000 psi and the Heat Treated
Constructional Alloy steel having a minimum yield strength of 100,000 psi. Although this was primarily
an advertising device it was none the less interesting to observe the distribution of the primary and secondary
stresses in each wall truss (Fig. 3).
Such a structural concept, not withstanding its debatable architecture merit interior as well as exterior
seems to portend more widespread use in view of the fact that the structural engineers preliminary
91
designs indicated the selected d i a g o n a l g r i d system used as a load bearing w a l l w o u l d r e q u i r e 250 tons less
steel t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l post and beam c o n s t r u c t i o n , p r i m a r i l y because t h e steel diagonals w o r k only in
tension and compression, instead of in bending.
Using the o u t e r w a l l as a truss of r e c t a n g u l a r elements, M i n o r u Yamasaki & Associates and Emery Roth &
Sons have a d a p t e d this a f o r e m e n t i o n e d s t r u c t u r a l concept t o the proposed t w o 110 storey t o w e r s ot the
W o r l d T r a d e C e n t e r in N e w Y o r k (29). These t o w e r s each 1350 feet high and 209 feet square w i l l , as in the
IBM b u i l d i n g , have each i n t e r i o r floor space free of columns by v i r t u e of using 60 feet by 13 feet p r e f a b r i
cated floor sections. These span the 60 feet between the stainless steel clad e x t e r i o r r e c t a n g u l a r bearing
w a l l g r i d and the i n t e r i o r service core (Fig. 4).
MMI u l i n n tituhit:
441
HE A! IR W E D
CONSTRUCTIONAL
' ALLOT
THE WORLD
TRADE CENTER
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
But n o t all of t h e new buildings in A m e r i c a are so v e r t i c a l in t h e i r dimensions. There is the need to provide
l a r g e , c o l u m n free spaces f o r such activities as sports arenas, meeting halls, i n d u s t r i a l complexes, etc. For
this, e n t i r e l y different s t r u c t u r a l systems are being used, p r o v i d i n g enclosures of a m a g n i t u d e unfeasible
before the Industrial Revolution and the advent of steel.
P i t t s b u r g h , Pennsylvania's Public A u d i t o r i u m (30) is 415 feet in d i a m e t e r , 136 feet high and its enclosing steel
and stainless steel clad d o m e was designed w i t h moveable sections p e r m i t t i n g t h e a u d i t o r i u m t o be
a b o u t 5 0 % open w h e n desirable. The moveable wedge-shaped sections pivot a t the apex of the dome and
ride on a t r a c k system at the base.
In H o u s t o n , Texas, t h e r e is being completed the H a r r i s C o u n t y S t a d i u m . This Lamella dome is 641 feet and
8 inches in d i a m e t e r and is covered w i t h a new lucite m a t e r i a l developed by D u p o n t w h i c h allows the passage
of u l t r a violet rays and still serves as a heat r e t a r d a n t (31).
Still a n o t h e r system is the Geodesic dome f o r the U n i o n T a n k C a r C o m p a n y in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Here the steel Geodesic dome is s t r u c t u r a l l y i n t e g r a l w i t h the c a r b o n steel r o o f i n g . Its d i a m e t e r is 384 feet
(32 and 33).
N o t so a r c h i t e c t u r a l in t h e sense of the previous examples but of g r e a t interest t o engineers as w e l l as
architects is the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the G a t e w a y A r c h in St. Louis by the late Eero Saarinen. Mr. Saarinen
conceived the s t r u c t u r e as an i n v e r t e d c a t e n a r y curve, t h e strongest c o n f i g u r a t i o n for an a r c h , w i t h all
the t h r u s t passing d o w n t h r o u g h t h e legs i n t o the f o u n d a t i o n . It is a stressed skin s t r u c t u r e in which pre
f a b r i c a t e d t r i a n g u l a r sections are placed one on the o t h e r , w e l d i n g t h e inner and o u t e r walls t o g e t h e r
and filling the " s a n d w i c h " w i t h concrete. More specifically the inner steel walls a r e of 3/8 inch c a r b o n steel
and t h e o u t e r walls of 1/4 inch stainless steel. The concrete w i t h i n t h e t w o walls is post tensioned w i t h high
s t r e n g t h alloy steel bars. The crest of the arch is 630 feet above the g r o u n d and the spread at t h e base
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 315 feet (34 and 35).
92
Other than in the great bridges of the world little use has been made of the cable suspension system to
enclose space architecturally (36). Examples such as the United States Pavilion at the Brussels World Fair or
in the restaurant at O'Hare International Airport in Chicago far from realize the great expressive power
inherent in the suspension principle.
Its great force is indicated in this project done by a member of the f a o l t y and students in the Department
of Architecture at Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago. The span is 2,000 feet and is achieved by com
bination of the steel cable suspension system and the two way roof truss. The limits of the project were to
explore the architectural qualities inherent in a system of structure appropriate to the enclosure or covering
of a vast area. Still to be resolved are the problems ot wall enclosure, space divisions and mechanical and
electrical considerations (37 and 38).
Such a project does however bring to focus in all its aspects the very problems that face us today. How
can we build with the intent of using our technology in its tul'cst sense, and using our judgment in the appli
cation of that technology with the result that what is done is expressive of our day and only of our day.
In closing it seems appropriate to this thesis, to quote !rom Mies van der Rohe :
" I believe that architecture has little or nothing to do with the invention of interesting forms,
or with personal whims. I believe architecture belongs to the epoch, not to the individual. That
at its best, it touches and expresses the very innermost structure of the civilization from which
it springs. Greek temples, Roman basilicas, and medieval cathedrals are significant to us as
creations of a whole epoch rather than as works of individual architects. It must be understood
that all architecture is bound up with its own time; that it can only be manifested in living
tasks and in the medium of its epoch. In no age has it been otherwise."
93
Description of photographs
1 Home Insurance Building, Chicago.
94
Administration
Building,
95
96
97
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98
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99
100
101
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102
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103
37
38
104
Parties
CONTENTS
Roads
C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o discussion :
107
Flyovers
Messrs
Lormand,
Heijligers, de
Lastours,
Heinen,
de
Messrs K i h a r a , S h i r l e y S m i t h
109
C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o discussion :
Messrs
Homberg,
Anselmini,
Stewart,
Saint-Font,
Jungbluth,
Gallien,
Panzarasa,
W a g n e r , Rville, Bender
419
Findings
454
Dubas,
133
W o r k i n g Party V Prefabricated Standard
Discussion :
Messrs
de
Buildings
a n d M a s s - P r o d u c t i o n of B u i l d i n g U n i t s
Miranda,
Dobruszkes,
Kihara,
Demol
455
173
I n t r o d u c t o r y speeches :
175
Findings
Messrs S i t t i g , H e n n
457
C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o discussion :
Messrs S c i m e m i , H a g e m a n ,
W o r k i n g P a r t y II
177
Christiaens,
I n t r o d u c t o r y speeches :
kert,
Messrs T h u l , O d e n h a u s e n , S c h u l t h e i s
Brandi
179
C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o discussion :
Repeczky, W e s t ,
Mes-
Marzin,
Du
Menard,
Chteau,
Pons,
Bender,
Compre,
Don
Vouga,
Canac, Sittig
483
Findings
532
Messrs E i d a m s h a u s , D e m m i n , K r u g , B o n n e t , D e c a i x ,
Sansone, W h i t e , de B o r d e , Peltier, Potenza, K r u g
239
Findings
287
Working
Party VI
New
M e t h o d s E m p l o y e d in t h e
P r e p a r a t i o n of B u i l d i n g P l a n s a n d in t h e C a l c u l a t i o n
of S t e e l C o n s t r u c t i o n s
535
I n t r o d u c t o r y speeches :
W o r k i n g P a r t y III S t r u c t u r a l
289
Framework
I n t r o d u c t o r y speeches :
Messrs B e e r , L o u i s
537
C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o discussion :
Messrs S f l n t e s c o , Z e e v a e r t , K o l l b r u n n e r
291
Messrs B o r n s c h e u e r , v a n de V e e n , Finzi, M a k o w s k l ,
Beer, W a i s b l a t , Chaikes, D e m o n s a b i o n , B a r t h l m y ,
C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o discussion :
Messrs
Spotti,
Bourguignon,
Blanchard,
Fougnies, Pelikan
573
Findings
620
Rochez,
341
Discussion :
W o r k i n g P a r t y VII
Building-Site O r g a n i z a t i o n
Messrs Sflntesco, Z e e v a e r t
393
I m p r o v e m e n t in P r o d u c t i v i t y
Findings
395
I n t r o d u c t o r y speeches :
and
623
625
Messrs G a r d e l l i n i , T r i e b e l , Z i g n o l i
C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o discussion :
W o r k i n g P a r t y IV
P r f a b r i c a t i o n of S t e e l
Components
Building
Messrs
397
Derkzen,
bianco, Gatz,
Boue,
Moiselet,
Duval,
Rulfo,
di
Castel-
Massimino,
Bianchi
Bender,
Jurisch, de S m a e l e , B l a n k e n s t i j n
667
Findings
691
I n t r o d u c t o r y speeches :
Messrs W a h l , J u n g b l u t h
399
WORKING PARTY I :
Brigdes, Elevated
Chairman :
Dr-lng Giorgi BARONI
Rapporteurs:
Prof. Hiroshi KIHARA
H. SHIRLEY SMITH
108
Hiroshl
KIHARA
Tostile O K U M U R A
language:
English)
Introduction
It may be said that, evaluating the bridges built in Japan, an important rle played
by the welding technique should not be overlooked. In 1932, the first application of welding to the reinfor
cement of the Hiyamagawa Bridge" (deck type plate girder) had been conducted and followed by construc
tion of nearly 10 welded bridges, for example, the "Tabata Bridge" (span 40.5 + 53.0 + 40.5 m.) in 1935.
After World W a r II, the all welded Gerber Bridge, Egawa Bridge" x was erected in the Hiroshima Prefecture
in 1949 and after the completion, loading- and vibration tests were carried out to ascertain the performance
of this all welded bridge. - In 1951, the real all welded bridge Honkyu Bridge" :' in the Hyogo Prefecture
was constructed. In this construction, flanges and webs were first separately buttwelded into one complete
piece and then tack-welded in a specially designed assembly frame to secure an exact " I " shape. Finally,
welding had been done conforming to an adequate welding sequence in a rotatory welding frame.
This assembly method was successfully adopted to fabricate welded plate girders as well as truss-members
in comparatively less man-hours. The abovementioned welding method together with the performance and
safety of welded bridges, ascertained by loading tests and vibration tests , was taking the place of the
rivet joint system. All joining work in shops has been done by welding since 1955. Thus, in order to meet the
increasing demand of the construction of steel bridges, new types of steel girders such as composite girders,
box girders, orthotropic steel plating, Lohse girders and curved girders, have successively been made by
welding.
109
25
?0
S
o.
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o 15
9>
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LU
ce /
o
10
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c;
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Fig. 1
1958
PC
<
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RC Bridge
*- k
I960
1963
year
Recently it is c o m m o n l y recognized t h a t a bridge forms a link in the chain of t r a f f i c roads. A bridge was
in the c u s t o m a r y w a y first designed and then t h e roads are planned to suit the b r i d g e . N o w a d a y s , r o a d plan
ning between t w o places is firstly d r a w n and then a b r i d g e is designed so as t o meet the a l i g n m e n t of the
r o a d . Consequently the economical efficiency of the bridge is more or less neglected in o r d e r t o keep the high
traffic efficiency as a link in t h e chain of traffic r o a d . This t r e n d has been accelerated by the c o n s t r u c t i o n of
expressway r o a d systems.
M o r e o v e r , t h e f o l l o w i n g facts make a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o increase t h e share of steel bridges in r o a d p l a n n i n g ,
i.e. t h e establishment of t h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n methods for curved bridges (as w i l l be described l a t e r ) ,
progress in w e l d i n g techniques, w e i g h t saving and economy due t o a d o p t i o n of high yield s t r e n g t h steels, and
s h o r t e r f a b r i c a t i o n t i m e . It should be noted t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 % of the w h o l e length of the expressway
in T o k y o built by the T o k y o Expressway Public C o r p o r a t i o n is equipped w i t h steel bridges, a l t h o u g h steel
bridges are a p t t o be used for t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of expressways in large m o d e r n cities such as T o k y o and
Osaka.
The demand for R.C. (Reinforced Concrete) bridges is n o w decreasing because this t y p e of bridge is usable
only f o r s h o r t spans, and t h e r e f o r e l i m i t e d t o local r o a d bridges and because it needs r a t h e r long c o n s t r u c t i o n
t i m e and higher g i r d e r - h e i g h t c o m p a r e d w i t h those of o t h e r types of bridges.
W i t h r e g a r d t o P.C. (Prestressed Concrete) bridges, the demand has not g r o w n as expected. This is due t o the
fact t h a t the p r o d u c t i o n capacity of P.C. Bridge f a b r i c a t o r s is almost completely filled by o r d e r s . C o n s i d e r i n g ,
however, t h a t the P.C. m e t h o d has progressed technically and various new methods for P.C. have been devel
o p e d , it is expected t h a t the need f o r P.C. bridges w i l l increase f u r t h e r in t h e f u t u r e , in spite of the many
existing difficulties such as supervision in the field due t o the lack of capable inspectors.
Fig. 2 shows the volume of the p r o d u c t i o n of steel frames (building) and steel bridges d u r i n g the last 10 years.
(1954 t o 1963). This f i g u r e clearly proves t h a t steel f r a m e w o r k seems t o reach its s a t u r a t i o n point, but, on
t h e c o n t r a r y , steel bridges still go up r a p i d l y . In 1963, t h e p r o d u c t i o n t o n n a g e of steel bridges increased
293 1 % , c o m p a r e d t o t h a t in 1960, and in t h e same period only 116 3 % in steel f r a m e w o r k s .
The f a b r i c a t i o n cost of steel f r a m e w o r k s is a b o u t yen 83,000 (Bfr 11,600) per ton in 1963, against yen 155,400
(Bfr 21,750) per t o n f o r steel b r i d g e s ; w h i c h is nearly t w i c e t h a t of steel f r a m e w o r k s and t h r e e times t h a t
of the steel price per t o n .
110
600
500
c:
1 ^*
tonnage) . ..
.-price
J building
o tonnage")
__oprice
Jbuildin9
O 400
c:
o
o
Q.
fl
200
<
100
/
/
40
C'
.'
ft
(D
1
/
1
J1 ?
, / /
- ^ N ^
<
/
.o-
50
/ /
/ /
/ /
300
1i
O
O
60
.^
30
OJ
20
54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 year
Fig. 2
I
The use rate of SM 50 (%)
(SS 41 for the rest)
Steel
(yen) * *
Fabrication
(yen) **
Total cost
(yen) **
Plate Girder
0
14
63
61,859
58,504
68,861
61,735
62,214
64,606
123,594
120,718
133,467
Composite Girder
0
25
71
61,859
61,397
71,612
69,513
70,948
73,819
131,372
132,345
145,931
Truss
0
29
55
61,582
62,087
71,079
75,490
77,883
79,318
137,072
139,970
150,397
Box Girder
0
35
70
61,820
60,625
69,879
77,883
79,318
81,711
139,703
139,943
151,590
Arch
0
29
42
59,249
65,726
64,660
87,574
89,967
91,402
146,823
155,693
156,062
* Costs for packing, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , erection, management and profits are excluded, so business price would be hlgher
than these costs by 10-20%.
** Yen 100
$ 0.27
111
Table
II
C a s e of SS 41
c
JS
a
-Q
C a s e o l SM 50
a UJ
1-
c
c
01
.a
E
<
CI
UJ
I-
l-
Plate Girder
1.5
2.8
3.3
0.3
3.0
10.9
1.6
2.8
3.6
0.3
3.1
11.4
Composite Girder
1.5
2.0
3.9
0.6
-1.5
12.5
1.6
2.1
4.2
0.6
4.6
13.1
Truss
2.1
2.5
3.8
1.1
4.6
14.1
2.3
2.7
4.0
1.1
4.6
- 7
Box
Girder
(Orthotropic
Steel Plating Excluded)
2.2
2.5
4.0
1.2
4.4
14.3
2.5
2.5
4.2
1.2
4.6
15.0
Arch G i l d e r
1.0
2.3
4.1
2.5
6.5
16.4
1.4
2.5
4.3
2.5
6.6
17.3
H i g h y i e l d s t r e n g t h steels in J a p a n
The g r e a t e r p a r t of steels used for bridges in Japan consists of S.S.41 (as ' 41 k g / m m 2 ,
- 23 k g / m m 2 )
2
2
and S.M.50 (as > 50 k g / m m , > 32 k g / m m ) . These t w o steels are specified in J.I.S. (Japan Industrial
S t a n d a r d ) w h i c h is a Japanese N a t i o n a l S t a n d a r d . S.S.41 is an o r d i n a r y mild steel and S.M.50 is a w e l d a b l e
high tensile steel c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o G e r m a n S.T.52.
V a r i o u s kinds of high yield s t r e n g t h steels have been w i d e l y adopted in many fields of Japanese industries,
w h i l e few high yield s t r e n g t h steels a r e specified in J.I.S. The Japan W e l d i n g Engineering Society established
W.E.S. ( W e l d i n g Engineering Standard) w h i c h includes a high yield s t r e n g t h steel specification and this
specification has been widely accepted in Japan. This specification 1 (W.E.S.) classifies high yield s t r e n g t h
steels i n t o 9 classes as s h o w n in T a b l e III, w h e r e t w o A r a b i c numerals behind H . W . mean proof yield s t r e n g t h
( k g / m m 2 ) of the steels. So t h a t , T-l steel (U.S. Steel) and H.Y.-80 (U.S. N a v y ) correspond t o H . W . 70
( > 70 k g / m m 2 ) and H . W . 5 6 ( ^> 56 k g / m m 2 ) respectively.
Specification for High Yield Strength Steel (WES)
T a b l e III
Stan dard V
Grade
Yield Point
a y (kg/mm-)
Tensile
Strength
as (kg/mm-)
H W 36
5= 36
53 ~ 65
H W 40
3= 40
57 7 0
H W 45
> 45
5= 50
H W 50
3= 56
H W 56
60 72
62 75
68 82
H W 63
3= 63
74 85
H W 70
3= 70
80 95
H W 80
3* 80
88 105
H W 90
3= 90
97 115
112
Ceq
= : +
!Mn
1
1
Ni - |
+ Si H
24
40
Plate Thickness
t (mm)
13 S t
t
13 < t
t
13 S t
t
13 =S t
t
13 < t
t
1 3 ss t
t
13 < t
t
13 < t
t
13 < t
t
1
5
Cr -|
<
3=
<
3=
<
3=
<
=s
<
<
>
<
3:
<
5=
<
3s
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
1
4
C h a r p y Test
Testing
Temperature
T(C)
1
Mo 4- V
14
10
0
5
5
0
10
0
10
0
10
5
15
10
20
10
20
15
25
Maximum
Equivalent
Carbon
C e q <%)
MW M a x i m u m
Hardness Test
H max. (VHN)
3= 4.8
0.48
380
5= 4,8
0.49
390
>. 4.8
0.50
400
4.8
0.54
415
5= 4.8
0.58
430
>
4.0
0.60
440
5= 3.6
0.62
450
Ss 2.8
0.74
470
5= 2.8
0.80
490
Mean Energy
of 3 S p e c i m e n s
E (kg m )
Usually, steels having a yield s t r e n g t h of 45 k g / m m 2 or less, are " A s R o l l e d " or " N o r m a l i z e d " and steels
having a yield s t r e n g t h of 50 k g / m m 2 o r m o r e , are heat t r e a t e d o r " Q u e n c h e d and T e m p e r e d " . In o r d e r t o
increase yield s t r e n g t h and t o i m p r o v e notch toughness of steels a t l o w t e m p e r a t u r e , special heat t r e a t m e n t
(socalled I N t r e a t m e n t ) w h i c h gives rise t o p r o p e r p r e c i p i t a t i o n of a l u m i n u m n i t r i d e is sometimes c o n d u c t e d .
In t h e case of very high yield s t r e n g t h steel such as H . W . 7 0 o r m o r e , t h e r e w e r e several difficulties to be
solved, for e x a m p l e , problems on brittleness of welded joints a t bond ; at heat affected zones ; and on sulphur
and h y d r o g e n c r a c k i n g due t o HoS. These difficulties have steadily been solved by many active distinguished
researchers.
The above mentioned 9 classes of high yield s t r e n g t h steels have w i d e l y been accepted and put t o use for t h e
r i g h t high yield s t r e n g t h steel in the r i g h t places. In the field of bridge c o s t r u c t i o n , H . W . 5 0 ( ' 50 k g / m m 2 )
as well as S.M.50 (as > 50 k g / m m 2 ) a r e wiedely used, and this w i l l be described later. N o w the a u t h o r s w o u l d
like t o i n t r o d u c e a brief note on the a p p l i c a t i o n of high yield s t r e n g t h steels in o t h e r fields of i n d u s t r y m
Japan.
In t h e shipbuilding i n d u s t r y S.M.50 and H . W . 5 0 are c o m m o n l y used f o r ship's decks and b o t t o m plates, sheer
strkes, a n g l e d , and r o u n d gunwales, deck and b o t t o m g i r d e r s , deck and b o t t o m l o n g i t u d i n a l s , hatch side
g i r d e r s , bulkhead t o p plates etc., w i t h the result t h a t 20004000 tons of high yield s t r e n g t h steels a r e used
for a ship and 400800 tons of h u l l w e i g h t saving is achieved.
W i t h r e g a r d t o pressure vessels: the increasing demand f o r L.P. Gas reaches up t o 2,000,000 t o n / y e a r in
Japan and a lot of s t o r a g e tanks for L.P.G. have been c o n s t r u c t e d . D u r i n g the last 5 years, more t h a n 150
s t o r a g e t a n k s , capacities of w h i c h are a b o u t 300 m :! 3,000 m : l , have been built of high yield s t r e n g t h steels,
mainly of H . W . 5 0 . H . W . 5 6 and H . W . 7 0 . H.W.63 ( > 63 k g / m m 2 ) has been used for penstock of electric
p o w e r stations and H . W . 9 0 for pressure vessels in the chemical industry. In this w a y , t h e various fields of
i n d u s t r y have a tendency t o use m o r e and m o r e higher yield s t r e n g t h steels.
T h e j a p a n W e l d i n g Engineering Society gives a steel m a n u f a c t u r e r of a new high yield s t r e n g t h steel only then
an a p p r o v a l w h e n all the testresults of the steel satisfy the W.E.S. specification of high yield s t r e n g t h
steels and a d d i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e r e f o r e , it is no e x a g g e r a t i o n t o say t h a t only high yield s t r e n g t h
steels a p p r o v e d by the Society a r e sold t o steel f a b r i c a t o r s and users in Japan. Some of these high yield
s t r e n g t h steels, having an excellent notch toughness a t l o w t e m p e r a t u r e s , may also be classified by the
W.E.S. specification of steels for l o w t e m p e r a t u r e use 5 , as such.
In this case, t h e j a p a n W e l d i n g Engineering Society may give t o the steel a n o t h e r a p p r o v a l as a steel for l o w
t e m p e r a t u r e use, w h i c h specifies the lowest w o r k i n g t e m p e r a t u r e of the steel. In o t h e r w o r d s , c e r t a i n types
of steel may have t w o a p p r o v a l s , one for high yield s t r e n g t h steel and a n o t h e r for l o w t e m p e r a t u r e use.
U s e of h i g h y i e l d s t r e n g t h steels in b r i d g e s
Since 1954, w h e n S.M.50 was used for the first t i m e for the " S a g a m i B r i d g e " , the a m o u n t of S.M.50 used for
bridges shows a rapid increase and it is found t h a t the share in w e i g h t of S.M.50 is almost half of t h e t o t a l
w e i g h t of steels used for 130 newly constructed bridges. The r a t i o of S.M.50 t o S.S.41 used for each b r i d g e ,
of cource, depends on circumstances and is d e t e r m i n e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y f r o m the economical p o i n t of v i e w .
For instance, because of easy e r e c t i o n , good a p p e a r a n c e , clearance and the l o c a t i o n of the a p p r o a c h , it is
often necessary t o make g i r d e r height equal all over the span of a b r i d g e , neglecting m o r e o r less r e d u c t i o n
of r i g i d i t y of the b r i d g e . In these cases, plate thickness should v a r y so as t o f o l l o w t h e bending m o m e n t d i s t r i
b u t i o n . Consequently w h e n heavy plate is r e q u i r e d , high yield s t r e n g t h steel plays an i m p o r t a n t rle t o
o v e r c o m e the difficulties resulting f r o m secondary stresses and notch toughness of heavy plate. In these
bridges, generally S.S.41 is 6040W and S.M.50 is 4060W in w e i g h t . These percentages, of course, depend
on the span length and steels used.
Recently, H . W . 5 0 (W.E.S.
50 k g / m m 2 ) is w i d e l y a d o p t e d in long span plate girders w i t h constant
g i r d e r height. In this connection Table IV and Fig. 3 i l l u s t r a t e the case of the recently completed Meishin.
Expressway (from N a g o y a t o Kobe). In the Expressway, continuous composite g i r d e r s w e r e a d o p t e d . The
r a t i o of S.S.41 t o S.M.50 used in the Expressway is 6:4 w h e r e the span is 3 0 m . , w h i l e 5:5 w h e r e the span is
40m.and H . W . 5 0 is used. W h e n t h e s p a n s w i d e r t h a n 4 0 m . , t h e most economical r a t i o becomes S.M.50 = 6 0 % ,
113
H . W . 5 0 and SS41 = 2 0 % each. It may be said t h a t t h e features of plate girders mentioned above t o g e t h e r
w i t h the tendency of w i d e r span, increase the demand of high yield s t r e n g t h steels and r e q u i r e higher yield
s t r e n g t h steels. In the case w h e r e the span is r a t h e r long and a v a r i a b l e g i r d e r height is a l l o w e d by the
s i t u a t i o n of the site, continuous v a r i a b l e section g i r d e r s , curved W a r r e n truss bridges and arch bridges a r e
a d o p t e d in this o r d e r , according t o the l e n g t h of the span. The r i g i d i t y of these bridges is usually very h i g h ,
c o m p a r e d t o t h a t of a bridge w i t h equal g i r d e r h e i g t h .
The use of high yield s t r e n g t h steels for the above m e n t i o n e d bridges has t w o main reasons; the first is simply
t o reduce t h e dead w e i g h t of the bridge and in this case bridges, e n t i r e l y b u i l t of high yield s t r e n g t h steel
a r e doubtlessly the most suitable, and the second is t o use high yield s t r e n g t h steel, only for the parts of
stress-concentration, since o r d i n a r y mild steel is good enough t o bear the stress produced by the dead w e i g h t .
So, in t h e f o r m e r case t h e g r e a t e s t p a r t of t h e steel w e i g h t of the b r i d g e consists of high yield s t r e n g t h steel
and in the l a t t e r case of mild steel. It is, t h e r e f o r e , n a t u r a l t h a t w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e curved W a r r e n truss
bridge and the recently constructed arch b r i d g e , the r a t i o of w e i g h t of high yield s t r e n g t h steel t o the t o t a l
w e i g h t is a b o u t 7 0 % (the f o r m e r case) o r 2 0 % (the l a t t e r case).
As regards the use of H . W . 5 0 in bridges, as stated above, r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of s t r u c t u r a l design by using
H . W . 5 0 had been done in case of the Meishin Expressway (see Fig. 3 and Table IV). Figure 4 shows the increa
sing a m o u n t of H . W . 5 0 used by the T o k y o Expressway Public C o r p o r a t i o n . Especially t o o v e r c o m e the diffi
culties in design of t h e elevated r o a d system in T o k y o , caused by the n a r r o w and l i m i t e d space in the city
and t o solve t h e high stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r a t t h e c o r n e r connections of r a h m e n s t r u c t u r e s , high yield
s t r e n g t h steels a r e q u i t e effective.
Table
IV
Name of Bridge
Span * (m)
Composite
and Pre-stress
Girders X
height (m)
Weight.
(the use ratio) **
(kg/m) %
Enmyoji
3 c 21.8
none
4 x 1.44
121 (100 : 0 : 0)
Curved Bridge
Taga
over rail road
5 X 1.00
119 (37 : 63 : 0)
Limitation to
Girder height
4 1.50
139 (100 : 0 : 0)
2 c 29.6
jacking up
at support
4 1.20
125 (63 : 37 : 0)
3 2.00
140 (34 : 66 : 0)
span 1.60
support 2.80
Yasulgawa
Obatagawa
Inukamigawa
Remarks
Limitation to Girder
height Skew Bridge
Emphasis on
Appearance
Serlgawa
Hiogawa
none
4 2.20
200 (83 : 17 : 0)
Mukogawa
3 c 46.6
jacking up
at support
3 X 2.00
Yasugawa
3 c 52.2
jacking up t o
support post
tensioned
concrete slab
4 2.10
Curved Bridge
Curved Bridge
Yasugawa
2 c 52.2
3 c 67.3
4 2.10
Kisogawa
4 2.70
264(18 : 62 : 20)
Ibigawa
5 c 69.6
4 X 2.70
Nagaragawa
3 c 69.6
4 2.70
Gerber a t C e n t r a l
Suspended Span
* c = continuous
** The use r a t i o = The use ratio of S.M.41 (S.S.41) : S.M.50 : H.W.50
3211 tons of H.W.50 steel t o t a l l y used.
Steel w e i g h t per u n i t f l o o r a r e a is shown in Figure 5 (high yield s t r e n g t h steel is p a r t l y used) and in Figure 6
(inclusive of bridges made of o r d i n a r y mild steel only). These figures clearly show t h a t the steel w e i g h t has
been cut d o w n t o a l m o s t half, c o m p a r e d w i t h t h a t of bridges b u i l t m o r e t h a n ten years ago. This r e m a r k a b l e
result is based on t h e f o l l o w i n g i t e m s ; w i d e a d o p t i o n of w e l d i n g techniques, use of high yield s t r e n g t h st?els,
r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n in design methods, especially the r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of loading and the progress in design calcu
lation.
114
(yen/m
Fig. 3
2000
1800
1600
//
1400
/
1200
/
1000
800
c/
600
400200
f/
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963 year
Fig. 4
115
^ 400
5"
CD
300
200
a Rahmen
a Lattice
o Composite
G.
o Suspension .
20
40
60
60
ICO
Box G.
G. A r c h Bridge
100
c Truss
120
Lohse
KO
G
.
ISO
spcn(::ii
Fig. 5
C u r r e n t studies on steel b r i d g e s
As m e n t i o n e d above, a lot of steel bridges have been built in Japan in recent years. It is perhaps not necessary
t o say t h a t this is possible only w h e n many f r u i t f u l e x p e r i m e n t a l and t h e o r e t i c a l studies on bridges have
been c a r r i e d o u t by researchers. A s an e x a m p l e of recent studies in Japan, abrief i n t r o d u c t i o n on research,
done by the T o k y o Expressway Public C o r p o r a t i o n w i l l be described hereafter. In o r d e r t o design and
construct an elevated h i g h w a y system, t h e C o r p o r a t i o n was urged t o conduct many e x p e r i m e n t a l studies
t o satisfy t h e special circumstance t h a t more t h a n 4 0 % of the t o t a l l e n g t h of t h e h i g h w a y under study
consisted of elevated steel r a h m e n s t r u c t u r e s .
As regards r a h m e n s t r u c t u r e s , many studies ( i , 7 , 8 on s t r u c t u r a l types of corner connections (joining of columns
and beams w i t h various kinds of crosssection shapes) subjected t o h o r i z o n t a l loads due t o possible e a r t h
116
500
>
900
300
, .800
3
Sb<
220 230
."
Rnhmon
isa CYvmnncito
20
40
fi
r\ R n
60
80
100
120
140
500
fi
250
240
100
**< <^ V o
Mo '
0
D
200 _
CC
160
span(m)
Fig. 6
10400
asphalt 7.5 cm
concrete slao 19 cm
3 3.000 = 9 0 0 0
Meishin _,
(Japan)
50 (m)
Fig. 7
117
Fig. 8
W'
r-
h
Fig. 9
EC
_L
Before the curved h i g h w a y bridge was a d o p t e d by the T o k y o Expressway Public C o r p o r a t i o n in 1956, the
f i r s t curved h i g h w a y bridge of "Shi r a i t o B r i d g e " having a s pan of 25 m.and a radius of 30m., had been erected,
c o n f o r m t h e results of the research w o r k , including model tests of the b r i d g e 9 . Since t h e n , the p r o b l e m on
curved h i g h w a y bridges has been studied and developed by many researchers and the results 1 " - 22 of these
investigations have c o n t r i b u t e d t o the design of the curved bridge. A t present, K u r a n i s h i ' s 1 0 and K o m a t s u ' s l : i
theories on the design of such a bridge are c o m m o n l y accepted and it is well k n o w n t h a t calculations based on
these theories show a f a i r a g r e e m e n t w i t h the results of actual measurements.Thus t h e o r e t i c a l investigation
along this line is going t o progress by t h e a d o p t i o n of box-section g i r d e r s .
Recently, researches on suspension bridges have been c a r r i e d o u t in Japan, resulting in the f i r s t large suspen
sion bridge " W a k a t o B r i d g e " w i t h a c e n t r a l span of 367m and a t o t a l bridge length of 680m. Fig. 10 indicates
the t o t a l steel w e i g h t of the long span b r i d g e , used both as r a i l w a y - and h i g h w a y b r i d g e . W h e n the span
exceeds 500m. the suspension bridge is s u p e r i o r t o o t h e r types of bridges. From Fig. 10, the steel w e i g h t of
a suspension b r i d g e having a c e n t r a l span of 1,200m is a b o u t 120,000 t o n . As is well k n o w n , a 1,400m long
span suspension bridge (called a d r e a m suspension bridge) w h i c h w i l l be hung over the Seto Inland Sea and
connect Honshu and S h i k o k u , is under planning In Japan. T o erect this long span b r i d g e , a n u m b e r of projects
a r e n o w u n d e r w a y and it is expected t h a t in t h e near f u t u r e a splendid long span suspension bridge w i l l be
seen a t the Seto Inland Sea.
118
x Suspension Bridge (
)J
^g
6
/ m m
Stee
'
/
>
/
t
/104.503(100%)
/ I
t
100.000
/j
91.167
/ 122%
5.4I9 V ( 8 I . 5 % )
100%
" -V
50.000
(1>
Q.
V)
I3IT
<n
o cCP
,o 5
524 f -
5( 50
200
400
750
600
- central span in m
800
1000
1200
1400
Fig. 10
Concluding remarks
Since maintenace of roads and construction of expressway systems were made part of the governmental
policy, and as the budget increases, the production of steel bridges has remarkably increased and this trend
will continue in the future. Besides more and more comparatively long span bridges are being constructed
in the country and elevated highway bridges in the cities. As a rule, to build a steel bridge, each component
part (fter called a "block" in Japan) with about 10 tons in weight is first assembled by welding in a shop, then
the blocks are transported to the site, where they are erected by riveting. Sometimes, a block weighing as
much as 60 tons in the case of the expressway bridge in Tokyo is being shipped to the site.
Where structures are to be aligned with a road great accuracy is required. To secure this required accuracy,
the welding technique has been driven to progress by researches and experience. This is well proved by
paying attention to the fact that the number of technical papers on the study of steel bridges published on
various proceedings and bulletins has increased by as many as half of the total number of all papers officially
listed.
Moreover, together with the completion of the expressway, many pedestrian bridges crossing over the
expressway have been erected. Designing these pedestrian bridges crossing over the expressway, the theory
of plastic design has been applied for the purpose of weight-saving, and light gage steels and special sections
have been put to practical use.
As described hitherto, it should be kept in mind that steel bridges have remarkably advanced, not only in
numbers, but also in the quality of bridge structures.
119
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
REFERENCES
Takeshita & W a k e : Construction of the all welded highway bridge Egawa Bridge. Journal
of the Japan Society of Civil Eng., Vol. 35 No. 10.
Takeshita & O k u m u r a : Measuring of dynamical p r o p e r t y and stress of all welded girder bridge
Egawa Bridge. Journal of theJ.S.C.E., Vol 36 N o . 1.
T a n a k a : O n the fabricating and electing of all welded high way bridge. Journal of the Japan
Society of W e l d i n g , Vol. 21 N o . 9.
'
Kihara & I n a g a k i : Tentative specification for high s t r e n g t h steel plates for high pressure vessels
and the other welded s t r u c t u r e . HW Doc. IX-415-64.
''
O k u m u r a , Tamao & M u r a k a m i : O n the study of frame knee. Lecture at the 16th annual
assembly of J.C.S.E.
'
O k u m u r a , Nishino, Maeda & Ishlzawa: O n the structure of the connecting the frame of the box
section w i t h the column w i t h circular section. Lecture at the 17th annual assembly of
J.S.C.E.
O k u m u r a , Michiyama & Maeda: Destructive test of the connecting part of steel beam and the
reinforced concrete structure and model test of the stepped beam. Proceeding of the 6th
conference of road engineering.
10
11
12
13
K o m a t s u : The method of the practical calculation of the paralleled curved girder bridge.
Proceedings of J.S.C.E., Vol. 93.
11
15
ls
'
Is
'9
T a k e s h i t a : The method of the solving the curved beam using the theory of polar anisotropic
plate. Civil Engineering, 1961.
20
M u r a k a m i : A method of the solving the curved beam and curved lattice. Proceedings of the
Japan roading association, 1961.
21
A k a o : The experiment of the curved bridge Bizen Bridge. Proceedings of the J.R.A., 1963.
'--
D e s c r i p t i o n of
photographs
1 Inclined f r a m e w o r k at Honmachi.
2-3
4
5
6 -
8 - 9 Junction a t
construction).
10
El
Nipon-
Edo
bridges,
120
and
(under
EflfiV'!
121
122
H. SHIRLEY SMITH
of Steel in Bridge
Building
Materials
The most important new development in constructional engineering in Great Britain has undoubtedly been
the introduction of the new quality High Yield Stress Steel B.S.968:1962. Available not only in plates but also
throughout the full range of sections, this steel is markedly superior to its predecessor, has better welding
qualities and is 3 per ton cheaper. It has been largely used in the new Severn suspension bridge.
Its Yield Stress of 23 tons per square inch enables it to be employed at working stresses nearly 40% greater
than mild steel. Recent comparative designs for a two-span continuous highway bridge with spans of 102 and
90 ft. showed that the use of High Yield Stress Steel saved 33% of the weight in the main girders.
The use of the new steel is facilitated by an improved standard range of sections introduced in 1962
universal beams and columns. These are available in a large variety of weights and properties and in depths
up to 36 in.
Beams of still greater depths up to 78 in. are now on the market as a result of a new process developed
for automatically assembling and welding beams from three plates, arranged to form an l-section. These
"autofab" beams are welded by submerged arc machines in the shops of the suppliers. It is possible by this
process to manufacture heavy girders with equal or unequal flanges and also heavy tee sections, using any
suitable quality of steel.
Turning now to the fabricating shops, significant cost reductions have been achieved by means of recent
advances in techniques. These include improved quality automatic welding processes, mechanical sawing
123
and multiple spindle drilling, and new gas-cutting machines which accurately shape steel plates to any
required profile. Intensive research is proceeding amongst many other things on the production of stainless
steel of structural quality.
Motorway bridges
Universal beams are ideal for spanning motorways or for carrying motorways over roads, railways and rivers.
There is little fabrication required and the beams are easy to erect by mobile cranes.
In order to gain the greatest economy, the concrete road slab should be keyed to the steel beams to obtain
composite action between the steel and concrete. In this way simple spans up to 90 ft. can be made, utilising
36" 16 1/2" universal beams in high tensile steel. Utilizing a deck slab 6 1/4" thick, the total construction
depth would be approximately 48" allowing for roadway camber and surfacing. A 90-ft. bridge is long enough
to span across two 24-ft. wide carriageways with 10 ft. hard shoulders and an 11 -ft. centre reservation,
without any intermediate support.
For a dual three-lane motorway with hard shoulders, two spans of approximately 60 ft. each are sufficient,
provided there is an intermediate pier in the central reservation. In this case mild steel universal beams 36"
deep can be used, working compositely with a 7"-thick reinforced concrete road slab. For spans less than the
maximum there is a range of universal beam sections which are suitable and other considerations such as
available construction depth may determine the actual size selected.
The minimum of fabrication is required on the universal beams. Web stiffeners are necessary only over the
bearings. The beams are robust to handle and when erected will carry the weight of shuttering and deck
concrete.
An example is the Greengates bridge over the Leeming Bypass, which has a clear span of 88 ft., and is built
of high tensile universal beams 36" 16.5", with a composite reinforced concrete deck slab.
Yet another type of steel construction was employed in the Gathurst Viaduct on the M6 which is built of
continuous steel girders over the full 800-ft. length, each girder being of uniform section and of welded con
struction.
The approach viaducts at either end of the Forth Road bridge, which have overall lengths of 827 ft. and
1,437 ft. respectively, are a further example of economic steel design. Varying from 110 to 177 ft., the roadway
spans are each supported on pairs of continuous box-girders, 2 ft. wide and 12 ft. deep, in high tensile steel.
The girders were lifted into place from the ground in lengths up to 60 ft. and weights of approximately 30
tons and bolted to the preceding section by means of high strength grip bolts. The box sections were cantilevered forwards until they reached and were supported by the next pier.
On the viaduct connecting with the Chiswick flyover of the London to South Wales motorway, a length of
3,380 ft. is being built in steel which proved more economical than any other material. The curvature in
plan and also three vertical curves were all embodied in the steelwork which supports a uniform composite
roadway slab 7.5" thick. Four 60 ft. spans are of universal beams, the remainder being of welded plate girder
124
construction except for three main central latticed spans totalling 778 ft. Of the total weight of steelwork
of 5,000 tons High Yield Stress Steel co B.S. 968:1962 is used for the flanges and webs of the plate girders and
also in the chords of the welded boxtype lattice girders. A ll other parts are of mild steel. The plate girders
were fabricated in 60ft. lengths, weighing approximately 15 tons each, and butt welded in situ into lengths
measuring 490 ft. The maximum flange plate thickness is 3 in.
Another problem for which steel can provide the best solution is the construction of inner ring routes through
builtup areas. Prof. Pier Luigi Nervi has prepared an informative series of designs in steel for single and
doubledeck elevated motorways suitable for use in cities. The authorities at Coventry made use of the
peculiar versatility of steel in the design and construction of the Moat Street flyover junction to cross a ground
level roundabout. The dual carriageway of the inner ring road is carried over the junction by means of a
735 ft. long steel viaduct. Structural steel was selected by the city engineer after detailed investigation of
alternative methods had shown that steel afforded both the lowest cost (including an allowance for main
tenance) and the greatest speed of construction. In the event, the 820 tons of steelwork was erected in only
six weeks.
Such a speed is not exceptional for steel erection and even more impressive rates can be quoted. The Bir
mingham Carbridge, which is 790 ft. long, was put up in less than 30 hours during one weekend at a busy
traffic junction. Similarly more than 250 tons of universal sections were erected in six hours to build the
Shawhead flyover between Glasgow end Edinburgh.
Cable-bracd bridges
The modern tendency in bridge design is increasingly towards plate and box girders in preference to trusses.
Of recent years in Great Britain only a few of the longest spans, such as the WidnesRuncorn arch and the
stiffening girders of the Forth and Tamar suspension bridges have trussed steelwork, amounting to perhaps
20% of the total bridgework fabricated. Whereas nearly all small spans, such as those at Barton, Thelwall,
Neath and Maidenhead, and recently even bigger spans such as the Usk and Wye bridges, culminating in
the deck of the huge Severn suspension bridge, are of the plate or box girder type.
Following on the first modern cablebraced or "bridle chord" bridge of 600ft. span built over the Strm
sund Central Sweden in 1956, this type of construction has found increasing favour. In 1961 the first mono
cable bridge in which a single main supporting system, on the longitudinal centre line, replaced the
conventional dual system was built over the Norderelbe at Hamburg. The first bridle chord bridges with
dual and monocables respectively n the U.K. are the 500 ft. span over the Usk at Newport, Mon., opened
in 1963. and the 770 ft. span now under construction over the river Wye, close to the Severn bridge.
Further striking economies in weight and cost are rendered possible by the bridle chord design. The chief
structural element on the Wye bridge is the trapezoidal box girder, chosen for its great torsional strength
and rigidity. This form of deck was developed, as we shall see, for use on the Severn suspension bridge. The
main span of the Wye bridge is flanked by side spans of 285 ft. A t each end of the main span a single box
section tower 96 ft. high, hinged at road level, supports the central staying cable which is anchored to the
box girders 255 ft. either side of the tower. The advantage of a mono cable is that its load is not affected by
unsymmetrical live load on the bridge, which is resisted by the great torsional strength and rigidity of the
closed box section. This results in a cable economy of some 70% as compared with a dual cable system.
The viaduct portion of the Wye bridge consists of two continuous steel box girders, varying from 182 to 210 ft.
in span, supported on simple box section trestle legs. A s much fabrication as possible is done off site and
all final connections will be welded in situ by means of portable automatic or semiautomatic equipment.
The total weight of steel in the entire project is 8,000 tons, half of which is weldable high tensile and the
other half mild steel.
125
The Forth Road bridge with its main span of 3,300 ft. was opened in september 1964. Although it is capable
of carrying the heaviest traffic, including vehicles weighing 250 tons each, this bridge is lighter in weight and
more economical in cost than any bridge of comparable span in the world. The lightness in weight of the
bridge, indeed, combined with the fact that the site is in latitude 56 North much further north than any
other major suspension bridge, and notorious for its high winds and gales presented novel problems
during erection in the avoidance of aerodynamic oscillations.
The tower legs are each made up of welded high tensile steel box sections, 47 ft long, plated together so
that each leg is finally divided into five cells. The ends of the boxes are machined to butt together and have
internal flanges connected by vertical high strength bolts to take the stress during erection. This construc
tion is simple to erect and provides a flush external surface which facilitates protection and gives a neat
appearance. Much saving in weight results through a greater concentration of material at the outside
surface, compared with the conventional form of tower in which the legs are divided into many cells each
3'6" square.
On the main span, each ton of dead load requires half a ton of wire in the main cables to support it. It there
fore proved economic to use a stiffened steel battledeck in the main span which, though more expensive in
itself than a reinforced concrete slab, was much lighter and therefore effected an overall economy. In the
stiffening trusses, hollow completely sealed steel box members were used wherever practicable and through
out the design care was taken to ensure that all parts requiring painting were readily accessible. Moreover,
the initial protection of the steelwork by means of grit blasting, metal spraying and four coats of paint was
the best that could be devised. Though costly, this treatment should obviate the necessity for repainting
except at infrequent intervals.
The final design of the Severn bridge was made a few years after that of the Forth Road bridge. Since the
Tacoma Narrows failure in 1940, suspension bridges have all had deep latticed stiffening girders incorpo
rated in the deck to eliminate torsional oscillations dueto aerodynamic action. Gilbert Roberts has explained
how, on behalf of the Consulting Engineers, he proposed a series of tests which was carried out by the Aero
dynamic Division of the National Physical Laboratory on models of very much shallower decks, including a
plated box girder. This was enclosed by stiffened plates at the top and bottom and inclined plates at the
sides, so as to make it in a large measure streamlined. By this means a satisfactory torsion shell box or
aerofoil was finally evolved which extends throughout the span and is suspended from the cables by inclined,
hangers. The upper surface of this aerofoil box, which is only 10 ft. deep, constitutes the deck on which the
roadway is constructed, and the projecting platforms at the sides carry the cycle tracks and footways. The
purpose of the triangulated hangers is to damp out aerodynamic oscillations which might otherwise occur
with winds blowing slightly upwards from the horizontal. The advantages of this design lie not only in the
economy of the deck itself, but also in the fact that its shallow aerofoil profile reduces the wind loads on the
bridge and thus effects a saving of material in the cables and the towers as well.
The legs of the 400-ft. high towers are not cellular, but each consists of a single box, built of four stiffened
steel plates, shop-welded and site-bolted. They are braced together by deep steel portals. Although the span
of the Severn bridge is only 60 ft. less than that of the Forth Road bridge, the above measures have effected
a very considerable saving in the weight of steelwork and the overall cost.
126
In recent issue of the American journal "Engineering News-Record" the following comments appeared
comparing British and American costs on suspension bridges being built and projected:
"Some cost figures on Scotland's Firth of Forth Road Bridge, Europe's greatest to date: this
structure cost $30.6 million, it has a main span of 3,300 ft. Some cost figures on this bridge need
consideration: its structural steel cost $120 per (U.S.) ton. Fabricated and delivered, this steel
cost $298 per ton. Erection cost another $300 per ton. Superstructure miscellany, such as hand
rails, paving and lighting cost another $50 per ton of superstructure steel. Foundations cost
$187 per ton of superstructure steel. And land, toll equipment and engineering lump together
as $25 per ton of bridge steel. Total: $860 spent for each ton of bridge steel used. And welding
instead of riveting cuts steel tonnage at least 10 per cent.
Then, the British designers of this bridge did some value engineering" and came up with a
new suspension bridge the Severn Bridge, now under construction only 60 ft. shorter in
its main span than the Forth Road Bridge, but 35 per cent lighter and costing almost $9 million
less. They drastically reduced the steel tonnage required by going to a suspended box only 10 ft.
deep instead of deep trusses. And they further cut the cost per ton of fabricated steel from
$298 to $263 in the process, despite the increase in costs for labour and materials.
Next, these same British designers designed the proposed Humber River Bridge with a 4,580 ft.
main span, 320 ft. longer than the world's longest. Although its record main span would be
1,340 ft. longer than that of the Severn Bridge, the Humber is estimated to cost only $2.8 million
more between anchorages than the Severn. The proposed Humber crossing would have a total
cost, including engineering and approaches, of $35 million.
The Narrows Bridge in New York will be finished late this year with its 4,260 ft. main span,
the world's longest. And its $325-million cost ($240 million between anchorages) will set a
world's cost record that should stand for years to come.
The great discrepancies in cost between Britain's bridges and our U.S. world-beater need more
explanation than the Scottish wage rate $1.05 an hour in the shop and $2.10 in the field. Actu
ally the costs per ton in place do not differ so much between the U.S. and Britain. The big differ
ence is in the number of tons. The British figure the Narrows Bridge uses eight times as much
steel as the longer-span Humber design calls for. This works out to 4.5 times as much per square
foot of roadway, a smaller factor because the Narrows Bridge will have two decks.
Then there is the $100-million Delaware Memorial " t w i n " , now under construction alongside
the original built 13 years ago for $40 million.
Are the British becoming too daring in suspension bridge design? Did the Narrows Bridge
cost 4.5 times what it might have? Is some value engineering in order in the U.S. on suspension
bridges?"
127
In conclusion it is good to see that the art of bridge building has never been more dynamic, the materials
available for use more diverse, or the forms in which they are used more imaginative than they are today.
But, designers must bewatchful at all times to resist "the fascination of what's difficult." The merit of a good
design will always lie in'its simplicity, with much thought given to ease and economy of erection. To the same
end, scantlings should not be reduced to the bare minimum unless there is ample background of experience
to ensure that they can resist not only the calculated static loads, but also the imponderable dynamic forces
they may have to withstand both during erection and under working conditions. Otherwise the saving in
cost of material may be many times outweighed by the extra costs incurred in time and labour on the site.
128
D e s c r i p t i o n of p h o t o g r a p h s
1 Midland link bridge W a l s a l l , England.
750 tons of 36" Universal beams spanning 89 feet.
2 Shawhead flyover bridge.
Universal beams manufactured at the Lackenby Beam
Mill of D o r m n Long (Steel) L t d . were used In the
construction of this fly-over bridge on the main
Edinburgh-Glasgow road. 256 tons of s t r u c t u r a l steel
w e r e delivered and erected in one day w i t h the use of
mobile cranes.
3 Moat Street flyover, Coventry.
View f r o m behind the W e s t A b u t m e n t showing the
curved section. The Moat Street Flyover, which forms
p a r t of Stage III of the Coventry Inner Ring Road,
Incorporates 820 tons of steelwork consisting of box
plate girders and columns, supplied and erected by
D o r m n Long (Bridge and Engineering) Ltd., Middles
brough. The main contractors are G.R. Yeomans Ltd.,
130
131
. .
132
>
gps
\j>'
Hellmut
HOMBERG
Recent Developments
in German
Bridge
Building
General
evalua
133
Fig. 1
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Fig. 2
134
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Fig. 4
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135
Because the slab has a constant cross section along the length
of the bridge It can be concreted In a p p r o p r i a t e stages, and
In this way expenditure on shuttering can be reduced in
comparison w i t h the previous methods. The bracings used
for supporting the main girders against each other during
erection are placed under the space allowed for the shutter
i n g ; the diagonals for the stabilisation of the b o t t o m flange
are not erected until the deck slab has been concreted.
Cable-stiffened bridges
The bridge systems mentioned above are in general most
a p p r o p r i a t e for sites requiring medium size spans w i t h an
upper l i m i t of about 100 m. (330'). Beyond t h a t span, steel
bridges come into another wide field of application in the
bridging of l a r g e r spans, as are especially necessary over
w a t e r w a y s . In the last few years the cabla stiffened bridge
has been developed, especially in Germany, t o cover these
larger spans, and bridges built t o this sort of system have
spans f r o m 172 m. t o 280 m. (574'3" - 9187").
The pylon and the cross section of the bridge are shown in
figure 8, and the structural f o r m a t of the spine girder bridge
which has a slender hollow box girder w i t h wide cantilever
arms is clearly seen. The design of the bridge, which was
carried out in my office, allowed a considerable margin t o
cater for the large secondary longitudinal stresses In the
box due to torsion in the section near to the middle supports.
W e realized t h a t design on the basis of the till then valid
theory of secondary torsional forces, while t a k i n g i n t o
account the shear deformation f r o m St. Venant's torsion,
nevertheless does not Include the deformation f r o m the
secondary shear stresses. Meanwhile a publication by the
late Professor Hellig 1 0 points out t h a t the maximum values
of the longitudinal stresses ascertained according t o the
theory of secondary torsional forces do not occur but are
reduced t o a fraction of their previous values. Hellig suc
ceeded it including the deformations due to the secondary
shear stresses in his investigation of secondary torsional
stresses of box girders. In addition to Heillg's w o r k It must
be said t h a t the elasticity of the cross members, which in
contrast t o t h e i r theoretical condition do allow appreciable
deformation of the cross sectional shape, f u r t h e r reduces the
longitudinal secondary stresses.
Fig. 6
136
JL ^gas
Fig. 7
fi
Fig. 8
IO
11
Tl
Symmetrieachse
j
St
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Is
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'
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Fig. 9
_122
iso
no
ix
137
Figure 12 shows not the member loads but the stresses, and
as already shown in the figure relating t o Isotropic plates
of constant thickness It can be seen t h a t the n o r m a l stresses
decrease f r o m Inside t o outside.
Finally Figure 13 shows the n o r m a l forces In the cross mem
bers of the p l a t e ; the magnitude of these forces necessitating
c areful design and p r o p o r t i o n i n g .
isometrische
Flg. 10
F l g . 11
138
Il/cm')
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Flg. 14
139
..
i i
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Fig. 15
mjoo
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140
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Fig. 16
Fig. 17
taoo
aso
K h
Koittn : 2100 MM DM
Flg. 18
Figure 17 shows the pylon of the bridge and the typica' for
mat of the ground based piers. A ll connections between the
pylon, stiffening g i r d e r and cables will be rigid connections.
Figure 18 compares the crosssections of the bridge and the
tunnel proposal, and It Is immediately obvious t h a t the
bridge can cope w i t h a far greater volume of traffic than can
the tunnel.
W e have tried to evaluate the costs of my proposed bridge
and to compare them w i t h the costs estimated by the A nglo
French committee for the t u n n e l . It was found t h a t the
bridge, in spite of its manifold increase in carrying capacity,
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
REFERENCES
'
Bittner, E.: Moment Tables and Influence Surfaces for Gridlike Reinforced Concrete Slabs.
*>
'
1,1
"
Ebner and Koller: Concerning the Development of Forces In Longitudinally and Transversely
Stiffened Plates.
LuftfahrtForschung, 1938.
Stahlbau, 1961.
141
L. ANSELMINI
A New Stainless
Development
Steel Bridge
Beam
Introduction
The road and bridge building activity brounht
about by the Intensive highway Improvement programs In
the United States and Europe has led to a search for new
bridge designs i n c o r p o r a t i n g lower construction and main
tenance costs.
Stainless steel w i t h its high strength and modulus of elasti
city, excellent corrosion resistance, fabrlcability and ap
pearance is a material of construction w o r t h y of considera
tion for obtaining these goals.
Dr. Giorgio Baroni was commissioned by The International
Nickel Co., Inc., t o design a composite bridge using stainless
steel beams. The economic requirements dictated a maxi
mum of 7 pounds of stainless steel per square foot of roadway,
and these limits were imposed on the design. The beams
are designed as p a r t of a composite steel-concrete bridge
Fig. 1
142
Tests
Design calculations have been established for the stainless
steel beam and the composite beam, i.e. a stainless steel
girder w i t h a concrete deck w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r as In a bridge.
The curved webs of the Baroni design constitute a new ele
ment In civil engineering, however, there are sufficient relat
ed theoretical and test data t o calculate the stress level in
the webs. To determine If deviations f r o m the established
calculations for the curved webs were needed, I N C O decided
to make and test a beam. It was also considered desirable
to check the behavior of the fabrication under v i b r a t i n g
loads as well as t o confirm the shear connector calculations
w i t h regard to t h e i r dimensions and placement along the
beam.
0
Fig. 2
0.03 0.04
O.IO
O.I25
143
N o r m a l Position
I n v e r t e d Position
o.io
0.20
o.:n
DEFLECTION (INCHES)
Fig. 3
"0
SECTION H 5'o"
H|
SECTION I
0.80
I.Z0
140
DEFLECTI0N1INCHESI
Fig. 5
I08:
FATIGUE
0.40
9}~
5'0'
1
1
1?'
Concrete 5iao
JaQ
1t
30'0"
4000
3000
Fig. 6
IO 6
CYCLES A T FA ILURE
Fig. 4
E
m
b
R
t
=
"=
=
=
=
Modulus of Elasticity
Polsson's Ratio
Depth of panel
C u r v a t u r e radius
Thickness of web
h = Depth of web
Finally, the composite member was tested to destruction in
Lehigh's 5,000,000 pound Universal Testing Machine, as shown
in photo 5. A load corresponding to 6.2 times the full w o r k i n g
load was applied before failure occurred. The loaddeflection
curve f r o m this test, shown in figure 5, exhibits straightline,
elastic action up t o and well above the w o r k i n g range.
= 29 10 6 psi
= 0.33
= 12"
= 34'
= 0.09 at the ends and 0.07" In
the middle part of the beam
= 3 b = 3 12' = 36
Stress calculations
144
P/2 + V,
2 tt
where
For Section I
12 2
120000 + 10930
20100 psi
2 X 36 0.09
Z, =
(1 0.33 2
34 0.09
42
fr)-m
and
56.2 10
2 tu
..
where
T'CI =
K's
B =
12
26.8
106
56.2 10
18100 psi
24700 psi
2 36 0.07
But the upper web panel of the stainless steel beam is also
in tension due to bending. The tension in Section I increases
f r o m 200 psi a t the top of the panel to 1500 psi a t the b o t t o m
of the panel and in Section II f r o m 2100 to 14730 psi. The
tension of the panel Increases the critical stress of the panel.
For the computation of the critical stress of the panel the
tension stress is taken t o be the a r i t h m e t i c mean of the top
and b o t t o m stresses, i.e.
For Section
For Section II
=
850 psi
= 8420 psi
12* (I 0.332)2
For Section II
3 t y 0.07
0.07 \2
/' t n
./
n \
and = ( _ )
= ( )
=34,
54
10'
Ks
2 E
12 (1
D =
</.
29 10'
1 2 ( 1 0.332)
"U
1 2 ( 1 m2) V
I
J
/ t \'
oen =
= 4 D B
Vb/
3 (1 m )
12 (1 m 2
" \ !
re X R \ t /
.7 ()'
26 8 10' psi
12
</:
and
R t
(1
m 2 )*
X 34
(W)*
850
6020
h(10.332)]J'=3.96
0.14
145
8.98
1.68
compression
36700 psi
For Section II
12
(w)1 [
34
1 2 ( 1 0 . 3 3 2 ) 4 = 4.5
0"1
8420
<
3650
40
XII
26.8
8420
compression
56.2 10
0.229
36700
10 6
3650 psi
K s = 13.5
2.32
tej shear = 13.5 26.8 10 6 34.1 10
= 4.0
= 12300 ps'
0"cn
.
Rx
Edges clamped Ks = 25
= 22800 psi
Rearranged R s = (1 + Rx) 2
t e n combined
where Rs =
Section I
T r u shear
Rx =
Mechod
tension
Simply
Sup
ported
OCR compression
Section
Panel edges
Simply
Clamped
Supported
Clamped
For Section I
Kc = 30 according t o Figure 38a of N A C A , Part III. H a n d
book of Structural S t a b i l i t y " 5
and compression = 30 26.8 10' 56.2 10~ 6 =
45200 psi
RN
850
45200
compression
and Rs = (1 + 0.02)2
146
20100
24700
18100
34700
12350
22850
19870
33300
14600
24500
18300
35000
14000
25850
0.02
1.01
Measured Test
Stresses, psi
a) Shear only
"Handbook",
Part III, psi
b) Shear + Tension
Kromm's curves,
psi
c) Shear f Tension
"Handbook",
Part III, psi
Cost comparisons a n d p r o t o t y p e
development
girder
STAINLESS STCO.
COMMIT
TYPICAL
CROSS
SECTION
Fig. 7
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
REFERENCES
Timoshenko and Gere, " T h e o r y of Elastic S t a b i l i t y " , second edition, pp. 384-385, M c G r a w - H i l l
Book Company, Inc., New Y o r k , N.Y., 1961.
147
D e s c r i p t i o n of
photographs
148
mtsfampwmGSi
'^er^
149
150
151
T.ltwnLr.i
/ .K!,TM.T/M.T
'.r.i^r
f.rTwKi/r
't.' ' A i
_!=s:"^r
i ,,,. -T.t,t.r,T--f,T. lrT..r^rT.irT1T Irtilli.fvi:^','
XZJQ
Fig. 1
Vue extrieure
Soction longitudinale
Fig. 2
D e s c r i p t i o n of photographs
1 Saltash Bridge.
2 Forth Bridge.
5 Bridge at H a m b u r g .
1 6 1 8 Pedestrian bridges.
152
bridge
the
river
153
154
155
s i L
^ i *'iV.i
156
Pierre DUBA S
'La Madeleine"
Bridge
over the
Sarine
Properties of steel H O A G 55
C
0.17
Si
0.50
Mn
1.50
0.025
S
0.025
NI
0.50
Va
0.10%
M E C H A N I C A L PROPERTIES
Guaranteed yield point
40 k g / m m 2
A c t u a l yield point (at time of acceptance) > 42 k g / m m 2
Impact tests: CharpyV, (at time of acceptance)
(longitudinal) D V M , after ageing,
10
0C
157
SEME! It : MIN 6
D e s c r i p t i o n of
1 General view of the bridge.
photographs
5 Precast units before placing.
2 Interior of girders.
158
159
160
Azarlus DOBRUSZKES
The Contribution
made by the
Preflex
of Steel
Bridges
161
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
REFERENCES
Prof. Ir. L. Baes et Ir. A . Lipskl: La poutre Prflex Principes Notes de calcul Notes
descriptives Fascicules I Il III. BruxeHes 1953 et 1958.
Prof. Ir. L. Baes et Ir. A . Llpski: La poutre Prflex Congrs International du bton prcon
t r a i n t . Gand 1951 Communications B.39 et B.39 suite.
Ir. I. Leviant: La technique de prflexion A nnales des Ponts et Chausses n" 2 de mars
avril 1962. Paris.
"'
Prof. Dr. H. Beer: Der PreflexTrger Betonsteinzeitung Heft 5, Mai 1960. Wiesbaden.
Ir. H. W l t t f o h t : Der Preflextrger Die Bautechnik Heft 10 1957 Heft 1 und 3, 1958.
Berlin.
10
D e s c r i p t i o n of
1 T r a n s p o r t a t i o n of a 50.30 m. long Preflex steel girder
for bridge on A ntwerpLiege highway.
photographs
7 Upstream bridge of the Vianden hydraulic power
station. Three and four continuous 25 m. spans.
over
the
9 Bridge a t Merksem.
Slenderness: 1/32.
10 Bridge over the Slotervaart at A m s t e r d a m .
Slenderness: 1/36.
..
...
. , , ,, ._ ,
..
n . ,
11 Bridge in W e s t Norfolk. (England)
Three spans of 18 m. each.
162
supports)
Demer
at
<s _ . . _.
163
164
jean-Andr RORET
The Situation
with regard
165
166
Roberto
B O NA M I C O
Italian)
1.1 M c = 0.125,00 p l
If (Fig. 2) the uniformly distributed load were t o
relate t o the centre half (DCE) only, the bending m o m e n t
M'u acting on the centreline C would be:
1.2 M' c = 0.093,75 p i = 0.75 ML.
(a) elimination of c e n t r i n g ;
(b) ess s h u t t e r i n g ;
Fig. 1
167
1111111111111111
v;-V
I)
e
2
Flg. 2
im
"V^VNV
Jr
e
2
Flg. 3
<
)r
2
Fig. 4
"1
(_
4
Fig. 5
168
&
\
a*
Fig. 6
*
$
'k
\V\VO
4-
Fig. 7
169
(i)
170
of
the
diagram
of
absolute
(i)
(I)
1. Structural steel
2. Reinforcement bars
3. Total steel
4. Concrete
5. Shuttering
94kg.
118 kg.
212 kg.
0.68 cu.m.
1.04 sq.m.
128
30
158
0.27
1.23
kg.
kg.
kg.
cu.m.
sq.m.
Fig. 9
171
172
DISCUSSION
F a b r i z i o de M i r a n d a
(Original text: Italian)
A z a r i u s Dobruszkes
(Original text: French)
Hiroshi K I H A R A
(Original text: English)
173
174
M.
Demol
A z a r i u s Dobruszkes
(Original text: French)
Findings
The very interesting reports presented to the Committee on bridges and allied
structures showed the trend in the use of steel for the construction of these very important structures.
The emplasis was on the use of steels having a higher yield point and, above all, weldability.
The weldability of these high-strength steels on site is still associated with some uncertainties.
Welding is extensively employed for parts prepared in the fabrication works, where this operation can be
carried out with the greatest possible care and with all necessary supervision and inspection to ensure
success. For the erection of structural components on site, the methods almost exclusively applied in many
countries are riveting or high-strength bolting.
As a result of the use of steels with a higher yield point in the more heavily loaded parts, the structure becomes
more economical and competitive also in cases where other materials appeared to be at an advantage.
The use of elevated roads, sometimes two or more placed one above the other, has provided the solution
to the traffic problems where the presence of existing obstacles ruled out the possibility of increasing the
capacity of the traffic routes.
It was clearly shown how desirable and useful it is, in order to achieve a further increase in the competiti
veness of steel, to get away from the conventional shapes of the rolled sections that are commercially supplied
and to develop new shapes by using easily weldable steel sheet which can be formed to the most rational
shapes, more efficiently able to resist the loads and resulting in a reduction in the weight of material used,
while at the same time possessing greater rigidity as a result of taking maximum advantage of the high
modulus of elasticity.
In this domain a very interesting development is the stainless steel girder of quite novel shape produced
by the welding of sheet.
Steel bridge construction already has a long history, but up to the present time steel has been considered
a substitute for other materials, and its properties have not been utilized to the full.
Hence it is desirable that those who engage in steel construction should be better informed of the possibilities
of this material, so as to derive maximum benefit therefrom.
175
WORKING PARTY II
Roads and Roadway
Accessories
Chairman:
Prof. Dr. techn. Friedrich REINITZHUBER
Rapporteurs:
Dipl.-Ing. Heribert THUL
Dr.-Ing. Helmuth ODENHAUSEN
Dr.-Ing. Saverio SCHULTHEIS BRANDI
steel
178
Heribert THUL
European
Community
Belgium
West Germany
France
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Total
Total length
5
European Highways
6
Motorways
2
Other classified
3
200
3,077*
243
1,135
22,900
148,807*
340,000
160,173
2,095
70,000
247,531**
380,000
35,000
2,165
13,170
24,800
38,595
1,345
687,145
759,496
1,451,921
20,698
4 lane
189
2 lane
436
5,280
Unclassified roads
4
93,100
399,415
720,243
196,308
4,260
1,101
5,792*
5,943
6,427
90
* As a t 1.1.1964.
** As a t 1.1.1961.
179
The traffic density on the E.E.C, roads is given in Table II. Here we see that West Germany, by comparison
with other West European countries, lags behind in motorization (based on the number of inhabitants),
but that the traffic loads of our highways are extremely high. It is not to be expected that there will be
any change in this position during the next few years, as the annual rate of increase in the number of motor
vehicles is about 10%. It is therefore vital to promote the building of new roads and also to maintain
existing ones to such an extent as will enable us to keep pace with this increasing volume of traffic. The
problem is not completely solved, however, merely by increasing the means for road building : construction
processes must be improved, and means found for building roads rapidly and smoothly without appreciably
impeding the traffic.
N u m b e r of m o t o r vehicles
T a b l e II
Country
Belgium
W e s t Germany
France
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
12
20
14
23
19
20
96
89
126
42
132
57
* Position 1959.
* * Position 1961.
No special explanatory remarks are required in connection with the diversions. Unfortunately, they frequently
cannot be carried out at all events, not economically. In many cases, moreover, a diversion is merely
a transference of the traffic jam from one road to another.
180
DRAUFSICHT
ANSICHT
QUERSCHNITT
HOCHSTRASS
F
LkwSour
,j.i'..r,.
trimntrtJI,
Uhr-Sp,
TT ?
LkwSeur LkwSpw
LkwSp^r -
_ . _ . . JMMl~-.Vim
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
From t h e f l a t steel r o a d t o the " s t u d s o l u t i o n " a l r e a d y mentioned was no very g r e a t step. T h e usual cross
section of o u r m o t o r r o a d s , w i t h t w o lanes of 7.50 m. each in w i d t h , a 4 m. w i d e c e n t r a l s t r i p , and f o u r
side strips of 0.75 m., make it feasible t o a r r a n g e a number of emergency lanes on a r o a d , instead of t h e t w o
existing lanes of 3.75 m. w i d t h . The emergency strips must n a t u r a l l y be made n a r r o w e r and w e have plan
ned for a w i d t h of 2.50 m. for p r i v a t e cars and 3 m. for the r e m a i n i n g traffic. The reduction in the w i d t h s ,
181
limi!
Fig. 3
IMtll \- -fi
Fig. 4
Four emergency lanes can also be a c c o m m o d a t e d by the inclusion of the median strip of the m o t o r w a y , if
this is t o be renewed in any case.
Figure 3 shows h o w the provision of a f o u r t h emergency lane on the r o a d by the side of the w o r k i n g site
reduces the w o r k i n g space t o a b o u t half the w i d t h of the n o r m a l r o a d w a y . If t h e road-bed has t o be
reconstructed t o an excessive d e p t h , this solution is unsuitable, o w i n g t o the d a n g e r of the subsidence of the
f o u r t h emergency s t r i p . O n the o t h e r hand, figure 4 shows t h a t if h a r d shoulders o r lay-bys a r e provided
a t the side, satisfactory f o u r - l a n e traffic can be organized d u r i n g the conversion o p e r a t i o n s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
h o w e v e r , only very few lay-bys have been provided on the older m o t o r - r o a d s .
T e m p o r a r y steel o v e r h e a d roads
182
Sites o r in t e m p o r a r y bottlenecks inside and outside b u i l t - u p areas. These bridges a r e easy t o erect, since
t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l components a r e made of a size t h a t enables t h e m t o be handled w i t h very simple e q u i p m e n t .
Photographs 2 t o 4 show t h e D bridge scheme and I l l u s t r a t e the possibilities of its use, in this case on r o a d conversion sites in B e r l i n , Mungsten and F r a n k f u r t . The w e i g h t of a single-storey, single-web b r i d g e designed
t o " B r i d g e c a t e g o r y 6 " , amounts t o 1.30 t / m .
A l l the o t h e r overhead road solutions have been s i m i l a r l y based on the principle of keeping the w e i g h t
and cost of the s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n acceptable limits. The o v e r h e a d roads w e r e thus designed solely for p r i v a t e car traffic (Fig. 1), I.e. " B r i d g e c a t e g o r y 6 " . The result of this is t h a t :
O E L E N K
Fig. 5
REGEL- LICHTRAUMPROP11_
Fig. 6
183
() at the ertrance t o and e x i t f r o m each w o r k i n g site the traffic has t o be made t o converge and d i v e r g e
respectively;
(b) c a r r i a g e w a y s have t o c a r r y traffic in opposite d i r e c t i o n s .
Both these factors have an u n f a v o u r a b l e effect on the f l o w of traffic chiefly because of the reduced
efficiency of t w o lanes w i t h opposing traffic as against t w o u n i d i r e c t i o n a l lanes.
The t e m p o r a y steel overhead r o a d shown in figures 5 and 6, laid d o w n by t h e A . G . far I n d u s t r i e p l a n u n g ,
consists of t u b u l a r steel f r a m e elements of 2.50 m. in l e n g t h , spanning a road of t w o traffic lanes. The decking
of the o v e r h e a d r o a d consists of p r e f a b r i c a t e d r o a d w a y slabs, made of steel o r concrete and s u p p o r t e d by
t h e frames. In the cases shown the overhead road is placed above the new r o a d b u i l d i n g site and as each
section of the w o r k is c o m p l e t e d , the overhead r o a d w e i g h i n g a b o u t 2.2 t / m ; is moved on. This solution
is f a i r l y costly; due t o this, the separate r e b u i l d i n g sections have t o be kept very s h o r t .
The overhead road proposed by the GuteHoffnungsHtte
(Fig. 7)is less c o m p l i c a t e d . The main s t r u c t u r a l
elements are deck bridges of span 30 m. and w i d t h 3 m ; constructed s y m m e t r i c a l l y a b o u t the l o n g i t u d i n a l
axis and t h e span centres. Individual bridges of smaller span a r e also p r o v i d e d , so t h a t any desired o v e r a l l
length of bridge can be achieved o r any points in the l a y o u t reached.
i - i^
1.8
rcrsMborer
1i
<oc too
^tOOUOOj
JO.OOm
Oer W / i e noch
Aufiagerrfegel
eersMlborer
Ztvitehensfek
xur
I t r o / O U e r u n y der
0urchfotvtsh6he
i,<5
|,M,i
Fig. 7
184
6.03 m
020
00
, r
HI
l i l
U|
-4h
Frei
fr Repar arurarbei
11
ten
J375
00-^,00
^ ^arTifreifen
7,50 m
xii,h
Ja^
Fig. 8
Bcschungskante
Betonzlrtifen
30.00m
30.00
_5C_
0.00
BotOTUtre/ftw
OrrufrviNyn
BenswA-eiftvi
Bctarertrrifcfi
Bsvhtrtikonte
Flg. 9
185
The f i r m of Jucho also bases the design of its overhead r o a d s t r u c t u r e on the principle t h a t only p r i v a t e - c a r
traffic should be t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e 2nd level, in view of s t r u c t u r e w e i g h t (Fig. 10). This f i r m , m o r e o v e r ,
has a t t a c h e d special i m p o r t a n c e t o keeping d o w n the n u m b e r of different s t r u c t u r a l elements t o a m i n i m u m .
Fig. 10
The b r i d g e deckplate is only 12 m. long and 2.10 m. w i d e (Fig. 11) and is 0.30 m. in d e p t h w i t h o u t the bearing
plate. The b r i d g e span is 11.80 m. and t h r e e adjacent plates p r o v i d e a t o t a l b r i d g e - w i d t h of 6.30 m., but
the safety rails at the side leave a b o u t 6.10 m. as useful b r i d g e - w i d t h . A t the sides of each bridge plate
t h e r e are t w o main girders of U-section, 2.10 m. a p a r t o v e r a l l . The r o a d w a y plate is 6 m m . t h i c k and is
supported by l o n g i t u d i n a l l i g h t - w e i g h t U-sections of 14 cm. d e p t h . These l o n g i t u d i n a l sitffeners rest on
transverse beams a t 1.47 m. centres and the t o t a l w e i g h t of steel in the s t r u c t u r e is 1.5 t / m .
Fig. 11
186
The p o r t a l s a r e conveyed, folded up, t o the w o r k i n g s i t e ; the posts and wind-braces unfolding under t h e i r
o w n w e i g h t w h e n lifted. T o stabilize the p o r t a l f r a m e in the l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n of the bridge before the
deck has been placed, t e m p o r a r y erection supports are used.
It is possible t o erect by means of a mobile crane, and a b o u t 480 m. length of bridge can be erected in under
10 hours.
W i t h the exception of t h e bridge scheme described above, the o v e r h e a d roads mentioned have not so far
been in p r a c t i c a l use. This is mainly due t o t h e fact t h a t at r e c o n s t r u c t i o n sites of 4-lane highways w e n o w
have a v a i l a b l y o t h e r methods, not only m o r e economically advantageous but also simpler f r o m the
c o n s t r u c t i o n a l point of view a n d , above a l l , offering less t r a f f i c risk. It nevertheless remains beyond dispute
t h a t the steel overhead r o a d can prove very suitable, w h e r e t h e r e is only one r o a d w a y , o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y
in b u i l t - u p areas.
Emiadelungsspur ohn
StahlllachslraDe
i
-I
r-
r-
Fig. 12
187
A f u r t h e r possible a p p l i c a t i o n for steel level roads is also t o be found in diversions w h i c h can be produced
by simply laying the plates on fields and meadows.
T e c h n i c a l d a t a f o r t h e f i r s t t e m p o r a r y level steel r o a d s
The first level steel road constructed in W e s t G e r m a n y consists of h o l l o w steel decking units 12.25 m, in length
and 2.40 m. in w i d t h (Fig. 13), laid close t o g e t h e r across the r o a d w a y , and connected by means of so-called
quick a c t i n g couplings and c o r n e r bolts (Fig. 14). The deck units a l l o w f o r t w o r o a d w a y s each of 5.75 m.
w i d t h and each r o a d w a y comprises t w o traffic lanes of 3.25 m. and 2.50 m. w i d t h . The boundaries of the
r o a d w a y are provided by steel kerbs 30 cm. high, fastened by means of h a m m e r - h e a d e d bolts.
_12,25 m
5,75m-
5,75 m-
^
I
7,80
3 00
'\
|
4
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
The dimensions of the plates a r e of course c o n t r o l l e d by the w i d t h s r e q u i r e d f o r the traffic strips as well as
by the w i d t h of the p l a t f o r m s of the s t a n d a r d lorries by w h i c h they a r e t o be t r a n s p o r t e d .
188
rr
Fig. 15
The dimensions of the decking units also m a k e it possible, in most cases, for the steel r o a d t o be t a n k e
t h r o u g h under bridges passing over t h e m o t o r w a y (Fig. 16). W h e r e this is not p r a c t i c a b l e , the traffic can be
organized as shown in figure 1 7 ; in this case, h o w e v e r , p r i v a t e - c a r traffic and l o r r y traffic have t o be s e p a r a
ted.
0=3=T
rr
^7<vi^vMM.',uu^asrr * r ^ ~ ^^r.?;
12,25 m
JWL
7.50
<P _ .
Fig. 16
If the m o t o r w a y passes over a b r i d g e , the l i m i t e d w e i g h t of the h o l l o w units nearly always makes it possible
t o lay the steel r o a d on the b r i d g e itself. In this case, h o w e v e r , the steel r o a d must be high enough above
the bridge r o a d w a y t o ensure t h a t the l o w e r edge of the decking is above the existing safety kerbs (Fig. 18).
189
Schnrtt aa
Schnitt bb
rmir
1
iJsaL
Flg. 17
5j
Fig. 18
190
A continuous straight road is thus provided simply by joining the units. Needless to say, however, the plates
can also be laid on bends, up to the relatively small radius of 1000 m. and this is achieved by widening the
joints fan-wise between the plates. W i t h a radius of 1000 m. there is a gap of 32 mm. at the outside of the
arc, and this is just permissible. If the radius is 2000 m. the gap will be reduced to 22 mm. Smaller radius,
on the other hand, can be obtained by the use of trapezoidal units, 2.40 m. wide at one end and 2.20 m.
at the other. W i t h these plates, a radius of curvature of 140 m. can be obtained, although this only occurs
at entrances and exits to motorways.
The steel level road has been designed to "Bridge category 30" of the German Standard for Design Loads
(DIN 1072), so that the steel structure can be used by all vehicles permitted by the traffic regulations.
The steel used for the main structural components is St 52; the
lower plate 3.5 mm. in thickness. Specific fatigue tests were not
with plates built up on similar lines, and the steel had proved
plates, moreover, had long been demonstrated by other practical
The quick acting dowel couplings are of heat-treated steel St52. They are fully capable of transmitting the
maximum transverse loads from the traffic, although this is not their purpose.
By the longitudinal sleepers placed under the plates the bearing pressure on the foundation in this case
on the border strips is evenly distributed. The maximum calculated edge pressure is 7 kg./cm 2 .
To obtain factual information on the actual stresses and strains which would accur in the plates, tests
ware carried out on the first steel road laid, and these showed that, with the usual static live load and in
test runs with a 3-axle test vehicle, having a front axle weight of 4.5 t., and 8.6 t. on each of the two rear
axles, the stresses in the top and bottom plates were always below 3 kg./mm 2 .
191
of
Montagerichtung
P l a t t e n t r a n s p o r t fahr zeug
beladen
canz"
LI
EfflP
ciD==<J
sMontagerampe
Montagerarnpe
tJTT
%31_
K3r^=
Fig. 19
If, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c o n t i n u o u s r o a d b u i l d i n g is r e q u i r e d f o r e c o n o m i c o r p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n s , t h e n as s o o n
as a s e c t i o n o f t h e m o t o r w a y h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d ( a n d t h i s m u s t n a t u r a l l y b e s h o r t e r t h a n t h e s t e e l
road
w a y ) , t h e t r a f f i c is t a k e n i n t w o l a n e s o v e r t h i s s e c t i o n a n d a l s o o v e r t h a t p a r t o f t h e s t e e l l e v e l r o a d
which
is t o r e m a i n i n p l a c e . In t h i s c a s e l a t e r a l r a m p s a r e u s e d t o b r i d g e t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n l e v e l b e t w e e n t h e m o t o r
w a y a n d t h e s t e e l r o a d ( F i g . 2 1 ) . A f t e r t h e c h a n g e o f u s e , t h e r o a d w a y g r i l l a g e is d i s m a n t l e d o n o n e s i d e
a n d t h e d i s m a n t l e d units a r e r e l a i d o n t h e o t h e r side.
road
w h i c h r e m a i n s in p l a c e .
betadaws
Platttntransportfahrztuq
Montagerichtung
UOC'
Montagerampe)
'5Eai
D .
gang*"
Rost fr
Baugerte *
Montagerampe
SDO
"Rinn;
Fig. 20
192
Demontage
M ontage
Plattentransport fahr zeug
\
Montagerampe
ctD0
~*=stT3TZl
_Plattentran5portfahrzeufl
/ jeitlicne Rarnpjt_
2 spurio fr
ffentlichen
Verkehr
Fig. 21
193
of
N o conclusive s t a t e m e n t can as yet be made on the surfacing of the r o a d w a y . Fifteen different plastic coatings
w e r e applied t o the first steel r o a d of this type in o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r behaviour under traffic conditions.
The t w o coatings w i t h a t a r base have not proved satisfactory; the o t h e r coatings, on an epoxy-resin base,
have so far shown no defects.
F u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e t e m p o r a r y steel level r o a d
The experience gained w i t h the first steel r o a d has n a t u r a l l y been evaluated w i t h a v i e w fo finding the
o p t i m u m s t r u c t u r a l s o l u t i o n . In the f u t u r e , for e x a m p l e , the l o w e r plate w i l l be dispensed w i t h , w h i c h means
2400-
Fig. 22
194
Concluding remarks
The advantages and drawbacks of temporary steel roads have been indicated in considerable detail
If we have drawn particular attention to their weak points, our object has not been to impede by negative
criticism a line of progress and development which has just commenced, on the contrary, the purpose of this
paper has been to show where the main efforts must be concentrated in order to provide the widest possible
field of application for the temporary steel road of the future.
195
Description of photographs
1 Components of D bridge.
2 D bridge open to traffic (Berlin).
3 D bridge open to 2-lane traffic near Mngsten
4 Model of D bridge at Platz der Republik Frankfurt, t
5 Model of t e m p o r a r y overhead steel road at Jucho.
6 T r a n s p o r t a t i o n of deck plates t o building site near
Butzbach. (Frankfurt-Kassel m o t o r w a y
196
without
197
198
Helmuth
ODENHAUSEN
Modern
Footbridges
in Steel
Construction
59
[Jahr]
60
Flg. 1
199
crossing of highways by pedestrians, namely, by routing them at an elevated level across the road, leads
to the provision of footbridges.
Footbridges have indeed proved to be a reliable and safe remedy, especially in dense and fast road traffic.
Bogen
Jfreistogen
Parabelogen
gerede langsrampe
ts#^"'
gerade Qtierrampe
arch
Rampe
doppelte Querrempe
ramps
gewinnette Rampe
stairways
gewend elle Rampe
\^Z
segmental arch
parabolic arch
sloping ramps, in line w i t h the bridge
sloping ramps, at r i g h t angles t o the bridge
dou ble sloping ramps, a t ri g ht angl es t o the bridge
sloping ramps w i t h landings
spiral ramps
s t r a i g h t stairways
corner stairways
spiral stairways
gerade Treppe
Treppe
Winheltreppe
Wendeltreppe
Fig. 2
A feature that nearly all footbridges for conducting pedestrians over road traffic have in common is that
the users have access to them at street level and also step off them at street level. Hence the footbridge
normally comprises three parts : an upward-sloping part, a horizontal part, and a downward-sloping
part. For the sloping parts a gradient of 15% is regarded as the acceptable upper limit. Figure 2 shows
schematically the structural possibilities for overcoming the differences in level that commonly occur with
footbridges. The ascending and descending parts, I.e., the sloped portions of the structure, may be arches,
ramps, stairs or escalators. These may be in line with the centre-line of the bridge, or be set at an angle
thereto or, in addition, be curved. Finally, they may have a constant or, alternatively, a constantly varying
slope. The latter case is, for example, encountered in footbridges in the form of a flat arch. In such bridges
there is no horizontal central part. Figure 3a gives a comparison between a flat parabolic arch bridge and
a corresponaing girder bridge with straight ramps. Generally speaking, the arched footbridge is archi
tecturally satisfactory because of its geometric shape, as will also be evident from subsequent illustrations.
However, it has the apparent disadvantage that the crown of the bridge has to be at a height somewaht
greater than the minimum clearance. This disadvantage is, however, offset by the favourable variation
in slope, from the point of view of the human physical effort required, of the flat parabolic arch bridge.
As can be seen in the lower part of this illustration, (Fig. 3b) the straight ramp of the girder bridge has a
constant gradient, whereas the gradient of the parabolic arch is, it is true, initially greater but then steadily
diminishes to zero. This compensates for the physical fatigue caused by the brief effort of climbing.
A disadvantage of the flat arch bridge, as contrasted with the girder bridge with straight ramps, however,
is the considerable amount of space required on both sides of the roadway. This indicates the fact that the
choice between the flat arch bridge and the straight girder bridge is fundamentally governed by the amount
of space available on each side.
200
Bogenbrcke
Balkenbrche mit Auf-und'Abstiegrampen
Straendecke
Fig. 3 a E l e v a t e d
pedestrian
crossing
of the
'
FJb^J
b^-1
dx
Fig. 3b C o m p a r a t i v e
gradients
of
the
parabolic
"
ZH
B (bz-1)
bridge.
The bridge systems usually employed for modern footbridges are schematically summarised in figure 4.
I shall presently supplement this summary with a large number of examples of bridges actually constructed
(1-62).
As regards the supports, the most commonly employed forms are shown in figure 5.
For footbridges, steel construction offers some substantial advantages : the bridges are prefabricated
in the works and are quickly erected on the site. Interference with road traffic can be almost entirely avoided
by conveying the large prefabricated units and erecting them during the night hours when there is little
traffic. Another advantage is that light steel bridges can easily be dismantled and re-used elsewhere. This
fact is particularly important with regard to road widening or other road development schemes. For example,
when the Cologne Leverkusen motorway was widened from four to six traffic lanes, the removal of
concrete flyovers was very costly indeed.
W i t h regard to the steel footbridges hitherto constructed, the use of plate girders, of rolled steel sections,
and of tubular construction is to be distinguished.
Architectural treatment and the need for the appearance of the bridge to harmonize with the urban or
rural scenery are of the utmost importance, particularly in connection with footbridges for pedestrians
over roads, since these bridges differ from ordinary bridges in that they do not cross a waterway but level
ground.
The following illustrations will serve primarily to give you an idea of the numerous possibilities that steel
construction has to offer from the architectural, traffic engineering, and structural points of view.
201
Girder bridges w i t h
Arch bridges
main girders
box-girders
arched deck
arches w i t h suspended deck
Suspension footbridges
Cable-stayed girder bridges supported by wire ropes f r o m
a pylon
Portal frame bridge
Seilverspannte
Balkenbrcken
^ Z
Rahmenbrchen
Fig. 4
202
It t r u s t t h a t , w i t h the help of these mainly visual aids, I have succeeded in giving you an idea of the
numerous possibilities of f o o t b r i d g e s in steel c o n s t r u c t i o n .
Ansicht
lenttn
Fig. 7 Middle support arch bridge over a river channel near Meppen. The deck forms the tie-member of the arch girder. As
can be seen, the arch was prefabricated as a single whole.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
1
*
5
'
"'
REFERENCES
W . Haupt, Die Fussgangerbrcke ber die Hase in Meppen (The footbridge over the Hase a t
Meppen). Der Stahlbau, June, 1956, N o . 6.
D. Fuchs, Der Fussgngersteg auf der Brsseler Weltausstellung 1958 (The f o o t b r i d g e a t the
W o r l d Exhibition a t Brussels in 1958). Stahlbau, 1958, No. 4.
F. Leonhardt, Fussgngersteg ber die Schillerstrasse in S t u t t g a r t (Footbridge over the Schiller
strasse a t S t u t t g a r t ) . Bautechnik. 1962, No. 4.
W . Kuse, Geschwelsste sthlerne Fussgngerbrcken (Welded steel footbridges). Schwelssen
und Schneiden, 1963, N o . 6.
K. Reimers, Fussgangerbrcke ber die Glacis-Chaussee in H a m b u r g fr die Internationale
Gartenbau-Ausstellung 1963 (Footbridge over the Glacis-Chaussee a t H a m b u r g for the
International H o r t i c u l t u r a l Exhibition in 1963). Schweissen und Schneiden, 1963, N o . 6.
A. Felge, Fussgngerbrcken aus Stahl (Steel footbridges). M e r k b l a t t 251 of the Beratungsstelle
fr Stahlverwendung (Advisery C e n t r e for the Use of Steel), Dsseldorf, 2nd edition, 1964.
H. Odenhausen, Fussgngerbrcken in Stahlblechkonstruction (Footbridges In steel plate con
struction). Acier-Stahl-Steel Internationale Zeltschrift fr Stahlverwendung, February,
1964, N o . 2.
H. Odenhausen, Fussgngerbrcken in v o r g e f e r t i g t e r S t a h l k o n s t r u k t i o n (Footbridges In pre
fabricated steel construction). Deutsche Bauzeitung, February, 1964, No. 2.
H. Krosse and S. K r u g , Brckenschlag ohne Verkehrsbehinderung (Bridgebullding w i t h o u t Inter
ference w i t h traffic). Der Bauingenieur, September, 1964, N o . 9.
203
D e s c r i p t i o n of photographs
1 Footbridge a t S t u t t g a r t .
2 Girder b r i d g e ; splayed p o r t a l f r a m e ; the t w o main
girders, of t u b u l a r construction, also serve as parapets ;
s t r a i g h t access stairs w i t h landings.
3 Footbridge over m o t o r w a y near Gtersloh.
4 Portal frames w i t h corner bracings; here too the late
ral lattice girders serve as parapets; the access stairs,
which are provided w i t h landings, are set at an angle.
5 6 Designs for footbridges w i t h access stairs set a t
r i g h t angles, for installing a t points where the foot
paths are n a r r o w .
7 Footbridge over railway tracks a t Mannheim. Compo
site c o n s t r u c t i o n ; boxsection central girders; A type
supports.
8 9 Footbridge over road and tramlines at D o r t
mund. Boxsection central girder, Vtype supports.
10
204
over an express
5 5 5 6 A n o t h e r example of a structure
assembled
f r o m prefabricated and standardised components.
Supports are " s p a c e " structures of I.R.E. rolled steel
sections and tubes; lateral main girders and w i n d
bracings also of t u b u l a r construction.
5 7 5 8 Demountable, bolted footbridge a t Frankfurt.
Erected during constructional operations for the un
derground r a i l w a y .
59 T e m p o r a r y footbridge assembled f r o m steel t u b u l a r
scaffolding components, at Leverkusen. The t w o lateral
main girders are here located above deck level.
6 0 T e m p o r a r y footbridge assembled f r o m steel t u b u l a r
scaffolding components, at Hanover. The centrally
located main girder is under the deck.
6 1 6 2 T e m p o r a r y arch bridge assembled from false
w o r k components, erected over an express road a t
Hanover.
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11_^> **
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205
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206
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207
208
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210
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213
214
215
216
Saverio SCHULTHEIS B R A N D I
Road-Safety
Devices
Introduction
The subject I have chosen, "Road-Safety Devices," deals with the many devices
which are considered to be accessories in road construction i.e. guide posts, guard-rails, road signs, lamp
posts, screens, and so on. These are minor devices, of course, and, in the opinion of some, of secondary
importance in comparison with this major review of the steel constructions which is to-day reaching its
close here in Luxembourg.
However, inasmuch as these devices help to reduce the ever growing danger of road communications, they
deserve quite a different evaluation.
Road communications, which are now more than a factor of the economy of nations, are becoming an
integral part of the modern way of life. "More than a factor in the economy of the U.S. highway transport
ation has become a part of the American way of life" : these are the opening words of the report on the
constitution of the important American Research Institute, and the Highway Research Board, which is a
Division of the National Research Council.
The importance of reducing the danger of these vital means of communications is such that, when in 1946
the need was felt in the U.S.A. for a Committee for Road Safety, the Chairmanship was taken by the President
himself : "President's Committee for Traffic Safety".
The dangers of road traffic are proved by the following figures : in the 13 European nations having the
largest traffic density, about 100,000 people died and 3,000,000 were injured in 1963 through road accidents.
These are frightening figures, and they are bound to grow every year because road traffic and especially
the speed of vehicles are constantly increasing.
Consequently, if I quote from reliable statistics to show that road-safety devices have the effect of reducing
the danger in a measure comprising between 20% and 40%, and if I further indicate that these devices are
nearly always in steel, I shall also have shown consequently the importance of this branch of steel construction.
My exposition shall consist of the following :
A The vertical devices, dealing with
guide posts,
guard-rails,
road signs.
217
T h e v e r t i c a l devices
The v e r t i c a l devices, a l r e a d y considered a simple i n t e g r a t i o n of the h o r i z o n t a l devices, are a c q u i r i n g ever
increasing i m p o r t a n c e as t h e speed of m o t o r vehicles increases.
The higher speed requires :
(a) the need t o see, even w i t h poor v i s i b i l i t y , the full r o a d line d e m a r c a t e d in a clear m a n n e r for an even
longer section,
(b) the need t o receive a t an even g r e a t e r distance the instructions of the v e r t i c a l devices.
The v e r t i c a l devices have consequently t w o distinct duties in r e l a t i o n t o the above t w o items.
The first d u t y can also be called " v i s u a l aid t o d r i v i n g " . N o w t h a t the obsolete kerb-stones and pillars
have been discarded, this d u t y is t o - d a y e n t r u s t e d t o guide posts and g u a r d - r a i l s . The guide posts have only
t h e object of d e m a r c a t i n g the r o a d w a y ; t h e g u a r d - r a i l s add t o this f u n c t i o n mechanical p r o t e c t i o n , t h a t
is the p r e v e n t i o n of vehicles of u n i n t e n t i o n n a l l y leaving t h e r o a d w a y .
The second d u t y , is of t r a n s m i t t i n g in a d e q u a t e t i m e a useful i n s t r u c t i o n t o the d r i v e r , and is left t o t h e
r o a d signs.
Summing up, t h e w o r k s t o be e x a m i n e d in the field of the v e r t i c a l devices a r e :
guide posts,
the guard-rails,
t h e r o a d signs.
218
The posts are of ultra-light construction, weighing only 4 kg., and consequently offer very small resistance
to the impact of motor vehicles (3).
Other advantages of steel post are, that they are easy to transport and to install, easy to replace when dam
aged as the base element is always fixed to the ground.
One last point to be mentioned at critical places, as in the so-called traffic islands, heavier posts are installed,
also made in steel, and fitted with internal lighting equipment (4).
Guard-rails
Guard-rails are mentioned in this review as belonging to vertical devices, that is to say, the same category
as the guide posts and the road signs.
This however, is doing the guard-rails a certain injustice, because, it it is true that they have the following
two functions :
1. visual guidance,
2. mechanical protection,
the latter entitles them to be regarded as the most important among the road-safety devices.
The most important, but also the most debatable in fact, is that the function of the guard-rail is more
complicated than it appears to be and experts are still in disagreement with regard to both its installation
and design.
The question is so complex and controversial that it cannot be gone into adequately at this stage : I can
only touch briefly on some of the more important aspects, notably :
(a) the function, or rather functions, of the guard-rail;
(b) types and features of guard-rails;
(c) the conflicting nature of road-accident statistics with reference to guard-rails.
219
has increased t o g e t h e r w i t h the speed of vehicles, whilst the means of defence, the g u a r d - r a i l , has not been
a l t e r e d t o meet t h e new demands, but has remained substantially unchanged and static for many years.
T o speak a b o u t present-day studies and even touch upon the d y n a m i c a l problems involved is a m a t t e r w h i c h
m i g h t lead us t o o far f r o m the p o i n t . I should like, h o w e v e r , t o m e n t i o n :
The w o r k of the Road Research L a b o r a t o r y ,
The w o r k of Prof. Stahel, f o r m e r D i r e c t o r of the Institute of Road C o n s t r u c t i o n s a t the Z u r i c h Poly
technic.
Prof. Stahel's studies a r e of p a r t i c u l a r interest because they o u t l i n e in the end, even t h o u g h t h e o r e t i c a l l y ,
the features of the new g u a r d - r a i l , w h i c h should fully discharge the double functions of mechanical guide
and b r a k i n g effect.
The a u t h o r sets the p r o b l e m by analyzing t w o distinct effects of the g u a r d - r a i l :
A mechanical guide effect w h i c h is confined t o b r i n g the vehicle back t o its c o r r e c t d r i v i n g course, a l l o w i n g
it t o c o n t i n u e its r u n w i t h o u t appreciable v a r i a t i o n in speed and consequently w i t h practically a m i n i m u m ,
energy a b s o r p t i o n , and
A b r a k i n g effect which takes a w a y , w h o l l y o r p a r t i a l l y , kinetic energy f r o m the vehicle, t h r o u g h heat
t r a n s f e r o r dissipation, off-setting the w h o l e i n i t i a l speed, perhaps v e c t o r i a l , o r at least p a r t of it.
In conclusion, the a u t h o r states t h a t this dual mechanical a c t i o n could be ideally achieved by a continuous
and r e l a t i v e l y r i g i d metal band connected t o its supports by i m m e d i a t e flexible, but non-elastic elements.
(c) T h e r e have a p p a r e n t l y been some i m p r o v e m e n t s in t h e joints near the supports. These joints are made
preferably by o v e r l a p p i n g (8 and 9).
I shall recall t h a t the b e t t e r class joints g u a r a n t e e the c o n t i n u i t y of the b a n d , w h i c h is very i m p o r t a n t ,
because it p e r m i t s the a b s o r p t i o n of a g r e a t e r a m o u n t of impact energy by a l a r g e r n u m b e r of supports,
thus t r a n s m i t t i n g it t o the g r o u n d (10).
(a) Still on the m a t t e r of j o i n t s , the m a n u f a c t u r e of g u a r d - r a i l s by press s t a m p i n g , as preferred in G e r m a n y ,
has the a d v a n t a g e of p r o v i d i n g the parts t o be o v e r l a p p e d w i t h a shape w h e r e b y sliding surfaces a r e
produced ;
220
SCHEMA DEL
TIPO II
SCHEM/1 DEL
TIPO I
Flg. 1
(b) A ccording to new method already applied in the U.S.A ., the bands are fixed to the supports with the
application of spacers (11).
The spacers avoid the danger that the wheels of the vehicle, whilst sliding on the deformed guardrail,
should collide against the supports, which would make the accident more serious.
This type of guardrail with spacers was considered, as far back as 1960, " a positive barrier" by the
Highway Research Board, who, following a long series of tests, considered it worthy in comparison
with not less than 15 types examined to be experimentally installed on the A merican motorways
and confirmed their favourable opinion after two years' tests. In the last few years, great importance
has been attached to the problem of avoiding the danger of terminal sections which may cause the
serious accident called "cutting i n " . In addition to the solutions currently adopted (12, 13 and 14), there
is a new one which has been the object of many experiments by the Highway Research Board and
consists in gradually reducing to zero the terminal section (Fig. 2).
'3,80m
-3,SOm
3,Sm
~j. SOm
ALZATO
Flg. 2
221
BIuo J: rj,7jj/d'.' , \
lt\T4
8loc:o
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nwntuif
PUHTA XL ttocco
AMCOIHLUiO
Fig. 3
222
on the European motorways. Also very slight gradients in slopes in America, which is not always found on
the European motorways.
(3)According to recent investigations by the Highway Research Board, serious head-on collisions following
crossing of the partition verge were eliminated when guard-rails were installed. On the other hand,
the total number of accidents seems to have increased. This, however, does not mean much if only the
number and not the seriousness of the accidents is reported, since it is well known that minor accidents
can easily give a high percentage. W h a t is important is that head-on collisions have been eliminated
by having guard-rails on the central reservation.
(4)The recent statistics compiled in Germany afford reliable evidence. The figures refer to 1962 and concern
2,000 cases, reported on a standardized form, of vehicles colliding with the guard-rail following over
running of the central reservation.
Road signs
The other function of the vertical devices, that of giving in good time adequate instructions to the driver,
is also very important for road safety. For instance, any uncertainty or hesitation on the part of the driver
concerning the direction to take when approaching cross-roads may cause serious accidents and, in any
case, cause a dangerous slowing down of the normal traffic flow.
As I have already stated, this function is entrusted to the road signs, and the rapidity with which the message
is given is evidently a function of the speed of the motor vehicle.
As speeds increase, most road signs, especially on motorways, must be visible not at 100 or 200 metres away
as in the past, but 300 metres away, and, in certain cases, even this is not enough.
This has given rise to a dual problem :
of constructing road signs of larger size,
223
of fixing them in position that they can be seen from far away, namely, no longer placed by the carriage
way but overhead on the carriageway.
To solve both problems, it is preferable to have recourse to construction in steel for the following reasons:
a) The road signs in light-gauge steel sheeting enjoy the known advantages of this material for the following
reasons :
its high mechanical strength, coupled with light weight,
good resistance to corrosion ir the galvanized type,
a very good base suitable for enamelling, and
lends itself very well to pre-fabrication processes.
W i t h regard to the last item, I wish to point out that manufacture of road signs from prefabricated com
ponents is finding ever increasing demand because this system offers obvious advantages, namely economy,
speed of erection and ease of replacement (15).
The elements are connected to one another and to the supports by bolts or special clips and the erection
can be carried out either by completing the whole panel in situ or by erecting it, one element after the other,
directly on the support.
b) The supports of the road signs are becoming an important function requiring light, yet sturdy structures
two properties which steel is eminently fitted to provide. From simple modest supports on the road
sides, consisting of a single post, we have gone over to supports still on the side of the carriageway,
but provided with long brackets (16), which " h a n g " the sign over a part of the carriageway, and finally
we have gone over to supports crossing the road overhead, namely the so-called portal supports.
These portal supports are available in a wide range of types, from the lighter models, tubular (17 and 18)
or box section (19) to the more imposing structures with service gangway, or either tubular (20 and 21)
or box section (22 and 23).
Lighting
The importance of road lighting from the point of view of traffic safety is proved by
the number (and seriousness) of night accidents, as compared with day accidents, in unlighted roads;
the reduction in the number (and seriousness) of night accidents after lighting equipment was installed.
In this connection, it is interesting to note comparative statistics, called "day-night" and "before-after",
of the accidents.
W i t h regard to the first (day-night comparison) it appears that with a night traffic equivalent to a third
of the total, the night accidents amount to 40% of the accidents in the 24 hours, and this percentage goes
up to 50% if we take into account fatal accidents only. This is according to the findings of the Highway
Research Board on some roads of the State of Indiana.
W i t h regard to the second (before-after comparison) it appears that the reduction in the number of
night road accidents due to lighting is about 30%; this is according to the findings of the Road Research
Laboratory on some roads in the London area.
It is therefore natural that throughout the world large works of road lighting are being utilized or envisaged.
I give as an exemple Belgium, where they expect to provide lighting for 700 km. of roads.
Where does steel fit into the installation of up-to-date road lighting?
It comes in very prominently, since steel is the best material for making the supporting columns for the
actual lights. To demonstrate the greater advantages of steel supports, I need only run over the following
points :
224
(1) W h a t should be, in a m o d e r n r o a d l i g h t i n g system, the features of the l i g h t sources, especially as regards
their positioning.
(2) W h a t should consequently be t h e features of the l i g h t source supports (consequently, t y p i c a l supports).
(3) W h a t are the reasons w h y the steel s u p p o r t represents in a perfect w a y the typical s u p p o r t .
The requirements
The requirements
of the light-source
of the typical
support
225
The recent progress achieved in steel grades and in t u b e m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes has led t o the fact t h a t the
steel s u p p o r t , which was of t u b u l a r type for some t i m e , has reached such a perfection f r o m the technical
p o i n t of v i e w and f r o m t h a t of appearance t h a t c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m supports made of o t h e r m a t e r i a l need no
longer be feared.
The steel t u b u l a r pole, w h e t h e r made f r o m s t a n d a r d t a p e r e d o r conical tubes o r f r o m t h i n g a u g e sheeting
w i t h an average thickness of 4 m m . , shaped in various sections, has n o w such a perfection of shape t h a t
it could only exist as an expression of technical perfection.
The steel t u b u l a r pole stands up s t r a i g h t , t a p e r i n g g r a d u a l l y and gracefully bending at the t o p , " w h i p l i k e " ,
like t h e stem of a f l o w e r . The i n c l i n a t i o n of the w h i p provides the o v e r h a n g and meets the r e q u i r e m e n t s ,
of r o a d l i g h t engineering as regards the d i r e c t i o n of t h e l i g h t beam f r o m the l a m p fixed t o its end. The
p h o t o 24 shows t h e positively f l o w e r l i k e grace of t h e now classical type of steel t u b u l a r column w i t h w h i p
end.
But q u i t e a p a r t f r o m its pleasing a p p e a r a n c e , it is the technical features of the t u b u l a r steel column t h a t
m a k e it so deal for the purpose. Thus,
it allows considerable heights and t h e considerable overhangs r e q u i r e d , t o be achieved, w h i l s t having
a small section and of a l i g h t gauge, and a t the same t i m e being of l i g h t w e i g h t and slim. A l l this is due
t o its high mechanical p r o p e r t i e s ;
it p e r m i t s easy f i x i n g of the c o m p l e x l i g h t i n g e q u i p m e n t ;
it is h o l l o w and can thus a c c o m m o d a t e , at a conveniently accessible height, the e l e c t r i c i t y
equipment;
supply
Screens
Antidazzle
screens
CASO B-inlt/ne/Ze
rerfa/e
a* semiaperfure
com//?one
dr'scaerma/l/r*
Fig. 4
Les us call a the semiangular a p e r t u r e of the l i g h t cone of t h e p r o j e c t o r and t h e screening angle, defined
as the m i n i m u m angle, r e l a t i v e l y t o the plans of the screening panel and consequently r e l a t i v e l y t o the
road axis of the ray passing between the t w o adjacent elements of the screen. It is evident t h a t if is g r e a t e r
t h a n a ( m o r e accurately t h a n a increased by the a n g u l a r t o l e r a n c e between the axis of the p r o j e c t o r and
the axis of t h e vehicle) no ray f r o m the p r o j e c t o r w i l l pass t h r o u g h . The values " s " and " d " in the i l l u s t r a t i o n ,
w h i c h a r e characteristics of the screen, d e t e r m i n e t h e angle , w h i c h , (as angle a is fixed by the h i g h w a y re
gulations), p r a c t i c a l l y must, be slightly g r e a t e r t h a n 20 sexagesimal degrees, f o r the s t r a i g h t r o a d sections.
227
Wind screens
The w i n d , especially if accompanied by side gusts, has an influence on m o t o r vehicles w h i c h increases in
p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e speed of the vehicles. A s speeds are constantly increasing, accidents due t o the w i n d , w h i c h
cause the vehicles t o leave the c a r r i a g e w a y , a r e ever m o r e f r e q u e n t . F o r t u n a t e l y , the r o a d sections w h i c h
present this d a n g e r can be easily i d e n t i f i e d : i.e. woods, e m b a n k m e n t s , w h e n leaving underpasses, tunnels,
bridges, etc.
The best p r o t e c t i o n , ( a p a r t f r o m screens consisting of plants and hedges w h i c h can be inefficient and
dangerous as antidazzling screens) consist in this case as well of steel screens, w h i c h have a special appear
ance as shown in p h o t o 35.
These screens are made up of a set of grilles each consisting of l i g h t g a u g e metal strips w o v e n i n t o a w i r e
net fixed t o a l i g h t w e i g h t f r a m e . Its p r i n c i p a l a d v a n t a g e is t h e e x t r e m e ease w i t h w h i c h it can be t r a n s
p o r t e d and installed.
Snow screens
The invasion of the c a r r i a g e w a y by the snow causes serious t r o u b l e t o the t r a f f i c and becomes a g r a v e d a n g e j
w h e n t h e invasion takes place suddenly, as in the case of s n o w d r i f t s .
The g r a d u a l a c c u m u l a t i o n of snow takes place especially a t given points and it is t h e r e f o r e possible t o
p r e p a r e suitable p r o t e c t i v e installations.
Experience has proved t h a t snow screens a r e m o r e efficient if they a r e n o t of solid panel t y p e but let the
w i n d pass t h r o u g h ; in fact, the o p t i m u m consists of a screen in w h i c h the r a t i o full/open is 50/50.
Photo 36 shows one of these screens consisting of a steel rod f r a m e w i t h w i d e mesh i n t o w h i c h a r e w o v e n
l i g h t g a u g e metal strips a p p r o x i m a t e l y 15 c m . w i d e . The screen is of very l i g h t w e i g h t and is f i r m l y fixed in
the g r o u n d , being f i t t e d a t the sides w i t h t w o r i g h t angle section legs.
These screens can be easily t r a n s p o r t e d over m o u n t a i n regions w h e r e they a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y r e q u i r e d .
A g a i n s t snow drifts, h o w e v e r , much s t r o n g e r screens a r e r e a u i r e d (37). They have uprights in double sec
tions and crossmembers in profiled p l a t e ; t h e various components are then nearly always connected by
bolts t o f a c i l i t a t e t r a n s p o r t .
228
At certain critical points of the road, such as in the proximity of stadiums, schools, bus stops, etc., pedestrians
are often apt to invade the carriageway. A t those points, the two types of traffic, vehicular and pedestrian,
must be rigidly kept apart by a fixed screen so as not to cause serious mutual damage.
This screening, commonly known as fencing", is usually made in steel, which constitutes the most econo
mical and elegant solution of the problem.
Photo 39 shows a fence near a bus stop. The fence consists of a metal net with a tubular frame.
Photo 40 shows a fence, also tubular but reinforced, alongside a narrow pavement by corrugated sheet
panels.
Conclusion
The review of the works of steel in the service of road safety, a review which was necessarily brief in view
of the short time allotted, can be concluded here.
Strictly speaking, it is not complete because, as correctly stated in a publication by O.T.U.A . "L'acier dans
l'quipement de la route", we could also logically include as factors of road safety all the equipment which
aids the motorist's comfort and the efficiency of the motor vehicle, namely, motorway cafs, motels, service
stations, filling stations, etc.
Unfortunately, however, owing to the short time at my disposal, I was not able to refer even for a moment
to these supplementary services, even though this means not mentioning other important applications of
steel in road construction.
Summing up, in most of the roadway accessories examined, steel has been found to be the best material,
only in a few cases are other materials rivalling steel able to compete.
Therefore, we could then calculate the amount of steel used in the construction of a road section, for works
which are considered to have minor importance, but are always present on the roads. This calculation would
give a tonnage which shows up favourably in comparison with the tonnage used, for the same road section,
for larger, more showy, more spectacular" works, such as bridges and flyovers.
This, calculation which for us technicians, who shall never become business traders, is of little interest.
229
We technicians are in fact interested in indicating the tremendous contribution which steel makes to road
safety and, consequently, to the national and international traffic, as well as to the progress of civilisation.
It is my intention that this paper should contribute to the above purpose.
230
1J
. .. ., ....
'_'
'
tafi # '
; -:. J ._. - .
231
232
233
234
annover ?
Dortmund
Emmerich
Oberhausen
Duisburg-Mitte s
Venlo
Moers *
Mlheim/Ruhr
22
235
. ' '
27
'ami?:.
m
' D arsili?
236
^-.^
ittsiisea
iHimuiiistriiiii
;r
g]
237
.
55
* '"rjrr
UT
\m'vjg,imm
238
Paul EIDAMSHAUS
Utilization
(Original
text:
of Cold-Formed
Sections in
Construction
German)
Fig. 1
239
_MiPO_
UOQ
00
woo
_iu1
00
,<UI,
IMO
woo
l
MK
Fig. 2
240
241
Jrgen D E M M I N
Culverts-Steel
Water Pipes
243
244
245
Siegfried KRUG
Steel Roads
KFZ.EINHEITEN
IN MILLrSTCK
b
4,5
'5 MILLIONEN
JFZrEINHEITEN
3,5
3
The question is, would there have been holdups if the steel
section had not been there If the traffic had been chan
nelled, as in previous years, over a single lane w i t h t w o w a y
traffic?
25
1,5
By plotting the sum of the hourly flows shown in figure 2
for the reference period as a whole, the curve In figure 3
Indicating the t o t a l traffic volume Is obtained. The peak
t o w a r d s 6 p.m. on May 3 in figure 2 appears as the sudden
rise in the curve in figure 3.
0,5
MONATE
APRIL
MAI
JUNI
JULI
AUGUS1
Fig. 1
247
KFZ.-EINHEITEN
Q.o
6-12
U2. 5.1964
-l
3. 5.1964 - l -
4. 5.1964-
Fig. 2
KFZ.-EINHEITEN
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0-
6"
12"
18"
2. MAI 1964
24"
J
6"
12"
18" 24"
3. MAI 1964
6"
12"
18"
4. MAI 1964
24*^ H R 2 E ' T
J
Flg. 3
KFZ.-EINHEITEN
DER STAUUNG
MAXIMALE
LNGE DES STAUES-2600 KFZ.
0
15"
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
16" 17" 18" 19" 2 0 " 2 1 "
Fig. 4
248
8
22"
9
23"
24"
10
1"
11
2"
UHRZEIT
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
REFERENCES
249
D e s c r i p t i o n of p h o t o g r a p h s
1 Traffic jam on m o t o r w a y .
2 Traffic on f l a t steel r o a d .
f
250
251
Andr-Georges
BONNET
Steel Accessories
of Motorway
Bridges
in
France
This is not a negligible m a r k e t . The balustrading for an overbridge (long n a r r o w bridge) consumes 5 tons of commercial
quality steel, i.e. between 10 and 20 per cent of the steel
used In the girders or reinforcement in the superstructure,
a m o u n t i n g to 5 t o 10 per cent of the price of the bridge.
253
D e s c r i p t i o n of p h o t o g r a p h s
Note :
there are no hard projections above the posts
supporting the line of rails.
guard-rails f i t t e d In structures built before 1962.
simple repairs In case of damage.
7 Heavy joint, Type A, for m o t o r w a y bridges (crosssection) a sheet of neoprene Is squeezed between the
t w o steel plates
6 m. carriageway : 180 kg. of steel per metre
8 m. carriageway : 210 kg. of steel per metre
10 m. carriageway : 260 kg. of steel per metre
Noiseless, w a t e r t i g h t , comfortable. All the components can
be replaced.
254
255
256
Patrice DECAIX
The Evolution
of Street Furniture
in France
Preamble
As there was already a good highway system
in existence, France concentrated during the post-war years
on building up Its vehicle park, which soon became the
largest in Europe. This economic and political choice was
not the same as t h a t made in o t h e r neighbouring countries
which preferred t o build roads. This Is the reason for the
comparative position of European motorways In 1964, t h e r e
being some 400 km. In France but many more In adjoining
countries, as for Instance the 3000 k m . in existence In Ger
many.
These p r e l i m i n a r y remarks w i l l help t o explain the present
situation In France w i t h regard t o street f u r n i t u r e and the
p a r t which has been reserved for the use of steel In this
sector. The existing equipment is t r a d i t i o n a l In conception
and sometimes of foreign design because the size of the
m a r k e t does not justify special investigations or research
into equipment.
mesh (50 50 mm. being the most usual) and the diameter
of w i r e (normally a t least 3 mm.). The posts are either angles
or tee-sections (80 80 mm. for s t r u t t e d straining posts
and 50 50 mm. or 40 45 m m . for Intermediate posts).
Very strong fences of expanded metal are made in panels
1.20, 2 and 2.40 m. in height and 2.40 m. In length.
A n t i - d a z z l e screens, planned but not yet installed in steel,
are In expanded metal (panels 1.50 m. high and 4 m. long
in 15/10 mm. sheet.
L a m p s t a n d a r d s , the use of which for public lighting is
rapidly increasing, are based on the models designed for
motorways. Of purely French o r i g i n , such as the t u b u l a r
standard designed in 1950 for the A u t o r o u t e de L'Ouest,
" f a s h i o n " has evolved their shape t o w a r d s an u p r i g h t o r
leaning standard w i t h a simple or double bracket, conical
o r pyramidal in f o r m and generally octagonal o r circular
In section.
Equipment
From the technical aspect let us examine briefly the situation
w i t h regard t o equipment. This can be divided Into t w o
classes :
Accessories p r o p e r : fences, anti-dazzle screens, lamp
standards, guard-rails, gantries, traffic signals, balustrad
ing and footbridges.
Ancillary structures: small bridges, culverts ...
Accessories proper
Fences are of t r a d i t i o n a l type, in barbed w i r e ; simple, cor
rugated or Interwoven mesh, less frequently In trellis or
welded mesh; protection Is normally afforded by galvanizing
and the use of either bituminous or zinc Chromate paint.
A rough breakdown shows t h a t there are several principal
types, according t o the function envisaged : fences for cattle,
small and large g a m e ; very strong fences for use In towns.
These types are defined by t h e i r height (1.20 to 2.50 m.) the
257
PROFILE
Axe de symtrie
mm
- !"
-
258
glissire
PROFILE
Fishplate joints
Steel used: quality A 37 according to A .F.N.O.R. norms (minimal quality)
Thickness: 3 mm. tolerance on thickness as per steelmills regulation for hotrolled hoop and strip.
de
dilatation
0 24 mm
tirant de
fixation
259
Ancillary
structures
measures on account
of
aesthetic.
Fencing
Steel is the only metal which complies w i t h the requirements
demanded for fences of great height; efficient galvanizing,
conforming w i t h standards, ensures t h a t they are properly
protected.
The use of plastic-coated netting w i t h a web of about 2 mm.
galvanized w i r e Is a t present being tested for fences of
260
standards
Guard-rails
W e are a w a i t i n g the results of tests organized by the M i n
istry of W o r k s and also those on concrete rails a t the
Highways Department's testing station. Further tests on steel
equipment, already standardized or under examination will
allow us t o lay down the dimensions and spacing of the
posts, In particular.
For the equipment of bridge decks or the protection of
structures, the Highways D e p a r t m e n t has a special specifi
cation which comprises a double support w i t h posts of t i m
ber or steel sections, w i t h a square neoprene coupling
Inserted a t the level of the rails, fixed in a precast concrete
socket or to a removable base plate. A v a r i a t i o n of this
equipment w i t h a timber post and a steel section, and t w o
rails, can be cited as an example. This has been used on
the bridge over the River Giors which crosses the valley
a t a height of 40 m. In case of accident, protection is ensured
both by the guard-rails and by expanded metal balustrading.
Gantries,
signs
261
D e s c r i p t i o n of p h o t o g r a p h s
Paris ( O r l y bypass).
bracket,
bracket,
6 - 7 Types
lighting.
of
lamp standards
for highway
8 10 m. lamp standard of corrugated steel sheet, starshaped In section w i t h four crossed cast-iron brackets,
Place de l'Etoile, Paris.
9 Incandescent Iodine lighting, Place de l'Etoile : 24 stan
dards each w i t h four 1000 W . lamps.
10 Type of 10-16 m. lamp standard w i t h short bracket for
lighting of large spaces.
262
15 Conventional
bracket-type
road
sign,
Autoroute
road sign
(under
*-*:
263
Jl
J
S SF
1 t' V
10
264
crrt
'
Brevef
ARRIERE
_ GLISSIERE
DE SECURITE
ROUTIERE
"tel
iSBBEggE
Ht
y*.
265
oK.iiv-iS .*'
266
N i n o SANSONE
Italiani
267
268
Robert H. W H I T E
Utilization
Maintenance
of Stainless
of Lamp-PostsSteel
269
Cr:
-,
' , ' . ' '
F' --:
'
' *
. . .
. ;
r*feia.
271
. DE BORDE
Special
Furniture
an appreciable saving In w e i g h t
weighing 1 cwt. instead of 4.)
(lighting
standards
modern
273
per sq. mm. ultimate load and more than 65 kg. per sq.mm.
shear strength in the commercial state.
This stainless steel balustrading, which has been patented,
w i l l withstand the most severe tests and, thus, the worst
operating conditions t h a t might be imposed. The shape can
be changed to suit any a r c h i t e c t u r a l requirement.
D e s c r i p t i o n of p h o t o g r a p h s
2 Views of the stainless steel balustrading f r o m the
left and r i g h t hand sides of the Wilson Bridge looking
t o w a r d s Saint Denis.
274
Hfl HH
275
Raymond
PELTIER
of Roads in
France
apparently
277
Ivo P O T E N Z A
Temporary
Flyovers
The "Mobilpass"
Overbridge
(Original text:
278
Footbridges
Italian)
Introduction
General
gravel
even to a w k w a r d l y
2.
3.
4.
5.
footbridges
Introduction
Pedestrians nowadays find it Increasingly difficult to cross
the r o a d . Devices such as zebra crossings and traffic lights
a r e inadequate and cause traffic t o slow d o w n , leading to
hold-ups.
Subways and underpasses have been built in many towns
and cities, but by comparison w i t h overbridges t h e i r con
s t r u c t i o n is slow and costly, and entails excavation, t i m b e r i n g ,
d r a i n a g e w o r k and I n t e r r u p t i o n of traffic.
T h e problem of road crossings is not confined t o major cities.
Access to beaches at holiday resorts is often extremely
economy in manufacture and use o w i n g t o the massproduction of identical and interchangeable components;
facility of dismantling, removal and re-erectlon
necessary t o meet new planning requirements;
where
footbridges
standard bridge
m. The m a x i m u m
and railway pur
17, 22 and 27 m.
279
W h e n the simplicity and functional quality of the wellp r o p o r t i o n e d structure, w i t h its uniform girder height and
graceful t u b u l a r column design are supplemented by an
a p p r o p r i a t e layout and a suitable colour for the p a i n t w o r k ,
this type of footbridge stands out as an a t t r a c t i v e l a n d m a r k
in Its surroundings.
280
Appearance
281
282
Siegfried KRUG
Assembly of PlasticBonded
of
Footbridge
(Original
language:
Decking
German)
BELASTUNG
STAHL
TRAGER
iff! ~
BETONPLAT TE
3,50m
A
I
JWAAArW^W\MAMAAAAAAAAAA|
I8.0m
ELEKTROKA RREN
UNO
FUSSGANGER
)ANHEBEN
1
192 m
VORSPANNUNG
MOMENT
IM
VOR
DEM VERBUND
l STA HLTRGER
Nslo^TTTT
~y
NORM
A LKR
A FT IM
Nb.oi;
S.
NORM
A LKR
A FT IN DEN
BETONPL
A TTEN
^i
NA CH
DEM
VERBUND
.
M sto
N sto
Ubo
283
/r
r
economlcally;
D e s c r i p t i o n of
Combined pedestrian and electric t r u c k bridge in com
posite construction w i t h trusstype girders serving as
bridge rails and precast concrete slabs as decking.
Design measurements and lines of bending moments
3
3
,,
,
and normal forces under load. Prestresslnq3 by slightly
3
'
'
raising centre support.
284
. u . ~~
o e appreciated, especially by those commissioning the pro
jects Q n d b y t h e p | a n n i n g authorities.
photographs
2 Positioning of precast reinforced concrete slab. Con
necting reinforcing steel teeth a b o u t 5 cm. in length
project into the scallop pattern of the interstices.
,
_ ...
,
,, .
. , . ,
,
, .
3 Traffic on the road below the bridqe can continue during
,
,.
,, . '
, .
_ ,
the assembly operations which are of short d u r a t i o n ,
285
Findings
Within Working Party II a number of viewpoints and suggestions were formulated
which appear to be of sufficient interest to be set down here as findings. The High Authority should examine
these and strive to implement them within its sphere of competence.
(a)Bridge- and highway authorities of the various towns and countries should be informed that the use of
movable steel road structures would enable road traffic to be substantially improved.
(b)lt appears advisable to stimulate the dissemination of information in this field by means of piihhrations.
There exists, it is true, a sufficient number of technical and trade journals, but there would appear to be
further possibilities for also reaching architects, administrative departments, etc. In this connection the
emphasis should be not so much upon the technical design and details as upon the economic usefulness
and the effect achieved in the eyes of the community. Also, it would be advisable to organise excursions
that would enable participants to see outstanding structures of this kind. Such excursions would be inten
ded for representatives of the public authorities, planning departments and general public rather than for
steelwork engineers and contractors.
(c) Each time road construction work in towns or on trunk roads is contemplated, not only the actual cost of
construction should be taken into account, but also the cost to the road users which such work entails
throughout its duration. Estimates that have, so far, been made in connection with such investigations
show that this latter ccost can sometimes work out several times as high as the cost of the actual con
struction. The same applies to the cost arising from accidents, and this could be avoided by using sufficient
guiding and safety devices. From the viewpoint of the national economy, substantial savings can be ef
fected in this way.
(d)With regard to traffic signals and signs, the compietesi possible unification and standardisation should
be undertaken, in order to reduce the manufacturing cost and thereby promote their use on a much larger
scale.
(e)From the proceedings of Working Party II it becomes apparent that, in very general terms, it would be
necessary to carry out systematic investigations into the maintenance costs of steel structures and struc
tures of other materials, in order to arrive at a correct assessment of these costs, according to the various
construction materials concerned.
It can here be stated that, in all probability, the steel structural components examined by Working Party II
will in the future find new applications and that the scope for such applications will be further increased
by the needs that arise. Therefore this field of application should benefit by particular attention and en
couragement.
287
Steel
Framework
Chairman :
James RUDERMAN
Rapporteurs :
Duilio SFINTESCO
Prof. Leonardo ZEEVAERT
Dr. Curt F. KOLLBRUNNER
290
Duilio
SFINTESCO
Structural
Steel Framework
Today and
Tomorrow
In this report that opens the sessions devoted to the subject of steel structures and
frames for buildings, I propose to examine some common aspects of the problems that at present affect
developments in structures of this nature. For this purpose I should like to discuss in turn and very briefly
questions bearing firstly on the very fundamentals of the production of steel structures, namely, the materials,
the construction and connections of structural members, together with technical regulations, secondly on
the conditions that govern the stability of structures with special reference to their resistance to wind action,
as well as to fire and rust. Lastly I shall deal with matters affecting the design of structures, that is, con
ventional forms and the search for new forms. Here I shall lay stress on the influence that technical develop
ments, improved methods of calculation and, in large measure also, the growing use of electronic machines
may have on structural forms. I shall conclude by sketching in outline the essential conditions in which struc
tural steelwork will be able to succeed in the ever-widening field that lies open to it.
The programme I have outlined is quite an extensive one, but I think that an introductory address ought
more or less to touch on all these matters in order to elicit the questions and comments that I hope will
enliven our proceedings.
Steel production has always been a branch of industry that is well in the van of progress. Improvements
still being effected in methods of production and in rolling technology give clear evidence of the dynamic
nature of this industry.
The result is that constructional steelwork now has at its disposal the basic material with which it is possible
to perform all sorts of structural feats, with a fair margin of safety to spare.
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A t present t w o main types of steel find t h e i r place in s t r u c t u r a l w o r k : mild steel of Type A 37, w h i c h is re
presented in the m a j o r i t y of c o n v e n t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s , and high-tensile steel of Type A 52, which is finding
increasing use, not only in bridge building but also in building the classes of structures w i t h which this r e p o r t
is concerned.
The differences, h o w e v e r , between the t w o types of steel, both in the way in w h i c h they are used and in the
economic factors t h a t go w i t h it, is so g r e a t t h a t in some countries it is t h o u g h t necessary t o produce i n t e r
m e d i a t e types. Thus w e have, f o r e x a m p l e , in France, Type A 42 steel specified by o u r Bridge and H i g h w a y
Department.
A n i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the technical considerations t h a t govern the p r o d u c t i o n and use of a steel between the
A 37 and A 52 types, s t r e n g t h e n e d a p p a r e n t l y by economic factors, leads one t o t h i n k t h a t a steel w h i c h
f o l l o w i n g the present n o m e n c l a t u r e should be designated Steel 44, w i t h a yield point of 19 t.s.i. (30
k g / m m 2 ) w o u l d have p a r t i c u l a r advantages for t h e progress of c o n s t r u c t i o n a l s t e e l w o r k . Such a steel, the
p r o d u c t i o n of w h i c h is being planned a l r e a d y in some E.C.S.C, countries, finds its a p p l i c a t i o n between
Types A 37 and A 52, being, h o w e v e r , much closer in c h a r a c t e r t o the first t h a n t o the second, because of
t h e ease w i t h w h i c h it can be produced and r o l l e d . Hence its value.
A few m o r e w o r d s a b o u t the varieties of steel. The need for having enough t o choose f r o m for any p a r t i c u l a r
purpose is obvious, but it is essential t o keep the n u m b e r t o the m i n i m u m . The few concessions, t o w h i c h
one must be resigned if this a i m is t o be achieved in so many fields of use, w o u l d be largely compensated for
by the tonnages a v a i l a b l e , speedy deliveries and i m p r o v e d stockholdings. This is said w i t h an eye t o the p r o
g r a m m e of E.C.S.C, standards, now in p r e p a r a t i o n , for t h e i r d r a f t i n g seems already t o be r u n n i n g up against
some difficulties.
Yes, it is obviously a good t h i n g t o have several types of steel t o d r a w o n , but t o select t h e m wisely for
use in every case is still b e t t e r . S t r u c t u r a l s t e e l w o r k engineers understand this and t h e i r European C o n v e n
t i o n has d r a w n up its r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s in this m a t t e r .
I could h a r d l y close this p a r t of my address w i t h o u t m e n t i o n i n g a few kinds of steel products.
The series of " E u r o p e a n " beams of Type IPE, first studied by t h e s t r u c t u r a l steel engineers w i t h i n t h e i r
European C o n v e n t i o n , then b r o u g h t i n t o being in e x e m p l a r y c o l l a b o r a t i o n between producers and users,
gives a clear proof of the progress t h a t can be achieved by such c o - o p e r a t i o n . Even if f o r the m o m e n t the
p r o d u c t i o n of these beams is coming up against some t r o u b l e s , such as higher prices, d u p l i c a t i o n of stocks,
etc., it cannot be h a l t e d , f o r this is the l a w of progress.
H o l l o w sections, r o u n d , square o r r e c t a n g u l a r , w h i c h are available now in quite a w i d e range of sizes, find
e v e r - w i d e n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s for use in structures and frames f o r buildings. These t u b u l a r sections are spe
cially applicable for s t r u t s , not subject t o bending. They are e m i n e n t l y suitable for building the new types of
structures.
Flat products, a p a r t f r o m the m u l t i p l i c i t y of uses, w h i c h they o w e in l a r g e measure t o w e l d i n g processes,
w i l l doubtless develop r a p i d l y in the sector, w h i c h has a g r e a t e r f u t u r e , namely, pressed steel c o n s t r u c t i o n .
I have left t o t h e end a question w h i c h is really the o r d e r of the day. W e still have, since the last c e n t u r y ,
t h e rolled steel angles, w i t h a thickness of o n e - t e n t h of t h e i r w i d t h , a r a t i o a r b i t r a r i l y fixed by a p r e d i l e c t i o n
f o r r o u n d figures, but o t h e r w i s e n o t justified in any w a y . It has been shown t h a t t h e deal r a t i o is in the region
of one f i f t e e n t h , if t h e metal is t o be most effectively used w h e n the angle is in compression. For this reason,
a t o u r request and a t o u r insistence, the G.T. 11 C o m m i t t e e of E.C.S.C, has included a series of t h i n - w a l l e d
angles in the new E u r o n o r m (E.C.S.C. s t a n d a r d ) . This w i l l , h o w e v e r , mean n o t h i n g unless these easily rolled
sections a r e a d o p t e d as s t a n d a r d by m e m b e r countries a n d , still m o r e i m p o r t a n t , unless they come on the
m a r k e t free of any surcharge w h i c h w o u l d o u t w e i g h all t h e i r advantages. Here then is an obvious m a t t e r
f o r p u b l i c i t y directed at b o t h producers and engineers, w i t h the a i m of enlisting both parties in this f o r w a r d
m o v e m e n t w h i c h means t h e b e t t e r u t i l i z a t i o n of steel.
I w o u l d add t h a t t h i n sections, having been systematically hardened in r o l l i n g , offer a high degree of me
chanical s t r e n g t h . I hope t h e day w i l l come w h e n we are a l l o w e d t o t a k e account of this in o u r calculations,
w h i c h w i l l make t h e m still m o r e useful.
292
293
on a
that
than
tests
in a
In this connection I should here like t o suggest t h a t , if the rules t h a t specify w i n d loading on structures have
been a r r i v e d a t in an objective and u n i f o r m manner for all methods of c o n s t r u c t i o n , such o b j e c t i v i t y can only
be illusory, inasmuch as any justifiable r e l a x a t i o n w o u l d a u t o m a t i c a l l y f a v o u r d e v e l o p m e n t in s t r u c t u r a l
s t e e l w o r k , just as a t present excessive assumed applied loads of necessity f a v o u r methods of c o n s t r u c t i o n
t h a t a r e less affected by these loadings.
I w o u l d t a k e this o p p o r t u n i t y t o say a few w o r d s a b o u t t w o a r g u m e n t s t h a t are w r o n g l y advanced against
steel: its supposed i n a d e q u a t e resistance t o f i r e and c o r r o s i o n . T h e r e f o r e I am including both m a t t e r s
under one h e a d i n g , t h o u g h they a r e o t h e r w i s e so different one f r o m the o t h e r . Referring t o t h e m recently
in a n o t h e r c o n t e x t , I had no hesitation in calling t h e m the " i m a g i n a r y enemies" of steel.
Much ink has been spilt in dealing w i t h the p e r f o r m a n c e of steel s t r u c t u r e s w h e n exposed to fire. O n e finds
e v e r y t h i n g , f r o m the most factual and most i n t e l l i g e n t statements d o w n t o e x a g g e r a t i o n s and solecisms
t h a t have succeeded in c r e a t i n g a baseless prejudice in minds not sufficiently acquainted w i t h the p r o b l e m .
The a p p r o a c h , w h i c h seems t o us t h e c o r r e c t one, is t o assess the hazards accurately and objectively, this
being the only basis for a r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n of suitable means of p r o t e c t i o n .
W i t h o u t discussing at length a subject w h i c h Mr. K o l l b r u n n e r w i l c e r t a i n l y handle w i t h all his a u t h o r i t y
in this field, I c a n n o t r e f r a i n f r o m saying t h a t , in spite of the second t h o u g h t s manifest in the recasting, recent
o r now in progress, of s t a t u t o r y regulations in some countries, including o u r o w n and I here a c k n o w l e d g e
o u r debt t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s in charge of this w o r k t h e r e still exist in some codes of practice prescriptions
t h a t call for useless and excessive p r o t e c t i o n and w h i c h seem t o be m o t i v a t e d by fear r a t h e r t h a n by a con
vincing analysis of actual hazards.
H e r e again w e t h i n k t h a t an e x p e r i m e n t a l e x a m i n a t i o n of actual conditions is r e q u i r e d . W e should o b t a i n
by this a statistical re-assessment of the f i r e loads t h a t have in fact t o be contended w i t h in m o d e r n blocks
of flats and offices, w i t h t h e object of g e t t i n g reasonable and realistic values for t h e s t a t u t o r y fire loads.
W e should also observe tests on finished buildings under fire a t t a c k and tests w i t h real fires in buildings
w i t h t h e i r usual c o m p l e m e n t of furnishings and t h e i r s t e e l w o r k u n p r o t e c t e d o r very l i g h t l y encased.
Such tests w o u l d supplement furnace tests whose scientific value is clear e n o u g h , but only a l l o w one t o study
isolated aspects of the p r o b l e m , these being singled o u t f r o m t h e w h o l e c o m b i n a t i o n of circumstances t h a t
a t t e n d any real o u t b r e a k of fire.
Just a very brief w o r d on c o r r o s i o n . In c e r t a i n circumstances i r o n rusts, as w e k n o w . A l l the same, o u r struc
tures do very definitely have w h a t you m i g h t call an " i r o n c o n s t i t u t i o n " , w h e t h e r p r o t e c t e d by very simple
means, according to degree of exposure, o r not p r o t e c t e d a t all w h e r e this is not necessary.
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T h e design of s t r u c t u r e s
W i t h t h e exception of the Eiffel T o w e r and maybe the A t o m i u m " , a s t r u c t u r e is never an end in itself. It
has t o serve some purpose and has t h e r e f o r e t o be designed and erected t o f i t this purpose. It should be,
as it w e r e , a logical conclusion t o this. Logic demands t h a t one should also be guided in the design of a
s t r u c t u r e by the p r o p e r t i e s of t h e m a t e r i a l used and by the technical means used t o produce t h e b u i l d i n g .
It is n a t u r a l t h e n t h a t the use of steel should have given rise t o s t r u c t u r a l forms based p r i m a r i l y on its i n
herent p r o p e r t i e s of toughness, d u c t i l i t y , f l e x i b i l i t y and above all on this m a t e r i a l ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c high
s t r e n g t h under all kinds of stressing: t e n s i o n , compression, t o r s i o n , shear.
This explains w h y s t e e l w o r k has never been a massive kind of c o n s t r u c t i o n , but one t h a t tends always t o
assume slender forms, f o r lightness is i n h e r e n t and q u i t e n a t u r a l t o it and boldness is its very essence. A n o t h e r
f u n d a m e n t a l p o i n t is t h a t a steel s t r u c t u r e is always b u i l t of p r e f a b r i c a t e d units, this in spite of the n o v e l t y
of the t e r m , " p r f a b r i c a t i o n " . The idea is inseparable f r o m steel c o n s t r u c t i o n and may be r e g a r d e d as a
characteristic f e a t u r e . M o r e o v e r , the devising of s t r u c t u r a l forms is of necessity influenced and c o n d i t i o n e d
by t h e means available for assembling its c o m p o n e n t p a r t s .
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296
We should note in this connection some remarkable advantages of adopting types of structures like these:
doing away with internal columns, wide-span floors built of latticed steel units, protection against fire easy
to ensure.
Nevertheless, these structural forms, born, not of a mere desire for change, but of the wish to exploit the
potentialities of steel to the utmost, may be only a cautious first step in the discovery of the new techniques
that ought to breathe new life into building with a material the resources of which are yet far from being
exhausted.
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298
Whether structure is more competitive or less competitive in character can only be decided by reference
to the completed building, for this is what the client wants. It avails nothing to study the structure from
all angles if the main building work and the fittings, finishings and services that go with it wipe out all eco
nomic advantages. It is of no use, for example, to devise a structure that is economical in metal if it has to
be clad or camouflaged by costly methods. One is forced therefore to think in terms of the end product,
ready for occupation, and to assume responsibility for as much of the total project as possible or at least
the main building work.
This does not mean supplanting the other building trades, but purely and simply to take responsibility for
that which vitally affects the markets for our industry.
In speaking of competition, one naturally thinks in the first place of concrete. Let us get this matter straight.
Steel and concrete are close relatives, but it is wrong to regard them as estranged relatives. If they have
oftentimes to contend about some object in sane and fair competition, this is a fine thing, for it leads to
research, to improvement, to progress.
It is not a matter of blood feud, but of staying in business, each in the proper place for the greater good
of those who use their products. There is room here for both, working separately or together.
Indeed, these two materials supplement one another in perfect accord in the case of composite steel-concrete
construction. This technique, though it may be recognised, has not yet been exploited sufficiently either in
the matter of research or in actual buildings.
As a loyal servant of steel construction, may I say, in this city of steel, that I feel a better understanding
could usefully be promoted between steel and concrete engineers. A symposium, or indeed a congress, why
not, on the use of the two materials in combination, could with frank and friendly co-operation yield some
very interesting and profitable ideas for future structural work.
A fundamental question that arises as much from technical as from economic considerations and affects
the design and execution of structural work, is the life-span for which one should build. The considerations
of probability that underly modern ideas about safety and security only make this question the more im
portant.
In view of the exceptionally changing character of the conditions under which modern man lives and works,
it would be absurd to attempt to build for eternity as one once tried to do, when monuments that still exist
today came into being, many centuries or even millennia ago. It is essential to have a sufficiently precise idea
beforehand of intended life-span, in the light of which one would aim to build to reasonable standards.
Any realistic forecasts of loadings and of stability and durability of the structure would depend in the first
place on this. The cost, the deciding factor in the bulk of our work, is but a direct consequence.
I must close with these brief observations, of necessity incomplete, but which cannot be ignored if one is
interested in the future of structural steelwork.
This future bears a very encouraging appearance, since it is, to a large degree, entrusted to research, whose
objectives must be decided by it.
Research, essentially a measure and indication of the vitality of a profession, gives the key to long-term
development. This is a thing that European engineers have properly grasped, because they have come to
gether for a Convention the main objective of which is just this, to increase the effectiveness and scope of
the research which is their concern, by sharing in common all the means for investigation which they com
mand and to direct this research into practical and realistic channels.
299
300
Leonardo
ZEEVAERT
Structural
Steel
Building
Frames
in Earthquake
Engineering
Introduction
The design of building frames in areas where environmental forces include earth
quakes and poor subsoil conditions requires a special skill and experience from the civil engineer and archi
tect to be able to produce a structural design that is compatible with such an environment. Seismic or
Earthquake Engineering is a new branch of Civil Engineering dealing with the investigation and applica
tion of earthquake forces induced in structures founded on and in the ground; as buildings, dams, highways,
railroad tracks, canals, tunnels, pile and pier foundations, surface and compensated foundations.
The proper behavior of any construction placed on the ground is highly dependant on its foundation, even
for static forces, a well designed superstructure may perform a very poor work if its foundation is defective.
Therefore, in a well balanced design there must be compatibility between the foundation, subsoil and founda
tion structure, and the superstructure supported by such a system. The present paper is prepared only to
expose the design general features and behavior of structural steel building frames, therefore the discussion
of foundations is out of the scope of this paper. However, the author will consider briefly subsoil conditions,
since earthquake forces induced in the foundation of buildings because strong ground motions, play a direct
roll in the design of structures to these environmental forces of nature.
The acceleration configuration of the ground surface during an earthquake depends primarily on the en
gineering characteristics of the subsoil ' and constitutes a particular characteristic of a site or area where
subsoil conditions are similar.
Steel, aluminium, reinforced concrete, plain concrete, masonry or timber and in certain occasions plastics,
may be used to carry out a seismic design, in such a way as to produce a safe structure. The materials men
tioned before have different characteristics of strength, stress and strain, and ductility. Therefore, the de
signer of a seismic structure should be aware when and in which occasions one or the combination of these
materials should be used to design building frames with advantage and economy. The architectural design
plays in this selection a very important and major part and therefore, from the very beginning of the layout
and functional requirement of the project, the structural considerations must be considered from seismic
engineering point of view in order to achieve the most favorable solution.
It is recognized that structural steel, because its ductility, is the best material that can be used in structures.
Moreover, in case of tall and heavy buildings structural steel is found by experience most reliable and suit-
301
W h e n a s t r u c t u r a l f r a m e is underdesigned, stresses may reach values over the elastic l i m i t , in such cases
s t r u c t u r a l members d e f o r m p e r m a n e n t l y . The members themselves w i l l not break because high d u c t i l i t y
in steel. T h e r e f o r e , in t h a t respect, the building may be free f r o m collapse, except w h e n this happens in
column members, w h e r e buckling may t a k e place. P h o t o g r a p h 2 shows a steel f r a m e f a i l u r e d u r i n g e a r t h
q u a k e July 28, 1957 in Mexico C i t y w h e r e one may notice the steel completely d e f o r m e d , due t o p a r t i a l
collapse of the s t r u c t u r e because of f a i l u r e of defective joints and compression members by b u c k l i n g . Photo
g r a p h 3 shows a t w o - s t o r e y s t r u c t u r a l f r a m e in the verge of collapse because t h e columns w e r e s t r o n g l y
deformed beyond t h e elastic l i m i t , and w i t h i n the plastic zone of the steel. W h e n the s t r u c t u r a l members
d e f o r m beyond t h e elastic l i m i t , the r e p a i r may become a very costly p r o p o s i t i o n , and in many cases it is
necessary t o dismantle t h e building t o be able t o reinforce and s t r a i g h t e n the d a m a g e d s t r u c t u r a l members.
The l i t e r a t u r e a t the present shows the d e s t r u c t i o n of buildings not p r o p e r l y designed in m a n y cities of the
w o r l d w h e r e t h e r e may be encountered few o r no provisions in the codes for seismic design. The most
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spectacular damage has been reported in the earthquakes of Chile, Alaska, Yugoslavia, North-West Africa,
Turkey, Mexico and in the past, California, U.S.A. and Japan, in the last two countries seismic engineering
is developing rapidly.
Seismic design
In order to appreciate the advancement of seismic engineering in the design of structural frames for build
ings, it is important to describe very briefly different procedures of design, namely the use of codes and the
very recent use of spectra measured from earthquakes.
The use of codes or regulations in the design of buildings is extremely important and necessary to uniformize
officially design criteria, and to avoid abuse in the design and use of materials. The codes are based mostly
on experience and in the case of earthquake forces contain empirical rules that represent in general the
expected average or even maximum structural behavior. No code may be considered yet complete and
perfectly adequate for all conditions in seismic design. The principal reason is that in very few places of the
world strong ground motions have been recorded and studied. Moreover, in those places where this has been
achieved, either there is not yet sufficient information and the present state of knowledge is still in form of
investigation and therefore, no definite conclusions may be set forth in such a way that they may be placed
as regulations in City Codes. There is still very much to learn concerning the actual measurement of strong
ground motions and the response of buildings to these forces. The result is that City Codes specify empirical
acceleration coefficients to be used for structural design. When using these specified coefficients the structure
may be easily designed by static considerations. Nothing is said about resonance or dominant periods of
the ground and for definite and different subsoil conditions. Structural frames for buildings have definite
dynamic characteristics that make them more sensible to one subsoil condition than to another. A multi
storey structure has so many modes of vibration as floor levels. Although it is recognized that the three
first modes of vibration may be the only important in the structural behavior, it appears that the higher
modes may be also important in the building concerning secondary elements. The author has had the oppor
tunity to observe loose partition walls at the upper floors of tall building in Mexico City, to have displaced
over 100 cm. during an earthquake. The walls were not damageds in spite of this large displacement. Un
doubtedly this could happen only by the vibration resonance of higher modes induced in the building during
the earthquake.
Therefore buildings designed with modes of vibration close to the dominant periods of the ground are
bound to be excited stronger than those buildings with modes of vibration away from that of the ground.
There is no doubt that when more information is obtained concerning ground motions in different regions
and on the response of buildings to these motions, and also on the behavior of architectural details, the city
codes of the future will contain precise regulations on this line. In Japan and California, U.S.A., studies have
been made toward this goal, as well as in Mexico City, where new codes have been studied and prepared
by a group of engineers at the Institute of Engineering, University of Mexico, who experienced earthquake
July 28, 1957 in Mexico City. Experience and seismic measurements of Latino Americana Tower were used
to certain extent to establish the proposed regulations reported at the Second World Conference on Earth
quake Engineering held in Japan in 1961.
In order to illustrate the preceding discussion two accelerograms are presented in figure 1 ; the NS com
ponent of the strongest ever recorded earthquake at El Centro, California, U.S.A.2 May 18, 1940, and Fig.2
the NS component for earthquake registered in Mexico City, May 10, 1962 3 . Notice that the accelerograms
of these earthquakes are completely different, showing El Centro ground accelerations about six times
stronger than that of Mexico City; however, both of them show definite random impulses during the earth
quake. El Centro shows very short impulses with periods on the order of 0.5 sec or less, corresponding the
response on firm ground. On the other hand, Mexico City accelerogram shows rather large acceleration
periods up to 2.5 sec, and is representative of the response of a lacustrine deposit 47 m. thick of volcanic
clay 8.4. Obviously these two different strong ground motions will produce different responses in a building
with certain definite dynamic characteristics.
303
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
ft
S<.
CDi (t
() e
)
sin (t ) dt/max
Cd
in w h i c h
()
Ctj
cui
=
=
=
=
=
=
a c c e l e r o g r a m of t h e e a r t h q u a k e
f r a c t i o n of c r i t i c a l d a m p i n g of s t r u c t u r e
damped c i r c u l a r frequency of v i b r a t i o n of s t r u c t u r e w i t h one degree of f r e e d o m
free c i r c u l a r frequency of v i b r a t i o n of s t r u c t u r e
t i m e f o r c e r t a i n a c c e l e r a t i o n of the g r o u n d
t i m e at w h i c h t h e i n t e g r a l is a m a x i m u m
1
Stj =
304
. R8
The horizontal force produced in the structure of mass " m " will be
Vniax =
m R8
the value coaR* is called in seismic engineering pseudoacceleration to distinguish it from the absolute max
imum acceleration:
2Sd
Sa =
+ (t)
t 2
Therefore the maximum force in terms of the pseudoacceleration may be expressed as follows:
Vmax = m . R a
The integration of equation 1 is impossible by hand and it has to be achieved by means of an electronic com
puter. The results for accelerograms in terms of pseudoacceleration spectra, shown in figures 1 and 2 are
reported in figure 3. From these figures it may be noticed the striking difference between them.
Fig. 3
El Centro, California, has a peak value corresponding to the dominant period of the ground on the order
of 0.5 sec and that of Mexico City lacustrine area on the order of 2.5 sec. Therefore, a building with fun
damental period of 2,5 sec will be stressed at El Centro only 50 % more than in Mexico City, in spite that
pseudoacceleration of El Centro shows much greater than that of Mexico City.
From above mentioned example it may be recognized that the rational procedure to perform a seismic
structural design may be achieved when the displacement or pseudoacceleration spectrum of the ground
is known in conjuction with the dynamic characteristics of the building structure. It may be demonstrated
that each mode of vibration of the building may be treated as an equivalent one degree of freedom system.
The response of each mode may be obtained from the acceleration or displacement spectrum and values
thus obtained are combined to evaluate the most probable and maximum response shear forces taking
305
Fig. 4
306
strongly damaged, and may lose their rigidity to take properly next strong ground motion. It has been the
experience of the author that steel structures poorly designed that have survived the first earthquake with
relatively minor damage, but with large distortions in their girders, columns and connections, had to be
rebuilt integrally after the third earthquake, and some have called for total reposition. Welded joints
appear to behave better under high stresses as riveted connections except that welded joints may have
high unknown residual stresses and in many occasions they show rupture at either the weld or in their
welded elements. The crystallization of the steel in these cases should be watched carefully.
In general, it may be stated that the best practice is to limit deformations to avoid damage in secondary
elements and architectural facings. Moreover, to obtain a structure with high reserved strength it is neces
sary to design joints and structural members against buckling and stress concentrations. Free plates in joints
and flanges of conventional sections may easily buckle if not protected for this action, at points where stress
may reach or not the yield values.
The earthquake forces may hit the structure with equal intensity in any direction; therefore it has been
found that the most convenient column section is the box section either square or slightly rectangular,
formed by four continuous plates welded together at their edges. Using this practice more economy may
be found, and it is easier to design with the required moments of inertia, in contrast with the conventional
wide flange column that is exposed easy to buckling and where the moments of inertia are quite different
in both directions respectively (Fig. 6). Columns should always be kept in mind by the seismic designer as
these elements are subjected to severe shear and flexurecompression work and stress concentration at
the oints.
Fig. 6
307
The beams and girders t h a t in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the columns give the necessary r i g i d i t y t o the s t r u c t u r e
a r e elements t h a t under high shear and flexure moments have to p e r f o r m t h e i r w o r k satisfactorily. They
have t o t r a n s m i t high d y n a m i c shear forces f r o m one j o i n t t o the o t h e r in a d d i t i o n to s t a t i c shears, t h e i r
webs should be checked for buckling. The same may be said f r o m the flanges, since in many occasions w i d e
flanged beams buckle close t o the j o i n t . T h e r e f o r e , flanges at the joints should be designed against b u c k l i n g .
A beam designed for d y n a m i c forces w i l l have considerable g r e a t e r bending moments close t o the s u p p o r t
(Fig. 7). T h e r e f o r e in o r d e r t o gain economy it w o u l d be desirable t o design these s t r u c t u r a l members of
v a r y i n g s t r e n g t h , t h a t is w i t h heavier section at the s u p p o r t . This may be achieved in t w o w a y s : (a) A d d i n g
cover plates t o the conventional sections o r the use of specially designed sections w i t h flanges l i g h t e r in the
middle and g r a d u a l l y heavier at the s u p p o r t (Fig. 8); (b) by p r o v i d i n g more s t r e n g t h t o the j o i n t by means
of haunches. The use of brackets is sometimes satisfactory a l t h o u g h it may be in some occasions anti-eco
n o m i c a l , and m o r e v e r t i c a l space t o locate t h e m is needed.
>-K
Fig. 7 High shear and flexion mo
ments of a beam
Fig. 8
308
The design of joints should be made as simple as possible and should t r a n s l a t e w i t h clearness t h e w a y forces
are t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m one s t r u c t u r a l m e m b e r t o t h e o t h e r . A l l possible i n d i c a t i o n of buckling should be studied
and e l i m i n a t e d . Figure 9 shows different types of joints used by t h e a u t h o r successfully in buildings described
in f u r t h e r p a r a g r a p h s .
Fig. 9
309
Most effective are, to the experience of the author, channel sections, for the first time used in the design of
Latino Americana Tower, to reduce flexibility without increasing weight of structural steel (Fig. 10). In the
present other types of shear connectors have been introduced commercially as the "Nelson Studs" that
are fixed in place by self-electric welding. The flexibility of a structural frame may be controlled to certain
extent using this practice, and at the same time obtaining the maximum economy in structural steel.
Fig. 10
There are always in a structural frame design stiffer bents than others. From the seismic engineering point
of view, it is highly desirable that the floors behave as a unit. In major cases the concrete floor slab, or its
way of construction, as in case of prefabricated elements is not strong enough to transmit in its plane the
differential shear forces. For these purposes the structural frame has to be provided by means of diagonal
members or diagonal reinforcement in or outside the concrete slabs to avoid diagonal tension cracking.
It is desirable to have these diagonal tension members placed under an initial stress in order to avoid any
retardation effect in their action. Post-tensioning in the concrete slabs may be used in certain cases.
The most important architectural details that should be seismically designed are the curtain walls and
interior partition walls. Flexibility to these elements should be given to be compatible with the deformation
of the structural frame as a whole and the relative displacements of the floors in particular. From the ex
perience of the author, the most effective design of curtain walls is a steel frame with sufficient flexibility
to follow the configuration of the building during dynamic action (fig. 11). The curtain wall elements as glass
panels, stone or any other material, are attached to this curtain wall frame leaving in them enough clearance
to avoid wedging action. Interior walls will be subjected to dynamic earthquake forces with high accelera
tions in upper floors; therefore, they shall be strong and firmly anchored to the floor they are supported '.
310
rv
II
777? 777^
/////;.
7Z
II
II
I Ii
J
7777
ZZJ ZZZ2ZZZZZ2
I I
Fig. 11
However, since in most cases the partition walls are fabricated of rigid and brittle materials they should be
designed as floating, that is to say: they should not wedge against the structural frame (Fig. 12). A t the
columns enough clearance should be left to take freely the floor displacement; and at the upper edge a
sliding joint should be provided to avoid dragging forces generated from the relative displacement of the
floors. One of the best practices is to fabricate interior partition walls with a steel light and flexible frame
firmly anchored to the floor slab. In this frame the wall facing, insulation, etc., may be placed made of light
weight and compressible materials.
Mechanical installations in the building like air conditioning ducts, electrical and sanitary conducts must
be designed with sufficient flexibility to be compatible with that of the structural frame, and shear displace
ment between floor levels.
From above brief discussion on flexibility and compatibility between elements constructed in a building,
the author has reached the conclusion that a more satisfactory seismic structural design may be achieved
when the design is followed by limiting the total and differential shear displacements between floors, de
signing the structural frame compatible with the functional requirements of the architectural project, in
comparison with a design on limiting stresses where deformations and displacements are considered of
secondary importance. However, architectural seismic design should also conform with construction methods
and materials that may satisfy the deformations and displacements limited in the design of the structural
frame.
The Latino A mericana Tower (L.A .T.) is an office building with two basements and 44 floor levels including
the roof level at the observation platform at 140 m. from the street level and contains a radio tower ex
tending another 42 m. from the roof level (7). The foundation of the building is designed as shown in cross
section (Fig. 13) and works as a compensated foundation where the piles bearing at a depth of 33.50 m.
on a compact sand stratum take only 50% of the total load of the building 8 . The balance of the load is
311
t a k e n by buoyancy. Figure 13 shows the subsoil conditions at the site the building is c o n s t r u c t e d . The subsoil
consists of a series of very compressible lacustrine volcanic clays i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h alluvial deposits. The
piles resting on the first h a r d sand s t r a t u m is however u n d e r l a i n by high compressible volcanic clay. The
f o u n d a t i o n is designed r i g i d w i t h d i a g o n a l members t o t a k e care of e a r t h q u a k e t o r s i o n effects (8).
Fig. 13
A f t e r the s t r u c t u r e design was made, in its first step it was recognized t h a t the s t r u c t u r e was t o o flexible
and the second mode of v i b r a t i o n was in the b r a c k e t of 2 s e c , t h e r e f o r e danger of resonance and magnifica
t i o n of stresses was f e a r e d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s t r u c t u r e f l e x i b i l i t y had t o be reduced. This was a costly p r o p o
sition if steel sections w e r e t o be increased in size. T h e r e f o r e in o r d e r t o increase stiffness t o t h e s t r u c t u r e
t h e reinforced concrete slabs w e r e r i g i d l y connected t o the s t r u c t u r a l f r a m e by means of steel channel
shaped shear connectors. This practice reduced f l e x i b i l i t y t o a b o u t one half of the previously o b t a i n e d . The
p r f a b r i c a t i o n of the s t r u c t u r e was o r d e r e d t o Bethlehem Steel C o r p o r a t i o n . In the m e a n t i m e m o r e studies
f r o m t h e dynamical p o i n t of view w e r e c o n t i n u e d , and the r a d i o t o w e r was added. The result of this investi
g a t i o n showed t h a t the s t r u c t u r e thus designed could develop in the upper floors " w h i p a c t i o n " as f l e x i b i l i t y
still was t o o large in this upper section. T h e r e f o r e , it was necessary t o add stiffness t o t h e a l r e a d y prefab
ricated and delivered s t r u c t u r a l f r a m e members f r o m the 28th f l o o r t o the t o p of the building. The stiffness
was achieved by increasing t h e steel sections. The wide-flange steel columns w e r e added w i t h plates t r a n s -
312
forming them into box sections. The girders were added with strong brackets welded at the original designed
structure (10). The connections were all welded at the floors where these reinforcements were made. Finally,
the structure was obtained to be compatible with the expected behavior. The final dynamic properties are
the ones reported before.
The curtain wall was made of aluminium and glass. The lightweight partition walls and mechanical instal
lations were made compatible with relative displacements between floors. The floor slabs were added
with diagonal shear reinforcement.
The building has passed already four major earthquakes, being the strongest the one that took place July 28,
1957 two years after the building was completed. The building behaved very well during these strong ground
motions and very close to predicted behavior. Instruments have been installed in the building to measure
shear displacements and in 1960 an accelerograph of the S.M.A .C.B type, of three components, was ob
tained by the owners and installed in the basement of the building :l. A t the same time another accelero
graph property of the University of Mexico was installed in a large Park about 600 m. away from the build
ing. The displacement spectrum, N.S. component obtained at the Park for May 11,1962, is shown in figure 3.
The displacement spectrum obtained at the Latino A mericana Tower is shown in figure 14. It may be noticed
from these two spectra that the dominant period of vibrations is on the order of 2.5 sec. and is just inter
mediate between the first and second mode of the building. Furthermore, the intensity of the ground motion
measured in the foundation of the building was about one half of that of the ground surface registered at
Park. A more detailed report on the ground behavior and interpretation on observations made during
earthquakes of May 1962 in Mexico City, and the instrumentation installed in L.A .T., may be found published
elsewhere 1 , 3 , l u .
THE
Fig. 14
The final design of the building was achieved with shear forces determined dynamically as shown in curve
labeled A (Fig. 15); that represents the most probable shears that may take place including the participation
of modes of vibration up to the fourth. The curve labeled is the static shear as would be required by Mexico
City Code before July 1957. The same figure shows dots representing the maximum forces measured in July
1957, during the strongest earthquake the building has experienced. Photograph 11 shows the finished
building.
313
-A
-^
Fig. 15
Anahuac Building
The 23-storey Anahuac Building structural frame (12) is an interesting example of a prefabricated steel
structure constructed with plates and angles riveted together (13) forming box type sections. The
building was finished toward the end of 1956 just six months before the last great earthquake July, 1957 in
Mexico City. The steel structure was totally prefabricated in Mexico City.
The layout of the Anahuac Building is shown by a typical floor (14) and cross section in figure 16,
where it may be seen that the Tower mainly consists of two rows of columns separated 8.70 m. The height
of the building from the street level is 81.2 m. Therefore, this building is the highest most slender structure
in Mexico City with an approximate structural ratio of 1 to 9. Moreover, the building has only one axis of
symmetry, therefore, in the lengthwise direction torsion is induced during earthquakes. Because of its slen
derness the building turns out to be very flexible and therefore flexibility had to be restricted by using channel
shear connectors to fix the reinforced concrete floor slabs to the structure. It was also necessary to design
special joints called in Mexico City "butterfly type joints" as shown in photograph 14. Notice also that
beams forming the rigid frame were designed of two prefabricated riveted steel channels, with stiffeners
between them, obtaining in this way an effective connection and thus a rigid joint with the box type column
sections. The plates forming the butterfly joint were provided with stiffeners at their free edges to avoid
buckling during large compression induced in them during earthquakes.
A dynamic analysis was also used to design this building with the same methods as Tower Latino Americana,
previously explained. This building was designed shortly after L.A.T. The dynamic shear configuration for
314
tbdb
Fig. 16
design including the participation of the first, second and third modes is shown in Fig. 17. For comparison the
shears required by the City Code before 1957 are also plotted; notice the striking difference. The funda
mental period of vibration of the building is on the order of 2.2 sec. and second and third modes 0.8 and
0.5 sec, with coefficients of participation of 0.73, 0.15 and 0.08 respectively " .
V
V
Fig. 17
The fraction of critical damping may be assumed in this building on the order of 10% as a minimum because
of the way it is fabricated, that is to say, all structural sections are riveted together and therefore energy
dissipation may be greater, mainly when the structure is forced to work with high stresses close to the elastic
limit of the connections. Under limiting conditions the building can take safely base shears up to 5% of
gravity.
315
The building was finished six months before the large e a r t h q u a k e July, 1957 in Mexico C i t y and the s t r u c t u r e
and a r c h i t e c t u r a l details behaved very well d u r i n g the e a r t h q u a k e t h r o u g h o u t the b u i l d i n g . N o t a single
glass w i n d o w was b r o k e n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no measuring instruments w e r e installed in t h e building at t h a t
t i m e and the forces of the e a r t h q u a k e in the building w e r e not measured. H o w e v e r , f r o m inspection of the
b u i l d i n g , it was recognized t h a t the s t r u c t u r a l f r a m e did w o r k t o its full capacity d u r i n g t h a t e a r t h q u a k e
and w i t h a base acceleration in the o r d e r of 6 . 5 % of g r a v i t y , as o b t a i n e d f r o m recent i n f o r m a t i o n . It is
t h e a u t h o r ' s o p i n i o n t h a t if the s t r u c t u r e w o u l d have been reinforced concrete designed, w i t h same shear
forces the s t r u c t u r e m i g h t have suffered some d a m a g e . This evidence proves the g r e a t qualities of s t r u c t u r a l
steel c o n s t r u c t i o n because its l a r g e d u c t i l i t y .
Welded-riveted
buildings
Suspended
building
The building housing the life insurance company " M o n t e r r e y " is an unusual project w h e r e the c o m b i n a t i o n
of reinforced concrete and s t r u c t u r a l steel was used for economy t o solve the s t r u c t u r a l p r o b l e m of this
special design (21). The f l o o r slabs are suspended f r o m s t r u c t u r a l steel trusses (22), supported on large re
inforced concrete beams, t h a t f o r m a rigid f r a m e w i t h t w o concrete piers, used t o place the elevators, stair-
316
ways and utilities as shown in typical floor plan (Fig. 18). The combination of materials, concrete and steel,
have been used more properly for the work they are best suited, namely: compression in concrete and
tension in steel. The roof floor was assigned to a restorant supported on inverted rigid frames. A suspended
cable roof system supported from the upper ends of the inverted frames counteracts the effect of large
bending moment effects on the cantilever arms of the inverted frame, thus introducing economy in the
necessary moment resisting sections (21). The floors are of steel joists and lightweight concrete slab con
struction. The concrete slabs are rigidly connected to the upper cord of the steel-joists by means of shear
connectors. One end of the steel-joists is connected to anchor plates embedded in the concrete shafts and
to main hanging steel girders, the other end is supported by tension members constructed of two channel
sections which support the six floors of the building and are held by a special designed joint resting on the
steel cantilever trusses (23). The connection holding the hangers was provided, temporarily with cross
channel sections, in order to be able, by means of jacks placed at each end, to adjust small differences of
deflection of the cantilever trusses and strain in the hangers and to rectify the level of the floors. Later these
elements were removed.
Fig. 18
The steel structure was all welded in its prfabrication phase at the shop and in its connections in the field
(24). The allowable stresses in the design followed specifications of A-7 structural steel. The reinforced
concrete floor slabs act like diaphragms in their place firmly connected against side-sway by the I arge con
crete shafts supporting the framework.
The foundation was designed like a gigantic footing supporting the two reinforced concrete piers. Its area
is 55% smaller in plan than the projection of the typical floors. As a consequence, the cost was smaller than
a conventional foundation in Mexico City. The foundation was designed as a compensated foundation with
out piles and provided with a basement 13 , 14 .
The acceleration of the ground during earthquakes transmitted to the foundation of the building, induces
dynamic stresses in the structural frame and will excite the gigantic reinforced concrete frame to vibrate,
with only one degree of freedom in its plane, and two degrees of freedom transversely, in spite of being
a six-storey tall building. The displacement in the upper part of the building is of a small order of magnitude.
The floor slabs hanging from the upper part of the building cannot experience more displacement than
the concrete piers, since they are fixed to them like large washers and therefore will follow the movements
of the shafts during seismic motion. The conditions mentioned before obviously make the structure mode
determinate and consistent in its dynamical behavior. The complicated seismic analysis is also eliminated
since the building will vibrate only in one mode, in contrast with a conventional building that would show
one different mode of vibration for each floor level and during an earthquake there is always the possi-
317
bility that one of these modes may be excited more than the others. The mode of vibration is on the order
of 1 sec in both directions, and was checked by a sensitive instrument placed at the roof floor of the building.
The building has passed already earthquakes May 11 and 19,1962 and July 6, 1964, without even minor damage
either in its structure or interiors. Photograph 25 shows the finished building.
Acknowledgements
The Latino Americana Tower was architecturally designed by Architects Manuel de la Colina and Augusto
Alvarez, being Chief of the Engineers Department of Latino Americana Life Insurance Company, the brother
of the author, Adolfo Zeevaert, C.E. who was encharged of the general project and construction of the
building. The steel structure was prefabricated by Bethlehem Steel Corporation and erected by a local
constructor of Mexico City.
The Anahuac Building was designed by Architect Juan Sordo Madaleno. The steel structure was prefabricated
with Mexican steel and erected by Campos Hermanos of Mexico City.
La Comercial, Life insurance Company building was designed by Architects Hector Mestre and Manuel
de la Colina. The Banco Internacional building was designed by Architects Alberto Velasco and Javier
Garcia Lascurain. The prfabrication with Mexican steel and erection of both of these steel structures
was contracted to Campos Hermanos.
The hanging building property of Life Insurance Company "Monterrey" was designed by Architects Enrique
de la Mora and collaborator A. Gonzalez Pozo, the general constructor was S.G. Construcciones, S.A.
The author was Consulting Engineer in foundations and structures for the buildings mentioned before
and wishes to express his sincere appreciation and comprehension to the architects of these major projects
during structural design and construction, to the builders, for their interest and integrity in producing a
first quality work, and last but not least to the owners that deposited confidence on him to design the struc
ture and foundation of these buildings in an environmental area of difficult subsoil conditions and earthquake
problems.
318
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
REFERENCES
Strong Ground Motions Recorded D u r i n g Earthquakes of May the 11th and 19th in Mexico
City, by Leonardo Zeevaert, Bull. Seismologlcal Society of America, Vol. 54, pp. 209-231,
February 1964.
Behavior of Steel and Steel Elements under Dynamic Loads, by John M. Biggs. Book on Structural
Design for Dynamic Loads, M c G r a w Hill, 1959.
"
Foundation Design and Behavior of T o w e r Latino Americana in Mexico City, by Leonardo Zeel
vaert. Geotechnique, London, U.K. September 1957, Published by the Institution of CiviEnglneers.
!l
Aseismlc Design of Latino Americana T o w e r In Mexico City, by Leonardo Zeevaert and N.M.
N e w m a r k . Proc. of the W o r l d Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Berkeley, California,
U.S.A., June 1956.
10
'1
Base Shear in Tall Bullding during Earthquake of July 28, 1957 in Mexico City. Second W o r l d
Conference In Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo, Japan, July 11-17, 1960.
12
13
11
Heavy and Tall Building Problems In Mexico City, by Leonardo Zeevaert, Proceedings of the
American Society of Civil Engineers. March 1956, paper 917.
319
Description of
1
2
3
4
5
6
7-11
320
p h o t o g ra p h s
12-14 Pictures of Anahuac Building t w o steel struct u r e views.
15 Structural frame " L a C o m e r c i a l " .
16 Structural frame "Banco Internacional".
17 W e l d e d steel column, custom section.
18 Structural frame " L a C o m e r c i a l " composite riveted.
19 Composite riveted beams "Banco I n t e r n a c i o n a l " .
2 0 D i a g o n a l steel reinforcement.
21-25 Structural frame " M o n t e r r e y " : general view
detail concrete piers steel trusses and hangers
picture of finished building.
321
5%^ r.-'jji^i"
322
323
jO>-4-
13
Heft15
324
325
BSE?
ses?
326
C u r t F. K O L L B R U N N E R
Steel
Framework
General
The term "steel-framed building" covers in its narrower sense multi-storey buildings
and in its wider sense all shed-type buildings with a steel framework. We shall, therefore, here consider
both types of building.
Steel is used in building work, first of all on account of its high and consistent strength and the consequent
small sectional sizes of the structural elements, and secondly because of the rapid erection which requires
little working space, and also on account of any possible later additions which can be carried out with re
lative simplicity. W i t h steel, one achieves the largest possible usable space and, where required, columnfree rooms and halls. The comparatively light steel framework with light partitions weighs considerably
less than a concrete and masonry building. W i t h the self-weight being smaller, the foundations are
more economical.
The aim of modern engineers and steel fabricators is today to build as light as possible; avoiding large
expenditure of effort on work in the fabricating shop. The constant increase in wage rates must be offset
by better work organization; by rationalization of work in planning, fabrication and erection; by extensive
standardization; and by constant testing of fabricating methods. That is to say, new steel structures will
be developed in such a way that with small specific steel consumption wage costs will be kept down to a
minimum by rationalized fabricating processes. However it should be remembered that these rationalized
fabricating processes necessitate a large capital outlay in the fabricating shop.
Until a few years ago, there were only t w o methods of production for steel-framed buildings: one built
either heavy, that is with a high overall price of the material and low fabricating costs, or one built
light, that is with the material cost low but with considerably higher fabricating costs. For each individual
case it had to be established which was the more economical way: to use more steel, that is to use heavy
sections in order to save on labour costs, or to allow for a larger wages bill for the fabrication and to save
on the steel itself.
Today we have advanced considerably. Thanks to the most up-to-date practical knowledge, experience
and research, to rationalization and to the adaption of fabricating shops to the latest techniques, one
can now combine the advantages of both methods in designing, constructing and erecting structures, not
327
only l i g h t in w e i g h t but also cheap to produce. A t the same t i m e , this l i g h t w e i g h t c o n s t r u c t i o n should not
be c a r r i e d t o o far we are designing buildings, not a e r o p l a n e s !
In S w i t z e r l a n d w e l d i n g and h i g h - s t r e n g t h f r i c t i o n g r i p b o l t i n g have replaced r i v e t t i n g . W e l d i n g not only
produces a saving in m a t e r i a l ; it gives a d i r e c t and undisturbed f l o w of the i n t e r n a l forces, w h i c h corresponds
t o an increase in q u a l i t y . In a d d i t i o n , a welded s t r u c t u r e is more aesthetic.
Assembly joints are welded or b o l t e d . W h e r e high-strength bolts are used, surface transference of load takes
place w i t h an i m p r o v e d stress f l o w as c o m p a r e d w i t h o r d i n a r y bolts, w h i c h produce small stress peaks.
The upper l i m i t for span is, and w i l l still be governed by steel, despite c o m p e t i t i o n t r o m o t h e r m a t e r i a l s ,
as for example pre-stressed c o n c r e t e ; h i g h - g r a d e steel is often used f o r such structures.
Sheet steel, in the f o r m of bent t h i n - w a l l sections, is finding increasing use in steel-framed buildings. In the
c a l c u l a t i o n of these t h i n - w a l l e d sections the s t a b i l i t y t h e o r y , the t o r s i o n t h e o r y and the folded plate t h e o r y
are much used. It should be noted t h a t s t a b i l i t y t h e o r y calculations, proved by numerous e x p e r i m e n t s ,
utilize the plastic as w e l l as the elastic range '.
In a d d i t i o n t o these t h e o r e t i c a l
p r o d u c t i o n lines can be set up
of course, often very difficult t o
pared t o made-to-measure and
Basic, as w e l l as applied research must be constantly pursued not only in the technical colleges but also
by t h e C o n s t r u c t i o n a l S t e e l w o r k Associations and by individual firms. O n l y t h r o u g h calculating intellect
and f o r m a t i v e feeling does one come t o creative achievement. Close c o - o p e r a t i o n between engineer and
a r c h i t e c t is ever m o r e necessary and this must of necessity begin at the design stage.
A d v a n t a g e s of steel in b u i l d i n g
work
Steel is, and w i l l r e m a i n , the deal s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l for t a l l buildings, w h e r e the applied leads are consi
d e r a b l e and the spans range f r o m medium t o l a r g e .
328
frame, and the erection of the concrete structure is certainly more complicated than the erection of the
steel one.
Every forward-looking, creative engineer aims at greater economy with adequate
then be achieved by the higher strength of the steel as well as by better detailing.
strength increase as well as the construction details, much progress has been made
theless we are only now at the beginning of a new epoch and much more research
Multi-storey buildings
Multi-storey buildings, in which the load-bearing framework is of steel, are put up specifically a industrial
buildings, office blocks and flats. W i t h an all-steel skeletal structure the columns, beams and frame are
of steel. Because the partitions and floors are independent of the steel frame, the space requirements of
the building can at any time be adjusted.
The constantly changing organization has to be considered in industrial and office buildings. The greater
the flexibility of such a building, the better can it be adapted to the ever changing requirements of the
administrative structure. This leads to widely spaced, often internally column-free frames, in which the
internal walls can be placed optionally and later rearranged at will. This means that the steel firms tender
not only for the steel frame itself but also for the main partitions and supply and erect them together with
the steelwork.
Figures 1 and 2 show outline drawings of multi-storey buildings. The erection methods shown in Fig. 2 are
exceptional to the normal run ; generally erection proceeds from the bottom to the top.
In future, for certain buildings, it will be likely that the constructional steelwork company will be the general
contractor and will supply the whole building, inclusive of foundations, to the client ready for occupation,
329
Shed-type
buildings
Shed-type buildings consist mainly of only one storey, i.e. usually of roof and enclosing walls. They cover
all i n t e r m e d i a t e stages f r o m the steel roof on concrete or masonry l o a d - b e a r i n g walls t o a complete steel
p o r t a l f r a m e , w h i c h comprises the l o a d - c a r r y i n g parts of roof and w a l l , t o g e t h e r w i t h all cladding and
b r a c i n g . Here the fine lattice w o r k of a few decades ago has been supplanted by solid-web girders and
t r i a n g u l a r trusses w i t h g r a d u a t e d m e m b e r sections and simple panel p o i n t details.
Fire
protection
For over five years we have k n o w n t h a t m o d e r n steel-framed buildings need not fear fire. W e proved then
by extension tests t h a t a fire loading of 25 k g / m 2 is not dangerous for steel (5). For a long t i m e w e have
been insisting t h a t , for fire loadings up t o 20 k g / m 2 , steel need no longer be clad 6.
The fire loading of a building o r of p a r t of a building comprises the calorific value of all combustible m a t e r i a l
present in the p a r t of the building under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , based on the unit of floor a r e a . C o n v e r t e d i n t o a
corresponding q u a n t i t y of t i m b e r , per unit of f l o o r a r e a , the fire loading is expressed in k g . of t i m b e r / m 2
of floor area.
Because the present-day fire loading of buildings is, in g e n e r a l , only 8 to 15 k g / m 2 , the steel f r a m e need
not be clad.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the principle of the fire loading being the main c r i t e r i o n of the fire hazard is t o d a y still op
posed by people not fully acquainted w i t h the subject. They fear t h a t the fire loading could be g r e a t e r t h a n
t h a t o r i g i n a l l y intended o w i n g t o a l a t e r , changed use of the b u i l d i n g . This false a r g u m e n t can be countered
by w h a t a l r e a d y happens in practice, namely the a p p l i c a t i o n of building statics, in w h i c h the members
a r e not designed for static and dynamic o v e r l o a d i n g , but only for the given loads. Consequently, the e x a g
g e r a t e d fire p r o t e c t i o n measures and cladding of steel s t r u c t u r e s , w h e r e the fire loading does not exceed
20 k g / m 2 , must be discontinued.
The fire tests are p e r f o r m e d in most countries under similar conditions. H o w e v e r a clear dividing line must
be d r a w n between the s t a n d a r d curves and actual fires. A fire develops not according to a s t a n d a r d curve,
but according t o t h e existing c o n d i t i o n s : exposed t o a c u r r e n t of a i r it develops quickly, and w i t h l i t t l e w i n d
it develops slowly and smoulders.
330
60 min
Protection against
corrosion
The p r o t e c t i o n of steel structures against corrosion no longer poses any problems. Given careful sand-blast
cleaning w i t h subsequent a p p r o p r i a t e base and surface coats of p a i n t , the maintenance costs are no g r e a t e r
t h a n for reinforced concrete buildings. It should be noted t h a t the cold zinc process has proved very effective
in building w o r k .
Retrospect and
prospect
W a l l elements, as p a r t i t i o n s , have also been much i m p r o v e d ; the same c a n n o t be said of ceiling slabs.
The ideal slab should be capable of s u p p o r t i n g its load over large spans, be of l i g h t w e i g h t , be able t o act
as insulation against noise, and as far as possible be produced dry.
The last ten years have seen a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in the o u t w a r d appearance of buildings. T h o u g h f o r m e r l y
the steel f r a m e was hidden behind i n a p p r o p r i a t e c l a d d i n g , nowadays it is a l l o w e d t o s h o w ; i.e. it is made
use of as an a r c h i t e c t u r a l element.
It should be borne in mind t h a t t o d a y steel buildings play a much g r e a t e r role t h a n steel bridges. Prestressed
concrete has w o n much g r o u n d in connection w i t h s h o r t and medium spans, w h i l e in building w o r k the
d e v e l o p m e n t is in the opposite d i r e c t i o n . M o d e r n a r c h i t e c t s k n o w t h a t they can build aesthetically, p r a c t i
cally, r a p i d l y and economically w i t h steel. The steel f r a m e and the often metallic faade elements c o m p l e m e n t
each o t h e r . Both a r e space-saving constructions and b o t h possess similar accuracy of m a n u f a c t u r e .
331
332
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
1
REFERENCES
C.F. Kollbrunner and M. Mslster: " B u c k l i n g , torsional buckling, lateral b u c k l i n g . " (Second
edition of the book " B u c k l i n g ' . Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1961.
C F . Kollbrunner and M. Meister: " B u c k l i n g . " Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1958.
C F . K o l l b r u n n e r and K. Basier: " T o r s i o n a l constants and shear stresses based on St. Venant's
torsion t h e o r y . " Reports of the Technical Committee of the S.S.., No.23, July, 1962.
C.F. Kollbrunner and N. H a j d i n : "The St. Venant torslon t h e o r y . " Reports of the Technical
Committee of the S.S.A., No. 26, September 1963.
C.F. K o l l b r u n n e r and K. Basier: "Torsional moments and member torsion based on St. Venant's
torsion t h e o r y . " Reports of the Technical C o m m i t t e e of the S.S.., No. 27, October 1963.
C.F. K o l l b r u n n e r and K. Basier: "Sector values and stresses In open thin-walled sections." Reports
of the Technical Committee of the S.S.., No. 28, January 1964.
Further publications relating to the torsion problem are at present being printed or are
in manuscript f o r m ready for p r i n t i n g .
C.F. K o l l b r u n n e r : "Steel buildings." First Swiss Steelwork Congress, Z u r i c h , 1953. Report of the
TKVSB, No. 8, pp. 139-177.
Published by Verlag Leemann, Z u r i c h .
O. Jungbluth: "Standardised prefabricated parts for steel buildings." Der Stahlbau, May 1964,
No. 5, p. 129.
C.F. K o l l b r u n n e r : "Fire safety of steel structures." 3rd p a r t . (Fire tests on loaded steel frames).
Report of the Technical Committee, Swiss Constructional Steelwork Association. N o . 18,
February 1959.
C.F. K o l l b r u n n e r : " N e e d modern steel buildings be afraid of f i r e " Stahlbau-Bericht No. 24,
December 1959. Swiss Constructional Steelwork Association.
C F . Kollbrunner and P. Boue: " C a l c u l a t i o n of the fire safety of steel frameworks in buildings and
Its practical execution." European Convention of Constructional Steelwork Associations.
No. 1, December 1960. Published by the Swiss Constructional Steelwork Association,
Zurich.
C.F. K o l l b r u n n e r : " U n c l a d steelwork up to 20 kg/m 2 . tire l o a d i n g . " Stahlbau-Bericht No. 8,
August 1964. Swiss Steelwork Association.
333
D e s c r i p t i o n of photographs
13 Extension of an A ssembly shop of A G Conrad
Zschokke, D t t i n g e n ; t w o pinned frame. Steel frame
unclad t w o pinned frame. Steel frame unclad.
3 Machine shop and Warehouse, large w i n d o w frontage,
steel frame unclad.
45 A G B r o w n , Boverl & Co., B l r r f e l d : Shed of pre
fabricated and prestressed concrete. Steel frame un
clad. Internal view. Steel frame unclad.
6 Huber, Pffflkon; erection p h o t o g r a p h , no Internal
columns.
7 Sulzer Brothers, Solothurn; detail photograph of a
panel point.
812 Cantonal School, Baden: erection photograph
erection photograph elevation internal photo
graph, steel frame partly unclad, Internal stanchions
partly clad w i t h concrete. A erial view. In general, In
all buildings the steel stanchions and the underside
of the steel beams remain visible.
13 H r l l m a n Brewery, Z u r i c h ; bottle factory, erection
photograph.
14-15 Haus W a l t i s b h l , Bahnhofstr., Z u r i c h ; photo
by day photo by night.
23
Photographs 1725 are taken from the book : Bauen in Stahl 2. Published by Swiss Constructional Steelwork A ssociation, Zurich, 1962
334
335
10
336
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1
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337
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338
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339
Giacomo SPOTTI
Lightweight
(Original text:
Structures
in Industrial
Buildings
Italian)
Introduction
It would seem difficult to find anything fresh
to say on this subject after the detailed proceedings of the
X X I s t International Congress of Steel Information Centres
at H a r r o g a t e , England, the reports to the Graz Congress
on Austrian Steelwork Constructions in 1963 and the wide
field covered by the Conference on Italian Steelwork Con
structions held in September 1964, not t o mention the com
prehensive l i t e r a t u r e which has appeared both In the
E.C.S.C, countries and elsewhere in Europe.
In an a t t e m p t t o crystallize the situation, however, I think
it may still be w o r t h w h i l e stressing one or t w o technical
and economic aspects suggested by t w e n t y years of personal
experience In constructional steelwork design and engi
neering in Italy.
I have purposely refrained f r o m providing photographic or
diagrammatic examples in order to ensure fluency and
consistency In dealing w i t h the various aspects of the subject.
The bibliographical references quoted In the paper and
listed a t the end w i l l , I t r u s t , fill this gap, especially as they
emanate f r o m experts far better qualified than myself t o
handle this question.
341
methods
342
dimensional
Space f r a m e s
Before closing this survey of s t r u c t u r a l developments. It is
w o r t h w h i l e devoting a moment t o space structures.
Extremely light and slender members such as tubes, coldrolled sections, round bars and steel cables, particularly the
latter, constitute the basic elements of u l t r a - l i g h t w e i g h t
steel structures of the three-dimensional or shell type, which
can be broken down Into grid elements.
N a t u r e provides architecture w i t h many examples of struc
t u r a l dimensions varying in pattern and effect the conch
shell, the sea-urchin, the tortoise, the egg, the w a l n u t , the
mushroom and serving to create a universal and expressive
language.
In the t r e a t m e n t of forces, in t h e i r axial distribution and
in the reduction of stressing moments, special a t t e n t i o n must
be paid t o even the slightest eccentricity in the application
of axial loads and, especially as regards light-gauge tubes,
to the least amount of non-uniformity.
The round steel bar has clearly met w i t h widespread success
in the field of three-dimensional structures t h a n the flat
beams.
Welded l i g h t w e i g h t steel frames have become standardized
for ground floors, Intervening storeys and roofs and have
enabled a g r e a t variety of t r i a n g u l a r or rectangular-section
wall-support members w i t h a rectilinear or curved axis to
be adopted.
Techniques, systems and methods of calculation for light
weight structures w i t h light-gauge components will become
used more increasingly as the u l t r a - l i g h t - w e i g h t h o t - r o l l e d sections now entering the field of steel production make a
bid for recognition on the basis of high-strength properties
combined w i t h a continual reduction in weight and thick
ness. The probability exists t h a t the IPE series of beams
recently Introduced on the European m a r k e t will be super
seded by an even lighter series in the not too distant future.
It is much more necessary, rather t h a n merely desirable,
t h a t identical elements be used in l i g h t w e i g h t flat and spaceframe construction. This development would reconcile light
weight construction w i t h the needs of mass production and
favour the adoption of modern fabricating methods.
P r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t corrosion
It w i l l be Instructive t o conclude w i t h a reference to the
much discussed question of protection against corrosion.
A l t h o u g h Its importance extends beyond the field of light
w e i g h t structures, it is nevertheless t r u e t h a t the l a t t e r
specifically require this protection because the lightness
of t h e i r gauge offers no margin of thickness. From this
point of view round bars are preferable because of their
smaller surface area and greater concentration of material
In individual members.
Corrosion protection based on anti-rust paints is not always
sufficiently long-lasting, not because inadequately protective
materials are employed, but because methods of prepara
tion and application are unsuitable, also the protective ma
t e r i a l Is not the r i g h t one for the atmosphere concerned.
The basic reason for errors of this kind Is to be found in the
use of labour which Is inadequately t r a i n e d and far from
appreciative of the importance of corrosion protection.
The need for mechanized methods of manufacturing and
applying paint Is especially acute a t the stage which these
steel frames have now reached If systematic quality levels,
and economic advantages are to be safeguarded.
It should be noted t h a t considerable advances have been
made In the construction and use of electrostatic painting
equipment and in the development of suitably conductive
paints and additives.
Cost of m a t e r i a l s
So far we have concentrated on the fabrication aspects of
lightweight constructional design, but we should also bear
In mind the cost of materials, particularly t u b u l a r , coldrolled and bent sections, which are the types of members
343
(g) the need for static testing and inspection groups and for
the development of design and constructional methods
t o be adopted as standard practice by industrial and
commercial operators In the field of constructional steel
w o r k and as protection for clients ;
344
(f)
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
1
REFERENCES
" 2
Dr. Ing. M. Scortecci: Discussione sulla saldabllit con riferimento all'acciaio per costruzioni
t u b o l a r i saldate A cciaio e costruzioni metalliche, n" 3/1956, p. 126133.
Dr. Ing. Odenhausen: Il calcolo dei t u b i di acciaio a parete sottile caricati assialmente secondo
le prescrizioni americane relative alle costruzioni leggere, A cciaio 1/1963, p. 32.
Dr. Ing. H. Odenhausen: La deformazione locale dei t u b i a parete sottile sollecitati a compressi
one. A cciaio 2/1963, p. 87.
Costruzioni In tondino d'acciaio. A cciaio 3/1963, p. 148.
Dr. Ing. H. Odenhausen e Dr. Ing. R. M n a r d : Verso un'accrescluta utilizzazione della lamlera
1(1
11
12
13
14
Prof. Dr. Ing. Jungbluth: Typisierte Fertigteile fr den Stahlbau. Der Stahlbau 5/1964.
sterreichischer Stahlbauverband: StahlbauRundschau 25/1964 Sonderheft ber Stahl leicht
bauten (articles de diffrents auteurs).
Monografie U.l.S...: Moderni capannoni s t r u t t u r a d'acciaio 1957 (traduction d'une mono
graphie de la Beratungsstelle fr Stahlverwendung, Dsseldorf).
lr
>
">
17
18
Dr. Ing. T. Kones: Manuale della prefabbricazione con elementi in cimento a r m a t o e precom
presso. Ediz. Tecniche, Milano 1962.
European General Galvanizers.
18
A ssociation Secretariat Zinc Development A ssociation, 34, Berkeley Square, London V I : Edited
Proceedings 6th International Conference In H o t Dip Galvanizing, Interlaken 1961.
20
Prof. M. P. Rabout: Protection des bols et des mtaux et difficults pratiques. A nnales de
l'Institut technique du btiment et des t r a v a u x publics, janvier 1964.
21
W . Klber: Die Technik, dcembre 1961, p. 819825 (traduction faite par l'Usine nouvelle,
n 47/22, dcembre 1962).
22
23
Prof. Dr. Rdeker: Einfluss der Feuerverzinkung auf die Z h i g k e i t von unlegierten Bausthlen
S. und E. 82/1962 H. 22.
teilen, 4/1962.
25
20
Prof. L. Bees: Calcul des ossatures des constructions, vol. I vol. Il, Bruxelles 1952.
Prof. J. F. Baker: The Steel Skeleton, vol. I vol. Il, Cambridge University Press, 1954.
'
28
Prof. Ch. Massonet, Prof. M. Save: Calcul plastique des constructions, vol. vol. Il, Bruxelles
29
30
31
32
33
1961.
Francia.
345
Marcel B O U R G U I G N O N
Recommendations
from the Work
Framework
for Large
Buildings
of the European
Convention
in
346
It Is clear t h a t
potential until
tion w o r k , to
it Is essential
347
W e believe then t h a t as a means of Information and propaganda, an International competition, perhaps biennial, to
r e w a r d the best architectural w o r k based on the use of
steel, w o u l d be welcomed.
348
Guy B L A N C H A R D
Constructional
Steelwork
bridgeworks,
Industrial buildings,
administrative buildings,
structures for f i t t i n g out schools, hospitals, recreation
centres,
dwellings.
the situation,
at
The Steel industry has also been taken t o task. In 1945, for
reasons beyond its c o n t r o l , it could not provide the fabrica
tors w i t h the tonnage of steel required t o p r o m o t e the use
of s t r u c t u r a l steelwork in dwellings. The Korean W a r did
not Improve the position.
explain
the
present
349
technically
One could argue t h a t we are still very far f r o m the halfmillion dwellings desired annually. The following reasoning
has an evident appeal:
350
should
Floor
beams
Beams
Except in particular cases, the conventional rolled beams are
also uneconomical. Joints are difficult to make while the use
of deep sections t o overcome the deflection problem results
in considerable drawbacks, t h e r e being complications in
f i t t i n g the ceiling or a loss of headroom.
Stanchions
As a general rule, these ought in principle t o be loaded only
by vertical forces. A frame w i t h rigid joints, except in ex
t r a o r d i n a r y cases, cannot be compared w i t h competitive
alternatives. It is therefore necessary for us t o study a com
bination of steelwork and concrete such as t h a t which has
been constructed in the Place Madou, Brussels.
The use of -sections in mild steel no longer leads t o a very
competitive design. One should probably consider the use
351
Fernand R O C H E Z
text:
of
Structural
French)
of the structure.
thereof
or
taken
The Centre A l b e r t , C h a r l e r o i
( t o w e r block, 280 ft. high, for use as offices)
main structure completed (1 to 6).
The Parking H o t e l , Charleroi
(multi-purpose building, shops, parking facilities,
flats, hotel, etc.)
still In the project stage, (7).
352
offices,
Albert
Brief description :
height : 280 ft. (25 storeys + 2 storeys for technical In
stallations) ;
t o t a l superficial area : 225,000 sq. ft. In reinforced con
crete ;
Foundations on Benotto piles of 400 tons In mining a r e a ;
general lining of basements ;
s t r u c t u r a l steelwork : encased beams, stanchions In high
yield stress steel ;
Kaiser prefabricated flooring ;
sliding shuttering for w i n d core and steel shuttering for
cross walls. See appended quantities and tables.
Six possible schemes were compared.
The s t r u c t u r a l steel scheme comprising prefabricated ribbed
flooring and central concrete core w i t h sliding shuttering
was chosen for the following reasons :
(1) Economy: despite a relative handicap of 10 per cent on
the scheme in concrete alone.
(2) Speed of c o n s t r u c t i o n : less than one year for the whole
main s t r u c t u r e ; 25 days for the central c o r e ; 3 storeys
per week for the s t r u c t u r a l steelwork.
(3) Small but specialized labour force.
(4) Lightness and pleasing appearance: g r i d 20 ft. by 23 ft.
(5) Little storage of material required on site.
(6) Lightness and f l e x i b i l i t y : movement in mining area.
Review of costs : for 39,000,000 Bf. for f r a m e w o r k 17,500,000
in steel (sections, reinforcement bars) instead of 9,000,000
in reinforcement for concrete frames.
This is a real and effective advance In steel u t i l i z a t i o n .
Parking
Hotel
Description :
Height : 345 ft.
Volume : 2 million cubic ft.
T o t a l superficial a r e a : 322,500 sq. ft. of which 280,000 s q . .
ft. is useful area.
Foundations direct on sandstone a t 2nd basement level;
complete lining of basements ;
s t r u c t u r a l steelwork : encased beams, stanchions In high
yield stress steel ;
prefabricated ribbed decking ;
members,
( f ) minimum a m o u n t of labour r e q u i r e d ;
(g) rapid setting-up of the lifting equipment (cranes,
hoists, etc.) which rise w i t h the central core;
(h) direct Introduction of the vertical and horizontal
ducting In the core and f r a m e w o r k as and when re
quired as construction proceeds;
(I) Economy-speed : In a scheme being studied for a
similar t o w e r t o be used as offices, we contemplate
the possibility of using steel flooring w i t h flexible
linings. It seems t h a t this construction is competitive
as it has been used notably In the Delta building In
Mons (architect Mr. Lavendhomme), and in the leteren
buildings in Brussels (architect Mr. Stapels) In all-steel
f r a m e w o r k s the method has given complete satis
faction.
353
C E N T R E ALBERT , C H A R L E R O I
OFFICE BLOCK
(1) H e i g h t : 85 m.
(2) Total surface a r e a : 21,000 sq. m.
(3) Steel f r a m e : 890 tons of steel section
(4) 3,938 cu. metres of reinforced concrete comprising:
1,523 eu.
(0
450 eu.
(b)
842 eu.
(c)
900 eu.
(d)
300 eu.
(e)
m.
m.
m.
m.
m.
Frs B. 39,000,000
10,000,000 (wind bracing)
10,000,000 (floors)
11,500,000 (steel frame)
7,000,000 (foundations and misc.)
making
for
for
for
for
floors
the frame
the central core
the foundations
(8) A reinforced concrete structure of the same size would require Frs. B. 9,500,000 of reinforcement bar a o n e
and this for less floor space.
CAR PARK H O T E L
(1)
MULTI-PURPOSE BLOCK
H e i g h t : 105 m.
(2) T o t a l SL rface a r e a :
30,000 sq. metre; , giving 26,000 sq. metres useful floor space.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(5) Precast rib floor
2,490
2,200
1,500
2,500
eu.
eu.
eu.
eu.
m.
m.
m.
m.
22,000 sq.m.
(b)
(c)
(d)
()
Frs. B. 60,000,000
14,000,000
19,000,000
17,000,000
10,000,000
(wind bracing)
(floors, slabs and ramps)
(steel frame)
(foundations)
(8) The possibility of a reinforced concrete construction could not be considered because of the excessive bulk of the
jasic elements
354
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355
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356
Werner BONGARD
Advantages
(Original
text:
and Problems
of Steel
Construction
German)
357
Tubes in Structural
(Original
text:
Framework
Engliih)
A discussion on s t r u c t u r a l steel f r a m e w o r k
would be very Incomplete If the s t r u c t u r a l tube were not
mentioned.
358
359
jean BENOIST
text:
in the Service
of
Steel
French)
w i t h its
tension,
only to
is now
Is espe
360
Section
361
D e s c r i p t i o n of
photographs
tower.
14 O n a t r a garage.
This building is 85 metres long. The arch trusses have
an 18 metre span and the bays measure 5 metres. The
frame weighs 14 kg. per sq. metre.
362
363
364
365
366
Ren FORESTIER
Observations
on the Construction
of the
Phase
367
The cranes with guides on one side behave well under certain
conditions. The horizontal forces measured are less than
those stipulated In the German Standard DIN 120 for
cranes with rigid carriages perfectly square and robust, but
slightly more than those in DIN 120 when the carriages are
articulated and more flexible.
In areas where we knew the pH value would be acid or alkaine, the application of one or two extra coats with a rubber
base has given excellent results,
368
Michel PUECH
Zinc
Prevents
Corrosion
A l l i e d Techniques
Arc-welding
This Is carried out In the usual way, employing an electrode
sheathed In rutile-cellulose, or C 0 2 gas w i t h consumable
w i r e , or a conducting flux, or by spot welding.
The welding of galvanized steels was, until recently, complet
ely out of the question, and even forbidden by certain
authorities. N o w , on the completion of Investigations carried
o u t by our organization in conjunction w i t h the Institute of
W e l d i n g we can f o r m a l l y s t a t e :
t h a t arc-welding w i l l not alter the mechanical charac
teristics of the weld-metal or the heat-affected zone;
t h a t the zone affected by the welding o p e r a t i o n , t h a t is
to say the area where the zinc has volatilized under the
arc t e m p e r a t u r e , can be easily touched up by
(a) the application of a zinc-rich paint ( 9 5 % pure zinc
minimum content),
(b) metallization.
369
370
Robert GABRIEL,
Future Steel-Framed
Construction
(Self-Contained
Skyscraper
City)
(Original text: German)
Except for the plan area of 325,000 ft. 2 (30,000 m.2) occupied
by the "skyscraper c i t y " , the countryside and woods are
preserved In t h e i r n a t u r a l state. The access roads are routed
underground into the foundations already a t a distance
of a t h i r d of a mile (500 m.) from the skyscraper.
371
372
373
Henri B O L L A N D
Development
W h a t s a Preflex beam?
The Preflex beam s a beam in high tensile steel of quality 52
which Is subjected to prestresslng, during which t i m e the
forces are so applied t h a t the m a x i m u m w o r k i n g stress,
equal to 0.8 of the yield stress, is reached or exceeded a t
every point. During this prestressing o p e r a t i o n , the flange
in tension Is encased in concrete. W h e n this has reached
high strength, the prestressing forces are released, the
stresses In the steel diminish, while the concrete Is heavily
compressed. In service, the stresses in the steel Increase again
w i t h o u t exceeding the stresses reached during prestressing
and the stresses i n t h e concretedimlnish until they reach zero,
thus guaranteeing t h a t no cracks appear in the concrete
encasement.
The following problems are solved by this new technique :
375
Description of photographs
- Grand Magasin de la Bourse at Ixelles-Brussels. First
multi-storey department store w i t h clear spans of
20 m. (66-ft.)
- Car park n Brussels comprising four floors each of
4,000 sq.m. (1 acre) w i t h spans of 19.20 m. (63-ft.) In 1956,
this building, complete in every way, cost 1270 Belgian
francs per sq.m. (17/- per sq. ft.) The depth/span r a t i o
of the beams Is 1/29.
- T e l e x building in Brussels, w i t h 19 m. (59-ft.) beams
each comprising 13 openings, 320 mm. (12 1/2 in.) in dia.
for air conditioning. Depth/span ratio - 1/26.
- I n s t i t u t de Physique at Ghent University. 13 storey
building. Depth/span r a t i o 1/25.
376
5 Volkswagen-Porsche W o r k s
beams over the workshops.
In Bussels. 20 m.
(66-ft.)
377
378
Stanislaw BRYL
Composite A ction
Building
Floors
of
Shaped
Steel
Plate /Concrete
Slabs
in
Case 2 :
Case 1 :
1.5
28
where Is
d
/ 28
/ kg/cm 2
the compressive
cube strength
of
the
concrete.
379
Pr < Pb.h
Tb.h Tr.h
P-S
b.
= J
Tr,h Tbji
Fig. 1
T b / Tr.r
Flg. 2
AnmM
7
5
EFFETH
V>
1.5
2.0
s Tbr, h
2.5
Tbr. h
380
2600
2400
2200
*E 2000
5*1800
S 1600
1 woo
S. 1200
2 1000
"
800
600
400
200
1,0 1.1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1.5 1.6 1,7 IjB 1 2/)
Fig. 4
381
383
lean L. SA RF
Structural
that
steel
can
offer
in
modern
385
D e s c r i p t i o n of photographs
1 A p a r t m e n t building at Rue Jouffroy, Paris (18e).
2-3 A p a r t m e n t building, Rue Coulebarbe, Paris (1 3e).
4-5 A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Building of A i r France, a t O r l y .
6 March-Gare, Toulouse.
./
386
387
388
'xi/'^fr
38?
LA. ASHTON
Research
(Original
text:
on Fire Protection
in the United
Kingdom
English)
391
392
DISCUSSION
Diulio Sfintesco
(Original text: French)
Leonardo Zeevaert
(Original text: English)
393
394
Findings
395
Prfabrication
of Steel Building
Chairman:
Ir. A. V A N AALST
Rapporteurs:
LucienWAHL
Dr. - Ing. O t t o JUNGBLUTH
Components
398
Lucien WAHL
Prfabrication
of Steel Building
Components
This population explosion brings with it immense demands for buildings of all types; residential housing of
course, but also for schools, hospitals, offices, factories, and so on. Our civilization owes itself tne duty of find
ing means, commensurate with the needs, of building a lot, quickly and at acceptable cost.
Industry alone can cope with this demand, by virtue of its methods, which aim to replace manual labour by
machinery wherever possible, both on the building site and in the factory, also by virtue of its attitude
toward research, work organization and similar matters.
Forty years later, these words still hold good in their entirety, for, although industry is taking an ever-in
creasing part in construction work, the progress made by the building trades has been slow. Considerable
advances are still possible and these words, which in their day might have seemed utopian, have today a
prophetic ring.
Our work here is devoted to the study of prfabrication of building components in steel, meaning their fa
brication in the workshop, sheltered from the vagaries of the weather and the hazards of the site. The part
played by industry has so far made only a slight impression, but one can discern a change in which steel con
struction can and must play a major rle.
399
W e shall first look i n t o the meaning of the w o r d " p r f a b r i c a t i o n " and some of the conditions t h a t have t o be
present in o r d e r t h a t g r e a t e r use may be made of p r e f a b r i c a t e d components in building w o r k . Secondly w e
shall t a k e a look at the various components t h a t a r e suitable for p r f a b r i c a t i o n and finally touch on some
fields in the use of p r f a b r i c a t i o n .
Let us then commence by discussing p r f a b r i c a t i o n and all the conditions t h a t have to be present if g r e a t e r
use is t o be made of p r e f a b r i c a t e d components in building.
A n u m b e r of misconceptions repeatedly occur a r o u n d the t e r m " p r f a b r i c a t i o n " . This is because the buid
ing industry, more often influenced by the preoccupation w i t h i m m e d i a t e p r o f i t t h a n by a r c h i t e c t u r a l con
siderations, has all t o o often put on the m a r k e t buildings whose appearance, t o put it mildly, left much t o
be desired, also because t h e expression " p r e f a b r i c a t e d c o n s t r u c t i o n " has, in the minds of some clients become
synonymous w i t h ugliness, inconvenience and makeshift. There is no reason w h y this should always be so,
and w e shall certainly have an o p p o r t u n i t y , in the course of this session, of seeing examples which w i l l help
t o a l t e r this o p i n i o n .
A n o t h e r difficulty concerns the very conception of such b u i l d i n g . A building - say a one-family house - is a
complex t h i n g . Its c o n s t r u c t i o n involves the w o r k of many different trades, one d o v e t a i l i n g i n t o a n o t h e r . The
m a n u f a c t u r e r w i l l t r y t o reduce t o the m i n i m u m t h e n u m b e r of different trades engaged on the site and t o
f a b r i c a t e c o m p l e t e assemblies in the w o r k s h o p . Nevertheless, by this off-site f a b r i c a t i o n he takes the risk
of l i m i t i n g a r c h i t e c t u r a l freedom and the system t h a t he involves w i l l become less and less simple. The "clos
e d " system of p r f a b r i c a t i o n at which he arrives entails f a b r i c a t i n g the w h o l e s t r u c t u r e beforehand in the
w o r k s h o p - o r at least all the main s t r u c t u r e - and offering t h e building t o the client, o u t of the catalogue as
it w e r e .
This practice, t e m p t i n g as it may well be, is liable t o end in p a r t i a l f a i l u r e . This is the lesson t o be learned
f r o m t h e experience in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s ; for one c a n n o t industrialize the site, t h e approaches, the inlets and
outlets for services, the c l i m a t e , o r t h e landscape.
The prospects for the " o p e n " system of p r f a b r i c a t i o n a r e q u i t e different. This means shop f a b r i c a t i o n of the
functional components of the b u i l d i n g ; components t h a t can be used and embodied in buildings by many
users and put t o g e t h e r by those in charge of the w o r k in many different ways to produce the w h o l e projects.
Here the quantities required can be on a different scale a l t o g e t h e r , in the region of at least ten t h o u s a n d ,
no longer a mere h u n d r e d . Fully industrialized p r o d u c t i o n methods can be envisaged.
T o achieve this end h o w e r e r , these p r e f a b r i c a t e d functional components must fit easily t o g e t h e r and be in
t e r c h a n g e a b l e . They w i l l be a t the architect's disposal as w i t h any o t h e r building components.
This all seems obvious enough. O n e m i g h t even ask w h y this method of assembling p r e f a b r i c a t e d units has
not been adopted c o m m e r c i a l l y on as w i d e a scaie as m i g h t have been expected. There are many reasons,
but an i m p o r t a n t one is t h a t , up t o the present no dimensional rules have existed to tell one p a r t y the dimens
ions t o w h i c h he should f a b r i c a t e and t h e o t h e r the dimensions t o which he should design.
400
These rules are now in process of being established, and this is the purpose in France of the standard speci
fication AFNORP 01 101, dated July, 1964, and, at international level, of the work of certain committees of
the European Productivity Association and of the International Centre for Building Documentation. To put
it very briefly, this French standard fixes a basic module of 10 cm. (3 15/16") with "multi-modules" or preferr
ed dimensions of 30 cm. and 60 cm. (11 13/16" and 1 '11 5/8") for horizontal dimensions and 20 cm (7 7/8")
for vertical dimensions between floor levels. It also prescribes how lengths should be measured (between wall
faces, centre to centre of columns, as the case may be) and shows the methods of measuring clearances and
tolerances! Let us hope that in European practice common rules for dimensioning will receive ever wider
acceptance, in order to provide the basic conditions for the big market necessary to full-scale industrializa
tion.
There are other factors favouring a wider use of prefabricated components, namely:
rising labour costs which oblige contractors to be constantly on the outlook for ways of reducing the num
ber of man-hours required for the erection of a building, and, above all, for ways of reducing the time
spent on site,
mechanization, automation of the shop work,
transport facilities.
In this already wide market with immense growth potential, we are convinced that steel and steel construc
tion have a decisive and major rle to play.
If all the advantages of prfabrication are to be fully effective, it will be necessary to fabricate components
in very well equipped workshops. They will then have to be transported, often a long way from where they
are fabricated. They must therefore be comparatively light though still able to comply with many other
requirements.
In choosing the basic material, account must be taken of mechanical properties, weight and price. Steel,
more than any other material, is favourably placed in this connection.
Furthermore, the techniques of fabricating steel products have passed all tests and ensure the precision so
necessary when prefabricated components are to be used. This means that it must be possible to assemble
the parts on site without the need of fitting adjustments. In structural steelwork shops the parts are machined
to a tolerance of about 0.040" (1 mm.), sometimes less, and this degree of precision is adequate as a tolerance
for infilling units - external walling panels - curtain walling units, which are supported by the steel frame
work. This degree of precision is the more readily attained when the production run is long enough to justify
extensive, and consequently, expensive tooling that will ensure the requisite precision.
We now come to the second part of this talk, dealing with the various kinds of components that lend them
selves to prfabrication; we shall quickly run over the various items that make up a building in order to dis
cover those to which prfabrication techniques can usefully be applied.
401
Continuous
horizontal
components, floors
and roofs
Continuous external
vertical
components,
walls
402
light weight, giving wall with thermal and sound insulation characteristics equal to those of external
walls in conventional materials, but having something like one-tenth of their weight.
The saving in weight obtained by the use of light-weight walling makes it possible to have lighter frame
work and smaller foundations, and consequently reduces costs in respect of these items. This is particu
larly the case with tall buildings, where the reduction in the sizes of sections for the structure yields a
useful floor area which is so much the greater when the structure is in steel ;
the reduced space taken up by the structure, resulting in a larger useable floor area within the building;
speed and ease of erection, without the need for ultra-powerful handling and lifting appliances; hence a
saving in man-hours on site.
Methods of prefabricating heavy items can also be economically applied to the construction of external walls,
with less site labour, but they are hardly suitable for small-scale housing schemes and for sites far removed
from the fabricating shops. Light-weight external walls on the other hand are easy to transport over long
distances and can be used even for small-scale building projects.
They will be used more and more as local wage rates rise and standardized dimensions become more
widely known and accepted.
If we are to enjoy all the advantages that accrue from the use of light-weight cladding in building, the finish
must be without fault. It might perhaps also be necessary for a large part of the first and second fixings to be
made an integral part of this type of walling and for it to include in its construction, skirtings, electrical and
heating installations and the like. This is possible only where these walling units are so designed that they
can easily be incorporated into the construction of buildings with many and varying plans.
It is therefore essential for very close co-operation to exist from the outset between the manufacturer and
the architect so that walling units of this kind will combine flexibility of layout with uniform external ap
pearance. This problem is difficult, but perhaps not altogether insoluble.
It is also essential that the state of the market should admit of large production runs so as to offset design
and tooling costs.
Light-weight external walling can be made of a number of materials, but steel appears to be the best choi
ce, on account of its mechanical properties which provide the requisite strength in spite of its light weight,
on account of the precision with which it can be worked, and on account of the various finishes that can be
applied to it, viz. stainless steel sheating, zinc coating, paint, enamel, plastic sheating. Finally, steel can be
used in conjunction with other materials, such as glass of different types, reconstructed stone, etc., in which
case it ensures the mechanical precision of the panels and provides an easy method of fixing them.
Internal partitions in residential buildings are for the most part built of conventional materials and so entail
a great deal of work on site. Also, in large-scale housing schemes, they are often made up of heavy prefa
bricated panels or rammed concrete. But such a method of construction, though admittedly cheap, definitely
lacks flexibility and the house once built cannot be altered.
On the other hand, it has been found useful to be able to alter the internal layout of offices at will, and so
movable partitions are gaining in popularity. Steel has proved to be the ideal material for this purpose.
403
O t h e r components
The British G o v e r n m e n t , under its d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and regional development policy, has w o r k e d o u t and
produced designs f o r standardized p r e - b u i l t f a c t o r y premises, w h i c h a r e made available t o m a n u f a c t u r e r s
ready for o c c u p a t i o n . A similar development is t a k i n g place in o t h e r countries.
Dr. Jungbluth w i l l t e l l us, t o m o r r o w , I believe, of some moves t o w a r d s s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n in G e r m a n y . Gene
r a l l y speaking, however, it is surprising t o find t h a t t h e engineers s t a r t again a t t h e beginning each t i m e
t h e y have a building t o design and go t h r o u g h all the calculations a g a i n , as they have t o c o n s t r u c t a building
w i t h a span of 49 ft. (15 m.) or one w i t h a 50 ft. (15,27m) span.
Each t i m e the parts have t o be m a r k e d o u t afresh in the w o r k s h o p and the machines reset, so t h a t the struc
t u r e must eventually c a r r y all these on-costs w h i c h a m o u n t t o a b o u t 1 5 % , a t least, of t o t a l building costs.
S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n w o u l d b r i n g a b o u t a m a r k e d reduction in cost. This is not a t h i n g w e a r e used t o , but it is
nevertheless possible and could come t o be a d o p t e d on a w i d e scale provided the standardized structures
w e r e sold a t prices w e l l below those of structures designed and built as individual " o n e - o f f - t h e - l i n e " jobs.
404
There is, however, one sector in which the construction and erection of buildings on mass-producion lines
has met with particular success, in France at any rate. I refer to the ready-made steel-framed shed-type farm
buildings which are being sold from the catalogue. Several structural engineering firms specialize in this
type of building. Their selling methods enable them to keep their fabricating shops working to capacity,
making the finished parts for stock during the winter months for a market which is essentially seasonal. This
gives food for thought.
School Buildings. This is another sector of building in which steel has already secured a certain foothold.
The demands of education are very pressing and steel makes for great speed in building.
Furthermore, the layout of a classroom can be fairly rigidly fixed and adopted for
dardization is a fairly easy matter here. Lastly, and this condition is essential for
ing methods requiring enormous investments in brains and material, often out of
of the firms concerned, schoolbuildings belong to a sector in which the State has
regulations or to assume responsibility for the costs involved in design.
It is not for me to describe here the many systems of fabrication that have been developed for the construc
tion of schools. I have personally received information about methods developed in France and on ten or so
others designed elsewhere, some of them in England.
All are notable for their adoption of a module (1.75 m. i.e., 5' 9" for school buildings in France, recently in
creased to 1.80 m or 5' 11"), the use of a simple steel framework for supporting floors, walls, light-weight
walling and partitions and, more particularly, a system of prfabrication more or less "open", according to
the system followed.
The building of hospitals also offers a field which favours, overall standardization with an extensive use of
prefabricated parts, but the design work here is less advanced than in the case of school buildings.
Housing. But the prime necessity lies in the sphere of housing, a category in which the use of prefabricated
steel units can and ought to progress.
For one-family houses numerous prfabrication processes have been worked out by steel engineers in all
countries. Yet the saving in building costs are not sufficient to overcome in a decisive fashion the prejudices
and habits of individuals who often think mainly in terms of brick and stone. A change in this mentality is
gradually appearing and economic conditions should enable prefabricated houses to find a real market.
Several systems were on display at the Industrialized Building Systems and Components Exhibition held at
the Crystal Palace, London in June 1964. In France, the Scientific and Technical Building Centre (C.S.T.B.)
has for its part approved several types of private houses built of units involving steel construction. Other
systems of construction are being worked out in Western Germany, in other E.C.S.C, countries and else
where.
Of all these systems, the only ones with a future will be those which combine real aesthetic merit with
great adaptability and flexibility' thereby ensuring that neither architects nor private clients will be
prevented from developing original ideas of their own.
"Low-rise" blocks of flats of one to four storeys in height constitute the major sector with prospects of a
steady increase in the use of prefabricated building components. Here the hight is not such as to require heavy
steel framework, which would call for ultra-powerful handling equipment. This is, moreover, a sector where
the size of the projects does not always warrant heavy prfabrication, but where rising labour costs on site
demand some change.
405
Many systems were also shown at the Crystal Palace Exhibition and are beginning to be tried out in Great
Britain. In this sector of low-rental flats government assistance is very common, and systems of building will
develop more effectively as public authorities provide the means for experimentation on an adequate scale.
In the building of blocks of four to five storeys, heavy prfabrication has been adopted and appears to be
suitable. Steel components are being used here to varying degrees. The use of prefabricated steel components
will expand and further progress may be expected in the years ahead.
For tall buildings, over 165 feet (50m.) in height, every construction job assumes such dimensions that it be
comes a law unto itself and justifies the working-out of a complete building system for the purpose with ex
tensive use of prefabricated components. One might go so far as to say that these buildings could not in most
cases be built without structural framing in steel and certainly not without the use of prfabrication methods,
which, we would repeat, derive from the regular practice of structural steelwork engineers.
To round off this account of present-day application of prfabrication and some foreseeable trends, I should
like to return once more to the essential fact that this development will not be possible without the closest
possible co-operation between all who take part in the business of building and to conclude by quoting
another pioneer of industrialization.Walter Gropius.
"Genuine variety without monotony could have been produced if architects had been interested
in undertaking the basic preliminary studies necessary for prefabricating standardized compo
nents of a kind that could be assembled to give a great variety of types of dwelling. The idea of
prfabrication has, however, been taken up by firms who have concentrated on the prfabri
cation of complete houses rather than on the prfabrication of parts of buildings.
The monotony that would result from the adoption of the latter would increase the apprehensions
of the public, who for sentimental reasons feel ill at ease in a prefabricated environment. Today,
skyscrapers are built of prefabricated components but industrialized residential building is
still only In its infancy."
It is very much to be hoped that this symposium organized by the High Authority of E.C.S.C, will result In
some progress in this direction.
406
Otto JUNGBLUTH
Standardized
Steel Structural
Components
on Automated
Production
Lines
and
their
Manufacture
Introduction
On viewing
one gets the impression t h a t never
race o r m o r e accelerated technical
engineer should f o r his o w n n a r r o w
of engineering t h a t he represents is
o t h e r technical disciplines.
Looking quickly a t some recent scientific and technical achievements, one perceives w i t h a d m i r a t i o n and
astonishment t h a t it is nowadays possible t o produce in an a t o m i c r e a c t o r elements w h i c h do not occur in
a n a t u r a l state a n y w h e r e on e a r t h ; t h a t men can t r a v e l by r o c k e t at speeds of 19,000 m.p.h. (30,000 k m / h ) ;
t h a t particles of m a t t e r can be accelerated t o very near the velocity of l i g h t , i.e., 186,000 miles/sec. (300,000
k m / s e c ) ; t h a t w i t h 7.7 tons of nuclear fissile m a t e r i a l a ship can c i r c u m n a v i g a t e the e a r t h fifteen times
w i t h o u t any a d d i t i o n a l supply of e n e r g y ; t h a t medical science, t h a n k s t o m o d e r n aids, w i l l soon be able t o
t r a n s p l a n t human limbs and organs f r o m one body t o a n o t h e r ; and t h a t p r o b a b l y in only a few years' t i m e
it w i l l be possible t o use de-salted s e a - w a t e r for t r a n s f o r m i n g b a r r e n deserts i n t o f e r t i l e a r a b l e and pasture
land. Thanks t o present-day a u t o m a t i o n e n g i n e e r i n g , increasingly higher o u t p u t s t o g e t h e r w i t h a r e d u c t i o n
in the n u m b e r of a t t e n d a n t personnel a r e being a t t a i n e d year by year in t h e sphere of t h e mass p r o d u c t i o n
of consumer goods. T o give but one e x a m p l e : over t h e last ten years the a n n u a l o u t p u t of m o t o r cars in
W e s t e r n Europe has risen f r o m 1.5 m i l l i o n t o 6.8 m i l l i o n units, i.e., an increase of 350 % .
But how do m a t t e r s stand in t h e technical progress of building c o n s t r u c t i o n and more p a r t i c u l a r l y , w h a t is
the position in r e g a r d t o steel f a b r i c a t i o n and its a p p l i c a t i o n in the c o n s t r u c t i o n industry? Alas, w e find t h a t ,
h i t h e r t o , c o n s t r u c t i o n a l engineering and especially steel c o n s t r u c t i o n has r e m a i n e d one of t h e under-deve
loped fields of engineering and t h a t artisans' methods still largely p r e d o m i n a t e in the s t r u c t u r a l use of steel.
Yet t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n in the building i n d u s t r y , t o mass p r o d u c t i o n , t h a n k s t o progressive
s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n of types, t o assembly-line m a n u f a c t u r e of p r e f a b r i c a t e d components w i t h t h e aid of a u t o
m a t i o n , is already clearly discernible.
I should n o w like t o describe t o you a standardized p r o g r a m m e of i n t e r - a d a p t e d p r e f a b r i c a t e d steel c o m
ponents w i t h the associated m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes for the t h r e e sections of c o n s t r u c t i o n a l e n g i n e e r i n g ,
namely, i n d u s t r i a l building c o n s t r u c t i o n , housing c o n s t r u c t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e building c o n s t r u c t i o n . You
w i l l , no d o u b t , understand t h a t f o r this purpose I shall chiefly d r a w upon i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d by the f i r m
w i t h w h i c h I myself am connected.
407
P r e f a b r i c a t e d steel roof c o m p o n e n t s
O n e of the most i m p o r t a n t l o a d - b e a r i n g and space-enclosing parts of a building is the roof. The most c o m
monly employed steel roofs, w h i c h I can assume t o be sufficiently well k n o w n , present u n d u l a t i n g o r t r a p e
zoidal profiles and are mostly constructed f r o m galvanised sheet steel or galvanised cold-rolled s t r i p . A roof
design w h i c h differs f r o m these w e l l - k n o w n forms leads t o the steel roof (1) w h i c h functions as an o r t h o g o
nally stiffened plate-type s t r u c t u r e . It comprises l o n g i t u d i n a l stiffening ribs spaced a t intervals of 3 ft. 3]/2 in.
(1 m) and stamped-in transverse stiffening beads at 4.9 in. (12.5 cm) centres. As a result of the widely spaced
ribs of high r i g i d i t y and the closely spaced beads of l o w r i g i d i t y , suitable l o a d - c a r r y i n g a c t i o n in the l o n g i t u
d i n a l and transverse directions of the roof is o b t a i n e d .
In c o n v e n t i o n a l roof systems on the o t h e r hand the s t r u c t u r a l members are disposed chiefly in one p a r t i c u l a r
d i r e c t i o n only and four o r five different components a r e generally necessary t o p e r f o r m individual special
functions. This roof constitutes a single continuous unit, like the stiffened deck plate of a large bridge. This
f a v o u r a b l e s t r u c t u r a l behaviour due t o t h e n a t u r e of the stiffening employed, w h i c h is f u r t h e r enhance by
m e t h o d i c a l strain h a r d e n i n g o b t a i n e d in c o l d - w o r k i n g and w h i c h w i l l be more fully considered later o n , has
made it possible t o produce a roof c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a dead w e i g h t of only 2.5 3 lb./ft. 2 (12 15 kg/m 2 )
for u n s u p p o r t e d span lengths of up t o a b o u t 33 ft. (10 m).
D u r i n g e r e c t i o n , the beaded sheets are connected t o the stiffening ribs and t o one a n o t h e r by means of a
clip-cum-adhesive connection o r by cold r i v e t i n g (Fig. 3). T w o - c o m p o n e n t cold-setting epoxy resins a r e used
as adhesive bonding agents for m e t a l ; the sealing compounds employed w i t h cold-riveted joints being singleo r t w o - c o m p o n e n t p r e p a r a t i o n s . These t w o f o r c e - t r a n s m i t t i n g , shear-resistant types of s t r u c t u r a l connection
join the beaded sheets and the ribs t o g e t h e r i n t o a stiffened elastic continuous w h o l e w h i c h in most cases
requires no b r a c i n g . Tests c o n f i r m t h e " m e m b r a n e " a c t i o n of this s t r u c t u r a l system.
408
Fugendmmslraifen
Fig. 1
buildings
Prefabricated w a l l components can be constructed in a v a r i e t y of ways (3) and they differ f r o m one a n o t h e r
more p a r t i c u l a r l y in r e g a r d t o the purpose f o r w h i c h they are intended in r e s i d e n t i a l , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r
i n d u s t r i a l building c o n s t r u c t i o n . In t h e case of single and t w o s t o r e y residential buildings, t h e forces due
t o the e x t e r n a l loads a r e , generally speaking, so small t h a t a s t r u c t u r a l f r a m e w o r k can be dispensed w i t h .
If the loads arising f r o m dead w e i g h t , snow and w i n d a r e t r a n s m i t t e d d i r e c t l y i n t o the w a l l s , t h e n , w i t h
409
Teppidibelag
Bandstahldeckenrippe
>^^.:>!<-=
gelochte Platalkassettendecke
mit Steinwollefllung
Flg. 2
In c o n t r a s t w i t h large w a l l components corresponding in length t o a w h o l e r o o m , storeyhigh w a l l panels
w i t h a unit w i d t h of 4 ft. 1 in. (1.25 m.) not only a l l o w of a w i d e v a r i e t y of a r r a n g e m e n t s in conjunction w i t h
almost complete freedom of l a y o u t on plan, but w i l l also enable the t w o facing sheets of a panel t o be ade
q u a t e l y stiffened by means of an edge f r a m e of suitable crosssectional shape a n d , w h i c h , can be erected
w i t h o u t t h e aid of lifting appliances. W a t e r pipes and electric w i r i n g can be installed in the joints between
adjacent w a l l panels, so t h a t no provision need be made f o r installing any piping o r w i r i n g w i t h i n the w a l l
components themselves. For the t h e r m a l insulation of the w a l l components and joints the m o d e r n foamed
plastics are p a r t i c u l a r l y suitable. These materials, even w h e n used in small thicknesses, are fully capable
of meeting the insulation r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e C e n t r a l European climate. W h e t h e r such w a l l panels, filled
w i t h foamed plastic and faced w i t h steel sheet, a r e t o be r e g a r d e d as composite members in the sense t h a t
t h e foamed plastic cooperates s t r u c t u r a l l y , calls f o r f u r t h e r study. Single and t w o s t o r e y residential
buildings are, of course, not subject t o t h e more s t r i n g e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s of the fire p r e v e n t i o n regulations.
T h e mechanical properties however a n d , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e r e l a t i v e l y l o w heat resistance of plastics
do not, a t present, a l l o w of composite s t r u c t u r e s in w h i c h steel and plastics cooperate in the same w a y as
do steel and concrete.
In the case of the w a l l panels the closed edge f r a m e , in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a c e r t a i n " c o o p e r a t i n g w i d t h "
of the facing sheets, t r a n s m i t s all t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l loads. The foamed plastic filling is utilised as
a means of preventing the buckling of t h e sheets.
A w a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n panel of such design t r a n s m i t s all the loads o c c u r r i n g in single and t w o s t o r e y residential
building c o n s t r u c t i o n , especially if, as in t h e present case, a p p r o p r i a t e s t r u c t u r a l measures ensure t h a t
interconnected panels w i l l act t o g e t h e r as a closed " p l a t e " . The necessary t h e r m a l insulation is also available.
The r e q u i r e m e n t s as t o corrosion resistance and acoustic insulation must also be fulfilled, h o w e v e r .
410
Corrosion protection is provided by hot galvanising on both sides of the sheets (zinc coating 25 microns
in thickness), together with a 200 microns thick PVC plastic layer on the two outer faces. The thick, pro
tective "skin" of plastic obviates the hard, cold character of the steel facing sheets and makes the walls
soft and pleasant to the touch. Since the weight of a wall normally has a significant effect upon the soundinsulating efficiency, such light walls can really be expected to provide a lower standard of acoustic insulation.
The fact that the acoustic insulation is nevertheless relatively good is probably due to the multi-layer
construction of the wall with its alternation of soft and hard materials and their different kinds of vibration
behaviour.
Residential building construction with prefabricated steel components
Prefabricated roof, floor and wall components as described in the foregoing sections may be used for the
construction of any form of single-family or two-family flat-type residence normally encountered in practice.
Without prejudicing the freedom of choice in determining the layout on plan, there are at present three
types available for the detached single-family house (4), with 590, 1,175 and 1,575 ft. 2 (55, 109 and.146 m2)
of residential space, respectively. The type 146 house is entered through a spacious hall which in turn gives
access to the large living room, with an area of 500 ft. 2 (46 m2), or to the kitchen directly on the right, or
straight on to the study. In front, on the left in the hall, is the door to a lavatory also equipped with a shower
bath. The hall gives direct access on the left, to the morning room, which is within easy reach of the kitchen,
i.e., the housewife's sphere of activities. The rear part of the hall leads to the bathroom and three bedrooms.
The large type 146 bungalow shows how prefabricated steel components are used to build a home. All the
walls consist of plastic-coated steel sheet or of partitions in which cupboards are accommodated.
The shortage of suitably developed building land and its high cost, however, necessitate the adoption of
forms of residential construction in which the single-family houses are pushed closer together, as in the
case of this layout pattern (Fig. 3). Here the houses are built of the same steel prefabricated components
as the single-storey and the two-storey "terraced" houses.
Despite all possible thoroughness of planning however, despite the efficiency of technical design and in
spite of all the loving care bestowed on constructional detailing, we cannot ultimately evade the question
as to whether prefabricated housing construction has a future at all, and whether, more particularly,
standardised housing constructed of prefabricated steel components can be economically successful and
find its market.
The number of dwellings completed each year in the Federal Republic of Germany has been fairly constant
for the past ten years and amounts to a little over half a million. In the countries belonging to the European
Economic Community the need for new residential accommodation is estimated as being approximately
1.4 million dwelling units per year over the next few years.
The need is great, but with the present cost of building there are not many who can afford to buy a flat or
indeed a house. The motor car, which only a few decades ago was a luxury which only a few wealthy people
could afford, has now become a mass-produced consumer commodity available for the whole population.
Seventy years ago, when the hand-made Benz-Coup " M y l o r d " car equipped with a 9 h.p. engine cost
3,800 Marks, a house could be bought for 15% of the present-day cost. If one ignores the more stringent
requirements that have now come to be applied to both product, the price of a car can be said to have
remained about the same, whereas that of a house has increased six-fold. Are the high costs of construction
due to the steady increase in recent years of building operatives' wages? These wages have not risen
more steeply than those of workers in the motor industry. No, the blame lies primarily with the very much
lower degree of rationalisation of building technique, which is only now entering the industrialisation stage.
If in the future, despite the continually rising level of wages, the owner-occupied dwelling, and indeed the
ownee-occupied house, is to become a consumer commodity similar to the motor car and what reasonable
grounds are there for denying this then the tremendous rationalised reserves of constructional technique
will have to be utilised to the full. Prefabricated structural components then will really come rolling off
the assembly line, the factory-made house will no longer be a Utopian dream, and correctly designed
prefabricated steel components will make their full contribution to the volume of building construction.
W i t h present technical resources it is possible to produce prefabricated housing components on largely
411
GRUNDRISS
M 1 : 100
RASTER
125 125
WTfffT
STRASSENANSICHT
Flg. 3
a u t o m a t e d assembly lines at such f a v o u r a b l e cost t h a t the price of the house ready for o c c u p a t i o n can be
in reasonable and a p p r o p r i a t e p r o p o t r i o n t o an o r d i n a r y middle-class income.
W i t h the aid of such p r e f a b r i c a t e d steel components for roofs, floors and walls the steel c o n s t r u c t i o n industry
should be able t o secure a g r e a t share of residential building activities, i.e., be i n a position t o p a r t i c i p a t e
in the f u t u r e expansion of the m a r k e t .
Prefabricated
and industrial
buildings
412
aflija
130 mm
InwjT
tr
wz/J^/z/z/^
^1^^^^^
ig
Fig. 4
From the numerous possibilities of using steel sections and sheet-steel panels for cladding units for the faades
of buildings I should like to call attention to t h r e e characteristic types. In the first example folded steel strips
a r e installed as a "cold" exterior wall, with air cavity, in front of a concrete wall slab. In the second example
a grid of steel sections is mounted in or before a steel or concrete structural framework.Windows and in
sulated spandrel panels a r e mounted in this "cladding grid". This form of construction is more particularlyreferred to as "curtain walling" In this case the outer leaves of the insulated wall panels consist of beaded
pre-coated roofing sheets. Finally, the third example shows the use of storey-high insulated structural com
ponents, as are also used in housing construction. Because of the g r e a t e r storey height, these components
have, in the present case, been strengthened by means of rectangular tubular sections a t t h e butt joints (6).
In all these cases, plastic-faced sheet steel has been employed.
S t a n d a r d i z e d f r a m e s for s h e d - t y p e industrial buildings
An inquiry into the need for prefabricated shed-type buildings which covered a wide section of industry,
showed t h a t the most frequent need is for factory buildings and storage buildings with spans in the range
from 33 ft. t o 100 ft. ( 1 0 - 3 0 m), with a pronounced maximum at 66 ft. (20 m). A German mining concern has
accordingly chosen a series of spans between 41 ft. (12.5 m) and 82 ft. (25 m), (Fig. 5) with increments of 8 ft.
3 in. (2.50 m), for its p r o g r a m m e of standard portal frames for shed-type buildings both for those with and
for those without overhead travelling cranes. The standardization of the prefabricated components enables
these to be assembled into multi-bay structures. (7) These standardized frames have been fabricated from
strip steel as so-called hollow-flange sections. With reference to this prefabricated steel structure I should like
to explain t h a t mass production involves more than the mere standardization of types and of components
The primary aim of the creative engineer is to achieve g r e a t e r economy with a d e q u a t e structural safety. In
using steel for building construction t h e r e a r e , initially, t w o ways of arriving a t an economic optimum, na
mely, by increasing the strength of the construction material and by attaining optimum stiffness conditions
as a result of a p p r o p r i a t e design.With regard t o increasing the strenght of structural steels, the controlled
strain-hardening associated with the cold-working of strip steel, in accordance with proposals by Professor
Klppel of the Technological University of D a r m s t a d t , has acquired importance in recent years. It had, long
been known t h a t t h e strength of wires and round steel bars could be substantially increased by cold-stretch
ing or cold-twisting. These methods have been used for many years in the manufacture of suspension
bridge cables and of tendons for prestressed concrete. A new feature, however, was to apply strain-harden
ing t o structural sections made of strip steel and to do this in such a way t h a t , simultaneously with t h e form
ing of the cross-sectional shape, the sections a r e uniformly strain-hardened over almost their entire a r e a
or, alternatively, t h a t controlled strain-hardening is applied t o particular cross-sectional parts where it is
desired. This strain-hardening process by means of cold-working is, like many other physical and chemical
reactions, time- and t e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n t and is associated with a simultaneous change in other proper
ties of the steel. Just as, for example, in medicine, an antibiotic taken in excess will act as a poison, it will,
when taken in the correct dose act in certain parts of the body and have a beneficial effect, so strain-hardening,
too, must be applied only with methodical planning. Also with cold-working it is possible t o adopt crosssectional shapes which, with regard to structural design, attain the optimum rigidity to the purpose for
which they are intended. This modification of the cold-forming technique of steel fabrication can therefore
appropriately be designated as "strain-hardening with optimum rigidity".
413
Fig. 5
414
boundaries, as so-called carbon clouds, additionally anchor the "piled-up" dislocations and prevent them
from undergoing further movement (which would correspond to plastification of the steel) until a higher
stress is applied.
Since the strain-hardening of single crystals is also dependent upon the orientation of the direction of stress,
the transition to the polycrystalline metal represents apart from the effects arising from foreign atoms
a highly complex average effect of the influences of the statistically random oriented individual bodies with
their inhomogeneous states of stress.
Practical application of the theory of strain-hardening by cold-working has been made in the case of nearly
all the prefabricated steel components referred to in this paper. In the standard structural frames for shedtype buildings both the cold-formed hollow flanges and the strip-steel web (joined to the flanges by means
of automatic submerged arc welding) are subjected to controlled strain-hardening.vVith St 37 as the initial
material, yield point values are attained which correspond to those of steel grade St 52.
The modification of the cold-working technique for strip steel, as described here, is called "strain-hardening
with optimum rigidity". In the case of relatively thin-walled structural members loaded in compression and
bending, there is little point in increasing the strength without devoting the necessary attention to the
stiffness of the members so as to obviate the danger of instability. For this reason the hollow-flange girder
combines the highest load-bearing capacity of the l-section for loads acting in the plane of the girder with the
adequately torsionally rigid construction of the hollow flange for resisting loads acting at right angles to
the plane of the girder. It is of interest to carry out an analysis for lateral elastic instability in the case of a
two-pinned portal frame for a shed-type building. The top flange of this frame is laterally restrained by
purlins, but the bottom flange (which is loaded in compression at the corner of the frame) is not restrained.
This corresponds to the arrangement usually encountered in practice. Using the energy method to solve this
stability problem, with the energy indifference criterion:
(2) = D d = 0
we obtain the criterion for the safety against lateral instability ^ for an immovable axis of rotation. As a
practical example we can consider the theoretical dimensions of a portal frame of 82 ft. (25 m) span, subjected
to a uniformly distributed load comprising the dead weight of the roof and snow load. On comparing a hol
low-flange section and a welded l-section having the same cross-sectional area and approximately the same
moments of inertia, we obtain for the hollow-flange section, after due allowance for plastic lateral instability,
exactly the factor of safety which is considered to be adequate by the German Standard Specification DIN
4114, namely, Vu = 1.71. For the single l-section the corresponding value is V^ = 0.34 and therefore inade
quate.
Manufacture of prefabricated steel components on automated production
lines
At the present time, in the stage of transition from building by artisan's methods to industrialized prefabri
cated production, it is no longer permissible to judge the structural components merely by themselves; in
stead, they must be considered in close relationship with the method of manufacture. It would appear to me
that on the way towards rationalisation of construction technique it is, irrespective of the different properties
and effects of the various materials, necessary that the following essential, though not entirely adequate,
requirements be fulfilled:
(1) Standardization of large structural components within a manufacturing programme.
(2) Adequate fitting accuracy and architecturally satisfactory concealment of the joints at the edges of the
components.
(3) Interchangeability of the components.
(4) Inclusion of the additional properties weatherproofing, thermal insulation and acoustic insulation
in the structural components.
(5) Mass production of the components on automated production lines.
(6) Mechanical and electrical interlinkage of the individual stages of manufacture.
(7) Programmed control of manufacture within the programme of standardized types.
415
If we consider industrialized building production in this sense, we find that, among the most frequently em
ployed construction materials stone, ceramic products, timber, plastics and metals , steel is best
suited for productionline manufacture, because of its outstandingly good properties particularly its rapid
coldformability. The only factor that acts in opposition to massproduction of prefabricated steel components
by such methods of manufacture is the relatively high capital outlay involved in establishing such production
lines. The financing of technical progress, however, is after all not a specialworry affecting the steel fabricat
ing industry alone, but is a problem currently affecting the entire European economy. The prefabricated
steel components have recently gone into production on six automated production lines in a new factory
at Hamm.
I want to conclude this lecture by citing the words of a great architect:
" A great age has dawned,
A new spirit is abroad in the world.
Industry, turbulent as a river striving towards its destination, brings us the new resources
which befit an era filled with a new spirit.
Heavy industry will have to concern itself with building construction and massproduce the
individual components. Mass production is based on analysis and experimental research.
It is essential to create the right state of mind to enable mass production to be achieved.
When we dispel from our minds and hearts the rigid conceptions af a house that have become
established there and consider the matter critically and objectively, we are bound to arrive at
the conception of the house as a 'tool, the standard house, which is healthy (also morally
healthy) and just as beautiful as the working tools that accompany us in our existence.
Also, beautiful, thanks to the animation that artistic feeling can give to austere and purely
functional tools".
I am sure you will agree that these words are most appropriate to the present time. Yet they were written
more than forty years ago by no less a man than Le Corbusier, who thus clearly stated his position with re
gard to the so often adduced argument that standardisation of types and mass production in building con
struction must lead to monotony. Le Corbusier declares: "Mass production calls for uniformity of the ele
ments and permits animated variety of the whole"; he continues: "Exactly the opposite of what we are now
achieving: mad diversity in the elements and dreary monotony in the streets and cities."
D e s c r i p t i o n of
1 Steel roof which functions as an o r t h o g o n a l l y stiffened
platetype structure.
3_
ee
oor
'
5 A dministrative
|ned stee|
prefabricated
416
photographs
Shedtype buildings
Multibay structures.
kl Fenelerte
3 0' Fenslcrlcil
T Glaswandteil
M
WLJ
Auenturie.l
Innenlrteil
l i i *
Q
Kdiort, Bad,
WCTrteil
417
418
Jacques
LORMAND
Industrialization of Housing
Large-scale Production
Construction
419
development of this nature. Similarly, numerous compiementary sectors of Industry e.g. steelwork and the plastic
chemical industries, could oin In association In this movement, having common interests which could be turned to
good account.
Finally, technical research must promote the Idea of "designc o n s t r u c t i o n " , which is at present only in its infancy. It Is,
nevertheless, interesting to note t h a t architects themselves
feel t h a t this Is the direction in which they should progress.
420
Full Industrialization
and
Prfabrication
421
Henri DE LA STOURS
Comments
en Standarized
Portal
Frames
422
423
J. HEINEN
Studies and
Industrialization
425
Henri W A I S B L A T
by Stainless Steel in
Prfabrication
427
D e s c r i p t i o n of p h o t o g r a p h s
1 Facade of the new t e r m i n a l building a t Orley a i r p o r t ,
near Paris, consisting of stainless steel curtain walling
and comprising opening windows and a f r a m e w o r k the
mullions and transomes of which are faced w i t h 18-8
stainless steel.
2 Details of the facade of the Orley building. Only the
stainless steel sections are visible above the glazing.
3 T w o large structures in the Paris area shown t o g e t h e r :
the Centre N a t i o n a l des Industries et des Techniques
(CNIT), in which stainless steel members have been
used for the large glazed area, and an administrative
building, the whole of the curtain walling for which is
in stainless steel.
4 A f u r t h e r view of the administrative building which
comprises nearly 80 tons of stainless steel curtain w a l
ling. The frames are In hollow sections, fabricated In
a press and mechanically assembled w i t h o u t welding.
5 The different erection operations for the curtain w a l
ling in this office building may be seen from left t o right.
The facade Is almost complete on the right. O n the
left only the f r a m i n g may be seen. Then the curtain
w a l l i n g is being erected w i t h cill panels in cellular
galvanised steel sheet and w i t h stainless steel windows.
6 Facade of the Centre N a t i o n a l des Industries et des
Techniques: details of the stainless steel members.
This is a section in medium tensile steel w i t h very
high mechanical properties, the tensile strength being
63-66 tons per sq. In. W o r k i n g conditions have made it
possible t o stress this material up to about 20 tons per
sq. in. in mulllons made in three sections each 1.25 mm.
thick, comprising secondary f r a m e w o r k supporting
the glazing.
7 Blocks of apartments in which the cill bands have a
stainless steel skin. The panels are fabricated by a
mass production method in which polyurethene foam
Is injected into cellular frames, the outside w a l l of
which consists of ribbed stainless steel sheeting 0.4 mm.
thick.
8 Details of this facade. The panels made In this way
are very light, weighing less than 5 lb. per sq. ft.
428
1
,
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429
Im*
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430
431
432
Andr NO
Factors affecting
the Resistance
Atmospheric
Corrosion
of Stainless-Steels
to
Type of steel
It Is well known t h a t nickel slows down the reaction, assistin6
considerably the resistance t o corrosion by surroundings as
variable and changeable as the atmosphere. A steel of the
18-8 type s to be preferred whenever visible surfaces are
concerned.
As for molybdenum, it reduces w i t h o u t doubt the possibility
of pitting for a given surface, but the better the t r e a t m e n t
which the surface has received, the smaller is the influence
of the molybdenum, because a proper t r e a t m e n t of the metal
Is also efficacious In reducing the possibility of p i t t i n g .
Surface C o n d i t i o n s
W e accept freely t h a t the care w i t h which the surface of
stainless steels t o be exposed t o the atmosphere Is t r e a t e d ,
governs t o a considerable e x t e n t the behaviour of those
steels. This Is a fact derived f r o m experience. W e have been
able to confirm t h a t a sample of 1 7 % C r . Steel (type 340),
situated on the sea coast, and which had received an electro
lytic polishing, behaved as well as, If not better t h a n , a
sample of 18-8-Mo steel (type 316) w i t h a 2B finish.
Theory allows one t o foresee fact. Atmospheric corrosion
takes place by means of droplets of condensation, as shown
by Professor Evans. 1 It is exomorphic, i.e. brought about by
discontinuities In the surroundings, and therefore not diomorphic. T h a t is why it is necessary t o take care not t o
433
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
434
Conclusion
REFERENCES
U.R. Evans "Metallic Corrosion, passivity and p r o t e c t i o n . " A r n o l d , London (1948) pp. 269272 and 274-275.
G i o r g i o RIVA
Prfabrication
of Steel Building
Components
(a)The designer is unfamiliar w i t h the m a t e r i a l (stainlesssteel) and I g n o r a n t of its characteristics, i.e., his level of
technological knowledge has not kept pace w i t h industrial
discoveries;
Introduction
Arguments
On this basis, the following questions offer scope for discus
sion:
435
D e s c r i p t i o n of p h o t o g r a p h s
1 Example of a special application of stainlesssteel strip
for roofing purposes. The prefabricated component is
reduced t o a mere strip. A ll bending and welding takes
place on site, thus allowing considerable freedom in
adapting the material to the design requirements of the
building, irrespective of Its type, shape and size. This
simple application is a striking example of how building
design requires site organisation and raw material
(steel strip) production, t o be able to harmonize.
2 Detail f r o m photograph 1 : neatly designed machinery
for rapid and a u t o m a t i c bending and welding in situ.
3 The same principle as Illustrated in photograph
applied to a roof w i t h a nonuniform curved pitch.
436
^mmmtmumt. i i n ^ g ^ g e ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ l
437
..^^^WrF*
ECH. 0,2
H7\
3Uwi
438
\
<
5l5 n*w
390mm
Roger MORA
Comments
on Mr.
[Original
French)
Language:
Wahl's
Speech
tolerances in assembled
439
Gastone G U Z Z O N I
Protection
against
Corrosion
440
simultaneously
acoustic,
441
The Problem
of
Steel
442
A n d r FANJAT DE SAINT-FONT
The Problems
of Factory
Building
443
O t t o JUNGBLUTH
The Problem
of Cold
Work-Hardening
444
Jean G A L L I E N
in the Industrialization
Field
445
Silvano P A N Z A R A S A
Prfabrication
of Steel Building
Components
(a) a framework ;
(b) steel infilling panels w i t h fibreglass insulation ;
(c) w i n d o w frames.
coated
with
446
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
REFERENCES
447
Hugo W A G N E R
text:
German)
448
Steelwork
further
offers
the
following
particular
production
concerning
the Construction
of
449
D e s c r i p t i o n of
1
2
3
4
450
photographs
5
6
8
9
10
m*k,_ i
Mmmm\mw:M
1"'..:1 "
lilluIfesrillll liliiVfirBll..
WrnWmm
SIK.
451
452
Jacques BENDER
Prfabrication
(Oirigna)
text:
of Steel Building
Components
French)
453
Findings
454
WORKING PARTY V:
Prefabricated Standard Buildings and
Mass Production of Building Units
Chairman:
Pierre VAGO
Rapporteurs:
Jan SITTIG
Walter HENN
456
Jan SITTIG
Industrialized
Construction
and
Steel
Industrialization necessary
In the last hundred years the production of goods has undergone a truly revolutionary
change as the result of a complex process which may be summed up as transition from production by artisans'
methods to industrial production. In this connection the most striking feature is the tremendous increase
in productivity of labour, in the quantitative sense, due to mechanization and automation. In addition, there
has been a vast improvement in quality, which would have been impossible without the advent of the machine.
Finally, industrialization has laid the foundation for the emergence of entirely new products which, in all
their diversity, high quality and low price, are the manifestation of the prosperity in which the Western
World lives.
Amid this prosperity the construction industry forms a notable island of poverty. The increase in the pro
ductivity of labour in building is slow; mechanization and automation are still only in their early stages,
and the quality of building is deteriorating rather than improving.
Twenty years after the end of the Second World W a r we have not yet succeeded in raising the means of
satisfying the need for housing accommodation one of the first necessities of life to a quantitatively
and qualitatively acceptable level.
The discrepancy between the building output and that of other commodities can be removed only by speeding
up the industrialization of building.
In order to combat the lagging-behind of the construction industry, it is necessary to know the causes of
this.
In our opinion, the primary reason why the construction industry is finding it so difficult to break away from
the "artisan" stage is that buildings are "immovables", permanently fixed to the ground and therefore
unsuitable for manufacture in a factory.
The second cause is that, more particularly the building of houses, the various functions initiative, design,
production, use, and maintenance are spread out over a large number of persons and organizations.
Consequently, there is a narrowing of interests, which state of affairs leads to typical sub-optimalisation.
Finally, the long service life of buildings constitutes the major reason for the inability of the construction
industry to move more rapidly into modern industrial development. The reason for this is that industrial
development is powerfully stimulated by the continuous interaction of " t h i n k i n g " and " d o i n g " , which is
the consequence of the "feed-back" of the experience gained in production to the design and of the experience
gained in use to production and design. \ 2
457
Every industry develops "control system" of this kind, and it is obvious that, in addition to the system
whereby feed-back is effected, it is more particularly the speed of feed-back which determines the value of
such a control system. The long service lives of buildings and, indeed, also the long production time involved
("long" in relation to the lives of the users, designers, builders, etc.) have resulted in the failure of natural
feed-back to develop. Industrialization of building will, for this reason, succeed, only if co-operation between
research and production is achieved in the form of a development-cycle centred upon accelerated and welldirected feed-back of information.
The stages of industrialization
When one speaks of industrialization, the engineer thinks of mechanization, the economist thinks of a
particular cost-price structure, the designer of industrial design, the organizer of the continuity of the pro
duction process, and the business man of sales methods suitable for the mass-produced article.
In order to avoid losing our way in this multiplicity of aspects, we have endeavoured to establish a schematic
relationship between what we consider to be essential stages of the industrialization of building, in which
scheme the principal activities associated with the various stages, and the results thereof, are indicated
(Fig-1).
Restriction of
types
Systematic organization
a t consumer level
O r g a n i z a t i o n of erection
w i t h o u t pre-selectlon or
corrective t r e a t m e n t
O p t i m a l adaption
according t o needs
Standardization
Programming
Introduction of a
system of dimensional
accuracy and tolerances
RESULTS
STAGES
ACTIVITIES
Prfabrication
Erection
Improved design,
Improved p r o d u c t i v i t y
t h r o u g h routine repetition
of w o r k
Improved quality,
reduction of man/hours
Reduction of delays,
Reduction of man/hours,
Improved quality
Total:
cost
Reduction man/hours
interruption
loss of time
Fig. 1
The first stage is the standardization of types of buildings, components, details, etc. Standardization means
that, from the infinite number of theoretical possibilities, a limited number of solutions are finally chosen
for actual application.
Standardization is the starting point of industrialization. An industrialization process that suffers from a
wrong choice of starting point will never be able to yield its full benefit. Hence it follows that it is necessary
to evolve a theory of good preferably optimal standardization, as will be out-lined in a subsequent
section of this paper.
The next stage of industrialization is the restriction of types. In a sense, this is the commercial realization
of standardization, which in itself is merely a programmatic exercise on paper. Industrial production pre
supposes manufacture in quantity, i.e., mass production, and thisagain because of the long service lives
458
of buildingscan be achieved only by systematic organization at the consumer end (e.g. by co-operation
on something more than a municipal basis in drawing up and carrying out housing construction schemes) and
at the producer end (by co-ordination of projection, planning, production and marketing).
Obviously, one consequence of such mass production in the sense of large series of identical products is that
it becomes practicable to devote more time and money to design. Furthermore, the productivity of labour
is enhanced as a result of the routine repetition of identical operations, even without the benefit of mechani
zation and automation.
The last-mentioned features are introduced in the next stage, namely, that of prfabrication. By this is
implied that part of the constructional activities, more particularly the manufacture of the components of
the buildings, is no longer carried out on the site, but in the factory. This in turn implies a more advanced
division of labour, with the possibility of mechanization, better quality of the structural components, and a
reduction in cost.
However, as compared with the "artisan" method of construction, prfabrication gives rise to new problems,
particularly in the sphere of transport and, above all, dimensional accuracy and tolerances. W i t h " a r t i s a n "
construction, those parts of a building which have already been completed will determine the dimensional
requirements of other components which must be fitted to them. For example, the space between two
window frames will be filled up with brickwork. Strictly speaking, this kind of construction, based on adapting
each additional part of the structure to the part already in position, could be carried out without the aid
of any sort of numerical measuring equipment.
W i t h prfabrication on the other hand, an "opening" is manufactured in one factory and the "infilling"
is manufactured in another. When a certain number of each of these two types of component have been
delivered to the building site, they should be capable of being assembled together without any pre-selection
and without requiring any subsequent treatment to make them fit. In fact, this was the problem that faced
mechanical engineers fifty years ago and which, in that branch of engineering, was solved by the introduction
of systems of tolerances and fits, with the associated methods of measurement. A similar development is to
be observed in the field of building construction, though this development is still only in its early stages.
The logical consequence of prfabrication (and the development of a good system of tolerances and fits) is
the fourth and final stage of industrialization, namely, erection. The activities on the building site are then
confined to the assembly and fitting together of the structural components prepared elsewhere, while sub
sequent corrective treatment is obviated in all but very exceptional cases. Erection can very largely be
mechanized, and automation of the erection operations becomes a real possibility.
The results of industrialization can be summarized as the attainment of higher quality at reduced cost, in
less time.
An example of programming
Industrialization starts with standardization, which, if it is to be efficient, is the result of sound programming.
The problems that such programming entails with regard to certain types of building will be discussed in
this section with reference to an example : the programming of industrially manufactured (i.e. prefabricated
and erected) shed-type buildings for industrial purposes.
Subjects for this programming will primarily be the dimensions and, furthermore, the construction of the
supporting structure, walls, windows, doors and roof.
W i t h these structural details however we already move into the sphere of design. We shall draw the demar
cation between programme and design at that point where mere words and figures no longer suffice as
descriptive indications and where, therefore, the design in the sense of shape and form begins to become
essential.
In our example we shall confine ourselves to the dimensions of the industrially produced shed-type buildings
and, more particularly, to the spans.
Every system of standardization has advantages and disadvantages. We need not dwell on the advantages,
since we have already demonstrated that standardization is the prerequisite that must be fulfilled if indus-
459
1.5 r
1,0
0,5
10
20
15
1
10
x,
30
25
\.
15
x2
20
25
x3
35
x
X3
X2
0
x
I Equiproportloneel
30
35
30
35
xL
Equidetrimentaal
10
15
20
25
x = lengte overspanning
Fig. 2
460
The form of the adaptation loss function depends on the number of types to be standardized and on the
situation of these types. The latter aspect could be called the formation principle of the standardization
concerned. In practice, an arithmetical progression is often chosen for the purpose, i.e., equal distances
between the consecutive standardized types. Alternatively, a geometrical progression is sometimes preferred,
i.e., equal ratios between the consecutive standardized types. Of course, there is an infinite number of other
principles on which the standardized series could conceivably be formed.
In addition to an equidistant (arithmetical) and an equiproportional (geometrical) formation, figure 2
includes an "equidetrimental" formation, i.e., one in which the adaptation loss is the same for each standard
ized type.
From the diagram it appears that an increase in the number of types will result in a reduction of the adapta
tion loss. The question as to the choice of the number of types will be further considered later on.
Clearly, a knowledge of the adaptation loss function alone does not provide complete information on the
adaptation loss itself. The latter will alsoand, indeed, very considerablydepend on the nature and form
of the requirements distribution.
W i t h regard to the problem of the standardization of prefabricated factory buildings, reference has been
made to a "requirements distribution" investigation by Neufert. 3 The requirements distribution can be
expressed by a gamma function with a mean value of 20 m. and a standard deviation of 8.2 m.
Figure 3 shows this requirements distribution and also the equidetrimental adaptation loss function for
five standardized types.
a(x)
1 Equi-detrimental 1
Vx)
10
X1
X 15
X
20
x
25
3
30
35
Xl.
x=lengte overspanning
0
*S
The total adaptation loss is obtained by multiplying the adaptation loss a(x) associated with each span by
the probability of the occurrence of this span (as the desired span) f(x)dx, and by integration, or summation,
of this product over the selected range of requirements distribution, i.e., from 5 m. to 40 m. in the case under
present consideration.
461
schade
aanpassingsschade
1
5 6 7 8 9
n= aantal genormaliseerde
overspanningen
Fig. 4
It has also been assumed that the quadratic adaptation loss relates only to one-half of the cost of purchase of the factory
building.
462
Also indicated in the same diagram is the line for the total cost, which attains its minimum for n = 5. On
the assumptions made, this represents the optimum number of types that should be included in the pro
gramme for the standardization of spans for shed-type factory buildings.
In this (optimum) programme we have:
21%
38%
59%
19
26
33
equidistant
(5) 12
40
25%
equifrequent
24%
equlproportlonal
22%
equidetrimental
21%
It must be pointed out once again that this result is bound up with the chosen approximation of the re
quirements distribution, with the chosen adaptation loss function and with the chosen approximation in
the relation between the number of types to be produced and the manufacturing and distribution costs.
In order to arrive at an optimum programme in a specific actual case, these three functions would have to
be studied with greater precision than has been done in the present example, the sole object of which was
to demonstrate the programming principles.
Steel
So far, the examination of the present subject has been in such general terms that there has been no necessity
to refer to specific construction materials. We must now consider the question as to whether, in the process
of industrialization of building as has been very briefly discussed in the foregoing sections, steel will be
able to play a special part. In our opinion it will for the following reasons:
(a) Acceptance and adoption of the industrialization principle, which in our scheme comprises the suc
cessive steps: standardization, restriction of types, prfabrication, erection, can be expected sooner
from steel manufacturers (rolling mills and steel fabrication works) than from the manufacturers of
other construction materials. This is because steel manufacturers already think in industrial terms;
they have already experienced a similar cycle of industrialization in other fields and have actively
promoted it. For this reason they will have less psychological difficulty in effecting the industrialization
463
(c)
(d)
(e)
464
This u n c e r t a i n t y leads t o considerable w a s t a g e . This is because the designer wishes t o safeguard himself
against situations in w h i c h the load w i l l exceed the s t r e n g t h (or the l o a d c a r r y i n g ) , so t h a t f a i l u r e
will o c c u r ; hence he must a d o p t the most u n f a v o u r a b l e ( l o w e s t ) value of t h e s t r e n g t h and t h e most unfa
vourable (highest) value of the load.
Belasting
B=100;V=0,20
Sterkte
S=425;VS=0.20
F=( s /g) = 4.25
100
200
300
Belasting
B = 100;VB=0,20
400
500
600
Sterkte
S=181,6;VS=0.05
F = 1,82
100
200
300
00
500
600
Sterkte
S=U6.06;VS=0,05
Belasting
B=100;VB=0,10
200
F = 1.46
100
200
300
400
Fig. 5
500
300
*
400
Belasting (B)
600
Fig, 6
The calculation is performed by the Introduction of a new variable = S , which may be called the "surplus strength".
The probability distribution of can be deduced from the known distributions of S and (see Fig. 6).The risk of failure is
the risk that becomes negative.
465
The examples chosen are real ones. The coefficient of variation of the compressive strength of concrete cast
in situ is, in fact, of the order of 20%, while the corresponding figure for good factorymade concrete (precast
concrete) is of the order of 10%. The compressive strength of concrete building blocks has a coefficient of
variation ranging from 11 to 30% (based on data issued by Stichting Ratiobouw, Rotterdam).
The compressive strength of timber has a coefficient of variation of between 16 and 20% for very carefully
selected samples having the greatest possible homogeneity.
W e have not been able to find any data on the variations in the compressive strength of steel in the literature.
However, from statements made by experts to the effect that the specified tensile strength tolerances (about
20% tolerance range) can be adopted, though not easily, it is possible to calculate a value of 4 to 5% for the
coefficient of variation.
Figure 7 shows a nomogram from which we can see how the factor of safety is dependent upon the coeffi
cients of variation of the strength and of the maximum load, respectively. Pioneer work on the statistical
evaluation of safety factors has been done by Committee W 23 of the International Council for Building
Research Studies and Documentation (CIB) headed by the late Mr. E. Torroja. (i
1.4
' ^ \
1.2
^W
\W
\ io\ \
bm|imi,o
II
>m
0.8
4 \\
0,6
\ \ \\ \V
\
\ \
0,4
0,2
7=1
0.05
\\
s.
0,10
\
i M I '
\ 1
'
\
I M I
,1
\\ \I I\ I11
i l l '
0,15
,1
0,20
1 1 h
0,25
vs = 3
Fig. 7
Further, in its quest for high-tensile structural steelswhich in turn will enable the weight of structures to
be further reducedsteel technology would do well to devote to the problem of the variations in steel
quality the attention that it merits in view of what has been said in the foregoing.
466
467
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
468
REFERENCES
J. van Ettinger, "Mass Production of Low Cost B u i l d i n g " , Buenos Aires, 1963.
Ernst Neufert, " W e l c h e Hallen fr die Industrie?" ( " W h a t Shed-Type Buildings for Industry?"),
Frankfurt-on-Maln, 1963.
'
("Fundamentals
of
Probability
safety,
Walter HENN
Prefabricated
Standard Buildings and
Mass-Production
of Building
Units
(Original text: German)
In his excellent paper Herr Sittig gave us an excellent review of the problems con
nected with the theme of our Working Party. I would like to add supplementary information based on my
personal views and on my experience as an architect faced daily with these problems.
Unfortunately the problems of prfabrication, series production, industrializationand even more if you
take into account one constructional material alone, steelare too frequently regarded as special problems
which concern only a few experts.
In this I see the first danger linked with the theme of our Working Party: the view taken is much too limited,
too one-sided. Why, in fact, do we discuss the somewhat dry subject: "Prefabricated standard buildings and
mass production of building units"? At first sight this formulation is absolutely incapable of understanding;
it actually appears as something which is only for specialists.
I am of a different opinion. Prfabrication only in building has admittedly achieved quite considerable suc
cesses, but it could not reach beyond a certain relatively restricted sphere of application. In building, mass
production has its limits right from the outset, because the law of large series, which we know from other
branches of engineering and industry, is not directly applicable to building.
By industrialization of building we can understand everything which we wish to understand. Industrializa
tion of building is logical and purposeful only if the duty which it is to fulfil is fully evident and also if the
necessary conditions are viewed from every angle. However, we are still a long way from this.
What then do we mean by: "Prefabricated standard buildings and mass production of building units"?
This signifies purely: What must happen; who has to get together with whom; what has to be co-ordinated,
to enable building to be rationalized, so that the enormous amount of building with which we are more or
less helplessly confronted in each country can be coped with more rapidly, better and more economically
than in the past?
It is obvious that the production of 1,000 cars per day cannot be achieved by individual manufacture by
craftsmen, and that new production methods are necessary. This problem is tackled sensibly everywhere
and dealt with on the basis of economic considerations. The methods employed in the various countries
differ only slightly from each other.
469
It is accepted t h a t the building of 1,000 houses can no l o n g e r be accomplished using yesterday's bricklayers
and carpenters. H o w e v e r , the w a y in w h i c h 1,000 dwellings should best be built today appears t o be a p r o b l e m
of ideology o r philosophy.
W h y this discrepancy? W h e r e is the difference between the m a n u f a c t u r e of 1,000 cars and the e r e c t i o n of
1,000 homes?
First, quite a simple d i s t i n c t i o n : one can produce 1,000, 10,000, o r 100,000 cars w i t h o u t t h e r e being a ne
cessity t o vary the dimensions of the cars. The purchaser needs t o select only the colour of the b o d y w o r k and
the seats t o accord w i t h his o w n taste. It is however not possible to make 100,000 dwellings, all of w h i c h
have the same dimensions and the same plan.
If t w o houses a r e t o be erected in a r o a d , one house on the r i g h t of the r o a d and the o t h e r on the left, then
these t w o houses c a n n o t be identical because if, for e x a m p l e , the r o a d proceeds f r o m east t o west, the en
t r a n c e t o one house is f r o m the n o r t h and t o the o t h e r f r o m the south. This a p p a r e n t l y m i n o r difference
necessitates t w o different plans. T o a much g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n in o t h e r engineering products, every building
is influenced by its e n v i r o n m e n t . Links w i t h traffic, o r i e n t a t i o n in accordance w i t h the compass, position
on the level o r on a slope; all these factors influence the house in its s t r u c t u r e .
O n e w o u l d need t o live in U t o p i a t o wish t o erect 1,000 identical houses, because t h e r e are not 1,000 sites
a v a i l a b l e w h i c h present the same conditions.
Y e t a f u r t h e r difference : A childless m a r r i e d couple and a couple w i t h f o u r children can quite easily use
the same type of car let us say the much-advertised " m e d i u m p r i c e d " car. For a f a m i l y w i t h four children
t h e car is a d m i t t e d l y s o m e w h a t c o n s t r i c t e d , but, of course, it is only used for a few hours a t a t i m e .
A m a r r i e d couple w i t h f o u r children however, r e q u i r e a radically different d w e l l i n g t h a n a childless couple.
These differences can also arise f r o m differences in profession. A f a c t o r y w o r k e r requires a different type of
d w e l l i n g t h a n a d o c t o r . Both may however, perhaps have the same make of car.
T h e result of these brief c o n s i d e r a t i o n s : it is possible t o mass produce a car, but not a house. The mass
p r o d u c t i o n of complete houses is impossible, this can only be done w i t h c o m p o n e n t s ; i.e. a s t a n d a r d unit
system w h i c h p e r m i t s the largest possible number of v a r i a t i o n s .
It is obvious t h a t the conclusion is t r i v i a l , but the question as t o h o w this s t a n d a r d unit system should be
o r g a n i z e d leads r i g h t t o the h e a r t of the p r o b l e m . It is possible t o agree t o c o n c e n t r a t e on a few complete
basic elements having the same dimensions and t o link these one t o a n o t h e r in different series. O r else the
s t r u c t u r e of a building can be s t a n d a r d i z e d , the dimensions of its individual parts being a l t e r e d .
I w o u l d like t o t e r m the first system the " c l o s e d " system and the second the " o p e n " system.
The use of a few p h o t o g r a p h s w i l l clarify things m o r e easily t h a n is possible by a verbal d e s c r i p t i o n . Regard
less of w h i c h s t a n d a r d u n i t system is e m p l o y e d , the pre-requisite for any system is a module.
W e thus a r r i v e a t a r e q u i r e m e n t w h i c h was already discussed and the i m p o r t a n c e of w h i c h c a n n o t be stressed
sufficiently, precisely at this Conference. W e r e q u i r e a European module f o r b u i l d i n g . O n l y then w i l l the
conditions be created for the p r f a b r i c a t i o n and for mass p r o d u c t i o n in b u i l d i n g .
The module alone is not e v e r y t h i n g , h o w e v e r ; w i t h the module we also have the p r o b l e m s of tolerances and
fit.
As t o w h i c h module w e specify, this is solely a p r o b l e m of willingness t o agree. There is a c t u a l l y no final
proof t h a t one module, say the o c t a m e t e r system w i t h a basic dimension of 12.5 c m , is b e t t e r t h a n t h e decade
system w i t h the basic dimension of 10 cm. It is merely a question of a g r e e m e n t .
470
In the case of tolerances however, the situation is different. These depend on the material, manufacture,
design and the assembly process. When deciding upon tolerances one is confronted with difficulties, the
majority of which have not even been considered. However, there is all the more need for this problem too
to be considered. I regard it as essential that our Working Party should draw the attention of the High
Authority with all urgency to the necessity for having a decreed module and for deciding tolerances. I must
now make a few general remarks, using once more for this purpose the comparison between " c a r " and
"house".
The appearance of a cylinder head of a car is a question of suitability and economics; in short purely an
engineering and economic problem.
However, the appearance of the columns in or around a building is not merely a question of engineering,
of stability, suitable material and economicsbut instead somewhat more. This "somewhat more" can be
described and understood only with difficulty, including as it does beauty and symbolism.
This is why such great confusion exists in building. One person sees merely a technical problem in building;
others rush to the barricades to defend architecture. In reality, building is even more complex than it usually
appears to be.
It is easily seen and clearly appreciated that, whilst a building is being planned or is still in the course of
construction, the decisive part is played by engineering and economic problems. As soon however, as a
building is finished and occupied, nobody asks any further questions concerning building costs or how the
building is put together. Instead, overnight, the only assessment of it is, whether it is beautiful or not. Sud
denly, emotional values play the decisive role.
We should not take amiss the fact that these emotional criteria are applied initially to the finished struc
ture, because everything emotional is similarly a direct reaction, the finished structure being the pre
requisite. Only when I can enter a house are my feelings ready to react, and not before.
However, we should not ignore this emotional response during our considerations. In the case of the car
it is taken for granted that it consists merely of steel and plastic. But a house consisting solely of steel and
plastic would be rejected by the majority.
The average person believes that a room would lose its comfort if the walls were made of steel. At exhibi
tions of prefabricated houses it is noticeable how visitors knock the walls to establish the material from
which they are made. Whether this is solely a question of habit, or whether lower layers of consciousness
respond during this sensation reaction, would be worth an investigation. Perhaps, in this rejection of certain
constructional materials for house building, a part is also played by the fact that inside our four walls we
wish to escape from "technique".
Old petroleum lamps now command a high price. Antique dealers' shops are sprouting like mushrooms.
These are the reaction to our engineering age.
Furthermore, in many things which we require and which surround us we no longer have any true freedom
of choice. Basically we all drive the same car, we use the same refrigerator, the same washing machine,
the same toaster. Consciously or unconsciously we wish to keep at a distance from these attributes of the
modern consumer society: we believe we gain in prestige if in some way we can express our individuality.
The majority of people believe they can do this with their house. This appears to them to be their refuge,
and here emotion breaks out forcibly. Here, one wishes to be and to remain an individualist Hence the
rejection of standardization, typification in building.
These problems must not be taken lightly. Building must not be regarded merely as an engineering problem.
It has a sociological side because it is not a matter of indifference to society or the State how the individual
lives.
471
Building has a physiological side, because in his house every person wishes to have a feeling of bodily c o m f o r t .
Building has a psychological side: people w a n t t o feel secure in t h e i r house. A n d not least,all things consid
ered building has a c u l t u r a l side, o r expressed in a b e t t e r w a y , a c u l t u r a l o b l i g a t i o n .
The conclusions for our buildings made using the s t a n d a r d unit system: they should not only be correccly
designed and economically d i m e n s i o n e d ; they should also be well laid o u t . This calls for the services of t h e
most skilled architects. U n f o r t u n a t e l y only few of the c o n s t r u c t i o n a l systems at present on the m a r k e t
comply w i t h these design requirements. Frequently these buildings have risen w i t h o u t the supervision of
good architects.This is s h o r t - s i g h t e d . If it is to become really successful, the prefabricated house using the
s t a n d a r d u n i t system must not only be more economical t o erect t h a n w h e n using past c o n v e n t i o n a l methods,
but also f r o m the design aspect, it must comply w i t h the most s t r i n g e n t requirements. O t h e r w i s e it w i l l
merely be r e g a r d e d as a synthetic m e t h o d of b u i l d i n g .
N o w a few w o r d s concerning c o n s t r u c t i o n procedures:
In the previous conventional m e t h o d of building the a r c h i t e c t d r e w up the design; had it a p p r o v e d by the
c u s t o m e r ; s u b m i t t e d it t o the a u t h o r i t i e s , p r e p a r e d the specifications and then handed these t o individual
craftsmen and c o n t r a c t o r s . The a r c h i t e c t also supervised the w a y in w h i c h the w o r k s w e r e carried o u t on
site, acting as the site supervisor.
Does this sequence of o p e r a t i o n s appear logical also for a s t a n d a r d u n i t system? My i m m e d i a t e answer
must be t h a t I consider it essential t o have a change in the sequence of o p e r a t i o n s and a t r a n s f e r of res
ponsibility.
Before an a r c h i t e c t can d r a w a design in accordance w i t h a s t a n d a r d u n i t system for b u i l d i n g , f r o m some
side o r o t h e r such a s t a n d a r d u n i t system must have been developed. Usually this is done by builders having
the necessary pioneering s p i r i t w h o have pushed f o r w a r d in this sphere and have studied a s t a n d a r d u n i t
system. N a t u r a l l y , close c o l l a b o r a t i o n between architects and firms is desirable r i g h t f r o m the i n i t i a l plans,
but in a c t u a l practice the a r c h i t e c t usually lags behind.
If a building f i r m deals w i t h all questions of p r f a b r i c a t i o n , mass p r o d u c t i o n , s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n and i n d u s t r i a l i
z a t i o n , t h e r e is the f o l l o w i n g danger. If it is a f i r m of steel constructors, then n a t u r a l l y a steel building w i l l
always emerge. If the a l u m i n i u m industry takes up these questions, t h e r e w i l l always be a l u m i n i u m houses,
w h i l s t obviously the t i m b e r industry constructs only t i m b e r houses. I w o u l d like t o question w h e t h e r this
always provides t h e o p t i m u m solution and w h e t h e r the c o r r e c t m a t e r i a l is always used at the r i g h t place.
In my o p i n i o n those firms w h i c h develop such s t a n d a r d unit systems a r e faced w i t h excessive demands be
cause of course they not only have t o design the basic elements for the s u p p o r t i n g s t r u c t u r e and i n d i c a t e
the w i d e v a r i e t y of t h e i r use, but also have t o u n d e r t a k e the e n t i r e i n s t a l l a t i o n and i n t e r n a l finishing.
Usually one o r o t h e r of these problems is given t o o little a t t e n t i o n .
If w e had a s t a n d a r d module, the s t r u c t u r a l steel firms could devote themselves solely t o the s u p p o r t i n g
s t r u c t u r e w h i l s t o t h e r firms experienced in i n t e r i o r w o r k could t a k e over t h e task of developing s u i t a b l e
components for t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e and of m a r k e t i n g t h e m . Then however, the question w o u l d arise of
w h o was t o c o - o r d i n a t e all the w o r k s on site. The a r c h i t e c t is not in a position t o do this, because special
problems a p p e r t a i n i n g t o p r e p a r a t i o n of w o r k on site, the use of mechanical handling e q u i p m e n t , plus suit
able p r o g r a m m i n g have t o be solved w h i c h a r e outside the k n o w l e d g e and experience of the a r c h i t e c t .
C o n c e r n i n g these problems I personally have had good results w i t h the general c o n t r a c t o r . He takes over
and is responsible for the c o m p l e t i o n of the b u i l d i n g , on a t u r n - k e y basis, at a fixed price and at a c e r t a i n
d a t e , consequently relieving the a r c h i t e c t of all o r g a n i z a t i o n a l problems. H o w e v e r , the general c o n t r a c t o r
can also relieve m a n u f a c t u r i n g firms of some of t h e i r difficulties. The individual specialist firms then merely
have t o w o r r y a b o u t t h e i r o w n specialized problems and t h e general c o n t r a c t o r has the task of o v e r a l l
co-ordination.
It is p r o b a b l e t h a t many problems w h i c h are related t o the s t a n d a r d u n i t system can be solved more r a p i d l y
and efficiently t h a n in the past, by e m p l o y i n g this d e m a r c a t i o n for the sequence of o p e r a t i o n s a n d , as a result,
the clear limits of responsibility. In this connection I am t h i n k i n g of the q u e s t i o n : how large must the number
of items in a series be so as t o achieve the o p t i m u m economic effect?
All
concerning the
photographs
Fig. 1
473
AIA
Fig. 2
The supporting structure consists largely of reinforced concrete. However, largely prefabricated steel com
ponents are employed for the finishing work.
It proves that in the standard unit system different constructional materials can be quite easily combined.
I do not wish to demonstrate technical matters to you however in connection with the example of Marburg
University, but instead the effect of the standard unit system on town building. The site plan of this new
University quarter (22) shows quite clearly that this overall conception is based on a standard unit system
which is built up from a standard module; otherwise photograph 23 of a model would merely be an archi
tectural trifle. Actually it is the result of very scientific investigation and represents the exhaustion of all
achitectural possibilities which can form part of such a logical system.
I tried to prove that building does not lead naturally to a standard unit system, but instead tends naturally
to deviate from this.
Photographs 24 and 25 of a single-family house (at Maison-Laffite) confirm this.
Figure 3 shows the plan of a single family house. This is not merely a design, but an existing structure.
Fig. 3
Do not underestimate the desire of the individual who in the present-day mass society wishes to express
his individuality. For my part, I can only understand this building as arising from this reaction, because,
of course, it is not possible to say that the forms are very adaptable or capable of being regarded as the
expression of an aesthetic attitude.
In fact we can almost state that here the attempt is being made to keep technique out at any price. The more
rustic everything appears, the better. In passing it should be mentioned as a curiosity that the cornice con
sists of prefabricated concrete components.
475
The next p h o t o g r a p h (26), w h i c h illustrates a Bank building in Buenos Aires, cannot be regarded exactly as
an expression of r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n in b u i l d i n g .
Probably a large p o r t i o n of the s t r u c t u r e could consist of p r e f a b r i c a t e d elements, but w h e t h e r these c o m
ponents could be m a n u f a c t u r e d economically is a n o t h e r m a t t e r .
But even w h e r e economic considerations lead t o p r f a b r i c a t i o n a s occurs w i t h these houses erected in
France and using p r e f a b r i c a t e d concrete elements (27), an a t t e m p t is made t o c o u n t e r a c t the engineering
severity by i r r e g u l a r insertions consisting of n a t u r a l stone.
In my o p i n i o n this is an a t t e m p t doomed t o f a i l u r e f r o m the outset. H o w e v e r , w e must recognize the secret
longings expressed by this a t t e m p t and must r e g a r d the p r e f a b r i c a t e d house using the s t a n d a r d u n i t system,
not merely as an engineering p r o b l e m , but instead as a house for people w h o can live, not solely w i t h the
aid of e n g i n e e r i n g , but w h o in t h e i r buildings wish t o proceed beyond purely engineering things.
I have i n t e n t i o n a l l y shown a few e x t r e m e examples. You may say t h a t these are e x a g g e r a t i o n s ; this may
w e l l be t r u e but e x a g g e r a t i o n shows things clearly and it was my objective t o d e m o n s t r a t e m o r e clearly
t o you this so difficult sphere of " P r e f a b r i c a t e d s t a n d a r d buildings and mass p r o d u c t i o n of s t a n d a r d building
units."
476
477
478
11
479
14
480
"
L^
21
481
fl?F/
ir a - , - B E " 8 .
Jipt
E!*
m
25
482
.-
mina]
Gabriel SCIMEMI
Criteria
(Original text:
of Dimensions
kalian)
Fig. 1
From: Encyclopaedia Britannica article, e n t i t l e d : " P r o b a b i l i t y and Statistical Theory'
483
Closer
for t w o reasons:
requirement
non
as a " c o m p o n e n t " .
narrower
and
and
more
pointed
than
that
based on
detrimental
respond
industrial
architects
.()
W h a t e v e r validity Le Corbusier's solution may have, there
Is no doubt t h a t the subject is of the utmost theoretical and
x_
XA
practical interest.
I regret I can offer no conclusions. A few minutes ago, we
all heard Professor Sittlg's extremely interesting speech, but
*b
Fig. 2
different
outstanding account.
a given component.
I am convinced t h a t the system of minimizing t o t a l d e t r i
Thus x : l may denote the w i d t h of a staircase, x i , a floor
basic c r i t e r i a reference
to the
modulation
for
mental variables.
housing industry.
484
of dimensions
human
dimension
and
2.260
Fig 3
Modulor, new human measure.
From: Le Corbusier, 1938-46, Editions Girschberger, Z u r i c h , altered, until it suddenly disintegrates.
485
D. E. H A G E M A N
Mass-Production
486
Georges REPECZKY
Professional
Versus
Industrialization
487
Frank E. S. WEST
Prfabrication
of Buildings in England
There
are t w o
points
related
to the
pr
488
Pierre MESLA ND
text:
French)
Corrosion
Steel, although one of the oldest known products, has re
mained a " s h y " m a t e r i a l : it "blushes" on the surface under
the action of w a t e r or humidity. This is a t least an external
manifestation of " f r a n k n e s s " on its p a r t , which is preferable
to the " s h y " behaviour of materials such as wood which
can r o t , be gnawed away by termites, have its Inside com
pletely removed w i t h o u t its external appearance being
altered, until it suddenly disintegrates.
O u r old Eiffel T o w e r is still standing quite happily after
75 years. It is repainted every seven years, but this is done
mainly because above the second p l a t f o r m , which overlooks
the Paris punchbowl it is exposed t o violent winds c o n t a i n
ing particles of dust which attack the paint in a way r a t h e r
akin t o sandblasting.
There are many examples of steel structures exposed t o
heavy w e a t h e r : bridges, viaducts and pylons. These can be
protected f r o m corrosion by painting at regular intervals.
This technique has been Improved by surface p r e p a r a t i o n
which descales the steel. It consists of burning w i t h a blow
lamp, brushing after a l l o w i n g the scale t o oxidise, sanding,
hot or cold zinc spraying, etc. The welded construction tech
nique and the concept of reassembly have eliminated rivet
ed gusset plates w i t h hollow spaces where rain and moisture
could collect or filter Into the joints. There are simple stream
lined forms where corrosion cannot develop. The fine G r a n d
Duchesse C h a r l o t t e caisson bridge, under construction only
a few yards f r o m here, Is an excellent example of this.
molybdenum
H e a t insulation
W e should remember above all t h a t steel in comparison
w i t h other metals has a low thermalexpansion coefficient:
489
Fire
Soundproofing
Of course a sheet of steel resounds like a d r u m , but in the
construction of a m o t o r car, for example, It is sufficient t o
crush a few balls of a special product on the internal surfaces
t o soundproof the doors and b o d y w o r k .
490
Anne VOLBEDA
Construction
ASSEMBLY
COMPONENTS
Manufacture
Inspection at
reception
Inaccuracy
of assembly
Manufacture
BUILDING
Inspection at
reception
Inaccuracy
of joint
"
f*~ Reworking ^
\during assembly,'
/" Reworking *\
Vduring assembly/
~~~ r-r-"""
I I
1I
Tolerance
of assembly
l
Tolerance
of joint
<H
Con
struction
Tolerance
Fig. 1
491
T =
1/4T + T
+T
in w h i c h :
T\
joint tolerance
T n =5 door tolerance
TK
TM =
frame tolerance
assembly tolerance.
PREFABRICATION
[ ' ] , T:,
Fig. 2
492
On some building sites this result was not achieved (Fig. 2).
The last diagram explains why. It shows the steel frame and
the wooden door. The tolerance ranges for the door and
frame are shown hatched. The inaccuracies are given for t h r e e
building sites, on the top line for the frames and on the
b o t t o m line for the doors. The mean Inaccuracy s indicated
by a vertical line and the zone of dispersion by a w h i t e block.
It is seen t h a t on the Dutch building site a t Heemskerk the
degree of accuracy of the frames as delivered was satis
factory. The doors showed slight mutual differences but for
safety's sake were supplied 2.5 cm t o o wide.
493
Roger MORA
A Practical Example of
Achievement
The Faculty of Letters,
Paris
(Extension to the Halle aux Cuirs)
(Original text.' French)
494
Results:
Beginning of planning
15/2/64
First foundation pit
24/3/64
First p o r t a l erected
22/5/64
Last square metre of floor laid 10/8/64 (12,000 m2)
Enrolment of students
26/10/64
First lectures
2/11/64
1
'
1i
Fig. 1.
495
3
^D^
Fig, 2
496
Fig. 3
497
Alexis A R O N
Prospects
(Original
text:
for
Much
Greater
Building
Frendi)
498
Use of Steel in
1962
1963
36,000
73,000
100,000
J 964
(estimated)
200,000
This g r o w t h is significant.
The heads of the designing and planning offices can also see
t h a t the new disciplines offer a vast field of application t o
t h e i r activities.
499
technical
500
Jean-Baptiste A C H E
Technical Requirements
(Originai
text:
of
Industrialization
French)
501
502
Jean-Pierre H A R D Y
Industrialization
people in general;
our profession;
our t r a i n i n g in technology.
First of all, we do not believe t h a t there can really be such
a thing as standard programmes w i t h regard t o i n d u s t r i a l i
zation. There can be permanent elements in the programmes,
such as number of pupils per class-room, sanitation in hous
ing, etc., but has everything been accomplished when the
p r o g r a m m e has been adhered to?
503
504
Romke DE VRIES
Industrialization
(Original
text:
and Human
Problems
Dutch)
505
506
This would
(such as in
t o be fatal
and estate
507
Bernard C. L. CHRISTIAENS
Certain
Social Problems
of
Industrialization
508
Conclusion
My point is t h a t industrialization of building is a very radical
and far-reaching t h i n g . W e in Belgium shall need to go
carefully into many preliminary aspects before we can see
clearly how this can best be done and w i t h w h a t kind of
materials.
I know t h a t some other countries are well advanced in the
Industrialization of building, and indeed in the use of steel
among others B r i t a i n , w i t h the C L A S P " system, in which
steel Is the main element.
In conclusion, I would say t h a t we in Belgium are nowhere
near Industrialized building, and shall have t o tackle a
number of preliminary problems first.
M a r i o ROGGERO
Architects
509
Stephane D U C H T E A U
text:
for
French)
510
Architecture
Jacques BENDER
All-Steel
(Original
text:
Industrialized
Building
and
Architecture
French)
W h a t is i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n ?
511
Research
In industria'ized architecture, as in industry, research is
indispensable to progress.
By this I mean a r c h i t e c t u r a l research in all forms progress
on Industrial techniques, new applications, i n t e g r a t i o n of
modern components on different sites, the creation of func
t i o n a l architecture n line w i t h the new requirements of
our time, insistence on quality in internal fittings, finishing,
line, colour and so on. (6)
I w o u l d recommend the establishment of an Industrialized
A r c h i t e c t u r e Research Institute, where architects could w o r k
w i t h the materials and services of one or more factories,
and be enabled t o compare notes w i t h professional col
leagues on the type of structure they are designing and on the
practical details involved.
Side by side w i t h this research could be consultation w i t h
a variety of specialists f r o m the sphere of a r t p a i n t e r s ,
sculptors, landscape gardeners thanks to w h o m o u r f r o n t
ages, the colours we build In, the parks and gardens for
man's enjoyment, could be made to express a new delight
in living.
The European iron and steel industry, and all the firms
manufacturing w i t h steel, w o u l d combine In this drive and
give a new look t o building.
The team-work
involved
Sheet used
(metric tons)
Fabricating time
Building timo
Workshop
3000 sq.m.
4 days
15 days
65
51
College bldg.
(1 storey)
1500 sq.m.
8 days
21 days
72
33
College bldg.
(2 storeys)
2600 sq.m.
15 days
30 days
130
65
Type ol building
512
It would therefore be w o r t h Including courses on industrlalized steel construction in the syllabuses of the a r c h i t e c t u r a l ,
civil-engineering and technical colleges. Students should be
enabled to learn by visiting factories engaged in the production of building components, and also where a p p r o p r i a t e
3
r
rr
r
travelling exhibitions sponsored by the High A u t h o r i t y .
513
D e s c r i p t i o n of p h o t o g r a p h s
1 All steel faade of five-storey building.
514
and w a l l recesses.
7
Exteror
vew
of
coMege
at
Umeil-Brvannes (Seine-et-
515
^5} h
Si F'
ii'ii!
H l 11 UH il
516
Hans-Jrgen D A N K E R T
"Unit
Building
System"
A factor common t o all these buildings is t h a t the loadcarrying f r a m e w o r k s of steel and t h a t this valuable material
is, moreover, only used, where we find its use to be econo
mical.
The building material industry produces a sufficient variety
of materials suitable for use n the prefabricated unit system
which I have mentioned. I am t h i n k i n g here of prefabricated
concrete slabs, plasterboard panels, false ceilings, etc.
It has been our experience t h a t the use of steel for the
supporting s t r u c t u r e of a building is economically more
satisfactory, not only f r o m the point of view of the p r o g r a m
ming but also it ensures g r e a t e r accuracy of fit and thus
simplifies the completion of the main load-carrying p a r t of
the s t r u c t u r e , even t h o u g h a cost analysis of the bare f r a m e
w o r k appears initially t o indicate t h a t in situ concrete
would offer certain advantages.
I have already mentioned t h a t In the use of our prefabricated
unit system we adapt ourselves t o individual wishes and
requirements and therefore re-apply, as frequently as pos
sible, certain well-tried solutions in matters of detail n
varying combinations. In order t o ensure t h a t , in steel build
ing, our activity is equally adapted, as regards the partic
ular load d i s t r i b u t i o n desired, t o each set of conditions
arising, and t h a t the possible spans are utilized t o the full,
we endeavour t o standardize the connections of our girders,
but not t h e i r lengths.
It has been my experience t h a t the prefabricated unit system
of which I have just given a brief description, and which is
already being widely used by K r u p p , proves extremely suit
able for buildings of a p p r o p r i a t e size categories. If the plan
ning architect, who of course has t o take account of this
method of building in the sphere of activity for which he Is
responsible, is a good architect, he will succeed in devising
a satisfactory solution based on the system under discussion,
as opposed to conventional systems.
As has already been pointed out by Professor Henn, the use
of a prefabricated unit system of this kind will naturally be
517
518
Eugne M A R Z I N
Industrialized
School
Construction
characteristics
Secondary School a t
Limeil-Brevannes
(S. & O.) f o r 1200 pupils
This consists of an extension to an existing building.
The technical considerations are similar to those in the
previous example, but the curtain walls and the partitions
are entirely in galvanized and painted steel sheet, as shown
n photograph 3.
A l t h o u g h the classrooms are more extensive here t h a n in
the previous example, being on three floors, they will also
be finished w i t h i n the contract period. (4)
In both these examples the speed of erection Is the result of
long experience of the constructional system and of perfect
site o r g a n i z a t i o n .
Faculty of A r t s a n d H u m a n i t i e s , Paris
This six-storey building, which s built in conventional
s t r u c t u r a l steelwork, extends over a length exceeding
100 m., as shown in photograph 5.
519
A
March pril
22nd
21st
M a y
A u
9ust
1st November
D e s c r i p t i o n of photographs
1 T e c h n i c a l college at Goussainville (S. & O.) : July 29,
1964.
520
^^^s^^t^^
521
kJ flj
' '"?*>>?. ,-.
' ~ -H.-Xi-
\':'
=i
522
tuga"^f*%'t'^ ':- f ?
Ren M E N A R D
text:
of
Grain
French)
F a r m silos
To enable the gathering of the crops to proceed at the
normal pace, farmers often provide themselves w i t h silos for
the t e m p o r a r y storage of the g r a i n as the combine-harvester
brings it in.
Farm silos consist of a battery of steel cells, the sides of
which are made of galvanized corrugated steel sheets or
plain or ribbed sheets, bolted together, or of fine reinforced
w i r e mesh, providing circular, polygonal or rectangular
containers, in which the grain is stored. The sections are
mass-produced n factories and erected either by the manu
facturers or their distributors, or by the farmers themselves.
Various kinds of ancillary steel fittings and equipment are
required t o dry and handle the g r a i n , such as w i n n o w i n g
machines, worm-screws, elevators, pneumatic conveyors,
driers, ventilators, air ducts, etc.
All these items taken together represent a not inconsiderable
outlet, when account Is taken of the ever-increasing size of
the harvest. It is estimated t h a t reasonably efficient silo
capacity on farms amounts to between 1 Y2 and 2 million
tons.
523
524
G e r a r d PONS
Industry
525
526
Jean-Emile COMPERE
Rural
(Original
Building
text:
n France,
Residential
Building
in
Particular
French)
527
Jean-Pierre V O U G A
Modular
Co-ordination,
Joint
Education
(Original
text:
Research,
French)
528
Fundamental
F. C A N A C
Soundproofing
in Steel Buildings
529
Jan SITTIG
Purposes
530
However, this does not alter the fact t h a t I am most grateful t o Mr. Sclmemi for centring the discussion once more on
the human element, for, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g mathematics and
technology (concerning steel or anything else), and architecture, I believe our whole function s to help t o serve
human purposes better.
531
Findings
are
532
better definition of the services and the responsibilities of the partners towards one another.
Fourthly, it appears essential to introduce into the professional training of architects and civil engineers,
and also into that of technicians and artisans, a body of theoretical and practical instruction directed to
wards industrialized constructional techniques in steel, in order to create conditions favourable to co
operation between men with any kind of professional or vocational training.
Fifthly, in order to co-ordinate all these activities, it is proposed that a European institute for research on
industrialized architecture be established which, jointly with existing organizations, would have the task of
promoting a high-class architecture, suited to the needs of man and to the resources of our time, and also
of putting it into practice through the efforts of new design and construction teams consisting of architects,
engineers, manufacturers, artists and sociologists.
This institute would, at the same time, strive to promote, in the various regions of the Community, working
organizations embodying the services of highly qualified persons from the member countries'and from
other countries also.
It would be advisable to agree with the High Authority a time schedule for implementing the various points
of this resolution.
533
WORKING PARTY VI
Chairman :
Dr.-lng.Walter PELIKAN
Rapporteurs :
Dip.-Ing. Dr. techn. Prof. Hermann BEER
Henri LOUIS
536
Hermann BEER
Recent Developments
in Design and Calculation
Structural
Steelwork
(Original
text:
of
German)
Introduction
Steel construction has in recent years gone ahead with great vigour. This develop
ment has been seen in theory, design and actual construction alike. As rapporteur for this specialized study
group I have made it my business to acquaint you with the important progress which has been made in this
field and to give examples of such developments.
If one compares today's steel structures with those, say, of the period before the Second World W a r , it will
be seen that a change has taken place in basic thought, and this can perhaps be made more clear if the
following matters are considered :
(1) In place of statically determinate structures or structures indeterminate to one or two degrees, we now
have structures which are statically indeterminate to many degrees (1).
(2) The provision of a special structural member for each single structural purpose has given way to the
conception of a "monolithic" integrated structure suitable for all cases of loading (2). Often a combina
tion of steel skeleton with space-enclosing elements is produced, and this adds considerably to the rigidity
and load-carrying capacity of the structure (Fig. 1).
(3) In addition to structures composed of two-dimensional braced framing or plated constructions, increasing
use is now being made of shell structures in lattice or stressed-skin elements (3).
(4) Connections between individual structural units are made nowadays in the shop almost exclusively by
welding, which approaches nearer and nearer to perfection, whereas on site joints are made by welding
or with the aid of high-strength bolts (4).
(5) Further advances in the theory and design of steel structures, especially of surface constructions, tends,
in association with research (5), not only to new developments in construction itself, but also to the more
economical dimensioning of structural members.
537
9000
2500
25
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250
lOO
iggijgzg^ggggg^s gg g g ^ ^ g g
450
' 350
2550
Oo
%W
2 000
'W>.
3500
3 500
2000
Fig. 1
(6) The idea of security against collapse and potential incapacity is undergoing a fundamental change (Figs.
2 and 3) and is leading us to adopt theories of probability and statistics.
WERTE
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538
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Fig. 4
539
Here w e w i l l deal as fully as possible w i t h the principle of l i g h t - w e i g h t construction and w i l l discuss all
structures t h a t show the u t m o s t economy in steel in t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n . W e include under this heading
s t r u c t u r e s of g r e a t length and b r e a d t h made f r o m t h i n steel plate (7) such as are used in building large
bridges.
Light-weight
construction
for
buildings
20
40
60
80
100
'425 T]
** = 1^^15
2 E TE
Ok =
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Fig. 5
540
WE)
Figure 6 shows buckling loads for various profiles of equal sectional area in r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r effective lengths
for buckling. Here, however, the w a l l thickness was chosen so t h a t , w i t h i n the slenderness limits t h a t occur
in practice, buckling by f l e x u r e was still critical for t h e open profiles. The curve of buckling loads for the
t u b u l a r section stands highest of all the types of section s h o w n . C o n d i t i o n s a r e still m o r e f a v o u r a b l e for the
t u b e as w a l l thicknesses a r e reduced, for then f l e x u r a l and t o r s i o n a l buckling becomes the d e t e r m i n i n g
factor for open profiles and the curves for buckling loads fall a w a y sharply (Fig. 7).
300
250
200
Urn]
If w e consider local bulging of the walls of the t u b e , here again the cylindrical section has t h e a d v a n t a g e , f o r
these bulges a r e c r i t i c a l only w i t h very l o w ratios of thickness t o d i a m e t e r ( t / d ) . Investigations have shown
t h a t even w i t h d/t = 100 local bulging of the t u b e governs the dimensions only w h e n t h e slenderness r a t i o is
less t h a n 30. K. Klppel and W . G o d e r have p l o t t e d new t h e o r e t i c a l b u c k l i n g stress curves for tubes and t h e
accuracy of these has been c o n f i r m e d by tests (Fig. 8). C o m p a r i s o n of these values for buckling stress w i t h
those given by G e r m a n S t a n d a r d D I N 4114 clearly shows the a d v a n t a g e s t o be gained by using tubes as bars
in compression.
541
200
kSk[tJ
Pfkg/cmti
Flg. 7
20
40
60
80
100
120
Fig. 8
In c o n s t r u c t i o n a l practice, the f i t t e d joints of tubes can easily be welded t o f o r m l a t t i c e w o r k (Fig. 9). Here
the newly developed f l a m e - c u t t i n g machine, which gives the c o r r e c t settings a u t o m a t i c a l l y , is a g r e a t aid t o
economy in f a b r i c a t i o n . The use of gusset plates and straps has proved t o be inefficient for this purpose for,
especially at the ends of the tongues on the t u b e , a bi-axial stressing w i t h high c o n c e n t r a t i o n of stress occurs.
Fig. 9
542
140
Light-weight
bridge
construction
In bridge b u i l d i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y in built-up areas, steel bridges w i t h self-spanning continuous decks (Fig. 10)
in closed box-sections o r lattice beam c o n s t r u c t i o n have made t h e i r appearance. The s t r u c t u r a l system
consists of t w o or more webs, one u p p e r - b o o m p l a t f o r m o r d i a p h r a g m f o r m i n g also the c a r r i a g e w a y and one
l o w e r boom d i a p h r a g m o r separate low-level ties. The choice of plate thickness (Fig. 11) for the i n d i v i d u a l
webs and flanges v i t a l l y affects the t o t a l w e i g h t of the b r i d g e . In o r d e r t o ensure an adequate m a r g i n of
safety for the steel plate against buckling under compression and shear, fairly t h i c k plates are r e q u i r e d in t h e
case of bridges w i t h high main girders unless stiffeners are f i t t e d along the l e n g t h . The s t r u c t u r a l engineer
has t h e r e f o r e t o d i r e c t his investigations t o w a r d finding the o p t i m u m r e l a t i o n s h i p between metal thickness
and n u m b e r of stiffeners (Fig. 12). The t h e o r y of s t a b i l i t y of perfectly flat plates, w i t h m u l t i p l e stiffeners, free of
Fig. 10
-I
Fig. 11
543
residual stresses and subject to compressive and shear forces, is applicable t o this case. Tables, and the
a v a i l a b i l i t y of electronic c o m p u t a t i o n of the sources of bulging have simplified the w o r k i n g o u t of many
v a r i a n t forms w i t h different combinations of stiffeners and metal thicknesses, so t h a t t o d a y one is in a position
quickly t o investigate a quite high w e b plate having many stiffeners. Figure 12 shows h o w closely the t o t a l
a m o u n t of steel area r e q u i r e d varies w i t h metal thickness and n u m b e r of stiffeners.Whereas in the e x a m p l e
given w i t h web under transverse bending the m i n i m u m area of steel is o b t a i n e d w i t h five stiffeners, the
r e d u c t i o n of shear force o b t a i n e d by increasing the n u m b e r of stifferers permits a f u r t h e r saving in area.
nom
;
f. inmm
I I I I I
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Fig. 13
The s t a b i l i t y of the panel of plating is considerably affected by the f o r m the stiffeners t a k e . If they a r e t r e a t e d
as opensided profiles and are stiff enough in bending they leave the plate free t o t w i s t a b o u t t h e i r long axes,
whereas stiffeners of box section produce r e l a t i v e l y rigid f i x i n g of t h e plate edges. Figure 13 shows the per
centage increase, % , of the bulge f a c t o r ' k ' t h a t is o b t a i n e d by fixing box sections instead of open profiles
as stiffeners. This f a c t o r relates t o various ratios a of panel w i d t h t o height of w e b . In figure 14 h o w e v e r ,
bulge f a c t o r ' k ' is related t o the r a t i o of sectional area of w e b t o t o t a l sectional area. The g r e a t a d v a n
tages of closed profile stiffeners over opensection stiffeners is evident w h e n the o p t i m u m value of = 0.4 is
reached in e i t h e r case. These investigations w e r e conducted by A . Pflger.
A l t h o u g h in a i r c r a f t c o n s t r u c t i o n the bulging of sheets is permissible even under w o r k i n g loads, in steel
c o n s t r u c t i o n a corresponding m a r g i n of safety is r e q u i r e d against plate bulging under m a x i m u m permissible
l o a d i n g . T o fix t h e value of this safety f a c t o r it is i m p o r t a n t t o k n o w w h e t h e r t h e bulge heralds f a i l u r e of
the parts o r w h e t h e r w i t h f u r t h e r increase of loading t h e forces may perhaps transfer themselves to o t h e r
points of the section. In such a case calculations need t o be applied t o a suitably reduced w i d t h of plate called
t h e " c o n t r i b u t o r y w i d t h " (Fig. 15).
In recent years, much research has gone i n t o the question of plate bulging beyond the critical range and it
has been established t h a t , even in the bulged state, plates and sheets are still able t o t a k e f u r t h e r load (Fig.
16). If one ignores a bulge whose greatest w i d t h is equal t o t w i c e the metal thickness, t h e n , according t o
544
V o l m i r , for the plate under a direct force one can a l l o w an increase in t h e c r i t i c a l b u l g i n g stress of a b o u t
5 0 % . In o u r d i a g r a m the c r i t i c a l bulging stresses are given for c o r r e s p o n d i n g values of bulge a m p l i t u d e 'f'.
O n e of my thesis students, H. Bergler, has c a r r i e d o u t similar research i n t o steel plate and sheet under shear
stressing (Fig. 17). I made a r e p o r t on this at the last A u s t r i a n Conference on S t r u c t u r a l S t e e l w o r k .
12
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Fig. 14
1,0
1
I
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I
1
1* er
1
0 1
Q-Ofi
0A-
Mittragende Breite
0,2
040
Fig. 15
545
W h i l e dealing w i t h conditions beyond these critical points it is i m p o r t a n t t o extend one's research t o incipient
bulging of sheet metal firstly because such bulges c a n n o t in practice be entirely e l i m i n a t e d , and secondly
because w i t h systematic use of slightly precambered sheets higher bearing strengths can be a t t a i n e d t h a n
w i t h flat sheets. This is, for example, the case w h e n the f o r m a t i o n of w a v e - l i k e bulges, which w o u l d reduce
the resistance of the sheet t o f a i l u r e by bulging t o its lowest level, is in fact made more difficult. In f i g u r e 18
an incipient s y m m e t r i c a l bulge is c o m p a r e d w i t h a t r i f l i n g a s y m m e t r i c a l w a v e - l i k e bulge in a flat panel.
Fig. 16
Fig. 17
546
Fig. 18
Fig. 19
547
Tubular
structures
I have already mentioned the advantages t o be gained by the use of steel t u b i n g in braced f r a m e structures.
In the all-welded e x h i b i t i o n hall shown in p h o t o g r a p h 8, the t r i a n g u l a r , intersecting latticed frames a r e of
t u b u l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n so t h a t all cleats, fish-plates and gussets can be e l i m i n a t e d .
The Innsbruck a i r p o r t building (1) again shows an a r r a n g e m e n t of t r i a n g u l a t e d t u b u l a r girders rigidly
connected t o t h e i r columns t o f o r m , in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h the purlins, also of t r i a n g u l a r cross-section, a spaceframe construction.
The t h e o r y of statically d e t e r m i n a t e space frames a l r e a d y finds a place in the classical t e x t books on statics.
The possibilities of electronic calculation are full of promise for the p r o d u c t i o n of space-frame systems t h a t
are statically i n d e t e r m i n a t e t o a high degree and are capable of t a k i n g t h e i r loading very efficiently w i t h
ample m a r g i n of safety. W i t h t u b u l a r l a t t i c e w o r k , as my o w n investigations have p r o v e d , t o n n a g e savings
of a b o u t 2 5 % can be realized as against the use of o r t h o d o x latticed c o n s t r u c t i o n . This saving must, however,
be offset in p a r t by the higher price per t o n of t u b u l a r m a t e r i a l .
Shell roofs
The use of lattice c o n s t r u c t i o n for vaulted roofs is of course not new. A m o n g the more recent shell-type roofs,
the " L e d e r e r k u p p e l " (9) deserves special m e n t i o n for its simple c o n s t r u c t i o n and for its very l o w c o n s u m p t i o n
of steel. Prof. Lederer builds this spherical shell w i t h t h r e e systems of t u b i n g w h i c h f o r m t r i a n g u l a r n e t w o r k s ,
so enabling the shell t o c a r r y loads a n y w h e r e on its surface by skin stressing. H o w e v e r , the d e f o r m a t i o n s of
the l o w e r tensile r i n g and the upper compression ring t h a t a r e required t o stabilize the m e m b r a n e a r e not
c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the d e f o r m a t i o n s of the m e m b r a n e itself, so t h a t uneven localized deflections occur at both
edges of the shell. The e x t r e m e l y t h i n m e m b r a n e t h a t is constituted by the domed n e t w o r k ensures on the
o t h e r hand a very a b r u p t cancellation of these i r r e g u l a r i t i e s at the edges, so t h a t only in the i m m e d i a t e
v i c i n i t y of the rings are they at all significant. The r e s u l t a n t forces at the nodes of the t r i a n g u l a r n e t w o r k (10)
a r e t a k e n up by a f r i c t i o n type of clamp. The Ledererkuppel is e x t r e m e l y suitable for c a r r y i n g all applied
loads (self-weight, snow and w i n d l o a d i n g ) . By reason of its l i g h t w e i g h t and speedy erection it is very econom
ical for roofing halls c i r c u l a r on plan. Thus, the s t e e l w o r k for an e x h i b i t i o n hall of 307 ft. (93.5 m.) d i a m e t e r
comes t o 6.76 lb. per sq. ft. (33 kg./m 2 .), so t h a t the Ledererkuppel easily beats any reinforced concrete dome
on t h e score of economy and o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a r c h i t e c t u r a l expression.
The a b i l i t y of curved membranes t o c a r r y high loadings has led t o the development of suspended shells in t h i n
steel sheet w h i c h t a k e the f o r m of spherical o r conoidal structures (Fig. 20). The wide-spanning spherical
shell is w e l l able t o c a r r y high surface loading in spite of its t r i f l i n g thickness of m e t a l , but cannot, w i t h o u t
considerable s t r u c t u r a l r e a r r a n g e m e n t , s u p p o r t point loads. The conoid shell, however, is specially suited for
this purpose and can be constructed in single o r double f o r m . I have already, in " S t a h l b a u 1963", r e p o r t e d
on a conical shell roof w i t h crane suspension along the axis of the conical shell. This system has in the mean
t i m e u n d e r g o n e f u r t h e r development (11), w i t h t h e i m p o r t a n t i m p r o v e m e n t t h a t the upper latticed ring
beam is o m i t t e d and the heating and v e n t i l a t i n g p l a n t fixed along the middle p a r t of the conoid shell (12).
The l o a d - b e a r i n g skin forms in this system the roof covering t o o , and a 1 " (2.5 cm.) t h i c k coat of sprayed
asbestos provides a d e q u a t e t h e r m a l insulation.
A f u r t h e r development was c a r r i e d o u t in A u s t r i a w i t h sports halls, and figure 21 shows a Sport and Physical
C u l t u r e C e n t r e of 203 ft. (62 m.) d i a m e t e r . This has a suspended conoidal roof in sheet steel, which n o w h e r e
exceeds 5 / 1 6 " (8 mm.) in thickness, and a compression ring in reinforced concrete precast units. The roof is
c a r r i e d on r a k i n g supports. The t h r u s t of these is resisted by a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l tensioned cable in such a w a y
t h a t only v e r t i c a l forces are c a r r i e d d o w n t o the foundations (Fig. 22). The high l o a d - c a r r y i n g capacity of
this shell permits even a s w i m m i n g bath w i t h terraces and bar t o be built on the roof. The w e i g h t of the
w a t e r and the structures on the roof serve here as pre-tensioning ballast for the m e m b r a n e so t h a t this
requires no stiffening.
Roofs over halls of r e c t a n g u l a r plan can be constructed w i t h steel sheet of double c u r v a t u r e t o give f o l d e d
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l structures. H o r i z o n t a l tension is t a k e n up by a special adjustable tie. The double c u r v a t u r e
provides a high degree of security against uplift by w i n d .
548
Fig. 20
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Fig. 21
Fig. 22
549
The p o t e n t i a l uses of shell structures in sheet steel for roofs over buildings of w i d e span are by no means
exhausted. The possibility of calculating shell structures of any shape w i t h the aid of electronic c o m p u t e r s
puts the engineer, in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h the a r c h i t e c t , w i t h i n reach of a g r e a t v a r i e t y of s t r u c t u r a l forms.
A m o n g these m o d e r n shell structures the conoidal and h y p e r b o l i c - p a r a b o l o i d shapes deserve special m e n t i o n .
The c o n s t r u c t i o n of these f r o m sheet steel is a r e l a t i v e l y simple business, if only because the surfaces of such
shells include a large n u m b e r of s t r a i g h t units,
Suspension roofs
The high tensile s t r e n g h t of ropes and cables made up of h i g h - s t r e n g t h w i r e makes these exceptionally
suitable for c a r r y i n g tensile forces. Stretched w i r e rope c o n s t r u c t i o n is used p a r t i c u l a r l y in the building of
a i r c r a f t hangars, w i t h a view t o o b t a i n i n g long f r o n t walls, un-obstructed by columns (Fig. 23). The v e r t i c a l
r e s u l t a n t of the tensioned cable requires, of course, an anchorage in the foundations and here the annexed
buildings t h a t are usually r e q u i r e d provide any necessary c o u n t e r w e i g h t . A n even d i s t r i b u t i o n of dead load
is o b t a i n e d by s y m m e t r i c a l planning of the roof (Fig. 24), so t h a t special precautions against uplift need be
i n t r o d u c e d for unbalanced snow loading only.
Fig. 23
Fig. 24
Steel w i r e rope is always a d m i r a b l y suited as a s t r u c t u r a l element for use when covering in extensive areas
w i t h o u t columns, so long as the h o r i z o n t a l pull can conveniently be t a k e n by solid c o n s t r u c t i o n . W h e r e the
plan is c i r c u l a r a closed ring beam under compression o r , w h e n elliptical on plan, a hogback g i r d e r , c o n f o r m
ing t o the line of t h r u s t , gives a suitable c o n s t r u c t i o n (Fig. 25). W i t h any desired plan the pull of the ropes
may be t a k e n by elevated a n c i l l a r y buildings o r by backstaying t o foundations designed for the purpose.
A sagging rope is o u t s t a n d i n g l y capable of c a r r y i n g p e r m a n e n t loads because e q u i l i b r i u m is reached w i t h t h e
c a t e n a r y curve, but the a d d i t i o n of unbalanced w o r k i n g loads (Fig. 26) brings a b o u t a new state of e q u i l i b
r i u m w h i c h is accompanied by m a r k e d changes in shape. Even w i n d loading of t h e roof surface, w h i c h is
p r e d o m i n a n t l y suction, causes a change in the state of e q u i l i b r i u m a n d , w h e r e the dead load is slight, may
550
lead t o a slackening of the s u p p o r t i n g ropes. Lastly, v i b r a t i o n and f l u t t e r may occur and cause d a m a g e t o
the roof sheeting. These unwelcome consequences can be excluded if tensioned ropes are laid over the a r r a y
of main s u p p o r t i n g ropes and a t r i g h t angles t o these, so t h a t a roof of saddle f o r m results (Fig. 27). The
Fig. 25
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551
The a m o u n t of steel used in suspension systems like these is, of course, relatively small, but it is nevertheless
very high s t r e n g h t steel. In many cases it is only by a d o p t i n g such methods t h a t c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m shell roofs
in reinforced concrete can be met.
Fig. 27
W e i r Gates
The shell-type d a m w a l l (Fig. 30) makes use of the s t r e n g t h characteristics of the self-spanning b a r r e l shell
for c a r r y i n g loading t h a t is d i s t r i b u t e d over its surface. As has been proved by t h o r o u g h t h e o r e t i c a l investiga
t i o n , this kind of shell really absorbs the w a t e r pressure by m e m b r a n e stressing. The i r r e g u l a r edge d e f o r m a
t i o n s (Fig. 31), w h i c h arise f r o m non-compliance w i t h the general conditions of strain at the edges of t h e
shell ( l o n g i t u d i n a l and transverse beams), a r e really t o o slight t o enter in the calculations.
552
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P r o b l e m s of b u c k l i n g a n d codes of p r a c t i c e
555
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556
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loaded strut. If one works from the strut, with its inherent imperfections, and accepts the lower limiting
curve as the appropriate buckling-stress curve, below which in practice there would be little likelihood of
failure, (Fig. 35), then one has only to apply a coefficient of safety to take care of the uncertainty of loading.
ZUG
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100 t/cm2
Fig. 33
Thus it is necessary to give factors of uncertainty to the different kinds of loading, such as permanent loads,
superimposed loads in use, snow loading and wind pressure and any other stress-inducing factors. These
factors will vary with current regulations which prescribe loading and with the nature of the loading and
will generally, but not always, be greater than unity. For this reason one needs to have access to adequate
statistical data in order to arrive at a coherent understanding of these factors of uncertainty after evaluating
those data by theories of probability.
557
The question of m a r g i n of safety for complete structures is t h e r e b y solved, since the case of the i n d i v i d u a l
member can be extended t o cover the p r o b l e m of o v e r a l l stability. Similar methods suggest themselves for
bars in tension, for here the permissible stress depends on the yield point t h a t is likely t o be m a i n t a i n e d
w i t h the same degree of p r o b a b i l i t y as the collapse-load stress in the case of buckling. Bending and t o r s i o n a l
stressing, and also m u l t i - a x i a l states of stress, in plate and shell type structures each call for special considera
t i o n of the l i m i t i n g stresses. In dealing w i t h the s t r u c t u r e as a w h o l e one w o u l d n a t u r a l l y t a k e i n t o account
the s t r e n g t h t h a t remains in the plastic r a n g e , both for the system and in its c o m p o n e n t sections, in o r d e r t o
a r r i v e at a factor of safety equal t o t h a t chosen for the bars in tension or compression. It is not possible here
t o deal w i t h the analysis of structures by the plastic t h e o r y .
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Fig. 35
Concluding Remarks
If it is t o survive the fierce c o m p e t i t i v e w a r w i t h o t h e r forms of b u i l d i n g , steel c o n s t r u c t i o n must for ever be
blazing new trails and t r y i n g o u t new solutions. Here, t h e o r y , f a b r i c a t i o n and erection should w o r k hand in
hand t o a t t a i n the u t m o s t in security, efficiency, economy and beauty. M o d e r n ideas f a v o u r t h i n - w a l l e d
c o n s t r u c t i o n in lattice or stressed-skin structures, space frames, plate and shell type structures and structures
w h e r e i n ropes in high-grade steel act as ties and t u b u l a r sections act as struts.
558
559
560
561
Henri LOUIS
of Steel
Construction
D r a w i n g offices engaged in designing steel bridges and o t h e r structures do not, as far as t h e i r engineers
a r e concerned, make sufficient use if any at a l l , of the means and methods of calculation which have a l r e a d y
been made available t o t h e m . Yet in some countries experience has shown t h a t the mere utilizing of these
means and methods makes it possible t o affirm the s u i t a b i l i t y of steel and t o a d o p t it instead of o t h e r m a t e
rials, w i t h success, o r t o p r o m o t e and generalize its use in these types of c o n s t r u c t i o n .
This raises the p o i n t t h a t w h i l e in fact many components of the structures w e build fulfil several functions
simultaneously, this is all t o o r a r e l y t a k e n i n t o account w h e n c o n t r i v i n g and designing these structures.
In a large bridge w h e r e the main girders serve also as parapets, the l o n g i t u d i n a l beams under the c a r r i a g e
w a y can easily be a r r a n g e d so as t o s u p p o r t localized loads by the provision of bending resistance between
563
Civil engineering structures have t h r e e dimensions : it is m o r e t h a n ever necessary t o recognize this and t o
realize t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l methods of calculation seriously u n d e r e s t i m a t e the load-resisting capacity offered
by at least the g r e a t e r p a r t of the c o n s t i t u e n t elements.
I shall cite only one piece of evidence for t h i s : in a steel b r i d g e across the Meuse at Lige, subjected t o
rigorous tests in w h i c h the design loads w e r e realized, the stresses in the s u p p o r t i n g members under the
effect of those loads w e r e systematically measured and a m o u n t e d t o only 2-3 k g . / m m 2 . (1.3-1.9 tons/in 2 .).
W h i l e theories of space structures a r e not yet w o r k e d out or well enough established for all cases, the results
o b t a i n e d f r o m model experiments can be of very g r e a t help. They make it possible t o establish methods of
calculation which a l t h o u g h only a p p r o x i m a t e are nevertheless fully valid.
The models can be devised in accordance w i t h the kind of i n f o r m a t i o n it is desired t o o b t a i n ; as regards the
behaviour of structures under w o r k i n g loads and as regards t h e mode of f a i l u r e they can be made t o yield
i n f o r m a t i o n u n o b t a i n a b l e by analytical methods of c a l c u l a t i o n . The technique of e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h models
is far t o o l i t t l e used in the field of engineering c o n s t r u c t i o n , and t h r o u g h f a i l u r e t o use it, the o p p o r t u n i t y
of t r y i n g o u t the merits of new ideas and new forms is lost.
Structures a r e all t o o often designed on the basis of some solution chosen a priori, despite the fact t h a t o t h e r
solutions are possible; solutions at least deserving of c r i t i c a l and numerical e x a m i n a t i o n before a choice is
made. M o r e o v e r , dimensions a r r i v e d a t on the basis of the one adopted solution a r e not always the most
r a t i o n a l ; still less f r e q u e n t l y w i l l they prove t o be the most economical. Too many simplified assumptions
are made merely for the sake of ease of calculation when the use of electronic computers w o u l d enable the
problems t o be solved on a more realistic basis. M o r e o v e r , and above a l l , it is possible, using these m o d e r n
methods of c a l c u l a t i o n , either t o a r r i v e a t t h e o p t i m u m dimensions in r e l a t i o n t o the chosen solution o r t o
t a k e cognizance of the qualities offered by any one of the o t h e r c o n t e m p l a t e d solutions. The cost of using
electronic computers is not high in r e l a t i o n t o the t i m e they save in the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of projects, the technical
advantages g a i n e d , the assurance of more a c c u r a t e calculation a n d , above a l l , the economy of the resulting
construction.
The pursuit of safety is becoming ever more i m p o r t a n t and w i l l necessarily affect the planning and design
of structures.
564
agreeing on realistic values f o r the live loads on w h i c h t h e r e a r e very few d a t a to go upon. It is, indeed,
p a r a d o x i c a l t o design a s t r u c t u r e for overloads it w i l l almost never have t o c a r r y even under test, and p a r t i c
ularly t o make no systematic distinction between structures of small, medium and long span. These loads
o u g h t t o be defined in t e r m s of t h e i r p r o b a b i l i t y , a procedure w h i c h w o u l d assuredly lead t o substantial
savings as well as being in accordance w i t h good sense and w i t h r e a l i t y .
Plasticity calculation has been widely developed, a t least in t h e o r y and on the basis of l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s ,
but in Europe it is scarcely used a t a l l , even for structures as f a m i l i a r as roofing of the t r a d i t i o n a l type. Yet
some A m e r i c a n rules d a t i n g f r o m the last t w o o r t h r e e years seem t o place a degree of confidence in plastic
design equal t o t h a t w h i c h most engineers still place in designs based on the elastic t h e o r y .
N o r a r e the defects i n h e r e n t in the usual elastic m e t h o d of design any smaller. A t any cost, a conflict between
elastic and plastic calculation must be avoided. I sincerely believe t h a t the t w o can be made c o m p l e m e n t a r y
t o each o t h e r , each being a useful and valuable t o o l .
Consequently, in several countries many bridges erected o r in course of erection are skew, curved o r even
on a spiral a l i g n m e n t ; but in o t h e r countries such s t r u c t u r e s are r a r e o r even non-existent.
These bridges are nearly always of the deck t y p e , designed as frames made up of beams o r box girders.
Methods of calculation and collections of influence lines have been established f o r skew bridges and e n t i r e
books have been devoted t o t h e m , so t h a t as a rule they can be designed in t h e average d r a w i n g office, p a r t i c
u l a r l y if the bridges a r e grids of beams. For skew box-bridges, some very i n t e r e s t i n g investigations and
e x p e r i m e n t s presented at the last congress of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association for Bridge and S t r u c t u r a l En
gineering p o i n t t o the advantages of skewed ends w h i c h , a m o u n t i n g as they do t o the provision of end re
s t r a i n t , have the effect of reducing the mid-span moments, always provided t h a t t h e ends are sufficiently
stiffened and braced t o t r a n s m i t the forces i n t o the box section.
W i t h curved bridges, t o o , it can be said t h a t these a r e easily applicable theories based upon the general
theories of s t a b i l i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y the equations of Bresse, w h e r e b y influence lines and influence surfaces f o r
565
t o r s i o n a l moments can be p l o t t e d ; the bending moments are almost the same and the shear forces exactly
the same as in a simply supported beam.
I believe t h a t curved b o x - g i r d e r bridges of steel a r e especially advantageous because the slab above, already
stressed in a special w a y by reason of the double rle it plays, can w i t h s t a n d considerable shear forces.
Such a bridge may be built w i t h one, t w o o r a m u l t i p l i c i t y of cells. If the girders a r e m u l t i p l e the question
of interconnecting t h e m arises : the best and most economical solution w o u l d seem t o lie in p r o v i d i n g a
n u m b e r of rigid braces at the same level as the box g i r d e r s . It is possible, a l t h o u g h it is a complicated task,
t o design these braces by calculation ; the Belgian commission for s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l w o r k has published a design
t h e o r y for t h e m w h i c h has been successfully applied and w h i c h has been confirmed by a model e x p e r i m e n t .
566
in the bridge a t the t i m e it is b u i l t ; prestressing has been c a r r i e d o u t in t w o stages; all the lattice members
are t u b u l a r o r s e m i - t u b u l a r .
It must be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t this is a p r e l i m i n a r y design, o r r a t h e r the t r y i n g o u t of a new principle, so t h a t
a more detailed c a l c u l a t i o n , bearing in mind t h a t the s t r u c t u r e in question is a lattice box g i r d e r , w o u l d
have led t o a saving. This being so, the steel r e q u i r e d for the w o r k weighs 107 k g . per square m e t r e of deck
a r e a , t h a t area being calculated for the w h o l e w i d t h of 16 m. w h i c h includes t w o cantilevered f o o t w a y s 2 m.
w i d e . The s t r u c t u r e is of " A 52 a " g r a d e steel, and as a l r e a d y stated it is 3.70 m. h i g h ; the w i d t h of its l o w e r
p a r t is 8 m., and it is e n t i r e l y w e l d e d .
Further details of this example could be given in the course of the discussion. It is imperfect both in calcula
t i o n and in p l a n n i n g , but it does e x h i b i t a tendency w h i c h is technically feasible. The saving finally achieved
remains t o be w o r k e d o u t , and the question of a p p e a r a n c e deserves t o be e x a m i n e d in c o - o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n
an engineer and an a r c h i t e c t both a n i m a t e d by t h e urge t o achieve the best a l l - r o u n d s o l u t i o n .
This case illustrates the t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l principle w e have c o n t e m p l a t e d , but a f u r t h e r j u s t i f i c a t i o n for
"space l a t t i c e s " lies in using t h e m t o cover l a r g e areas. T h e i r use has been proposed by c e r t a i n f o r w a r d l o o k i n g architects and engineers, but such structures have been far t o o l i t t l e developed, perhaps because of
the uncertainties involved in calculating t h e m , b u t mainly I t h i n k of the u n w a r r a n t e d misgivings e n t e r t a i n e d
on the subject.
As D r . Ingenieur M a k o w s k i says in his book " C o n s t r u c t i o n s spatiales en a c i e r " w h i c h every engineer and
a r c h i t e c t o u g h t t o r e a d " u s i n g steel in t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n adds f u r t h e r t o the advantages of space struc
tures, w h i c h can be considered as an extension of t r a d i t i o n a l l a t t i c e (or truss) systems i n t o t h r e e dimensions."
The a d v a n t a g e offered by these structures is t h a t lines of action of the forces a r e ramified in t h r e e dimensions
w i t h t h e consequence t h a t a homogeneous field for the play of those forces is p r o d u c e d . This increases resis
tance and allows the cross sections t o be reduced, w i t h considerable saving of m a t e r i a l , the lightness and
shape of t h e structures giving t h e m a most a t t r a c t i v e appearance.
In the planning of space structures, i m a g i n a t i o n and boldness can almost be u n r e s t r a i n e d , guided as they
can and o u g h t t o be by a u s c u l t a t i o n in model t e s t i n g , w h i c h is easy t o p e r f o r m .
Steel can claim t o be far superior in this field ; w h e t h e r for the purpose of b a r r e l vaults, cupolas, folded plate
roof c o n s t r u c t i o n or suspended roofs. This s u p e r i o r i t y is all the more m a r k e d by reason of the fact t h a t space
structures made of steel lend themselves p a r t i c u l a r l y well t o t h e use of plastic m a t e r i a l as a c o v e r i n g , t h e
c o m b i n a t i o n of this w i t h steel being c e r t a i n l y a field of the f u t u r e .
Passing t o a n o t h e r subject, I should like t o say a few w o r d s a b o u t composite c o n s t r u c t i o n in steel and con
c r e t e , a w a y of building already well k n o w n but t o o seldom a d o p t e d by engineers a l t h o u g h in m a n y cases
technically satisfactory and economical because both m a t e r i a l s are used in a r a t i o n a l w a y ; the concrete
serves t w o purposes, the execution is easy and it is possible for the r o a d w a y slab t o be p r e f a b r i c a t e d .
Occasionally some prejudice against this is encountered because steel constructions must necessarily be
homogeneous in v i e w of t h e i r behaviour. I do not t h i n k this reason is a valid one, even t h o u g h the action of
t h e t w o materials in r e l a t i o n t o each o t h e r is not yet perfectly understood as the phenomenon of differential
d e f o r m a t i o n by the concrete comes i n t o play and for this reason t h e value of the m o d u l a r r a t i o is subject
to some inaccuracy. M o r e o v e r , p r o m o t i n g the use of steel c o n s t r u c t i o n o u g h t not t o mean using this m a t e r i a l
i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y ; for the m o d e r n user this h i g h - g r a d e and c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y expensive m a t e r i a l is one t o be
a d o p t e d in situations w h e r e it is necessary and w h e r e it provides a technically and economically sound
answer. I am convinced t h a t if, in some countries, steel c o n s t r u c t i o n has a c t u a l l y declined it is because steel
has been used w i t h o u t sufficient discernment.
A first a p p l i c a t i o n of composite c o n s t r u c t i o n is t h e a d o p t i o n in bridge c o n s t r u c t i o n of precast slabs for the
deck, having u n d e r n e a t h t h e m an arched steel sheet o n t o w h i c h a 5-10 c m . t h i c k layer of c o n c r e t e is p o u r e d ,
567
shock resistance and bonding being ensured by a steel reinforcement fabric o r by plates welded o n t o the
sheet. Many such applications have successfully t a k e n place in France and Belgium. For use in the c o n s t r u c t i o n
of floors in buildings the composite slab is made by s t a r t i n g w i t h a t h i n steel sheet bent in various ways t o
serve both as s h u t t e r i n g and r e i n f o r c e m e n t ; the saving is in the cost of the floor r e i n f o r c e m e n t t h a t w o u l d
be needed for reinforced concrete c o n s t r u c t i o n of the o r d i n a r y k i n d .
Bridges of composite c o n s t r u c t i o n are now quite c o m m o n : in these the deck is above the girders and consists
of a reinforced o r prestressed concrete slab w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e s t o the s t r e n g t h of the bridge as a w h o l e , e i t h e r
n a t u r a l l y in the case of bridges spanning simply between t w o supports o r by one of those devices for adjusting
the play of forces t h a t a r e made possible in several ways by the use of p a r t i a l o r t o t a l prestressing.
Such an a r r a n g e m e n t leads t o a considerable saving of steel in b e a m - g r i d bridges o r t o a saving which may
be less evident, t h o u g h p r o b a b l y real enough, in the case of box girders w h e r e the merits of an o r t h o t r o p i c "
steel slab need t o be balanced against those of a reinforced o r prestressed concrete slab.
T h o r o u g h investigations and research have been c a r r i e d out on the subject of composite s t r u c t u r e s , and these
can be put t o direct use a l t h o u g h t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n involves some difficulties. A t the same t i m e a p p r o x i m a t e
methods of calculation have been proposed for practical use; these give a satisfactory degree of accuracy,
and t h e dimensions w o r k e d o u t f r o m t h e m show a substantial saving.
The m e t h o d of bonding the concrete t o the steel and the q u a l i t y of the bond are t w o i m p o r t a n t questions t o
w h i c h many solutions have been proposed, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h a v i e w t o p r f a b r i c a t i o n of the slabs. Professor
D r . Ing. K. Sattler of the College of advanced technology in Graz, w h o is a leading specialist on c o m p o s i t e
s t r u c t u r e s , has recently suggested and designed composite precast concrete girders in w h i c h the bond is
achieved by means of studs welded t o the steel and able t o be anchored i n t o the concrete slabs. Openings
a r e p r o v i d e d in the l a t t e r t o receive the studs and later filled w i t h a special m o r t a r , w h i l e t h e various elements
w i t h i n the slab are bonded t o g e t h e r according t o thickness.
In c e r t a i n G e r m a n and Belgian s t r u c t u r e s the slab, cast in situ is bonded t o the webs of the steel beams by
transverse prestressing w h i l e shear forces are t a k e n up by f r i c t i o n .
In the building industry some half-hearted applications comprising the use of t h i n t u b u l a r steel columns,
c i r c u l a r o r p o l y g o n a l , filled w i t h concrete have been made. N o d o u b t research is still needed on this m a t t e r ,
especially w i t h a v i e w t o d e t e r m i n i n g the m o d u l a r r a t i o and studying the effect of f r i c t i o n on the enclosing
sheet m e t a l . This p r o c e d u r e is c e r t a i n l y a promising o n e ; it must lead t o a saving in space due t o the reduced
cross section of the columns, along w i t h lightness, g r e a t safety and a saving in cost; m o r e o v e r it w o u l d seem
a t first sight t o a l l o w of esay connections between columns and beams.
As regards t r a f f i c possibilities, the f u t u r e of o u r t o w n s is bound up w i t h the construction of elevated roads
whose c o n t a c t w i t h the g r o u n d must be t h r o u g h almost point-loaded supports. Up t o n o w , steel c o n s t r u c t i o n
has been peculiarly absent f r o m w o r k s of this kind a l t h o u g h the box principle, o r this in the f o r m of h o l l o w
steel f a b r i c a t i o n s , offers an excellent s o l u t i o n . It is certain t h a t for reasons of appearance and lightness t h e r e
w i l l be an increased use of mushroom-slab bridges supported on a single line of c o l u m n s ; but in this respect
n o t h i n g has been b u i l t up t o now of s t e e l t h o u g h a steel sheet conjoined w i t h a small thickness of concrete,
o r perhaps a t h i n concrete slab sandwiched between t w o steel sheets, suggest themselves as answers deserv
ing a t least of e x a m i n a t i o n .
The use of steels w i t h a very high yield point is in my o p i n i o n , also a very i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in the progress
of bridge and s t r u c t u r a l engineering. The use of such steels w i l l assuredly be one of the most helpful means of
c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r c o n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s , t h o u g h in o u r w e s t e r n European countries, if w e a r e
c o r r e c t l y i n f o r m e d , t h e i r use has been c o n t e m p l a t e d only for pressure pipes and tanks. Such steels should
not, of course, be used for all s t r u c t u r a l c o m p o n e n t s ; they w o u l d appear t o be most useful for elements
subjected t o tensile stress.
568
F u r t h e r , as these steels have the same modulus of elasticity as o r d i n a r y steels, t h e need t o l i m i t the a m o u n t
of d e f o r m a t i o n may hinder t h e i r a d o p t i o n , but it is this very p r o b l e m t h a t m i g h t a p p a r e n t l y be solved by
using steel j o i n t l y w i t h o r d i n a r y or prestressed concrete.
Prestressing has already been much employed in conjunction w i t h steel c o n s t r u c t i o n , chiefly in bridges and
especially for continuous girders. Close t o the supports, the cables a r e a t t a c h e d t o the upper c h o r d of the
steel s u p e r s t r u c t u r e after the concreting of the slab w h i c h , of course, is left unfilled i m m e d i a t e l y a r o u n d the
cables, these being covered after tensioning so as t o complete the m o n o l i t h i c a c t i o n of the concrete.
In r e g a r d t o the shape of the sections used in steel c o n s t r u c t i o n it may be permissible t o voice some dissatis
faction : it is r a r e t o find shapes suitable for w e l d i n g and generally it is the sections intended for riveted w o r k
t h a t a r e used. W e can only pray t h a t as soon as possible something practical may emerge f r o m c e r t a i n re
searches t h a t have been u n d e r t a k e n w i t h a v i e w t o producing steel sections f o r m e d by e x t r u s i o n . This could
a m o u n t t o something q u i t e r e v o l u t i o n a r y .
The designer along w i t h the steelmaker o u g h t t o be able t o focus his a t t e n t i o n on developing sections made
of bent sheet. These exist, o r a r e possible, but t h e r e is not yet any confident k n o w l e d g e of how t o use t h e m .
It is essential t h a t d r a w i n g offices should go all o u t t o find r a t i o n a l ways of using these sections in a g r e a t
v a r i e t y of shapes, for u n t i l t h e r e has been a complete r e t h i n k i n g of s t r u c t u r a l skeletons o r frames in t e r m s of
these s h a p e s p a r t i c u l a r l y as regards t h e connections and nodal p o i n t s t h e considerable p o t e n t i a l value
a t t a c h i n g t o sections of bent sheet, used e i t h e r by themselves o r j o i n t l y w i t h concrete, w i l l not be e x p l o i t e d .
The large-scale use of t u b u l a r sections f a b r i c a t e d f r o m bent sheet, after t h o r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o n , w o u l d open
up g r e a t possibilities. S t r u c t u r a l steel assemblies, especially if w e l d e d , have not received enough a t t e n t i o n
as regards either t h e i r f o r m o r t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n ; hence many assemblies are over-dimensioned, w h i c h may
create a false sense of safety o r even be dangerous.
W h i l e this is t r u e as regards the calculation of static stresses the opposite may apply if the assembly is subject
t o fatigue stresses, for t h e t r u e permissible stress in t h e assembled pieces may in fact be g r e a t l y reduced if
the welded joints a r e inefficient.
569
A passing reference may be made t o the considerable interest a t t a c h i n g t o connections made w i t h highs t r e n g t h bolts. Much research has been o r is being carried out and points t o g r e a t possibilities, a l t h o u g h
t h e r e are countries in w h i c h such bolts have been very l i t t l e used, if at all.
W e l d i n g is not being used t o t a k e sufficient a d v a n t a g e of very thick sections, either because t h e i r mechanical
p r o p e r t i e s diminish in value at a r a p i d r a t e o r because it is feared they are liable t o b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e ; o f t e n ,
however, this fear is unfounded if high-grade steels are used and if the w e l d i n g is c o r r e c t l y done.
Most of the ideas t h a t have here been put before you a r e not new o r a n y w h e r e near it. O t h e r s t o o m i g h t
have been b r o u g h t f o r w a r d . Here I am t h i n k i n g especially of the g r o w i n g i m p o r t a n c e of the dynamic effects
on l i g h t s t r u c t u r e s ; the possibility of a reduction of the f a c t o r of safety against buckling if allowance is made
f o r the d i a p h r a g m action of stiffened m e m b e r s ; the u t i l i t y of t u b u l a r stiffeners on plate-webbed g i r d e r s ; t h e
advantages t h a t m i g h t be gained f r o m a t h o r o u g h study of the sequence of runs in welded w o r k ; the possi
bility of c o n t r o l l i n g residual stresses o r , still b e t t e r , of t u r n i n g t h e m t o good account by m a k i n g t h e m serve
f o r prestressing; the benefit t h a t m i g h t accrue f r o m a careful study of the erection of s t r u c t u r e s ; the possi
bilities offered by a suitable i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , even t o the point of m a k i n g good use of active pressure in the
soil ; endeavours t o lighten the many bracing members t h a t a r e so often overdimensioned ; the value of lattice
girders w i t h t h r e e chords, etc.
N o d o u b t , some of the ideas mentioned call for research; this is so for plastic c a l c u l a t i o n , t o be developed
j o i n t l y in conjunction w i t h w e l d i n g , and the application of p r o b a b i l i t y theories t o the e s t i m a t i n g of live loads
and t o the design of steel structures.
T o o much w o r k is done independently : even in one and the same c o u n t r y the many builders concerned in
t e n d e r i n g for a projected w o r k study it in t h e l i g h t of t h e i r o w n resources a n d , o v e r b u r d e n e d w i t h a t h o u s a n d
daily cares, instead of concerting the efforts of all o r of a chosen few in o r d e r t o e x p l o r e t h o r o u g h l y one o r
more of the solutions put f o r w a r d and perfecting these.
Steelmakers and designers o u g h t t o a r r a n g e experimentsthese need not be n u m e r o u s o n actual struc
tures, tests t o be c a r r i e d t o d e s t r u c t i o n after careful investigation and a p p r o p r i a t e choice, t o a r r i v e at the
r e l a t i o n between b r e a k i n g loads and actual loads.
570
Very many identical structures will have to be put up in connection with the construction of motorways and
elevated roads in towns, for which purpose it is necessary to agree upon modules and arrive at a certain
degree of standardization without passing over into monotony.
Finally, and this is essential, we must at all cost escape from the beaten tracks left behind by riveted con
struction and its rolled sections, almost a century old, to look for new forms of construction and new sections.
In this context box or tubular design seems to me a road with a future. To become convinced of this, one
need merely glance at the breathtaking success achieved along this road by aircraft construction.
571
Friedrich W . BORNSCHEUER
Contribution
to the Discussion
on Model
Statics
573
.J H. V A N DER VEEN
Duality in the
of the Strength
(Original
text:
Classification
of Rolled
Products
French)
574
These types of steel are now well k n o w n , often used and have
found their way into Standards. In t h e i r manufacture, the
producers generally employ methods which lead t o a very
fine f e r r l t i c grain and, in a d d i t i o n , they use for example,
an increase in the r a t i o between manganese and carbon,
or they add various alloying elements. All these factors
taken together lead to an increase in the r a t i o between
yield point and tensile s t r e n g t h . This means, t h a t for steels
w i t h the same degree of tensile strength t is possible t o
increase the guaranteed minimum yield point, to the benefit
of the fabricators, or t h a t for the same yield point the
tensile strength should be reduced For thicknesses between
25 and 40 mm., for example, o r d i n a r y quality plates now
show a r a t i o between yield point and tensile strength of
about 0.54, while for plates of superior quality the r a t i o
reaches 0.66.
This means t h a t to guarantee the minimum yield point of
23 kg./sq.mm. (n the case of steel 37) the value of the tensile
strength should be 42 t o 50 kg./sq.mm. (equivalent t o the
American steels A7 or A283, Grade C.) By contrast, for the
higher quality a minimum tensile strength of 35 kg./sq.mm.
w o u l d be adequate.
575
Leo FINZI
Design
(Original text:
Studies
for
Wheel-Plan
Structures
Italian)
576
Tension
mata
XfKSX
:^:::;rr
miWQ
Fig. 1
"' ~"
"
; f l l i l I I I l i l i l l i l 11 I I
: : . : ^ : n . i r :
..' c:>
Fig.
577
| I 'ZSD
579
. S. M A K O W S K I
Analytical
and Experimental
Investigations
Stress Distribution
in Steel Space Frames
Original
text:
of
English!
581
582
Kd
where K
I.so
I oo
o. So
t
K
i
D^
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PROJECT NO.14DW100
SCALE NO. 2
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-loo - -60 -. -2
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Flg. 2
583
bo
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584
11
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0.7S
Fig. 4
585
KEy DlAGRn
The span of this " m o d e l " was 56ft. The tests carried out under
the guidance of the a u t h o r confirmed the g r e a t reserve of
strength of this type of space structure.
586
S&oT^S^xB^N
xfx
xTNn/ xlxlx
*\ xLXlJxX^
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iti jll'll;
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k
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Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
587
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JS
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\ / i x V \
TF+:
'
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^^
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v.
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Fig. 9a
588
1 I I I I
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275
3
;
59
l!
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2X2
ij?
1 1 1
47
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iiz
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Fig.
9b
589
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Flg. 9c
Photograph 2 Illustrates the erection of a building in which
the Nenk system is used for support of the floors.
590
il
total load
number of joints
load per joint
10 lb .536 gms.
168
27 gms
Li
CROSS SECTION
scale 1 = U
DEVELOPED PLA N
scale
1= A
CROSS SECTION
scale l"= U'
total load
number of joints
load per joint
10 lb ^,536 gms
159
285 gms
DEVELOPED
PL
A N
scale 1 = ',
Fig. 10a
591
0 1
,dflecled shape
\ ~~~^--^
^^~
original
shape
*.
shape
ou,DEFLECTION A L DNG
LONG A
*ow
horizontal 1 A
original
oii
shope_
. d e f i e d ed chape
0r
deflected
shape
Fig. 10b
592
a x i a l forces a r e considered t h e
analysis.
This
approxi
I t is v e r y e a s y t o g e t t h e s o l u t i o n f o r v a r y i n g r i s e t o s p a n
m a t i o n gives q u i t e r e l i a b l e results f o r b r a c e d d o m e s of h i g h
r a t i o s as s h o w n i n t h e s a m e f i g u r e f o r o n e of t h e
rise t o s p a n r a t i o w i t h a coarse
g r i d d o m e s s u p p o r t e d by r i g i d a r c h e s .
network.
threeway
For f l a t , l o w rise d o m e s , t h e r i g i d i t y of c o n n e c t i o n s e x e r t s a
very
b y M r . S. D u
considerable
Influence,
reducing
considerably
the
de
f l e c t i o n s a n d m o d i f y i n g t h e l o a d s n t h e m e m b e r s w h i c h
now
Chteau
and
b u i l t n C h a r t r e s ,
c a r r y a l s o b e n d i n g a n d t o r s i o n a l m o m e n t s . C e r t a i n t y p e s of
author.
bracing
c h e c k e d by t h e m o d e l s h o w n In p h o t o g r a p h 7.
p r o d u c e a v e r y u n i f o r m stress p a t t e r n
unsymmetrical
loading.
In t h e
Space
even
Structures
under
France.
The
s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s of t h i s d o m e has b e e n c a r r i e d o u t by t h e
The
analytical
stress
distribution
has
also
been
Research
C e n t r e v a r i o u s t y p e s of d o m e s h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d a n a l y t i c a l l y
a n d a l s o by m e a n s of s m a l l s c a l e m o d e l s . T h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u
T h e r e s u l t s of t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l
tion
v e r s i o n of t h e p i n c o n n e c t e d d o m e a r e s h o w n
in
threeway
grid
domes
have
been
Investigated
simplified
in f i g u r e 1 3 .
electronic
F i g u r e 12 s h o w s t h r e e t y p e s f o r w h i c h such
g r a m m e s have been p r e p a r e d . H a v i n g a g e n e r a l
pro
programme
The
comparison
of
loading,
cases
I and
I I , s
extremely
I n t e r e s t i n g ; i t s h o w s h o w g r e a t c a n be t h e d i f f e r e n c e n t h e
CROSS SECTION
scale
telai
load
number
load
DEVELOPED
scale
per
of
1=4
101b = 4536 g m s .
joints = 159
pint
285 gms
PL
A N
1=4
CROSS SECTION
scale 1 = 4
total load
= 1 lb = 4536 gms
number ol joints = 214
load per joint = 212 g m s .
DEVELOPED
scale
PA
L N
1=4
Fig. 10c
593
f o r c e s n t h e m e m b e r s of t h e d o m e c a r r y i n g t h e s a m e l o a d ,
F i g u r e 14 s h o w s t h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t d i a g r a m s p r o d u c e d by
fully symmetrical
conditions.
loading
covering
the whole
area
of
the
r o o f a n d a l s o by t h e c o n d i t i o n w h i c h a r i s e s w h e n s n o w c o v e r s
In case I t h e a n a l y s i s w a s c a r r i e d o u t f o r a d o m e
a l o n g Its b o u n d a r y o n u n y i e l d i n g s u p p o r t s A
supported
In case II t h e I n f l u e n c e of y i e l d i n g s u p p o r t s w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d .
In t h i s c a s e t h e d o m e is s u p p o r t e d o n v e r t i c a l c o l u m n s w h i c h
enable vertical glazing to
be p r o v i d e d
and t h r o u g h
which
l i g h t is l e t i n t o t h e I n t e r i o r of t h e d o m e . T h e s u p p o r t s of t h e
dome
vertically;
this
s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e s t h e f o r c e s In t h e m e m b e r s l y i n g
near
the
are
able
to
yield
horizontally
and
o n l y h a l f of t h e r o o f .
a n d B.
Mr.
M.J.
Civil
Bayley, a r e s e a r c h s t u d e n t in t h e
Engineering,
simplifying
is
investigating
assumptions
the
Department
validity
of
d o m e s t r u c t u r e s . H e Is s u p p o r t i n g
his a n a l y t i c a l s t u d i e s
e x p e r i m e n t s o n s m a l l s c a l e m o d e l s . M r . B a y l e y is r e s t r i c t i n g
his a t t e n t i o n t o d o m e s w i t h t h r e e w a y b r a c i n g a n d i n v e s t i g a t
then
the
influence
of s e c o n d a r y
and
tertiary
systems.
a n a l y s i s of a d o m e t o b e b u i l t i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e
C a s e s III a n d IV I l l u s t r a t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s n l o a d
distribution
meter
m e m b e r s , of r e c t a n g u l a r s e c t i o n . T h e
differently
i n e a c h case w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e m a i n a x i s of t h e d o m e .
of
143
feet
and
into consideration
the
made
contribution
p r o v i d e d by t h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t s n a d d i t i o n t o t h e
strain
will
be
i n g . Shell a n a l o g y
constructed
with
tubular
rise t o s p a n r a t i o is
proach. A
bending
p r e p a r e d f o r v a r i o u s t y p e s of l o a d
is a l s o b e i n g used as a n a l t e r n a t i v e
pinconnected
and torsional
structure
moments
A n
being
1 : 9 . 3 6 . F l e x i b i l i t y a n d stiffness m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n u s e d a n d
a computer programme
W h i l e a n a l y s i n g t h e C h a r t r e s d o m e , an a t t e m p t was
is
c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g v a r i o u s a s s u m p t i o n s . T h e d o m e has a d i a
p r o d u c e d by t h e s a m e e x t e r n a l l o a d i n g a c t i n g o n behalf of
was
are now
studied
and
being taken
Into
ribs.
Fig. 10d
ap
first
594
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by
i n g t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n m a d e by t h e p r i m a r y g r i d m e m b e r s a n d
boundary.
by t h e a u t h o r t o t a k e
of
various
* = 3 h w 4 h w = 5li
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MEMHER
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STRESS
DISTRIBUTION
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DUB TO VERTICAL
UNIT
LOADS
AT
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INTERNAL
25-27
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2 6 - 2 7 - 1 7 6 - 2'3fc - 237
27-27
MODES
Fig. 11
595
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596
res
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TYPE
Flg. 12
ni
LOADING CA SE
LOADING C A S E II
area
support; A
tB
HUU1
+M
^ ^
^Jsa>
Fig. 13
597
Fig. 14
598
GROUP A
/
/
//
/
/ /
/ /
/
/
/ /
/ /
/ / /
/
/ '
/
/
'LINDRICAL
TOWERS
PYRAMIDAL
TOWERS
DOMES
GROUP
COOLING
TOWERS
Flg. 15
599
number of sides.
600
601
602
603
Hermann BEER
Space-Frame
Structures
605
. S. M A K O W S K I
text:
Structures
English)
606
years have proved t h a t for flat roofs of large span they can
compete w i t h conventional types of construction.
I, myself, have been concerned on a number of occasions
w i t h designs of space structures and It is interesting to see
t h a t many such structures have been built by people who
are not in any way enthusiasts of space frames, but w h o
selected this kind of construction because space frames
proved to be some ten percent cheaper than conventional
roofs.
In many cases the lower cost can be directly a t t r i b u t e d to
Industrial methods of construction. Space frames can be
built from small units. To produce them you do not need
expensive equipment. It is a fact t h a t even large braced
domes have been built by small contractors, who have very
low overheads. This is reflected in the final cost of the
structure.
W e did not mention the aesthetics of space frames, because
this factor cannot be expressed in terms of money.
Roof trusses are ugly n appearance and this Is one of the
reasons why the architects are a t t r a c t e d by the visual
beauty and pleasing regular pattern of members forming
space frames.
Many modern steel space grids cover exhibition buildings
and assembly halls. Because of the decorative appearance,
the underneath of the structural f r a m e w o r k Is often left
exposed. This falls in line w i t h current architectural con
cepts which p e r m i t construction details t o show.
Leo FINZI
607
608
The Italian Association of Constructional Steelwork Engineers, of which I have the honour to be President, is proposing t o sponsor a series of theoretical and experimental
studies in this connection.
Henri W A I S B L A T
The Calculation
of Structures
in Stainless
Steel
Sheet
1,4
hard
1 I
hard
3/4
hard
4/4
hard
1
Resistance t o fracture
(Kg/mm)
123
130
80
98
105
47
60
67
70
transverse tension
54
78
95
101
transverse compression
56
84
105
113
88
105
longitudinal tension
55
longitudinal compression
609
BIBLIOGRAPHIC R E F E R E N C E S
610
Timoshenko. Theory of Elastic Stability. McGraw Hill Book Co. nc. N e w Y o r k 1936.
Friedrich W . BORNSCHEUER
Structurally
Loaded
900
1350
6 permlss.
1600
2400
611
Hermann BEER
Actual
Load Capacity
of Orthotropic
Plates
612
Committee
for Steel
613
Philippe D E M O N S A B L O N
Model
of
Structures
T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of p r o b a b i l i t y
in t h e design of structures
methods
614
D e v e l o p m e n t of methods of c a l c u l a t i o n
Skew slabs
For several years, we have had at our disposal the r e m a r k
able methods evolved by Rusch after tests on models. I should
like t o mention t h a t the Service Spcial des Autoroutes du
Ministre des Travaux Publics de France (Special M o t o r w a y
Section of the Ministry of Public W o r k s ) laid down t w o
years ago an automatic method of calculation for skew
bracing
615
Jean BARTHELEMY
Angle
cannot
after this
spectacular
616
617
Latent
Strength
of Steel
Bridges
For some years the Division has been receiving more and
more applications for very heavy lorries t o be allowed t o
cross bridges where the impacton some components of the
bridges at any r a t e w i l l be well above the load the struc
tures were designed t o carry. For instance, you get single
consignments of 240 tons, which have t o be driven separately
across the bridge a t reduced speed, w i t h no other traffic
passing, and there are already plans for loads of as much
as 300 tons.
618
N o w a n d I am in a position to know w h a t I am t a l k i n g
a b o u t b o t h the steel and the pre-stressed concrete struc
tures had In each case been calculated in strict accordance
w i t h the standards and regulations In force. This bears out
w h a t Prof. Louis was saying, t h a t the existing steel structures,
both the older and the more recent ones, offer a further
l a t e n t strength which some other types of construction
apparently do not.
One may therefore well ask whether, to arrive a t a proper
comparison between different processes and materials, the
t i m e has not come for the regulations as to the calculation of
steel bridges, and indeed steel structures generally t o be
amended in line w i t h those now current for these other
types of construction : t h a t is, to obtain equivalent utilization
of the respective materials' potentialities In both cases. Of
course, this would mean t h a t exceptionally heavy loads
would have to be prohibited on steel bridges as well as on
reinforced and pre-stressed concrete ones.
A n o t h e r possibility, of course, would be t o construct re
inforced and pre-stressed concrete bridges of a size capable of
carrying heavier loads than those now calculated for, and
which have frequently been readily authorized to cross the
m a j o r i t y of steel bridges.
Only f the one or the other were done, I feel, would t be
possible t o t r e a t the different building processes and materials
on the same footing, and t o make an accurate assessment of
the relative merits of steel and other structures.
W a l t e r PELIKAN
619
Findings
620
brought into play before failure ensues. To develop the use of steel, it is most essential to utilize these reserves.
The plastic theory that could enable them to be fully utilized has, however, not yet been developed to the
point where it can yield generally valid directives for design. Therefore, in order to determine the actual
strength structures, it is necessary to carry out tests involving leading to failure.
W i t h orthotropic plates, which are well known and widely used in steel bridge construction, this failure load
it was asserted is not merely a function of the material and the magnitude of the force, but also of the
nature of that force. This means, however, that a very large number of tests will have to be carried out in
order really to obtain a complete idea of the strength or the reserves of bearing capacity that remain as yet
unutilized in these structures. It will be necessary to plan and carry out such tests under a scheme of co
operation between various organizations.
During the discussion another very important point was also considered, namely, the requirement that, in
striving to construct as economically as possible, the aesthetic and artistic effect of the structure must not
be lost sight of. In this connection it was stated that aesthetics and profitability are not necessarily incom
patible, but that these two essential points of view will have to be co-ordinated by the examination of a
larger number of variant designs. Examples from actual practice show that quite often in such attempts the
most economical solution is also a perfectly aesthetic one.
Hence it is essential, more particularly in the case of important bridges and other comparable structures,
that close co-operation be established between architects and engineers, and it rests with the universities
and major training colleges to rouse the experts' interest in the matter.
In conclusion, the result of the two meetings can be summarized as follows :
Greater use of steel in the construction of brigdes and high structures is entirely within the range of possi
bilities, if such structures are designed on the basis of the most up-to-date scientific knowledge; but they
must be so designed as to allow of rational finishing and erection operations. To clear a way to the practical
application of the latest scientific knowledge, it is necessary that the official regulations for the design of steel
structures be adapted to such knowledge as speedly as possible.
The application of the latest knowledge and the logical constructional utilization thereof lead to new struc
tural forms (shell-type structures, latticework assemblies of prestressed cables), which can perfectly well be
profitable if they are suitably designed and which can extend the scope of steel construction into a domain
which had hitherto appeared to belong exclusively to concrete and prestressed concrete.
In the endeavour to construct as economically as possible, it is, in steelwork design, essential not to neglect
its aesthetic and artistic aspect. In the long rung the construction of inexpensive but unsightly steel structures
will be an obstacle to the extension of the use of steel as a structural material. Numerous practical examples
show that profitability and good aesthetic appearance can go together. To achieve this optimum it is merely
necessary to prepare a number of designs, which will lead to the most favourable solution.
The steady improvement in the profitability of steel structures constantly calls for fresh researchboth n
design theory and in the sphere of rational finishing operationswhich, in order to guarantee their full
efficiency, must not be carried out separately and independently in the various countries, but which, on the
contrary, should if possible be directed by large supra-national organizations.
621
Organization
and Improvement
Chairman :
France HBRANT
Rapporteurs :
Robert GARDELLINI
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang TRIEBEL
Prof. Ing. Vittorio ZIGNOLI
in
Productivity
624
Robert GARDELLINI
Productivity
for Raising
'Oriainal
text:
of Building Activities
Productivity
as a
Prerequisite
French!
625
last fifteen years is basically due t o the sustained efforts, the systematic a p p l i c a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e , methods
and techniques t h a t can p r o p e r l y be ascribed t o this f a c t o r p r o d u c t i v i t y .
The study of business concerns, of methods of w o r k , and of p r o d u c t i v i t y was a t first n a t u r a l l y directed t o the
consumer industries. It is these categories w h i c h employ mass p r o d u c t i o n methods and s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n .
Techniques are m o r e established here t h a n elsewhere, mechanization and a u t o m a t i o n a r e possible, w o r k
study is easier and is m o r e likely t o pay off.
Mass p r o d u c t i o n has led t o a m a l g a m a t i o n s and concentrations of industry, and is still doing so. The big
concerns so f o r m e d have had at t h e i r disposal the facilities necessary for research much longer t h a n have t h e
smaller firms.
H o w e v e r , it is not just t h r o u g h increases in the consumer goods industries m a k i n g these goods increasingly
plentiful and cheaper t h a t t h e purchasing p o w e r of the c o m m u n i t y increases. Efficiency in a g r i c u l t u r e and in
the d i s t r i b u t i v e trades is just as i m p o r t a n t . A change, t h o u g h not such a spectacular one, is also in progress
here.
I m p r o v e d p r o d u c t i v i t y in the capital goods industries is equally i m p o r t a n t and w i l l be increasingly so as
t i m e goes o n .
Indeed, in p r o p o r t i o n as the value added directly f r o m the processing of materials diminishes so the r e l a t i v e
cost of paying f o r the capital e q u i p m e n t used in t h e process increases.
The result is t h a t the search for methods of reducing the t o t a l cost of capital goods is becoming m o r e and
m o r e the concern of the day.
Buildings, machinery and e q u i p m e n t , all of w h i c h affect p r o d u c t i o n costs, need t o be scrutinized
systematically investigated by us.
and
P r o d u c t i v i t y in steel c o n s t r u c t i o n
In most European countries, public a u t h o r i t i e s and n a t i o n a l associations, w o r k i n g in different ways on
p a r a l l e l lines, and sharing t h e i r findings, have e n c o u r a g e d , helped and financed this w o r k for p r o d u c t i v i t y ,
w h e t h e r conducted on an industry o r a regional basis.
In France, and in t h e i n d u s t r y t h a t concerns us, namely, building in general and s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l w o r k in p a r t i c
ular, w e have derived g r e a t benefit f r o m the assistance of official bodies, t h a n k s t o a close p e r m a n e n t
c o l l a b o r a t i o n between t h e industries and t h e C o m m i s s a r i a t Gnral du Plan d'Equipement et de la Pro
d u c t i v i t (General C o m m i s s a r i a t for Re-equipment and P r o d u c t i v i t y ) .
This body s t a r t e d the move t o w a r d s g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i v i t y w h e n it organized in 1947 fact-finding missions t o
t h e U.S.A. These study t o u r s led t o the f o r m a t i o n of associations for t h e study of p r o d u c t i v i t y by industries
o r by v o l u n t a r y groups of firms.
The N a t i o n a l Building Federation of France set up " A P P R O B A " .
A g r o u p of f i r m s , on the i n i t i a t i v e of some industrialists w h o had visited the U.S.A., f o r m e d in 1953 the CEPCM
o r C e n t r e d'Etudes de la Productivit dans la C o n s t r u c t i o n Mtallique (Research Association for P r o d u c t i v i t y
in Steel C o n s t r u c t i o n ) .
T h e C e n t r e de P r o d u c t i v i t de la C h a u d r o n n e r i e (Association f o r P r o d u c t i v i t y in Steel-plate construction)
was f o r m e d in similar circumstances.
A f t e r a p p r o v i n g t h e w o r k i n g p r o g r a m m e s s u b m i t t e d by these v o l u n t a r y associations, the State helped
finance t h e i r studies over several years. It still assists various investigations of general interest.
626
to
It would not perhaps be out of place to recall that, in the case of at least one of these associations the decision
to set up a permanent working party for a prolonged period was influenced in part at least by one of the
observations made in the U.S.A. The factories visited there were not markedly different from those of Euro
pean factories, the machines seemed to be virtually identical, the performance of the workers was not in any
way outstanding, and the materials used cost about the same as ours. Yet the selling prices were similar to
European prices despite the much higher wage costs.
In face of this seemingly inexplicable paradox, our industrialists came to the conclusion that only an exhaus
tive and lengthy research would enable them to find ways of achieving similar results.
Their hopes have been borne out by results.
Their initiatives have encouraged the formation of other working parties and moreover, their activities and
scope of these have expanded.
We would like to mention the very valuable achievements of the Belgian structural steelwork and sheetmetal working firms. The inter-industry organization, Fabrimetal, after investigating the methods and results
of the French productivity associations for steel construction and sheet-metal work, was instrumental in
forming a similar group, which the official body for promoting productivity, known as OBAP, encouraged
and assisted.
While on the subject of this expansion, we ought to mention, in connection with French legislation on indus
trial technique research centres, the initiative taken by the structural steelwork industry. Within the Centre
Technique de la Construction Mtallique (CTICM), that is, the Technical Centre for the Constructional
Steelwork Industry, a research service that deals with work study and technical assistance for all firms in
this industry enables these to benefit from investigations and methods originally intended for founder mem
bers only.
I must apologize for quoting only a few of the best known cases. Similar developments have taken place in
other countries represented here, and we shall certainly hear of some very instructive examples in the
course of this meeting.
Without wishing to anticipate the reports that are to follow these introductory remarks, it would seem
significant that the results obtained are the more significant and lasting when action is taken simultaneously
on three fronts :
the basic and advanced training of the workers,
the general management of the firms,
work organization and job techniques.
Productivity is in the first place an attitude of mind, and not only at the level of the leaders of industry.
Adaptability to change (improvements in techniques and methods) is perhaps the most difficult attribute to
acquire and to impart to others. That is why it is always necessary to start by creating a climate of produc
tivity at executive, managerial, and at shop floor level.
All these productivity associations have realized this need. The programmes of the bodies already mentioned
have been exceptionally well geared to requirements. One has only to note the number of seminars and
study group meetings and the programmes of these sessions to appreciate this and to be encouraged by
their example.
The management of business is the necessary preliminary to more intensive technical studies, because a
certain level of "industrial civilization" is essential to the establishment and proper functioning of the ma
chinery for raising productivity.
627
It is no mere chance t h a t the first publications issued by the Technical C e n t r e for the C o n s t r u c t i o n a l Steelwork
Industry should bear such titles as :
" Recherches sur la dimension o p t i m a l e et l ' a d a p t a t i o n au march des entreprises de c o n s t r u c t i o n m t a l l i q u e "
( I n v e s t i g a t i n g the o p t i m u m size and m a r k e t i n g p o t e n t i a l of s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l w o r k f i r m s ) ;
" S t r u c t u r e s et d i r e c t i o n des entreprises de c o n s t r u c t i o n m t a l l i q u e " ( O r g a n i z a t i o n and m a n a g e m e n t of
structural steelwork firms);
" L a gestion des stocks en c o n s t r u c t i o n m t a l l i q u e " (Stockkeeping in the s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l w o r k industry).
A m o n g t h e sixty publications w h i c h t h e CEPCM o r Research Association for P r o d u c t i v i t y in Steel C o n s t r u c t i o n
has issued in ten years, m o r e t h a n ten have been devoted t o m a n a g e m e n t . The same applies t o the o t h e r
curves of p r o d u c t i o n .
A m o n g these studies of general interest w e schould m e n t i o n those dealing w i t h cost a c c o u u t i n g t h e t o o l
of the e x e c u t i v e b o o k k e e p i n g , cost analysis, p r o d u c t i o n costing, b u d g e t a r y c o n t r o l , statistics, charts and
curves of p r o d u c t i o n .
This indicates a deep, r e a l i z a t i o n of the fact t h a t w i t h o u t the a b i l i t y t o look ahead, w i t h o u t the means of
assessing and c o n t r o l l i n g p r o d u c t i o n , and w i t h o u t a systematic investigation of the disparities between
achievements and forecasts, it is impossible t o enjoy to the full the benefits of technical progress and of
o r g a n i z a t i o n and m e t h o d .
Finally, the t h i r d f r o n t element of p r o d u c t i v i t y is obviously all the studies t h a t bear on the o r g a n i z a t i o n of
w o r k and i n d u s t r i a l technology.
The study of plant l a y o u t , o p e r a t i o n s , w o r k shifts and t e a m w o r k are all o t h e r means of reducing costs and
of w o r k i n g t o schedule, of i m p r o v i n g q u a l i t y and of reducing the a m o u n t of physical e x e r t i o n for t h e w o r k e r s
f o u r ever-present and inseparable objectives.
These studies have often been so t h o r o u g h as t o be i n s t r u m e n t a l in b r i n g i n g on t o t h e m a r k e t new, i m p r o v e d
and fully a u t o m a t e d m a c h i n e t o o l s ; w e shall c e r t a i n l y hear of such cases.
These are leading, especially in the field of c o n s t r u c t i o n a l w o r k , t o a r e t h i n k i n g of the design of s t r u c t u r e s ,
either because of developments in t e c h n o l o g y o r because the e m p l o y m e n t of these developments is b r o u g h t
w i t h i n the reach of a g r e a t e r number of w o r k - s h o p s (welded designs, extended use of plates and sheet) o r
because increased o u t p u t and the interest of customers impose such a solution ( s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n of construc
t i o n , industrialized building).
The study and practice of p r o d u c t i v i t y is t h e r e f o r e many sided. It goes far beyond w h a t is often c a r i c a t u r e d
as mere " s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of w o r k " , whose value nevertheless remains, but which forms only a very small p a r t
of w h a t has been accomplished over the last fifteen years.
T h e p r o b l e m of c o n s t r u c t i o n sites
The m a j o r p r o b l e m for all those w h o look for i m p r o v e m e n t s in p r o d u c t i v i t y in building w o r k obviously
concerns site w o r k .
This is t h e w o r k place for most of the building i n d u s t r y . It is the a c t i v i t y w h i c h can be seen by clients and by
users generally.
A l l these a r e surprised t o see on these sites more and more p o w e r f u l plants, and yet an a r m y of w o r k m e n ,
activities t h a t seem t o be p o o r l y c o - o r d i n a r e d , in t o t a l c o n t r a s t t o w h a t anyone can observe in field w o r k
shops and factories.
This field is t h e r e f o r e a very good choice for studying p r o d u c t i v i t y and for finding ways of increasing it, but
it is at the same t i m e very difficult t e r r i t o r y .
628
629
These include :
Analyses de chantiers (Analyses of site o p e r a t i o n s ) ;
Manuel de p r p a r a t i o n des t r a v a u x de chantiers ( H a n d b o o k on planning site o p e r a t i o n s ) ;
M m e n t o p r a t i q u e du chef de c h a n t i e r (Practical notes for site managers).
Conclusions
The stepping-up of p r o d u c t i v i t y in the French s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l w o r k industry in general is a c o n t i n u i n g process.
A small percentage increase can be noted each year f r o m the annual p r o d u c t i o n and e m p l o y m e n t statistics.
Fewer and fewer hours of l a b o u r are r e q u i r e d t o get a ton of steel i n t o its final position.
This progress is the more m a r k e d as i m p r o v e m e n t s in the use of steel and in methods of u t i l i z a t i o n p e r m i t a
progressive r e d u c t i o n in the t o n n a g e necessary for any p a r t i c u l a r s t r u c t u r e .
The Eiffel t o w e r , if it had t o be b u i l t t o d a y , w o u l d be i n c o m p a r a b l y l i g h t e r .
Yet, w h a t is more p e r t i n e n t and of g r e a t e r value for the f u t u r e , is t h a t the firms w h o have made a t h o r o u g h
study of these problems o b t a i n much more r e m a r k a b l e results t h a n the others.
It is not unusual for a f i r m in a p a r t i c u l a r line of c o n s t r u c t i o n t o produce t o d a y , after five years of continuous
a p p l i c a t i o n , t w i c e as much w i t h t h e same l a b o u r force.
W e shall c e r t a i n l y be supplied w i t h more detailed examples along w i t h relevant e x p l a n a t i o n as t o how such
results have been o b t a i n e d and one can only r e g r e t t h a t these examples w i l l still t o o often relate only t o
isolated instances and not t o universal practice.
It must be said t h a t , in o u r free countries, w h e r e t h e economy is based on m u t u a l consent, research is almost
i n v a r i a b l y the i n i t i a t i v e of individuals or, a t the most of a g r o u p of volunteers a n i m a t e d by t h e same desire
f o r progress and service. The idea e v e n t u a l l y spreads and snowballs. Results become more and m o r e i m p o r
t a n t and m o r e generalized, and it is at this p o i n t t h a t they have t h e i r repercussions on the industry thus
assisting its g r o w t h , and on the c o m m u n i t y , thus raising its s t a n d a r d of living.
The t i m e has come w h e n it is necessary t o c o m p a r e methods and results, but is this not precisely the object
of o u r Congress?
C o u l d it not also be the s t a r t i n g p o i n t for j o i n t research, at C o m m u n i t y o r , indeed, i n t e r n a t i o n a l level, i n t o
the problems posed by steel construction?
A d m i t t e d l y it is a difficult and lengthy task but is this an excuse f o r not e m b a r k i n g on it w i t h increased de
t e r m i n a t i o n and vigour?
The sharing of experience, the f r a m i n g of a j o i n t research p r o g r a m m e , and the s e t t i n g - u p of a plan for f i n a n
cing t h e proposed studies a r e all calculated t o yield concrete and speedy answers t o the problems facing us
and it is t o these ends t h a t w e must apply ourselves.
630
W o l f g a n g TRIEBEL
The performance of the producing side of the building industry does not depend on
one party alone, as it does in an industry with a fixed operational base. In building, and more especially in
constructional work and housing, a number of individuals, organizations and enterprises have a share in the
operations. Each of them carries out only a part of the work: promoter, client, government or local govern
ment officials, architect, engineer, supervisor and contractors for the various specialized jobs involved. For
structural steelwork we have to add to the list of enterprises engaged on the project the fabricators of the
steelwork and the firm that erects it, sometimes t w o quite separate firms.
If productivity in the building industry is to be raised by any appreciable extent, it is not enough for just a
few of all those who take part to conduct their business on more rational lines than in the past.
By reason of the manyfold sub-division of the productive function and the many different types of building,
no single one of these activities and no single building component in itself forms a critical part of the whole.
Even if individual tasks were organized on much more productive lines, the effect overall would be negligible.
W h a t is really necessary is that everyone concerned should apply his efforts to rationalizing the work as a
whole and to increasing productivity, and that all operations should be carried out more efficiently.
These many operations can be classified under several headings the most important of which are :
the designing of the buildings with an eye to economy,
the efficient preparation of the work,
the adoption of improved working methods,
631
house is t e r r a c e d o r detached. O u r first example shows how some of these factors d e t e r m i n i n g the type of
the house affect t h e costs of building flats t h a t are o t h e r w i s e similar.
If a comparison is made between the cost of building
(a) one f l a t on each f l o o r of a detatched t w o - s t o r e y house w i t h a steep roof and unused roof space, and
(b) t h a t of a similar f l a t in a t h r e e - s t o r e y t e r r a c e block w i t h t w o flats per floor and a low-pitched roof.
It is found t h a t flat (b) is constructed at 7 5 % the price of f l a t (a).
Thus as a result merely of m i n o r a l t e r a t i o n s in these four factors which d e t e r m i n e the type of houseand
they could occur a n y w h e r e building costs w e r e changed by as much as 2 5 % .
Building costs may be expected t o depend on the type of house concerned, irrespective of w h e t h e r the houses
a r e b u i l t by t r a d i t i o n a l methods, o r w i t h p r e f a b r i c a t e d components, o r as steel-framed buildings.
Differences in the building schemes, in individual requirements and in t o w n planning conditions necessitate
different building plans. Yet, even in differently designed buildings many parts, such as stairs, p i p e w o r k ,
balconies, parapets, etc. a r e i d e n t i c a l . If, for each of these items, the ideal, universally applicable design
w e r e developed, it w o u l d be possible t o plan the buildings more accurately and t o r a t i o n a l i z e the m a n u f a c t u r e
of these items on mass-production lines.
The s a n i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n of a large residential block c o n t a i n i n g flats of v a r y i n g l a y o u t , w i t h individually
designed p l u m b i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s , was estimated t o cost DM300,000 ( a p p r o x . 27,000). Some of these instal
lations had been efficiently designed; others less so; but generally speaking they varied considerably in t h e i r
l a y o u t . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e best designs for these installations w e r e w o r k e d o u t w i t h a view t o s t a n d a r d i z a
tion.
W h e n these many different installations had been replaced by s t a n d a r d i z e d , m o r e efficient systems, the cost
was reduced t o DM200,000 ( a p p r o x . 18,000).
The use of s t a n d a r d i z e d , highly efficient service installations, mass-produced for houses of quite different
types had thus resulted in a saving of over 3 0 % on the costs.
Efficient
preparation
of the work
632
Improved working
methods
Of the many efficient new w o r k i n g methods t h a t have been evolved, t r i e d o u t and i n t r o d u c e d over the years,
w e shall here discuss only one, w h i c h concerns the i n s t a l l a t i o n of p i p e w o r k . It is of special interest because
i t belongs t o one of t h e sectors of p r f a b r i c a t i o n of building components. The service installations p a r t i a l l y
p r e f a b r i c a t e d by this m e t h o d a r e being used in buildings of load-bearing b r i c k w o r k as well as in steel-framed
buildings and in those made of large p r e f a b r i c a t e d parts.
By the f o r m e r craft methods every piece of piping for gas, w a t e r and s a n i t a r y services was measured, cut t o
length and f i t t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y on the b u i l d i n g . This required a g r e a t deal of manual w o r k w h i c h had t o be
done under unfavourable conditions.
By the m o d e r n m e t h o d , the p l u m b e r takes measurements once only on the building f o r a n u m b e r of s i m i l a r
rooms. He t h e n cuts all pipes t o these lengths in the w o r k s h o p s in sets, assembles t h e m i n t o c o m p l e t e pipe
runs and fits t h e m in t h e b u i l d i n g . The w o r k of assembling the p i p e w o r k is simplified by the use of p a t t e r n s ,
models, t e m p l a t e s and jigs in t h e w o r k s h o p .
In large e x p e r i m e n t a l blocks, 0.46 hr per ft. run (1.5 h/m.) was r e q u i r e d for installing gas pipes by the old
m e t h o d , but w i t h t h e new m e t h o d only 0.21 hr (0.7 h/m.). The corresponding times for w a t e r mains and pipes
w e r e 0.46 hr. (1.5 h/m.) and 0.18 hr (0.6 h/m.) respectively. W a s t e pipes needed 0.61 hr per ft. r u n (2.0 h/m.)
by the old m e t h o d ; w i t h the new one they w e r e installed a t a r a t e of between 0.21 and 0.30 hr (0.7 - 1 . 0 h/m.).
Thus, the effect of the new m e t h o d was t o e l i m i n a t e r o u g h l y 5 0 % of the n o r m a l w o r k i n g t i m e .
Many o t h e r building components and fittings can be p r e f a b r i c a t e d t o s t a n d a r d measurements, so t h a t the
w h o l e i n t e r n a l w o r k for the building is simplified, expedited and, in many cases, reduced in cost.
Rationalized
organization
of the building
site
633
All these measures serve to eliminate unproductive work and to raise productivity. The same performance
is attained with less expenditure of labour. The success achieved by rationalized site organization and the
adoption of a number of such measures is illustrated by the following example :
In the construction of a rather large housing scheme a number of identical terraces had to be built. They
were planned by the same architect. Conditions were comparable throughout, the only difference being that
the individual terraces were built by different contractors. One contractor had laid out his site efficiently.
All he used was a crane. This was so located that it could of itself handle and move anything not involving
much sideway movement. It could straddle the line of supply for building materials and unload all lorries.
It was also used for assembling prefabricated components on site. The concrete mixing plant was so efficiently
arranged that it could be operated by direct, short runs. It was so located that the crane, without travelling
under load, could take the concrete from the mixer and deposit it anywhere. This firm also carried out many
operations to a timed sequence.
Another firm of contractors, building an identical terrace of houses, employed in addition to the crane a
concrete pump for concrete cellars and ceilings. For the same amount of work this firm used two expensive
items of equipment whereas the first firm managed with the crane alone. Arrangements on the site were
such that the crane could not itself handle all the transport of materials, some of which had to be done by
hand. Nor could the crane unload all lorries. The concrete mixing plant was so arranged that the crane had
to travel with each and every load when supplying concrete to the distant sides of the building. Working to
a timed sequence was not adopted.
The first contractor needed 18,000 man-hours for building the carcass of his terrace of houses. The other did
the same work with 22,000 man-hours. The 20% difference was due simply to several minor advantages in
the way the site was laid out, in the use of equipment and in the timed sequence of operations.
634
commences. The complex internal items should be prefabricated to exact sizes in a limited range of shapes
to give long production runs. Roads and external services must be ready before building work commences.
A little time is required to produce a well-planned layout of the building site. The programme of work before
erection, the erection process itself and the following main building, fitting-out and finishing operations
must, in consultation with all contractors, be so governed by a programming and progress schedule in which
all trades follow in their turn, without pressing and without hindering.
635
Co-ordination of the various activities involved in building has thus proved to be the prerequisite for turning
all the know-how as regards more rational and productive building methods to profitable account. It has
already produced some notable results. Such results may be achieved wherever the right approach is adopt
ed, irrespective of the building systems, or of the materials and practices employed.
This co-ordination is valuable for the more rational development of orthodox building methods. It is necessary
for all prefabrication-based building, and for building in steel it is indispensable.
636
Vittorio ZIGNOLI
of the
Erection
Italian)
Introduction
The economic study of the increase, with time, of the costs of various products which
manual labour puts at the disposal of the community shows very clear differences for certain well defined
categories.
The cost of living has a definitely growing tendency to rise. This is due partly to a gradual improvement of
the standard of living which leads to increased consumption of various foods causing an increase in the cost
of certain foods which are difficult to produce industrially. For instance, the consumption of meat which
owing to the notable increase in wagesis becoming ever more widespread throughout the entire social
class structure.
Artisan production follows, and sometimes exceeds, the gradient of the average cost of living.
The cost of raw materials, which owing to increase in wages shows a sharper rise than of the cost of living,
does not generally have gradients flatter than in the case of foodstuffs. In some way, the savings obtained by
technical progress, (mechanization) have been partly offset by increase in the cost of labour and by the
need to use ever more distant sources owing to the local ones becoming exhausted. On the other hand,
mass produced goods show a clear and far less tendency to steepness as is clearly proved, for example, by
the pattern, through time, of the cost of utility motor cars. (Fig. 1).
In any case, with regard to the cost of building materials, we note a considerable decrease in the prices of
those products for which mass production is possible and has been developed. (Table 1).
The building industry shows two quite different tendencies : Large constructions for which it is possible to
organise highly mechanized building yards, are similar as regards costs, to mass-produced goods. As an exam
ple, we mention the cost per cubic metre of concrete in the large dams of the hydro-electric installations. On
the other hand, industrial and residential buildings follow a course which is close, especially in the case
of houses for renting, to that of artisan production (Fig. 2).
637
4000
900
800
l<
1%
7oo
<u
bOO
A ^ <.
500
IJ
/ /
/
/
300
V
V
/
200
v V
\
/
// / &
ytemi
S. OW
dl
/
_^^,
'
o ^^^^*
4 f M 4<|flt
**
fiilf 1e
-HfeHSJ
< 12
Table I
Items
+ 90
+ 9
+ 9
Bricks
+ 30
+ 35
+ 34
22
22
21
22
+ 16
40
+ 130
Sum total
+ 35
The very strong influence of the E.C.S.C, is to be noted, because by decreasing and stabilizing the cost of steel it has
had an influence on the decrease in the cost of the goods whose manufacture demand it.
638
40
UfO
AUSTR. IA
SE P PIA MIA :
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ao
60
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80
s.
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60
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4gst> <gs8
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ITALIA
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60
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^52
4 9 5 4 4956
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This is due t o various causes, chiefly t o t h e g r e a t e r demand for c o m f o r t , w h i c h means g r e a t e r expense, and
p a r t l y t o t h e n a t u r e of t h e d e m a n d , w h i c h up t o now has been exclusively i n d i v i d u a l , and finally, t o an e x t e n t
w h i c h is c e r t a i n l y not negligible, t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the w o r k , w h i c h in many cases has r e m a i n e d of a
definitely a r t i s a n t y p e .
This is i n d i c a t e d , in any case, f r o m the n u m b e r of people employed by most of the European building c o n t r a c
t o r s ; as shown in Fig. 3, between 5 7 % (in the most f a v o u r a b l e caseFederal G e r m a n y ) and 9 5 % (the
o t h e r e x t r e m e , N o r w a y ) of t h e European building firms w h o do n o t employ m o r e t h a n 10 people.
These firms u n d o u b t e d l y find it impossible t o make a study of costs and p r o g r a m m e s and t o r a t i o n a l i z e
p r o d u c t i o n in a manner w h i c h the m a n u f a c t u r i n g industries t h a t wish t o survive, consider essential.
It remains t o be seen h o w much this depends on the firms themselves and how much on the system of the
building m a r k e t .
If h o w e v e r , w e a r e t o achieve in residential c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e economic progress which mass p r o d u c t i o n
elsewhere has achieved, it is essential t h a t t h e r e should be a p r o f o u n d change in the methods of m a r k e t i n g ,
design, c o n s t r u c t i o n and e r e c t i o n so as t o e l i m i n a t e all the present d r a w b a c k s , n a m e l y : very small o r d e r s ,
s m a l l , delayed and unreliable supplies, f r e q u e n t i n t e r r u p t i o n s o w i n g t o c l i m a t i c conditions, faults in design
o r lack of materials o r even of finance, imperfect and incomplete projects, modifications, c o r r e c t i o n s and a d d i
tions d u r i n g the execution of the w o r k s , lack o r i m p e r f e c t i o n of p r o g r a m m e s and controls on progress, times
and cost of e x e c u t i o n , i r r a t i o n a l u t i l i z a t i o n of labour force, w h i c h is becoming still m o r e scarce and still less
satisfied w i t h t h e bad w o r k i n g conditions on t h e building site, and w i t h the dependence on c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s .
^ver
it is necessary t h a t the house, as w i t h the m o t o r car, t h a t w h i l s t bearing in mind the r e q u i r e m e n t s of a p p e a r
ance, should be constructed by the mass p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d , i.e. in the w o r k s h o p s , so t h a t a quick mechanized
assembly could be c a r r i e d o u t on the site.
639
4 O
ion
All this can be very easily achieved, and would be easier than with the traditional building structures, by
using steel frameworks. This has been proved by the time taken in erecting skyscrapers for which, in view
of the money involved and the size of the construction, it has been possible to prepare efficient methods of
procurement of supplies, programmes and controls.
If from residential building we now go over to the building industry who deal with large contracts in which
structural steelwork indicates greater possibilities than those of any other building system, namely large
bridges, viaducts, flyovers, and certain port and river works, the importance of the contract always permits
a more thorough general study. Due account, however, is not always taken of the connection existing
between design, workshop construction, transport and erection.
The study, design and organization of the site for handling the erection of steelwork construction are inti
mately bound up with the functional study of the structures and their working project on which depend the
constructional details, the system of work, delivery times and estimated costs.
Consequently, the factors which greatly influence the most important results, namely, costs and completion
time, are found partly away from and partly on the site itself.
640
yard
D u r i n g t h e first stage, the f u n c t i o n a l features of the project are o u t l i n e d : i.e. space, loads, actual w e i g h t s ,
and the general scheme of the s t r u c t u r e ;
From this study, w e derive : first, a w o r k i n g basis necessary f o r checking t h e e s t i m a t e d costs and for
the design details and subsequently, the details themselves of each element.
The t h i r d stage covers t h e r e c o n s t i t u t i o n , on the basis of the details, of the sub-groups, groups and the
c o m p l e t i o n w h i c h , if w e l l a r r a n g e d , results in a complete h a r m o n y of the t o t a l assembly, as well as the
exact detailed connection of the various parts (foundations, posts, trusses, beams, stiffeners), and t h e
necessary accessories f o r t h e various installations ( s a n i t a r y , r a i n , l i f t i n g , inspection, etc.)
Finally the study ends w i t h the w o r k i n g p r o g r a m m e w h i c h sets the delivery times and justifies the estimated
costs and t h e selection of t h e various elements w h i c h influence times and costs.
641
\
\
wi
Ci"
^
.'f
J?C
Te/npL
The sum of the two values c = rL + r2 gives the curve c (Fig. 4) representing the contractor's cost, which
evidently shows a minimum at the point m, corresponding to the time t m ,
Buyer's cost C c A t first sight, the buyer's cost appears to be of the type
C e = Ci
that is, consisting of the contractor's cost q plus the corresponding profit which can be positive or negative.
In reality this is not true and the difference is greater because even for the purchasers cost there is a financial
outlay F which takes into account, among other things;
(a) the interest on the money used in the cost of construction up to the moment when it is used;
(b) the consumers overhead expenses incurred in order to follow up the work from the administrative and
technical points of view (Government and municipal formalities, surveyor, control of materials and
work) ;
(c) lack of anticipated profit from the complete operation which can only commence from the commencement
of the operation. Consequently, a delay in delivery involves a delay in creating profits and even perhaps
a decrease in same. For dwellings, owing to a larger offer which can take place in the meantime and
which offsets the demand, and for industrial buildings owing to a reversal in the market).
The previous equation, therefore, is to be altered as follows:
Cc = ct + F
If on the diagram shown in Fig. 4 we plot the growing line F, and after marking a reasonable increase (about
10%) of the cost of the contractor c to allow for the profit, if we take the sum in order to obtain the curve
of cost C c , we have in general another minimum value of M, giving a construction time t^t which is lower
than t m .
This means that the minimum costs of the contractor and the consumer do not generally coincide and that
the consumer may find it convenient to accept a higher cost and, consequently, a higher price from the con
tractor in order to reduce his own cost to a minimum.
This is often done in an approximate way by laying down a premium in the case of an advanced delivery and
a penalty in case of delayed delivery.
On the other hand, the cost of the money tied up constitutes a charge for the contractor whose disburse
ments always precede remittances from the consumer to the contractor. This cost is a minimum at the com
mencement of the work because little has been done, but it increases as the construction proceeds because
to the cost of materials, almost entirely used, are to be added the cost of labour, transport, overhead expenses
and unforeseen items.
642
m ac m 0C ScP 4 m a t m o t m s t P +
m ; , m m o r a m 8 n ,P,
in w h i c h
mac. rn a t, m a m a r e coefficients depending on t h e o u t l a y f o r materials used f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t r a n s p o r t
and e r e c t i o n ;
moci rn 0 t, m o m a r e coefficients depending on t h e cost of l a b o u r f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t r a n s p o r t a n d e r e c t i o n ;
sc
is a coefficient depending on t h e overhead expenses r e l a t i n g t o t h e e n t i r e c o n s t r u c t i o n ;
m s t, m s m
is t h e t o t a l w e i g h t of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o be made.
expenses
relating
t o transport and
If w e call :
m ac m 0C ScP =
mTP ;
m a t m c tm s tP =
m2P ;
m a m m C mm s m P = m 3 P
we have:
mac
mat
C i ( m 2 + m3) ;
(m 0 c sc)
C i P ( m , + m3) ;
m
=
moc
oc =
m0ot t ==
C i P ( m , + m2) ;
sc
Q
m , ++ m3) ;
Ci
P
P ((m,
mst
m0m
m ==
m
P ( m o m msm)
Q
P ((m,
m, +
m22)) ;
+ m
Ci
P (mam m s m )
Q P ( m , + m2)
P (m a c moc)
= c.
P (m, + m3)
P (m a t mot)
P (mat mgt)
P (mot m s t )
mam =
(m22 ++ m
Ci
C i
(m
m33)) ;
P (m ;lc s,.)
msn =
Ci P (m, + m2)
p
( mom)
It is now possible to pass to the confluential analysis in order to establish the independent linear ratios
between the 10 variables, evaluating statistically those ratios so as to make c as low as possible.
This research is complex but is worth studying in the case of large constructional works such as skyscrapers,
aircraft hangars, and complete residential estates, whilst remaining simple and interdependent. For normal
constructions, however, this method would be unduly onerous and generally speaking an accurate analysis
carried out as explained later would be more than sufficient.
As the construction always constitutes by far the largest cost, we shall commence by determining the vari
ous constructional systems which might be advisable, and fix their costs.
Then, for each of the constructional systems deemed to be worthy of consideration, we shall examine the
various possible solutions with reference to the influences they may have on the cost and duration of trans
port and erection and so rate the financial values.
In this connection, we must take special account of the risk due to climatic conditions, which varie consid
erably according to the method of erection selected, as follows,
643
() Constructions which allow for a very rapid erection, with powerful mechanism, also where the labour
force is not unduly exposed to the discomforts of the climate.
(b) Having moderate unforeseen charges, and consequently a limited risk, as compared to erections in
volving the laying of single bars, one at a time, heavy riveting operations or welding work, showing
considerable risk as regards cost and loss of time.
Having experimented with a Gantt diagram the possibility of overlapping the various stages and, conse
quently, the times estimated for their execution, we can now prepare a table of the type shown in figure 5.
System
of
construction
1
Realiza
t i o n of
groups
2
Manufacture
time
3
cost
Transport
time
5
cost
6
Erection
time
7
cost
8
Total
time
9
Economic
evaluation
time
10
risk
11
Total
cost
4+6 18+10 + 11
1
A
2
3
4
2
3
4
1
2
Fig. 5 Table for determining the best method
Of the many possibilities selected which in one form or another must be used during the project, I will recall
a few as follows:
(a) W i t h regard to the form of structure, it is necessary to establish whether it is advisable to adopt the
reticular classical fully sostatic type, or the hyperstatic type, without rods, but with frames,
(b) or the fullwall type. In respect of either case, the weights of materials, hours of work and cost of trans
port and erection change, must be considered.
(c) W i t h regard to the elements of the structure, whether to give preference to identical interchangeable
types, as in the case of the Cadiz Towers, which allows for the inline automatic workshop construction,
but considerably increases the time for erection,
(d) To prefer instead, types of variable structures which do not require inline automatic workshop con
struction.
(e) A s regards joints, whether to use rivets, electric arc welding or highstrength friction grip bolts, either
in the workshop or on the site.
(f) A s regards the space occupied by the various parts delivered to the site for erection. I.e. whether to
fabricate in the workshop heavy and cumbersome assemblies which can be lifted and installed using
heavy gear, equipment or whether to adopt an intermediate solution by fabricating in the workshop
mediumlength parts of average weight which can be connected together on the site. For example
using the available space on site so as to proceed thereafter with the remainder of the erection, similar
to the erection of bulkheads in shipyards, or they can be erected directly on the site using small
mobile cranes.
(g) W i t h regard to the handling plant, whether we should use cranes mounted on rubber tyred wheels or
on rails or even selflifting cranes connected to the structure. For example, in the case of bridges, the
644
handling plant can be positioned along part of the river bed or on the abutments, which are situated
on the bank. This plant can be of a mobile or stationary type, fixed to the ground or floating and anchor
ed to special wire ropes or to the suspension cables of the bridge, etc. Thus we go from gantry cranes
with a span of 36 metres and a lift of 800 tons (similar to the one on rails for the CologneDeutz bridge),
to pontoons equipped for lifting complete beams being transported by river.
For the framing of buildings, which are the main issue of this subject, the selections to be made will be dis
cussed in the chapter specially devoted to work on the site.
It is not unusual, however, that when dealing with residential buildings, to mention handling equipment
which is used for the erection of other steel structures; in fact, not only are the fundamental criteria which
inspire the technology of erection always the same, but often there is a strict functional correspondance
between the methods which at first sight might seem typical of certain constructions. Consequently, the
methods used for solving these problems may suggest useful applications in entirely different fields.
It is obvious that each of the decisions briefly referred to above, influences in various ways, as already stated,
other operations of the cycle, namely, the procurement of supplies, the construction itself, transport, erec
tion, times of execution and finally the individual and total costs.
PROGRAMMAZIONE
DELL'AVANZAMENTO
O l'i: RE
Mag.
Gi.
Liigl.
D E I LAVORI
Ag.
F o n d a z i o n i : a) d e m o l i z i o n i
b)scavi
e) f o n d a z i o n i .
S t r u t t u r a di a c c i a i o
Murature:
a) m u r i e s t e r n i
b) t a v o l a t i
..
P i e t r e e s t e r n e : a) p i a n i t i . .
b) p i e t r e e m a r m i
Copertura
Lastre metalliche
Finestre metalliche
Rivestimenti
Set.
DELLA CHRYSLER
Ott.
Nov.
Die.
Gen.
TOWER
Feb. M.'irz.
M'.
Works
Works
Foundations : (a) demolitions
(b) excavations
(c) foundations
Steel structure
W a l l i n g : (a) external walls
(b) partitions
External stones : (a) g r a n i t e
(b) stones and marble
Coverings (roofing)
Metal plates
Metal windows
Coverings
Finish of rough w o r k
An e operation may, for example, increase the cost of the materials, whilst reducing the cost of labour. It may
require more onerous handling equipment whilst reduring the times of erection and delivery, etc.
645
The study of the technical and economical interdependences of the various representative coefficients allows
us t o solve, as w e have seen, the p r o b l e m of the o p t i m a t i o n of the t o t a l costs, either for the c o n t r a c t o r , o r
f o r t h e consumer, o r b o t h .
W i t h r e g a r d t o the t w o methods of investigation previously mentioned which suggest reasonable and
r a t i o n a l decisions, w e find t h a t they c o r r e s p o n d , in g e n e r a l , b a r r i n g differences of d e t a i l , to those used
in the principal specialized research w o r k in t h e i r o w n field, and apply equally well t o the study of steel
structures in buildings.
W e note, however, t h a t they a p p r o a c h closely t o the British S t a n d a r d Regulations concerning the analysis
of costs in residential building c o n s t r u c t i o n .
The m e t h o d of checking the estimated costs of a project, as advised by the British C o m m i t t e e for Cost
Study, ' is an o p e r a t i v e research c a r r i e d o u t in t w o stages. The first studies the influence on t h e costs of
a r c h i t e c t u r a l t o w n - p l a n n i n g decisions concerning various ways of the a r r a n g e m e n t of the land and the
buildings t o be erected on it. The British Ministry of Housing has published Regulations 2 in connection
t h e r e w i t h . Calculations a r e made first of a p r i m e general cost and then a detailed analysis is made of the
elements and methods of the c o n s t r u c t i o n , considering w i t h care those methods w h i c h have a g r e a t e r
bearing on costs. This is in o r d e r t o find possible a l t e r n a t i v e s w h i c h may reduce t h e m , and at the same t i m e
m a t e r i a l s used, and e x a m i n i n g the methods envisaged for t h e i r assembly.
The second m e t h o d , more e m p i r i c a l , proposed and used w i t h good results by the M i n i s t r y of Education in
o r d e r t o realize the School Building P r o g r a m m e , approaches in general the lines of the one previously
proposed for buildings not having a l a r g e r size. 3
site
Since, as w e have seen, t h e r e are i m p o r t a n t interdependencies between the o p e r a t i o n s preceding the erec
t i o n and the specific ones r e f e r r i n g t o the erection p r o p e r , and t h a t they may bear heavily on costs and times
of delivery, it is desirable t h a t t h e final project should include the e n t i r e study of the c o n s t r u c t i o n and should
also exactly define the erection operations and the mode of e x e c u t i o n .
Fundamental c o n s i d e r a t i o n . It must be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t in many cases the greatest a d v a n t a g e of the steel
c o n s t r u c t i o n is the possibility of c o m p l e t i n g it very rapidly.
This is the f e a t u r e w h i c h , for l a r g e i n d u s t r i a l buildings, makes it a t the m o m e n t preferable t o any o t h e r
c o n s t r u c t i o n a l system.
The designer and the c o n t r a c t o r w h o do not avail themselves of this f o r e m o s t a d v a n t a g e , neglect a source
of g r e a t financial gain and hinder the d e v e l o p m e n t of s t e e l w o r k c o n s t r u c t i o n . This is desirable in o r d e r t o
p e r m i t the steel industry t o make continuous progress in q u a l i t y and cost and also t o p e r m i t an ever g r e a t e r
and quicker d e v e l o p m e n t of suburban class and council dwellings for t h e benefit of the people.*)
S t r u c t u r a l steel buildings w e r e raised under t h e banner of speed.
In 1861, Paxton had erected in London, in six months, the C r y s t a l Palace covering an a r e a of 98,000 sq.m.
using 9,642 tons of ferrous materials a n d , since steel sections w e r e then not in existence, he had t o use
cast-iron for the rods subjected t o compression.
In 1889, Eiffel had erected in 25 months his t o w e r of 300 metres w e i g h i n g a b o u t 7,000 tons and comprising
12,000 elements connected by 2,500,000 rivets w e i g h i n g 450 tons.
I will mention, as an example, a large multi-storey office building in the course of construction which, judging by the way
the w o r k s going, w i l l require a t least 2 years or more before it is completely erected and put Into service.
The value of the building can be estimated a t a b o u t 1,000 million Lire, the value of the land on which t stands is 1,500
million Lire. The cost of the steel s t r u c t u r e w i l l be about 400 million Lire. Judging f r o m w h a t has happened in the case of
some American skyscrapers (Fig. 6) and the Palace of Nations in Paris (Fig. 7) as well as the new Flat buildings In
T u r i n , the construction could have been completed n six months, a p p r o x i m a t e l y .
On account of interest on capital alone (which to-day in Italy stands a t about 10%), the constructor of the frame has
lost about 30 million Lire which could have been about t h e net profit for his work, but the owner, in respect of
interest alone, has lost 1 5 % of the value of the landin round figures 200 million Lireand about 1 0 % of the value of
the b u i l d i n g I n round figures 300 million L i r e n a m e l y , 3 0 % of the value of the building w i t h o u t t a k i n g i n t o
account the lower presentday value of the offices for which the m a r k e t demand s lower to-day.
646
Montaggio
Approvvigionamento
200-
RflC
(D
C
<UU
f=
3UU
c
o
t
quu
ann
300
uu
100
L23,c
r
\ m*
a1
1
II
IIII II
II
i l l . . , . . . . UUlllfJUUUfJ
30 f
Tonn/ 70 3
Mm
Alaggio Giugno
in:
Lug/io
30
|Ag|
Fig. 7 Construction p r o g r a m m e of the Palace of the United Nations n Paris. A) Commencement of project :
1. Delivery of first l o t of rolled steel ; 2. Delivery of second l o t ; 3. Delivery of t h i r d lot ; 4. End of rolling and
delivery of balance of rolled sections. For the erection, 18 fitters erected 25 tons of frame per day (1,400 kg.
per day per f i t t e r )
In view of the foregoing, it is obviously convenient to consider the erection in combination with the design
and the production in the workshop, as is normally done in the case of large steel bridges.
On the other hand, those who have the task of organizing site work and directing it in accordance with
the data of the project, must have at their disposal all the information necessary, as envisaged by the designer
in relation to the erection, This covers the weight and shape of the components of the structure, their strength
and maximum stresses expected during the erection, systems of provisional and final connections handling
plant to be used, time of delivery of the various parts and progress schedule of the works. Unfortunately,
this is not always the case and only times and costs of erection are set out, estimated on the basis of previ
ous experience. It is left to those in charge of erection, who are often sub-contractors or external piece
work operators, to select and procure the handling plant, to prepare the site and all necessary operations.
Undoubtedly those responsible for the erection must have the freedom to make a closer study of the matter
and to propose alternatives which they may deem useful, but this should always be carried out in full agree
ment with the designer.
However, on the basis of the supplied data, the Agent should prepare a very accurate and detailed pro
gramme in accordance with the available handling equipment, also the time limit and the money allocated
and should obtain all outstanding data not yet made available to him by the Design Office and the
Resident Engineer.
The programme, however, cannot be considered to be rigid, since many events may influence the develop
ment of the operations.
Among them, of predominant importance, often due to climatic conditions are delays in delivering, handling
plant or various parts of the construction, also work stoppages due to strikes or other causes of "force
majeure".
For this reason, from the commencement, the programme must allow for the most probable events and
have ready the remedies to be put in operation at the right moment in order to decrease their effects.
647
For instance, in the case of bridges and quay installations g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e is a t t a c h e d t o the conditions of
the rivers o r the sea, and t o the possibility of floods and inundations. Therefore it is essential t o make an
a c c u r a t e study of statistics f o r at least t h e previous 50 years in o r d e r t o be a w a r e of all the possible conditions.
The p r o g r a m m e should be based on p r o b a b l e averages, but capable of utilizing t h e best conditions, if they
should be present, o r the w o r s t if, t h r o u g h bad luck, they should be e n c o u n t e r e d .
(1) In the first place the safety of those in charge, and in the second place good w o r k i n g and living c o n d i
tions, w h e r e v e r possible.
(2) Safety of the machinery and the c o n s t r u c t i o n in r e l a t i o n t o w i n d (collapse), ice ( w e l d i n g ) , avalanches
landslides, floods and inundations. If the risk of sea storms o r floods is expected, the machinery must
be placed in a safe position (for e x a m p l e , in the case of bridges, on the abutments) o r must be capable
of being quickly w i t h d r a w n (planning of c a t e r p i l l a r cranes and safety roads).
(3) The m a x i m u m use of the handling e q u i p m e n t and personnel so as to keep both fully employed as far as
possible.
(4) H a r m o n i z i n g the use of all the e q u i p m e n t so t h a t t h e r e should be no interference or disturbance.
Study of the cycle. The f u n d a m e n t a l study, closely bound up w i t h the design is t h e d e f i n i t i o n of the e r e c t i o n
cycle w h i c h involves t h e selection of the m e t h o d used and f i x i n g the sequence of o p e r a t i o n s and corres
ponding times.
Study of the m e t h o d . This is of e x t r e m e i m p o r t a n c e . M o r e t h a n just saving l a b o u r , and is o b t a i n e d by reducing
the w o r k i n g hours, t h e r e f o r e planner must and can rely on t h e saving o b t a i n e d by choosing t h e best m e t h o d .
In some cases, by studying the m e t h o d , very notable savings have been o b t a i n e d .
The times usually a l l o w e d to-day for the erection of the n o r m a l structures such as large sheds o r i n d u s t r i a l
establishments a r e as f o l l o w s :
f o r steel structures w i t h simple frames and equal sections, w e i g h i n g
more
28-32 kg.
do.
25-28 kg.
do.
15-20 k g .
do.
As shown in Fig. 7, for the Palace of N a t i o n s , a p r o d u c t i v i t y of 140 k g . per m a n - h o u r was reached. Even
a l l o w i n g for t h e notable w e i g h t of the s t r u c t u r e and the exceptional handling e q u i p m e n t which w e r e o t h e r
wise a charge on the cost, the savings achieved w e r e e x c e p t i o n a l .
It is impossible t o check beforehand, by direct i n v e s t i g a t i o n , w h e t h e r the pre-set times a r e reliable, before
the a p p l i c a t i o n of the pre-selected m e t h o d . T h e r e f o r e i m p o r t a n c e must be placed on the e v a l u a t i o n methods
based on t h e e l e m e n t a r y times of the M.T.M. type and the like, suitably simplified.
s
648
t"ltdno sale
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/ , /foro net Terreno e' si s'/irepararoj
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W i t h this system, it is possible to make a rapid comparison between different solutions and select the one
which appears most satisfactory.
In order to determine the influence which the method of study may have on the other stages of the con
struction and on the work progress, Gantt's diagram is very useful and an example of it has already been
given in Fig. 7 (actual check) whilst Fig. 9 gives another example (estimated study).
649
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Firm. General
Justification
Consequent operations
L.
production
card.
Order.
ma ....
I
I
,._ ~ _
Programme
Date.
Verified.
Graph
W o r k i n g days
T o t a l days
Days accumulated A vailable days
f r o m the commencement
before delivery
1) Production order
6) Preparing tools
2) Technical office
7) W o r k
3) Planning
4) Procurement of materials
a) r a w material
b) semifinished
c) warehouse (entries)
5) Stocking in warehouse
a)
b)
c)
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workshop
workshop
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10
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9) Dispatch
650
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Small walls
Coverings
Sanitary installation
Heating installation
Electrical installation
W a t e r painting
Distempering
Plastering
Terrazzo w o r k
symbols
651
Ace e S ori"
("*) c?3 0 5
i)C*m*H
t cai}
li) tf n^i
Fig. 12 Example of " g r a f o " (graph) for the Pert
* A
" g r a f o " (graph) consists of a unit (a, b, c, ... n) shown in the d r a w i n g by circles (knots) connected t o one another by a
second unit U of pairs (a, b) (c, d) ... w i t h ax, bx, ... represented by various a r r o w connections (arcs).
The " g r a f o " G defined by and by U is represented by G (x, U).
652
653
F u n d a m e n t a l m e t h o d s f o r t h e e r e c t i o n of steel s t r u c t u r e s
Light structures
buidings, platforms
In the case of these simple constructions, it is not possible t o t h i n k of highly mechanized installations because
they a r e destined t o small o w n e r s w h o often wish t o erect t h e m themselves.
"
buildings
654
put up constructions of different types, plans, features and uses, a l t h o u g h always utilizing the same c o m
ponents.
Medium structures
of individual
type.
In Europe, use is often made of the usual t o w e r crane and h o r i z o n t a l r o t a t i n g j i b , w h i c h is also used for re
inforced concrete constructions, in w h i c h case it runs on rails. (Fig. 15b).
For a series of similar buildings, t o be erected in line, use is also made w i t h a d v a n t a g e of the g a n t r y crane
(Fig. 15c), but often it w o u l d be m o r e a d v a n t a g e o u s t o use cableways (blondins) w i t h s w i n g i n g pylons,
w h i c h a r e faster and can use t w o t r u c k s simultaneously on areas of 500 20 metres a n d , for l a r g e r areas,
d o u b l e cableways (blondins) w i t h f u n i c u l a r crosswise connection (Figs. 15d and 15f).
Important
structures
for industrial
sheds.
Important
structures
for buildings
with up to M
storeys.
U p t o a few years a g o , t h e system generally used in Europe, f o r these cases, was based on one o r m o r e
h o r i z o n t a l jib t o w e r cranes, w h i l s t in the U.S.A. preference was given t o the d e r r i c k cranes.
A t the present, h o w e v e r , t h e r e have come i n t o use systems f o r erecting e n t i r e storeys and sides constructed
generally on t h e g r o u n d o r a t a pre-fixed level w h e r e the main site is a r r a n g e d .
The basic types of this system, w h i c h has given good results, can be divided i n t o t h r e e v a r i e t i e s :
T h e t o w e r can be b u i l t as t h e first floor (the highest, being the f l a t roof), and rises t o reach its o w n level
o r can be built by first installing a t t h e t o p all the hoists for lifting the floors, w h i c h can go up a l t o g e t h e r
in a bundle and be left a t t h e i r respective levels o r by lifting one at a t i m e by h y d r a u l i c jacks o p e r a t i n g
a t the b o t t o m .
655
J.J '
6,0-
656
ii
1]
1
li
li
'
657
Fig. 16 c Fi
lifting sid
Overheo'
y a r d , Lafaille system
rs in a bundle
ng up
place
4. Lifting post w i t h fittings
658
W i t h the second system, the building which is much larger laterally, requires many perimetric and inter
mediate columns so that each floor is divided into so many rectangular, equal shapes, the perimeter
of which is defined by the four columns within which they are confined and which serve to lift the
corresponding floor components. When the floors are lifted one at a time, it is also possible to attatch
to them all the surrounding and internal walls before lifting them. (Fig. 16b).
W i t h the third system, also included are the entire sides, which in the previous system were built either
as the floors went up or completed at the top, using an efficient bracing system during the lifting oper
ation. These instead are built on the ground and lifted complete, by making them rotate round provi
sional hinges, placed at the foot, often using overhead craneswhich are erected at the top and running
on the sides already erected. (Fig. 16c).
Erection of skyscrapers
The traditional system remains unchanged: use is still made of various derrick cranes which go up as the
building rises. In order to extend the foundation columns so as to form a supporting base for the derricks,
use is often made of small self-rising cranes fixed to the posts which rise with them. (Fig. 17).
41035
Fig. 17 Derrick crane for errectlon work
659
Flg. 18
In this case t o o , the usable methods are various and numerous in principle. Figure 19 d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y
shows those most c o m m o n l y used.
Special
structures.
S t e e l w o r k constructions have various o t h e r applications, which vary f r o m enormous sluices for l a r g e rivers
t o bridges apu piers in sea and river p o r t s , t o flyovers, etc.
660
Fig. 19
ab
cdef
g
h
i
They also actively assist large constructions in reinforced concrete o r in concrete, not only w i t h essential
e q u i p m e n t such as f o r m s , supports, struts, ect. but also w i t h the c e n t r i n g structures of large bridges w h i c h
a r e really like steel e m b r o i d e r y .
In this field t o o , the inventiveness of the designer can produce solutions capable of effecting c o n s i d e r a b l e
savings. I w i l l m e n t i o n as a good example the system used for the large c e n t r i n g structures for t h e bridges
on t h e " M o t o r w a y of the S u n " w h i c h , in o r d e r t o be reused for subsequent arches, instead of being dis
m a n t l e d and assembled as is usually done, w e r e removed by lifting t h e m on special t r u c k s , the w h o l e oper
a t i o n t a k i n g a single day.
Figure 20 shows one of these structures and f i g u r e 21 shows t h e gear for its transference.
661
The site
Staff.
The site workers, from the agent to the various specialists, form part, as a rule of the established personnel
of the firm, namely the personnel who are well known and can be relied on. Non-skilled labourers can be
recruited locally after having carefully examined their capabilities.
The organization scheme of the site must clearly indicate: the personnel required, the diagram indicating
the order of command and the respective functions, the duties, responsibility and the limits of the personnel
initiative given to each, also how authority is passed in the absence of its holder.
Moreover, it is necessary to indicate clearly the documentary connection between the organs of the site as
well as between the site and the general management.
The documentation must be efficient, but reduced to a minimum.
Alongside the organization schedule there must be ready an expenditure budget for the personnel which
must agree with the general programme of the works and costs, with the salary and wage rates, and with
the individual and collective piece-work rates.
Table of elementary times. The Erection Office (Site Office) will have available the tables of initial times for
the essential operations and the price schedules for complete works so that, by applying the current tariffs,
it will be possible to know at any moment the hourly and total cost of each operation, which would represent
a good check on the working efficiency of the personnel and the organization of the site.
662
Personal record cards. In respect of each employee, the m a n a g e m e n t w i l l have a personnal r e c o r d giving brief
p a r t i c u l a r s a b o u t each one and his family, the history of his w o r k i n g life, the stages of his career in t h e
C o m p a n y , his consecutive earnings, his merits and faults, his behaviour at w o r k , in public and in p r i v a t e .
Staff a c c o m m o d a t i o n . H a v i n g fixed the e x p e n d i t u r e budget for t h e l a b o u r , it is necessary t o make a r r a n g e
ments f o r t h e i r a c c o m m o d a t i o n so t h a t they should enjoy c e r t a i n c o m f o r t s w h i c h lead t o a higher efficiency.
A c c o r d i n g t o the e x t e n t and the location of the w o r k s , the p r o b l e m may be solved, always under the c o n t r o l
of the C o m p a n y , w h i c h should t a k e an interest in the living conditions of t h e i r w o r k e r s , either by m a k i n g
use of local b o a r d i n g houses or r e n t i n g local inns o r d w e l l i n g houses o r by installing provisional huts for
offices, d o r m i t o r i e s , canteens, kitchens, s a n i t a r y premises, w o r k s h o p , g a r a g e , warehouses, etc. The n o r m a l
and estimated cost must be available f r o m the files.
Machinery
Equipment cards. (Fig 22). The a v a i l a b l e e q u i p m e n t must be classified in the files by means of cards c o n t a i n
ing all d a t a w h i c h can be useful for identifying its main features, namely, dimensions, n o m i n a l and actual
efficiency, c o n s u m p t i o n of p o w e r , w a t e r , compressed air, l u b r i c a n t s , p e r f o r m a n c e a l r e a d y g i v e n , depreci
a t i o n rates, maintenance and r e p a i r expenses and t h e i r respective dates, and initial c a p i t a l cost.
The actual cost, w h i c h must serve for assessing the influence of the machine on t h e cost of t h e w o r k , has
n o t h i n g t o do w i t h the initial capital cost and w i t h the d e p r e c i a t i o n rates, w h i c h are historical i n f o r m a t i o n s
scarcely p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the conditions of the m o m e n t .
For this c o m p u t a t i o n t h e r e are useful, official tables of the costs of e q u i p m e n t , its maintenance and hire
w h i c h in various countries (U.S.A., France, Federal G e r m a n y ) a r e supplied by t h e respective t r a d e associ
ations.
Service connections
The site needs numerous services which must be planned w i t h in the project and c o m p u t e d in the e x p e n d i t u r e
budget.
The essential service connections a r e those in respect of access and provision of the necessary services. The
choice of location of the site must be made t a k i n g i n t o account the i n s t a l l a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n a l cost and
the influence t h a t the location may have on erection o p e r a t i o n s and on t h e safety of t h e installations in
the case of floods, storms, etc.
Rarely, for e x a m p l e in the case of some sites situated in high inaccessible regions w i t h o u t roads and being
w o r k s of modest size, has the use of helicopters proved useful for the t r a n s p o r t of w o r k e r s and e q u i p m e n t .
663
SCHEDA DI M A C C H I N A N..^.?.Z.
Matricola N .i.?J..
Cour u l t o r e . . . * . ^
Motore elettrico CV R
B ETONIERA RC 500
SCHEDA DI M A C C H I N A
Coito comprei, I G E , e
Ammortdmenro in S anni.
I anno
28 */.
II anno
Ili anno
IV anno
V inno
26 / .
24 /.
22 / .
20/.
Totale
L.
L.
iliOOO
VkS'OOO
tMOOO
L.
L. J 0 0 O 0
L. 2 J 5 o O O
H\iA?.
BETONIERA RG 500
quota orana
0.014
L.ja
0.013 L. %l
0.012 L. J } t
0.011 !.. I t i
O.010 L. 1J0
(per 2000 ore :
Se le ore mi
250
aoo
195^
voro sono
300
1.2
1.3
1,-J
Anna 195?
Cantiere a
fato
kg 4000
1,S
1.6
L. p.
lavorate 600
eoo
700
650
550
Totale ore 1850
Riparazioni
Data
Ammontare..
800
700
650
550
ours
Year 1960
Repairs : Date
664
A mount
1,850
Road and rail connections. These are necessary t o connect the site w i t h the rest of the c o u n t r y whence goods
and labour proceed. Consequently, road and sometimes r a i l , connections are r e q u i r e d , also in o r d e r t o
connect the builder's y a r d t o the site o r sites, w h i c h must be done w i t h m a x i m u m facility and m i n i m u m
expenses.
Power. The planning of the y a r d includes the p o w e r schedule in respect of the various items of e q u i p m e n t
(installed p o w e r ) and the t o t a l m a x i m u m p o w e r r e q u i r e d for o p e r a t i o n (generally l o w e r t h a n the installed
value).
In g e n e r a l , it is preferable t o connect up w i t h existing p o w e r lines. If this is not possible, a g e n e r a t i n g set
should be used a r r a n g i n g for each machine t o be driven by its o w n electric m o t o r .
O n l y in r a r e cases, for instance w h e n all o p e r a t i o n s a r e able t o f u n c t i o n on compressed a i r only w o u l d it be
a d v a n t a g e o u s t o use an i n t e r n a l combustion engine set (always supplied w i t h a spare).
D r i n k i n g w a t e r and i n d u s t r i a l w a t e r . If possible, it is advisable t o connect up t o the existing mains. If not, a r
r a n g e m e n t s must be made for c o n d i t i o n i n g the w a t e r , (obtained t h r o u g h t h e available means), very care
fully in o r d e r t o make it d r i n k a b l e .
Compressed air. W h e n necessary, this is o b t a i n e d either by self-propelling sets o r , in the case of i m p o r t a n t
w o r k s , by s t a t i o n a r y e q u i p m e n t .
A l l essential services must have an a l t e r n a t i v e in reserve, and for each of t h e m , a c a l c u l a t i o n must be made
of the cost of i n s t a l l a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n , so as t o o b t a i n t h e cost per u n i t supplied ( k W h , cubic m e t r e of
w a t e r , c u . m e t r e of compressed air, cost of w o r k e r s per man-day, etc.)
Cost of the
yard
The sum of the i n s t a l l a t i o n costs mentioned above gives the t o t a l i n s t a l l a t i o n cost of the y a r d . From this,
t a k i n g i n t o account the costs r e l a t i n g t o the staff in charge of the various services (cleaning, supervision,
m o t o r vehicles, etc.), it is possible t o o b t a i n the o p e r a t i n g cost per day and f o r the t o t a l t i m e planned f o r
the e r e c t i o n .
Cost of
erection
In g e n e r a l , the cost of erection is given by the sum of the various items of T a b l e II w h i c h are o b t a i n e d f r o m
the actual w o r k c a r r i e d o u t and expressed in hours of a skilled w o r k e r , thus a v o i d i n g the use of a meas
u r i n g u n i t so v a r i a b l e as the money values.
Execution of the
plan
The execution must be f o l l o w e d up day by day, c o m p a r i n g the estimates w i t h the a c t u a l results as regards
times, progress, disbursements and costs.
It w i l l then be possible t o t r a c e any anomalies, such as delays, increased costs and c l i m a t i c difficulties.
T o diagnose and c o r r e c t t h e m , reducing all e r r o r s t o a m i n i m u m .
For checking the p r o d u c t i v i t y of machinery and l a b o u r , the f u n d a m e n t a l factors of the o r g a n i z e d p r o d u c t i o n
are very useful.
665
T a b l e II
Costs
(hours ol skilled worker)
Erection management
Skilled labour
Labour for preparing yard and handling plant
Overheads for the erection
Labourers for t r a n s p o r t and assistance
Depreciation of handling plant
Consumable materials
Medical care, first aid, w o r k e r s ' insurance
Land occupation and t h i r d party claims
Overheads of Head Office for technical office and planning the erection
Overheads of Head Office for services
0.0015
0.0200
0.0014
0.018
0.021
0.0028
0.0017
0.0030
.
T o t a l hours of skilled w o r k e r
0.0744
0.0112
0.0050
0.0150
0.0024
0.0010
0.0030
0.0010
0.1080
a difficult erection, for which the cost of the materials, always on the basis of
skilled w o r k e r , was
of ~he w o r k in the workshop, including overheads and all other charges, In
skl'ied w o r k e r was
T o t a l cost in workshop
0.10
0.12
0.22
The cost of the skilled w o r k e r , excluding overheads and charges nc'uded in the previous
computations was 600 Lire per hour.
It follows t h a t the costs as determined
Materials per kg
w o r k and overheads n workshop
were :
60 L|re
72 Lire
132 Lire
45 Lire
20 Lire
Per kg. :
197 Lire
September, 1964
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
666
REFERENCES
February and
Gerrit
DERKZEN
Difficulties
Encountered
in Steel Construction
in the
Netherlands
Speaking as a consultant to large and mediumsized firms, I regret t o say t h a t it s still no easy m a t t e r n
Holland to move away from the t r a d i t i o n a l way of doing
things in building. This is very often the fault of the client,
w h o knows w h a t he wants his new premises or extension
t o look like but does not know anything else about t. It
w o u l d be preferable for t h e r e to be consultation, and closer
examination w i t h experts of such matters as r o u t i n g , layout,
location and t r a n s p o r t before building operations s t a r t . Un
f o r t u n a t e l y , the client has very often taken such a time to
make up his mind t o build a t all, t h a t he lbs a t postponing
the s t a r t for another six months or more.
N o w this s just about the w o r s t background to building in
steel chat can possibly be imagined. A concrete structure can
be altered a t any time up t o the last minute, but a steel
strucLure needs planning. Nevertheless, t o my mind all
this constitutes an a r g u m e n t for more building n steel.
After all, the small o r medium-sized f i r m w i l l need t o con
cern itself more w i t h p r e p a r a t i o n if it is t o exist.
667
Paul BOUE
Planning
and Co-operation
in Steel
Construction
668
Claude
DUVAL
Productivity
in the Assembly
of Steel
Framework
Operationally:
a succession of occupations*, t h a t is a sequence of periods
devoted to repeated or different operations.
Observation of each site individually can lead one to believe
t h a t each is a special case.
Proceeding w i t h the Investigations, one can state t h a t all
basic o c c u p a t i o n s * * on each site are very similar. From this
one can deduce precepts for most sites provided t h a t one can
analyse n detail all occupations or operations.
Memo-film
Assembly w o r k n steel construction is not an easy thing to
understand in terms of t r a d i t i o n a l work-study methods. The
parameter of the w o r k i n g space for a group of w o r k e r s on
the same assembly must be taken into account. One cannot
observe all the details of more than t w o occupations w i t h i n
ones field of vision if the operations are of short d u r a t i o n .
It was therefore necessary to find another study method.
O u r choice fell on a cine-process, the memo-film.
669
relative
12-22.5%
Part I
(6.5-8%)
(2.25-3.25%)
(1-1.25%)
shifting position
(4.50-6.25%)
(slinging)
and
(0.25-0.50%)
(2.7%)
= 10-19%
I n v e s t i g a t i o n of t i m e spent
Chief categories of time spent on site
unloading lorries
installation and packing up
rest t i m e etc.
670
break-downs
location
bad w e a t h e r
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e formalities.
General Occupations
Example
Total
time
ior
site
Actual
assem
bly
Un
loading
lorries
1.
SHED
no breakdowns con
crete floor,
motor
driven equipment
1526 h
100%
54%
2.
SHED
m o t o r driven equip
ment w i t h portable
crane
841 h
247 h
3.
PH105
w i t h Dodge
(not used)
4.
PH105
solid f r a m e w o r k
826 h
66 h
Instal
lation
and
packing
up
3
Adjust
ment
scaling
(1-6)
30 h
70 h
176 h
1196.4,
h
28.4 h
4-6%
1 -9%
13-1%
40.5 h
4-8%
23.15
h
2-8%
50 h
49 h
5-9%
59%
29-4%
320 h
100%
35 1 %
576 h
274 h
Site total
194%
14.7 h
16 h
46%
5%
_*
o
"
ru
t_
ca
78%
62 h
(b)
472 h
7-3%
561%
Actual
Theo
retical
total
(1-6)
329.6 h
125
tons
122
9.5
40
21.4
11.8
22%
77.5 h 292.4 h
9-3% 34-6%
25 h
35 h
4-3%
6-1%
38 h
6-6%
208%
100%
100%
43-9%
22 h
3-8%
9-9%
67%
57%
72 h**
466 h
125%
80-9%
331%
15.8
tons
20
11
12.5
10.2
43%
99 h
17-2%
11 h
1-9%
45.1
tons
19-1%
29-4
75
21-9
35
108
242
7
17
10
5-3
5-5
1
0-4
0-5
1-6
8-2
23
2-8
1
0-1
1-9
1-3
8-6
3-4
2-8
1.2
0-1
3.3
3-8
3-1
18
1-6
1-6
54
18
36
Assembly
Hoisting
Posltloning/Boltlng
Bringing in
Tooling up
Preparing to hoist
T r a v e l l i n g on
ground
Travelling on
building
11-6%
Ton
nage
ratio
(c)
15-2%
47-6%
100%
T o t a l t i m e for
assembly
W a i t i n g time . . . .
W o r k i n g time . . .
"o
c
Various
HT
tons
100%
en
c
TJ
Acci
dents
46%
2%
Theo
retical
total
(a)
100%
CJ
Fore
man
working
hours*
P a r t II
W i n n i n g back lost t i m e
Study of component parts of the site and their
importance in productivity
(1) Component parts and t h e i r present state.
G r o u n d . An i m p o r t a n t point which affects the various
occupations. Knowledge of t o p o g r a p h y , preparing access
for equipment, accessibility t o stores.
Present state. Poor knowledge, non-existent or I m p r o
vised p r e p a r a t i o n , a r b i t r a r y selection of storage point.
671
Immediate a c t i o n :
I Site p r e p a r a t i o n
be done
priori
Site A
1.10
Ground
Site
2.44
Building breakdown
11.00
5.00
Method
30.65
42.85
26.00
33.40
13.00
7.15
10.20
1.77
Plant
Bad w e a t h e r
2.70
2.44
Various (1)
5.45
4.75
100
Total
100
(c)
Planning:
672
on starting ;
on completion day.
Foreman's w o r k
Foreman
a r r i v i n g at the l o c a t i o n ;
on the site;
Obtaining information
reading plans
consultation w i t h the engineer/
architect
025%
56 %
056%
12
Total
081%
68
work distribution
indication of equipment and
method
directing plant movement
coordinating crew operations
discipline
025%
28 %
0
%
0
%
025%
0
%
05 %
11
%
Total
05 %
273
C o o r d i n a t i o n and regulation
Means :
11
%
1 '8 %
Training
explaining the w o r k
practical demonstration
helping crew
setting example in safety
28
0
0
%
%
1 '8 %
0
%
46 %
no equipment
and
Total
Control
examining the premises
examining
equipment
and
losses
examining
deficiencies
and
a m o u n t of scrap
dally e x a m i n a t i o n of w o r k
progress
056%
1'7
028%
093%
07 %
2.8 %
36 %
18
Total
5 14%
2345%
63
37
100
Overall total
W o r k as crew member
93
100
%
%
chance equipment
expensive equipment
N o w all the analyses made on sites show t h a t on one hand
the use of mobile plant for offloading and hoisting operations
is unavoidable for acceptable assembly times and on the
other the use of powerful cranes is not always profitable on
modern sites, the crane being used in effect for 23 hours and
costing the equivalent of 25 w o r k e r s .
The object s not t o find plant suitable for all sites. Various
types must be studied.
O u r first investigation was of plant handling units up to
1 1/2 tons w i t h a hoisting range of 12 metres.
This t y p e of site represents approx. 7 5 % of cases for the
m a j o r i t y of companies in the group for w h o m we made this
study.
673
Conclusion
W h i l e the onsite assembly of steel f r a m e w o r k s looks like
being more expensive than t h e i r fabrication in the shop, the
serious detailed studies made n this field are only a s t a r t i n g
point.
Tota! time
(in minutes)
PF
PF
b
PF
c
PF
d
Av
125
87
96
159
120
100
Waiting time
16
67
W o r k i n g time
109
85
93
150
112
933
% occupied
873
97 8
96-8
943
93 3
Hoisting
20
18
13
10 8
Positioning
20
33
39
60
38
316
Locating Bolts
and tools
08
Preparing
for hoisting
12
12
12
18
14
117
Uncoupling
33
Connected
Operations
40
24
29
46
35
292
O n building
42
On ground
17
36
32
31
52
38
Total time
29
31
44
37
100
W o r k i n g time
27
19
27
27
73
12
17
10
27
c
o
ii
CO a
a
a.
o
D.
3
O
a
ai
c
c
O
CI
>0
D u r a t i o n of assembly
* T o d a y , a s s e m b l y t a k e s p l a c e in a s e q u e n c e of h o i s t i n g o p e r a t i o n s of
v e r t i c a l elements ( c o l u m n s , trusses, g i r d e r s f o r t h e most p a r t ) w h i c h
are joined to h o r i z o n t a l members ( w i n d b r a c i n g purlins) hoisted later.
T h i s is w h y t h e l o w p o w e r m o b i l e m a s t is w e l l a d a p t e d . If l a r g e u n i t s
a s s e m b l e d a t g r o u n d l e v e l arc e n v i s a g e d , a p o w e r f u l c r a n e m u s t be
resorted to.
674
W a i t i n g time
Weight
Assem
bly unit
Assem
bled ar
une time
Total
Duration'
Units
per
ass.
unit
Total
ko.
21.840
Average
per
ass.
uni:
Total
Portal frames
14
56
1560
Sills
(brace, tie)
26
26
145
3.455
Ridge purlin
13
13
65
845
sloping
26
195
78
486
12.625
Vertical
85
310
50 mn
sloping
12
24
42-5
510
50 mn 1 0 h
Columns
180
Ties
72
72
48
Crewtimc*
Average
Round
per
Total
ass.
(hours)
unir
3 h 1 0 44 h 20 7 h 10
1 h
8 mn
100 h
Plant time
H;T
Average
per
ass.
unit
Total
4 h 30 52 mn 12 h 08
1 h 30 38 h 30 11 h
10 mn
4 h 20
3 h 40 9 h
8 mn
1 h 40
3 h
6'mn
2 h 40
1 h 40 1 h 40 3 h 20 10 h
40 h
26 h
1 h 40 17 mn
Purlins
Wind
bracing
1.080
10 mn 17 h 25 1 h 25 37 h
13 mn
1 h 40 20 h
1 h 20 25 m n
2 h 30 2 h 30 12 mn
1 h 12
Cladding
Minor assemblies
Total
* Off-loading and assembly
3.456 16 mn 19 h 12 31 mn 37 h
875
5 45.100
1 0 h 30
32 h 20 37 h
274 h 20
6 h 10
20 mn
22 h 40
675
Franco B I A N C H I DI CASTELBIANCO
Construction
676
677
Konrad
GATZ
of Architects
in Practice
678
/
a
do with t again.
The steel industry's wish then to see more steel used in ordi
679
Georges MOISELET
Vocational
(Original
text:
Training
of Architects
Engineers
French)
680
and
Ernesto RULFO
Italian)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
m a r k e t studies;
price policy;
sales o r g a n i z a t i o n ;
advertising;
after-sales service t o consumer;
t r a i n i n g of sales personnel.
681
Rosario MASSIMINO
Structures
in the
Italian)
682
of Steel-Framed
683
Jacques BENDER
Industrialized
(Original
text:
On-Site
Assembly of All-Steel
Buildings
French)
684
685
W i l l y JURISCH
On-Site
(Original text:
Rationalization
German)
687
688
Enrico DE SMAELE
One way of overcoming the problem of harmonizing the different elements Involved in building a steel
f r a m e w o r k s t r u c t u r e might be to have t e m p o r a r y partner
ships between f r a m e w o r k fabricators and general building
contractors.
I mean t e m p o r a r y partnerships, and not just c o l l a b o r a t i o n ,
for the economic success of the project depends very largely
on the o r g a n i z a t i o n , both of the f a b r i c a t i o n , assembly and
erection of the f r a m e w o r k , and of the contractor's methods
w i t h regard to the installation of floors partitions and walls,
Each o p e r a t i o n
689
Hendrik
BLANKENSTIJN
690
Findings
The first speakers highlighted the need for undertaking the study of productivity on
steelwork erection sites within more general terms of reference. In actual fact, this stage of operations is an
integral element of an overall process involving a number of decisions depending successively upon the
investor, the building owner or sponsor, the architect, the consulting engineer, the main contractor and the
steelwork contractor. It thus appears essential to examine the effect of these various aspects upon the erection
site problem properly so called, inasmuch as those aspects constitute so many determining factors in arriving
at an optimum solution, i.e., a solution that is economical to the purchaser. It is within the scheme defined
by these determining factors that the steelwork contractor should find the means of increasing the productiv
ity of his site and thus turn the possibilities of steel to good account.
1. Starting from the foregoing considerations, the Working Party came to the conclusion that steelwork
contractors should be encouraged to give fresh thought to the problem of the structure of their branch of
industry. Some of these contractors will find it advantageous to specialize in the prfabrication of com
ponents or sub-components; others will have to consider extending their activities so far as to include
the whole of the structural engineering work, so as to bring certain factors under their control which
ordinarily elude them.
2. It appears essential to intensify activities aimed at developing contacts with initiators of projects, such as
architects, consulting engineers, and public authorities.
3. Once he has been included as an integral part of the overall process, the steelwork contractor must strive
to find the most economical project, i.e., taking account of the expenditure in respect of fabrication
in the works, transport and erection. It too often occurs that only one of these aspects is considered,
whereas actually it takes a harmonious combination of these three aspects to produce the optimum
solution.
4. The statements by the speakers showed the considerable importance that must be attached to giving
wider currency to planning methods. These are the essential guide to enable a job to be carried out within
the time allowed and within the limits of a predetermined budget.
5. Such planning should more and more be based on precise data concerning the time devoted to various
site operations. In this respect it appears necessary, in order to collect such experimental data within
not too long a time, to promote collaboration at international level. It would therefore be desirable for
the E.C.S.C, to encourage the setting-up of a Working Party which could reach agreement as to the
methods of observation, so as to facilitate the application to a great many construction sites throughout
various countries, and which could, on the basis of those observations, establish standards related to a
common yardstick of evaluation, e.g., the working hour.
691
6. The Working Party calls attention to the fundamental problem of the professional training of engineers
who, at present, do not appear to be able to apply these new methods. This is more particularly true of
staff engaged in job planning, having regard to all the implications mentioned above, contractors' agents
who often fail to perform their task as site manager, and the engineers who have to maintain liaison
between the works and the construction site. Here, too, the Working Party considers that the E.C.S.C.
could very usefully promote the training of such staff.
7. The Working Party's attention was also called to the problem of the safety of erection personnel and,
consequently, of the importance of active medical supervision of the men on the site. Suitable publicity
might have the desired result.
8. W i t h a view to bringing the new site organization methods into general use, it appears desirable to
encourage steelwork contractors to make erection work an integral part of their activities. Apart from
the large contracting firmswhether they be fabrication contractors or erection contractors that can
develop this new side to their activities as a paying proposition, however, it appears desirable to encourage
the setting-up of pools of erection firms, which could thus operate on a worth-wile scale and could serve
the needs of small and medium-sized steelwork fabrication firms.
9. In order to make available to steelwork erection contractors full and precise information on the technical
features and the cost of utilization, it would be desirable to encourage the complication of central cardindexes.
The Working Party found that, in order to promote the increase of productivity on construction sites and
thereby to widen the scope for the use of steel, it was necessary to take all the above-mentioned facts into
consideration. Since a great many problems could not be given due attention in the Working Party's proceed
ings, it appears desirable that these problems be further dealt with by appropriate groups, e.g., the national
professional organizations and the Convention Europenne des Associations de la Construction Mtallique
(European Convention of Structural Steelwork Associations), which is, indeed, already engaged in looking
into some of them. Obviously, the patronage of the E.C.S.C, would give those groups some very helpful
encouragement and a measure of authority that would be justified by the economic importance of the matter
being dealt with.
692
CONTENTS
Address by Mr. Egon Eiermann, Vice-President of the
Congress
697
705
701
709
Egon EIERMANN
Vice-Chairman
I have been asked to address you on the findings or the Congress. Well, it is no use
expecting me to do that, because I obviously could not have been at all the meetings of all the working parties.
And I particularly don't want to have to comment on the scientific contributions, because formulas and tables
always give me the creeps. I am speaking to you as an architect, giving you my personal reactions on what
I have seen and heard.
Steel is to architects the object of their often unrequited devotion. Steel constructions demand the highest
professional attainments; they demand logical clarity down to the smallest detail, and classical sobriety
manifesting itself not least in the employment of the right-angle as the optima ratio.
Well, today architecture has fallen for concrete in a big way, producing a positively baroque exuberance
of form more like statuary than building. Architects will know what I mean.
But one striking thing at this Congress has been that the architects congregated chiefly where the subject
was the opposite, namely rationalization and standardization, where among other things we got that
extremely sound paper on prefabricated steel structures by M.Jacques Bender, of Paris.
As a lover of steel myself, I may tell you that to me steel construcrion represents the aristocratic principle
in building. None of your mushy stuff squeezed out in strips, pushed and pulled this way and that, gradually
allowed to harden, and only then given its stiffening ot steel.
But what I find most absorbing, what really attracts me wholeheartedly to steel is this: steel is removable.
It appalr me to look at all these concrete bunkers and blocks and know they are there to stay. Steel does
not go brazenly claiming permanence for things that have no business to be permanent, and for that I love
it. It satisfies a high ethical and aesthetic sense in me which as an architect I extend to the material I am
working with.
That is a preliminary confession I feel 1 have to make to you.
For these reasons, I want to show you steel in its utter purity. From that utter purity the Eiffel Tower and
the great bridges we know derive their beauties. It underlies the design of the French and German pavilions
697
a t the Brussels W o r l d Fair; the design, t o o , of John Deere's office block which Mr. D a n f o r t h has jusr shown
us; and the design of t h e new premises for the G e r m a n Embassy in W a s h i n g t o n .
In these buildings, the s t r u c t u r e s appear in t h e i r n a t u r a l shape. The supports stand free and visible in f r o n t
of the w a l l . Scientists and engineers oughr t o look at things like these, t o sense the progressive spirit in which
architects a r e w o r k i n g for steel.
But I w i l l stop philosophizing and get d o w n t o realities, t o the t w o problems even this Congress c a n n o t
solve for us a r c h i t e c t s c o a t i n g , t h a t is t o say m a t e r i a l m a i n t e n a n c e , and fire p r e v e n t i o n .
W h e n one of o u r speakers shows us a m u l t i - s t o r e y building and says the structures do not need to be covered
because it is f o r an e x h i b i t i o n , well really, t h a t is giving the a u t h o r i t i e s a p r e t t y free rein tor i n t e r p r e t i n g
and construing r e g u l a t i o n s as they please. As it the building could not have gone on fire d u r i n g the e x h i b i t i o n !
You do not get actual flame, you get smoke, and as we all k n o w the m a j o r i t y of people in a fire are not
b u r n t but a s p h y x i a t e d . R i g h t : may w e please k n o w soon w h e n the new fireproof coatings are going t o be
officially a p p r o v e d ? A n d w h e t h e r they do t h e i r job? W e are just b u r n i n g t o find o u t . T h a t is t h e kind ot t h i n g
architects have t o k n o w for building in steel.
A n d the second p r o b l e m , c o a r i n g .
W h e n Mies van der Rohe, whose buildings the w h o l e Faculty ot Steal C o n s t r u c t i o n o u g h t t o study as a c u l t u r a l
milestone for the w o r l d , was asked by my students funnily enough it was t h e first t h i n g they did ask
w h a t he w o u l d do t o p r o t e c t steel, he replied in his pithy w a y , " P a i n t i t " . I d o n ' t t h i n k t h a t is enough.
A l l r i g h t , w e sand-blast it and w e cold-galvanize it. Good t h i n g f o r us t h a t can be done, even if it is not
such a good t h i n g for t h e men w h o have t o do the sand-blasting.
N o w w e hear f r o m A m e r i c a of a new process, used incidentally by Saarinen on the Deere building I referred
t o just n o w : it seems decomposition completely stops after t w o years' r u s t i n g . If this is really so, it is more
i m p o r t a n t t h a n any new d e v e l o p m e n t on the producer side, unless we w e r e t o get w e a t h e r p r o o f steels
a t affordable prices. Production of C o r t e n steel over here, for e x a m p l e , w o u l d help t r e m e n d o u s l y .
If the High A u t h o r i t y t u r n e d its a t t e n t i o n t o these m a t t e r s , and provided substantial funds for research
I mean on steel u t i l i z a t i o n w e w o u l d not have t o w o r r y .
W h e n I hear the new series of wide-flanged beams offers increased flange thickness w i t h no s h o r t e n i n g
of the w e b , I can tell you r i g h t a w a y t h a t used " s t r a i g h t " they may be a help t o the engineer w i t h his
pure calculations, but they w i l l not help t h e a r c h i t e c t in the slightest. But nobody asks o u r o p i n i o n .
698
Since steel started to lag behind concrete, almost the same has been happening as with coal and oil. Now
that prefabricated concrete components have been developed, together with a very simple method for
connecting them, I cannot see why steel does not also experiment, this time following concrete, in order to
evolve fixed connections not based on screws and rivets and welding. I would like to remind you of the, at
first glance, highly theoretical work of Wachsmann, which, significantly, is known to every architect, but
hardly to a single engineer.
I do not know whether it would work, but why is not anybody trying to make it work?
For as long as the steel federations leave the architect to dream up deas on his own, I do not think much
of the prospects for increased steel utilization. Take the various efforts that have been made with prestressing,
a process for which steel is eminently fitted, to arrive at new, vital forms and an unexampled economy,
including economy of style and line. We have to admit that concrete has shown to better effect.
Now a personal comment on composite building, Mischbauweise. The German mischen, " t o 'mix," " t o
cross," suggests a mix-up: you " m i x " (shuffle) a pack of cards. To mischen or mix, to obtain a composite,
is to combine two unconnected things. When I look at the thousands of welded studs transmitting the stress
from steel to concrete, I cannot think the method is ideal. Economically it may be all right. But how
shall I put it? it does not fit. A steel roof on the steel structure would fit. But what steel roofs are there?
Only those extremely costly American roofs? And on that point I would ask: Are there any exploratory
studies on the steel concrete price relation that do not give the preference to steel, having regard to its
lighter weight, and the importance of the time factor in assembly, and the fact that the rest ot the operations
go faster? Or is that, too, something architects have got to do for themselves?
Anybody who has ever built a multi-storey block with a concrete core knows the maddening refusal of the
concrete to connect precisely with the steel. If you must use concrete, do at least have the prefabricated
concrete component fitting the prefabricated steel component. Consequently, of the composite structures
we have been shown the one that most impressed me was the hall with the north-light roofs consisting of
big prefabricated concrete units mounted on the load-bearing steel. That was homogeneous, because the
two materials were used in accordance with one law. And these considerations are going to become still
more pressing when in course ot time we find ourselves having to deal with steel-plus-plastics.
So I am constantly being confirmed in my opinion that building is an aesthetic and intellectual business,
in which the sciences, as Prof. Stssi has said, only lend a helping hand.
To sum up: so far as. I am concerned the Congress has posed questions rather than solved them. It has also
produced this truth for the architect. To have steel uti'ization, you have to have steel production, and you
have to have possible applications for steel. And if its applicability is impaired or destroyed, or even just
obscured, either by insufficient attention to essential details weather-proofing, for instance or by
out-of-date regulations, then there is no point in trying to boost increased steel utilization.
These few days in Luxembourg have been most stimulating and worth while.We have all met friends of
ours and got to know interesting people. We all know how valuable human intercourse is, both for now
and for the future, in the matter we have been dealing with. For this aspect too, for the conversations and
exchanges of ideas we have enjoyed, I and all of us owe the High Authority a real debt of gratitude.
699
Max BAESCHLIN
Vice-Chairman
In the course of this first European Congress on Steel Utilization, I have been much
struck, not only by the extraordinarily objective accounts given ot the many and varied potentialities, and
occasional deficiencies, of steel and steel construction, but more especially by the radical trend in favour
of the industrialization of building that has emerged from all the papers and motions. This seems to me of
altogether fundamental importance. It is my firm conviction that this revolution will be one of the most
momentous in the history of building.
W i t h the population increasing by leaps and bounds, and with the rising standard of living and the great
strides being made in technology, brisk activity is in progress in all parts of the steel construction sector.
The aim may be defined very simply as being to build more quickly and more cheaply, but the means are
new industrialized building, based on the utilization of all the facilities afforded by modern technology.
I have been asked briefly to recapitulate and sum up for you the ways and means, and also the difficulties,
involved by this new trend. However, it would be absurd to suppose that I could possibly touch, even by
implication, on all the tremendous number of excellent and valuable points made by scientists, architects,
engineers, and economists too, in the past two and a half days. To sift this fund of thought would require
more leisure for preparation, and moreover I should considerably exceed my allotted time for addressing
you, which I am anxious not to do.
I propose simply to select one or two problems and ideas which I feel to be significant.
Thanks to the progress in steel production in the last twenty years, we have available for constructional
purposes a large variety of steels, which intelligently used can ensure substantial savings in steels consump
tion. The new series which are being turned out, offering a wide range of cold-rolled sections and welded
hollow sections, are enabling those building in steel to develop all kinds ot different types of structure.
Ir is up to the architect and engineer to use these opportunities in order to develop new architectural and
statical forms, which will in turn be an incentive to the steelmaker to produce more new steels and more
new sections.
In theory all this sounds very simple and very nice. But as the men on the job know, there are still certain
limits to such collaboration, especially between architect and engineer.
701
T o us steel construction men the a r c h i t e c t is a very i m p o r t a n t figure. He is not only the s p i r i t u a l father
of the s t r u c t u r e , but also the client's representative, and so able t o guide the choice for o r against the use
of steel.
Many, indeed I t h i n k may say most architects fight r a t h e r shy of steel c o n s t r u c t i o n , because they do not
k n o w enough a b o u t it. The f a u l t lies p a r t l y w i t h the still s o m e w h a t imperfect t r a i n i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s for
a r c h i t e c t s : t h e technical colleges teach t h e m t o o l i t t l e a b o u t the possibilities for e m p l o y i n g steel in b u i l d i n g .
In a d d i t i o n t h e steel c o n s t r u c t i o n specialists themselves are t o some e x t e n t t o blame for architects' lack
of e n t h u s i a s m : they have confined themselves for t o o long t o problems of statics and design, and dismissed
as a mere d e t a i l t h e w h o l e subject, so i m p o r t a n t t o the a r c h i t e c t , of the c o m b i n a t i o n of o t h e r materials
w i t h steel.
To make the most efficient use of the steels a v a i l a b l e , it w i l l be necessary t o secure the revision of obsolete
r e g u l a t i o n s , and also t o w o r k f o r the i n t e r n a t i o n a l unification of standards. It is u r g e n t l y necessary for
European steel c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a t t h e r e should be u n i f o r m i t y on methods of c a l c u l a t i o n , especially in respect
of t h i n - w a l l e d sections. Some p r e p a r a t o r y w o r k has a l r e a d y been done in this connection by the European
C o n v e n t i o n of Steel C o n s t r u c t i o n Federations, and it is an open secret t h a t the w a y is h a r d and stony and
s o w n w i t h prejudice.
A good deal of crass ignorance still exists w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e assessment of the fire hazard in steel buildings.
So I consider it t o bs one cf t h e most i m p o r t a n t tasks on the steel c o n s t r u c t i o n side t o m a k e k n o w n the latest
research results on the fire load in m o d e r n structures and the e x t e n t t o which it governs the d u r a t i o n of
c o m b u s t i o n . It is e n c o u r a g i n g t o note t h a t efforts a r e being made in this d i r e c t i o n in many countries, w i t h
p r o m i s i n g results. It seems t o me obvious t h a t the influential s u p p o r t of the High A u t h o r i t y w o u l d c a r r y
t h e m speedily t o c o m p l e t e success.
A n o t h e r p r o b l e m in steel c o n s t r u c t i o n , c o r r o s i o n - p r o o f i n g , is t o d a y well on the w a y t o solution : w e are able
t o p r o v i d e suitable p r o t e c t i o n against corrosion by means of various kinds cf surface t r e a t m e n t and pre
servatives, according t o the purpose of the s t r u c t u r e concerned. But for so long as we are compelled t o give
special a d d i t i o n a l p r o t e c t i o n t o steel the in many cases solid w a l l of prejudice against steel and steel con
s t r u c t i o n w i l l persist. It is t h e r e f o r e absolutely essential t h a t research in this connection should be pursued
and e x t e n d e d , and t h a t endeavours should be made t o reduce the cost of t h e existing c o r r o s i o n - p r o o f steels
more especially since no economic m e t h o d ot c o r r o s i o n - p r o o f i n g t h i n - w a l l e d sections has yet been devised.
In discussing the m a t e r i a l for steel s t r u c t u r e s t o d a y , it is no longer possible t o t h i n k purely in t e r m s of steel
itself. The s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n d r i v e covers e v e r y t h i n g t h a t goes i n t o the m a k i n g of t h e completed s t r u c t u r e ,
and f o r economic reasons it w i l l p r o b a b l y not be possible t o dispence w i t h o t h e r materials f o r q u i t e some
time.
O n e p o i n t I may m e n t i o n here is t h e question of f l o o r i n g . W e must p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l c o m e t h e efforts in p r o
gress t o develop a c o m b i n a t i o n of shaped steel sections w i t h a concrete slab, furnishing a cheap and easily
removable floor.
Similar efforts a* cost r e d u c t i o n need also t o be made f o r e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l walls, account being t a k e n
in the design not only of s o u n d p r o o f i n g and t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s , but also of the piping and
w i r i n g t o be installed.
Economic building does n o t depend simply on efficient u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e m a t e r i a l a v a i l a b l e , nor even on
steady progress in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of really a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m s : t h e b r e a k t h r o u g h comes only w i t h the
i n t r o d u : t i o n of s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n and p r f a b r i c a t i o n . These a r e a l r e a d y recognized as basic t o all progress
in b u i l d i n g . T h a n k s t o t h e excellent w o r k of a n u m b e r of e m i n e n t architects, they are no longer synonymous
w i t h m o n o t o n y : they have become a new c o n s t r u c t i o n a l mode of expression. The reasons which impel us
t o use the fixed o r the adjustable t y p e F r e n c h has the neater expressions "prfabrication
ouverte ou ferme"
depend simply on t h e f u n c t i o n a l demands of t h e s t r u c t u r e s .
O n e essential r e q u i r e m e n t for the success ot t h e g r e a t p r f a b r i c a t i o n d r i v e is t o have u n i f o r m bases. If p r
f a b r i c a t i o n is t o be the f u n d a m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the new style of b u i l d i n g , it must be applicable t h r o u g h
o u t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n r i g h t d o w n t o the smallest d e t a i l , and be based on a given system of m o d u l i . I consider
702
it vital to put a stop to the eternal battles in this regard, and introduce a uniform system of moduli for
building everywhere.
The builder in steel today is more and more having to accept that he must revolutionize his previous fabric
ation methods. Even efficient standardization and consequent production in large series will not have the
desired effect unless workshop fabrication is modernized, mechanized and it necessary automated.
It will cos' a great deal of money to effect the necessary conversion of the steel construction firms from
artisan to industrial methods. Yet even an automated installation cannot meet every demand that might
be made on it, and hence has to be adapted to particular products. Accordingly, the builder in steel must
scrap his old and perhaps cherished idea that he can and will do everything: he must concentrate on specific
fields, restrict his range of fabrication, and fully accept the modern industrial approach. This is no easy
matter, bui it has got to be done, particularly as he will ultimately, both in the narrower and in the broader
building field, come to perform a different function than he used to. He must evolve into the general co
ordinator who provides completed constructions ready tor use.
The conversion of the steel construction firms to industrial fabrication will also be cf direct assistance in
reducing the cost and time of assembly and erection. Only standardization will enable the problems to be
properly tackled and the existing assembly and erection methods improved and simplified.
It is already clear from the Congress reports that in the steel construction sector all the mental and material
prerequisites are pretty well on the way for the coming plunge from operation as a trade to operation as
an industry.
The Congress now closing has aroused very wide and sympathetic interest indeed in specialist circles. To
my mind, only such a gathering as this that the High Authority has mounted and organized is an adequate
occasion for conveying a full picture of the latest technical advances, and at the same time comparing con
sumers' needs and producers' potentialities. We owe the High Authority a debt of gratitude and appreciation
for its action; to keep up the contact here established, it would be well for other such congresses to be held
at regular intervals.
703
Jean-Marcel JEANNENEY
Chairman of the Congress
I can speak as a neutral, since I was not in tact personally involved in these intellectual exercices. So it is
in order for me to say that the Congress rates very high inali these respects, and I would thank the appointed
speakers, the chairmen of the working parties, all those who contributed to the discussions, and most
especially the two Vice-Chairmen who have just, as it were, distilled for us the philosophical content of the
proceedings generally, for all their good work in this most necessary cause. But you will agree that I must
also express thanks and congratulations, this time on behalf of you all, to the High Authority first of all
to President Del Bo, whose original idea it was to call this great world Congress, to Dr. Fritz Hellwig, the
organizer and moving spirit at High Authority level, and, if I may, Mr. President, to your Director-General
Signor Peco, the pivot on whom the practical arrangements revolved.
The avowed aim ot this Congress on Steel Utilization was to open up new outlets for the steel industry,
whose position Dr. Hellwig so ably outlined for.us in his opening address, stating that some concern might
be felt as to its future markets and hence its equilibrium.
Hearing and reading the various points that have been made, I have recognized, as you have, that the
effect of some of the advances described or demanded will be, or would be, to reduce steel consumption.
When our engineers labour to calculate strengths more accurately, when we hear that this or that customary
safety measure is unduly strict, when we are shown how new welding processes will make it possible to
employ much thinner plate or sheet, it is obvious that technological progress such as this means that less
steel will be consumed.
Now, does this imply, Mr. President, that the people who devised these processes, or came here to tell us
about them, are letting down the side? The answer is, certainly not: it is by enabling the same result to be
achieved with less steel that we can make the use ot steel a more paying proposition. In this age of competition,
when all materials vie with one another to perform a given service, what will bring steel out on top is not
705
only its i n h e r e n t , its technical virtues, but also its economic virtues t h a t is t o say, its cheapness t o use.
It is no p a r a d o x t o say t h a t the less steel needed t o achieve a p a r t i c u l a r object, the m o r e steel w i l l be b o u g h t .
But the g r e a t p o i n t of this Congress was t o survey the fields in which more steel could be used, and t o dis
cover new ones. In this r e g a r d t h e various uses here reviewed are n o t ot c o m p a r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e economically.
T o the engineer, t o the technician, and also t o the layman w h o likes t o see w h a t the h u m a n mind can devise,
i m p r o v e m e n t s in the building of t e m p o r a r y roads, o r in b r i d g e - b u i l d i n g , o r in f a c t o r y building are of the
highest i n t e r e s t ; they a r e , t o o , c e r t a i n l y of some value f r o m the p o i n t of view of steel sales, but they do not
c o m p a r e , t o my m i n d , w i t h the potentialities in the field of housing. N o w t h e r e the openings really are
t r e m e n d o u s p r a c t i c a l l y u n l i m i t e d , and g r o w i n g all the t i m e . W e have all a d m i r e d the slides which w e r e
s h o w n t h e day before yesterday and this m o r n i n g of the m a r b l e halls ot a few g r e a t companies. B r a v u r a
pieces w i t h o u t a d o u b t , but myself I w o u l d class t h e m w i t h Italian palazzi of the s i x t e e n t h , seventeenth and
e i g h t e e n t h centuries, o r t h e palaces of European kings. They are sui generis, expressions of human genius
w h i c h a r e of necessity for ever u n r e p e a t e d and alone, serving perhaps as p i l o t projects for new techniques,
bur always, i n e v i t a b l y , in numbers t h e merest h a n d f u l .
But consider the hundreds of millions of human beings all over the w o r l d , even in o u r o w n affluent c o u n t r i e s ,
w h o a r e housed p o o r l y o r long t o be housed better. W e of the developed w o i Id, after a period of M a l t h u s i a n ism, have reverted t o m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . O u r populations are g r o w i n g a p a c e : yet it is n o t only t h a t which is
pushing up housing demand and w i l l send it s o a r i n g , it is also the rising s t a n d a r d of l i v i n g . T h a t rise is re
flected first in b e t t e r f e e d i n g ; t h e n in t h e acquisition of m o t o r cars and r e f r i g e r a t o r s and television sets;
but u l t i m a t e l y , w h e n all these needs, f o r essentials and for luxuries, a r e more o r less met, its main effect
is t o make people c o n c e n t r a t e on b e t t e r living conditions. B e t t e r in t h a t they are m o r e spacious, more
c o m f o r t a b l e , less exposed t o heat and cold, less exposed t o o , I w o u l d add for the a t t e n t i o n of t h e architects
present, t o noise f r o m outside. The d e m a n d is p r e t t y w e l l u n l i m i t e d . Yet, whereas the last h u n d r e d years
have witnessed astounding increases in p r o d u c t i v i t y in industry and in a g r i c u l t u r e , w h e n we t h i n k of the
process of building a house w e still visualize a b a r r o w , a crane, a c o n c r e t e - m i x e r , and usually r a t h e r shabby
w o r k m e n t o i l i n g a w a y as best they can w i t h r a w m a t e r i a l s in t h e w i n d and t h e r a i n . I am a l a y m a n , I k n o w ,
but I definitely t h i n k housing is a field in which w e m i g h t see t r e m e n d o u s strides in t h e next ten o r t w e n t y
years. Let us face i t : t h e r e is a very serious lag between the t e c h n o l o g y by which we build supersonic a i r c r a f t
and send rockets t o t h e m o o n , and t h e technology by w h i c h , generally speaking, in most countries we build
t h e m a j o r i t y of o u r houses.
I f i r m l y believe a congress such as this can do a g r e a t deal in this connection. I do not love steel, as o u r
V i c e - C h a i r m a n has t o l d us he does, but I do t h i n k and still m o r e after hearing t h e speakers a t this C o n
gress I do t h i n k t h a t steel m o r e t h a n any o t h e r building m a t e r i a l possesses the qualities needed t o b r i n g
a b o u t a b r e a k t h r o u g h in o u r building methods, in on-site o r g a n i z a t i o n , and indeed in the design of o u r
d w e l l i n g s , a b r e a k t h r o u g h t h a t w i l l combine the saving of manual e x e r t i o n w i t h the meeting of the basic
needs of t h e h u m a n i n d i v i d u a l , w h o is not and should not be satisfied t o occupy one cell in a vast featureless
block, w h o is not prepared t o live like a bee in a hive. O u r architects, o u r engineers, o u r designers must
c o n t r i v e t o reconcile the demands of p r o d u c t i v i t y w i t h the undeniable need we all have t o f o l l o w o u r personal
fancy n o w and t h e n , t o give o u r homes t h a t i n d i v i d u a l touch t h a t makes t h e m different f r o m o t h e r people's.
I do not t h i n k t h a t t h a t is at all i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n of the building t r a d e . It may have
been w i t h an e a r l i e r and f a u l t y process of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , but by fuller study of the materials available,
it should be possible in fact architects t e l l me it is possible n o w t o w o r k o u t all manner of p e r m u t a
tions and c o m b i n a t i o n s t a k i n g account ot locality and c l i m a t e and of w h a t , r i g h t l y o r w r o n g l y , the people
w h o are t o live in these cells, themselves prefer and desire.
706
best in the personalities of o t h e r s , w i t h o u t being bulldozed by those they live w i t h . Of course this does
depend on each individual person's idea of w h a t f a m i l y life and relations w i t h o t h e r families mean. But it
depends also, perhaps more t h a n they themselves realize, on w h a t o u r architects and engineers are doing
and w i l l be d o i n g .
A l l this is perfectly clear, indeed self-evident, and I apologize for stressing it so insistently. But t h e r e are a
mass of difficult problems t o be t a c k l e d . Technical problems, of course, but a d m i n i s t r a t i v e problems as w e l l :
I t h i n k the l i t t l e band of civil servants here w i t h us must have felt t h e i r ears b u r n i n g on a good many occa
sions d u r i n g t h e discussions, w h e n architects and engineers united in d a m n i n g Officialdom as t o blame for
t h e i r delays and failures. O n e has t o make allowances. It is only h u m a n t o t r y t o shuffle off r e s p o n s i b i ' i t y ;
no d o u b t if this w e r e a congress of civil servants dealing w i t h building w e should have heard some unkind
r e m a r k s a b o u t architects. But it is a fact t h a t O f f i c i a l d o m is essentially conservative, essentially c a u t i o u s ;
officials a r e not as a rule keen t o assume o v e r m u c h responsibility, and any change in t h e rules creates res
ponsibility. T r u e , it sometimes takes more t i m e and t r o u b l e t o amend an obsolete r e g u l a t i o n , universally
agreed t o be by n o w a l t o g e t h e r beside the p o i n t , t h a n t o put up a t w e n t y storey b u i l d i n g . But t h a t should
be all t h e m o r e an incentive t o us t o urge everyone having any degree of responsibility concerning these
n a t u r a l l y most necessary r e g u l a t i o n s t o engage in daily self-searching, and t o r e m e m b e r t h a t it is a civil
service's proudest achievement t o be able w h e n t h e t i m e comes t o abolish a r e g u l a t i o n it o r i g i n a l l y esta
blished. In a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as in technology, simplicity is the most graceful t h i n g of a l l .
Such, Mr. President, seem t o me t o be t h e net conclusions e m e r g i n g f r o m these t h r e e days you have a r r a n g e d
for us. W h o knows, this Congress may be t h e beginning of s o m e t h i n g . In fact, s o m e t h i n g has a l r e a d y begin
t o develop d u r i n g o u r t i m e here something as tull of promise yet as delicate t o rear as a n e w b o r n infant.
T h a t i n f a n t , Mr. President, I n o w c o m m i t t o y o u r care.
707
Dino DEL BO
President of the High
Authority
I have to confess that we Members of the High Authority were looking forward
with a certain human trepidation to the opening day of this Congress. But we were more justifiably appre
hensive about the closing session, today, since we knew that the Vice-Chairmen's reports and the Chairman's
summing-up would contain an expression of opinion on the action we had taken in organizing it.
Well, now we know that that opinion is at any rate a kindly one, even though, obviously, it has immediate
and pressing implications for the whole established structure of our duties and responsibilities.
Before proceeding further, may I first discharge the very welcome task of expressing our thanks. First of
all to you, Mr. Chairman, who in the course of the Congress, and especially in your closing address, have
shown yourself to be not only, as we knew you were, supremely qualified in economic matters, but also
possessed of those particular humanistic endowments that have enabled you to state to us certain alternatives,
to advance certain suggestions, and above all to furnish us with a dialectical interpretation of the Congress's
work which will be a direct stimulus to our studies, our enthusiasm and our endeavours.
' have also to thank the Vice-Chairmen, who have steered the proceedings of the working parties, summarized
their conclusions, and generally made a particularly outstanding contribution to the success of the occasion.
In addition, as you yourself, Mr. Chairman, have just mentioned, our thanks must go to those who have
borne the main burden ot organizing the Congress.
Our thanks, then, to my fellow-Member Dr. Hellwig, to our Director-General for Steel, Dr. Peco, and his
subordinates, to the Press Office, and I would take this opportunity, too, publicly to thank all those other
members of our staff, of all grades, who to help make a good job of a Congress organized at such short
notice were willing out of sheer attachment to the European ideal to give ot their free time, and even, on
occasion, to go short of their sleep, in order to enable the schedule we had fixed to be strictly adhered to.
W i t h regard to the opening ceremony, I must first express our humble thanks to their Royal Highnesses
the Crown Prince and Princess for graciously consenting to honour the occasion with their presence.
Our gratitude is also due to the Goverment of the Grand Duchy and to the Corporation of the city of Luxem
bourg, who made available every facility and did everything in their power to help overcome the various
unavoidable difficulties and ensure the participants of an enjoyable stay.
709
A special w o r d ot t h a n k s , in a d d i t i o n , to the representatives of the Press, w h o have been able t o record the
progress of o u r w o r k f o r the public in the six countries and beyond. N o w inasmuch as it falls t o me t o d r a w
certain specific conclusions f r o m the Congress, I feel t h a t t h e focus must rest more especially on one p a r t i c u l a r
set of findings. Of course, the findings I refer t o are not as yet fully developed, indeed in some respects not
even definitively v i a b l e : they are like the n e w b o r n baby the C h a i r m a n has just confined t o the High A u t h o r
ity's care.
Emphasis has been laid, for e x a m p l e , on t h e i m p o r t a n c e ot conducting systematic studies for the purpose
of accurately c o m p u t i n g the incidence of maintenance costs in the sector of steel u t i l i z a t i o n . The fact t h a t
W o r k i n g Party II (I t h i n k ) should have put f o r w a r d this point suggests in itself t h a t the state of affairs in
this r e g a r d has up t o n o w been in all p r o b a b i l i t y unsatisfactory and should be remedied f o r t h w i t h .
There is a w h o l e range of researches t o be c a r r i e d o u t , more especially concerning materials and the ways
in which they are e m p l o y e d . A b o v e a l l , t h e r e is the boundless vista of p o t e n t i a l new demands for and demands
on steel w i t h which technology a n d science are called upon to d e a l ; t h e r e is the yet more boundless vista
of demands w h i c h w e have t o d e t e r m i n e , since past history past experience, if you w i l l teaches us t h a t
w h a t used t o be needless has n o w become needful, and t h a t the fact t h a t the human individual should be
f o r e v e r experiencing new needs, new inner longings, is a sure indication of steady progress and resurgent
civilization.
W e have t o push ahead w i t h o u r investigations and researches in all kinds of fields, bearing in mind always
t h a t this is t h e basis f o r an action p r o g r a m m e t o be put in hand. W e h e r e at this august b o a r d have not
actually had f o r m u l a t e d and s u b m i t t e d t o us a wish w e have nevertheless sensed t o be in the a i r in t h e course
of o u r various encounters and exchanges t o d a y the wish t h a t the studies on steel u t i l i z a t i o n should go
f o r w a r d , t h a t t h e High A u t h o r i t y , w h i l e in no w a y m o n o p o l i z i n g o r seeking t o monopolize the field in r e g a r d
t o aesthetics o r a r c h i t e c t u r e , should actively p r o m o t e a w o r k which w i l l enable all specialists on steel utiliza
t i o n in t h e building sector t o o b t a i n t h e d a t a , the research results, the technical p a r t i c u l a r s they need in
o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n a steady rate of progress and i m p r o v e m e n t in t h e i r o w n w o r k .
The European Coal and Steel C o m m u n i t y is, by decision of the six G o v e r n m e n t s , t o c o n t i n u e as a separate
e n t i t y f o r t w o years after the m e r g e r of t h e C o m m u n i t y Executives. It may be, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t very soon
n o w all of us Will be required t o hand on the t o r c h , as the saying is. But I may say here and n o w t h a t we
mean t o have t a k e n up the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n for the establishment, in a f o r m t o be e x a m i n e d by the High
A u t h o r i t y as a body, a of Steel U t i l i z a t i o n Study C e n t r e , o r for the t a k i n g of steps on this basis t o enable
Study Centres t o be set up in the six countries and s u p p o r t for the idea t o be secured in the f u t u r e f r o m
those in c h a r g e of t h e so desired, the so essential advance of European economic i n t e g r a t i o n .
710
We have not, Mr. Chairman, even as Members of the High Authority, any special devotion to steel or to
coal as such and a thankless and difficult devotion it would be if we had, given the problems they are
constantly raising for us just at present. But we are devoted to the effort we Members are empowered to
deploy through coal and steel, as bearing a share of responsibility in our own sphere for the political and
economic unity of the six European States.
In conclusion, then, I feel we can point to the political significance of this Congress, to which have come
speakers trom so many countries of the world, artists, scientists, technicians, engineers, public servants,
scholars all those who in this troubled yet, all in all, fascinating age represent the irreplaceable fount
of progress and civilization.
The political conclusion which I feel can be drawn today is that once again our European Coal and Steel
Community has shown itself, as have the two sister Communities, to be an open Community, in the sense
that, even if we willed i r so, it would be wholly impossible to confine our work to a mere dialogue between
the European Executives and the six national Governments, without rather accomplishing that harmony
of voices which is today with us in tangible form, yet which sounds all the time in our ears as the background
and stimulus to our labours, because we know the hopes and aspirations, the ardour and will to work that
are thrilling through the six countries of our Community. And we feel that your presence has once again
served to demonstrate how the most qualified opinion in Europe should act as a democratic control on our
activities, should furnish a critical assessment and constant stimulus in the process of enabling the objectives
of the Treaty and of our own inmost hearts to be pursued and attained to the maximum satisfaction of all.
The theme we have been set could not have been fully thrashed out in three days. The theme set the High
Authority by the Congress will receive its every attention, so that yet again, and even more than heretofore,
the European Coal and Steel Community shall keep step with each one of you, and so with economic and
in the highest sense ot the term political developments in the six Community countries. Yet we know
that beyond those countries and alongside them stand all the peoples of the world. Among them are those
peoples to whom oui Chairman, M. Jeanneney, has rightly referred, who run steel industries of their own
as, it may be, a gratuitous prestige symbol. But they are peoples who, being in the initial stage of their
development, look to those more advanced and more industrialized than themselves not so much even for
aid as for example. We want this Congress of ours and the follow-up to it, the work we have done in these
days and the work we and our successors will do in the future, to furnish both aid and example. To come
then, this time, to my final conclusion : here n Luxembourg we have heard the pulsing not only of the minds
but of the hearts ot men from lands with a long and splendid history, but at the same lime with a greater
responsibility than the rest, resolving to be worthy of the high duty to which they are called. My hope is
that each of you in returning to his everyday avocations in his own country will remember not only what
little he may have gained here in Luxembourg from the High Authority, but above all what he himself, here
in Luxembourg, so spontaneously gave to it.
For in truth the duty falls first and foremost upon us; the design to be framed and the undertaking to be
abided by are first and foremost the concern of us ot the High Authority. And with this statement of our
profound conviction I ask your permission, Mr. Chairman, to declare the proceedings of the first International
Congress on Steel Utilization closed. (Applause.)
711
Participants
Ache, JeanBaptiste
Anselmini, Ludwig
A r o n , A lexis
Ashton, L.A .
Baeschlln, Max
Baroni, G i o r g i o
Barthlmy, Jean
Beer, Hermann
501
142
Jeanneney, JeanMarcel
Jungbluth, O t t o
498
Jurisch, W i l l y
391
K i h a r a , Hiroshi
Kollbrunner, C u r t F.
701
107
616
535, 537
605, 612
Bender, Jacques
K r u g , Siegfried
Lastours, Henri de
Lormand, Jacques
Louis, Henri
Maars, Cornells Maarten
Benolst, Jean
676
Marzin, Eugene
Blanchard, Guy
Blankenstijn, H e n d r i k
349
Massimino, Rosario
690
375
Menard, Ren
Bolland, Henri
Bonamlco, Roberto
167
Moiselet, Georges
Bongard, W e r n e r
357
Mora, Roger
Bonnet, A ndrGeorges
253
No, A ndr
Borde, B. de
Bornscheuer, Friedrich W .
273
Odenhausen, Helmuth
573, 611
668
O k u m u r a , Toshie
Panzarasa, Silvano
346
379
Pelikan, W a l t e r
Bryl, Stanislaw
Canac, F.
529
Petschnlgg, H u b e r t
Chalkes, Samuel
613
Pons, G r a r d
Potenza, Ivo
Coheur, Pierre
508
57
Compre, JeanEmile
527
Relnitzhuber, Friedrich
D a n f o r t h , George E.
D a n k e n , HansJrgen
87
517
Repeczky, Georges
Rville, DanielJean
Decalx, Patrice
257
Riva, G i o r g i o
11, 709
173
Rochez, Fernand
Demmln, Jrgen
243
Roggero, M a r i o
Roret, JeanA ndr
Demol
Demonsabion, Philippe
175
Ruderman, James
614
667
Sansone, N i n o
Bou, Paul
Bourguignon, Marcel
Derkzen, G e r r i t
M a k o w s k i , Z.S.
Mesland, Pierre
Peltier, Raymond
Puech, Michel
Rulfo, Ernesto
De Smaele, Enrico
Dobruszkes, A zarius
689
D o n a t o , Letterio F.
Dubas, Pierre
71
157
Sfintesco, Duilio
Du Chteau, Stphane
510
Shirley Smith, H.
Duval, Claude
669
239
Sittlg, Jan
Eldamshaus, Paul
Sarf, Jean L.
Schultheis Brandi, Saverlo
Sclmemi, Gabriel
Spotti, Giacomo
Stewart, Gavin Burton
Eiermann, Egon
Fanjat de SaintFont, A n d r
697
Finzi, Leo
Forestier, Ren
Fougnies, Roger A lfred
576, 607
Stssl, Fritz
Thul, H e r i b e r t
367
Triebel, W o l f g a n g
Gabriel, Robert
Gallien, Jean
G a r d e l l i n l , Robert
443
618
371
445
Vago, Pierre
Van A alst, .
Veen, J. . van der
Gatz, Konrad
623, 625
678
Guzzoni, Gastone
440
Hageman, D.E.
Hardy, JeanPierre
486
503
W a g n e r , Hugo
H b r a n t , France
623
421
W a i s b l a t , Hem i
W e r n e r , Pierre
425
15
714
Volbeda, A nne
Vouga, JeanPierre
Vries, Romke de
W a h l , Lucien
455, 469
W h i t e , Robert H.
Zeevaert, Leonardo
133
Zignoli, Vittorio
21, 705
397, 407, 444
687
107, 109, 174
289, 327
247, 283
422
419
535, 563
442
581, 606
519
682
523
489
680
439, 494
433
177, 199
109
446
535, 619
277
25
525
278
369
177
487
449
435
352
509
165
289
681
267
385
177, 217
483
289, 291, 393
107, 123
455, 457, 530
341
151, 358
41
177, 179
623, 631
455
397
574
491
528
505
448
397, 399
426, 609
13
488
269
289, 301, 393
623, 637
Cover Design :
Saarbrcker Druckerei und Verlag G m b H , Saarbrcken.
Printed by:
Imprimerle Fr. van Muysswinkel, Bruxelles (Dutch edition).
Nouvelle Imprimerle Commerciale et Industrielle, Gent (Gand) (English edition).
Imprimerie et Edition des Dernires Nouvelles, Strasbourg (French editlon).
Saarbrcker Z e l t u n g , Saarbrcken (German editlon).
Stabilimento Lito-tipografico Luigi dl G. Pirla, Milano (Italian edition).
Reproduction of Illustrations:
Imprimerie et Editlon des Dernires Nouvelles, Strasbourg.
P U B L I C A T I O N S D E P A R T M E N T S OF THE E U R O P E A N
3600/5/65/1
5.8.0
$ 15,
FF 74.
BF 750
COMMUNITIES
DM 60.
Lire 9370
Fl. 54.50