Flagellation

Flagellation (Latin agellum, whip), ogging, whipping or lashing is the act of methodically beating the
human body with special implements such as whips,
lashes, rods, switches, the cat o' nine tails, the sjambok,
etc. Typically, ogging is imposed on an unwilling subject as a punishment; however, it can also be submitted to willingly, or performed on oneself, in religious or
sadomasochistic contexts.
The strokes are usually aimed at the unclothed back of
a person, in certain settings it can be extended to other
corporeal areas. For a moderated subform of agellation,
described as bastinado, the soles of a persons bare feet
are used as a target for beating (see foot whipping).
In some circumstances the word ogging is used loosely
to include any sort of corporal punishment, including
birching and caning. However, in British legal terminology, a distinction was drawn (and still is, in one or
two colonial territories) between ogging (with a cato'-nine-tails) and whipping (formerly with a whip, but
since the early 19th century with a birch). In Britain these
were both abolished in 1948.

1
1.1

Disciplinary use and torture

Antiquity

Prisoners at a whipping post in a Delaware prison, circa 1907.

In Sparta, young men were ogged as a test of their masculinity. Jewish law limited agellation to forty strokes,
and in practice delivered thirty-nine, so as to avoid any
possibility of breaking this law due to a miscount. Additionally they had a doctor monitor the punishment, who
stopped it if it became too much for the person to bear
safely.
In the Roman Empire, agellation was often used as a
prelude to crucixion, and in this context is sometimes referred to as scourging. Whips with small pieces of metal
or bone at the tips were commonly used. Such a device
could easily cause disgurement and serious trauma, such
as ripping pieces of esh from the body or loss of an eye. Public ogging of a slave in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - work of
In addition to causing severe pain, the victim would ap- French painter Jean-Baptiste Debret (17681848).
proach a state of hypovolemic shock due to loss of blood.
The Romans reserved this treatment for non-citizens, as
stated in the lex Porcia and lex Sempronia, dating from
195 and 123 BCE. The poet Horace refers to the horribile agellum (horrible whip) in his Satires. Typically,
the one to be punished was stripped naked and bound to
a low pillar so that he could bend over it, or chained to

an upright pillar so as to be stretched out. Two lictors

(some reports indicate scourgings with four or six lictors)
alternated blows from the bare shoulders down the body
to the soles of the feet. There was no limit to the number
of blows inicted - this was left to the lictors to decide,
though they were normally not supposed to kill the vic1

1 DISCIPLINARY USE AND TORTURE

tim. Nonetheless, Livy, Suetonius and Josephus report

cases of agellation where victims died while still bound
to the post. Flagellation was referred to as half death by
some authors and apparently, many victims died shortly
thereafter. Cicero reports in In Verrem, pro mortuo sublatus brevi postea mortuus (taken away for a dead man,
shortly thereafter he was dead). In some cases the victim
was turned over to allow agellation on the chest, though
this proceeded with more caution, as the possibility of
inicting a fatal blow was much greater.

in the early 1830s, though not formally abolished until

1862. Private whipping of men in prison continued and
was not abolished until 1948.[2]

1.2

In the Russian Empire, knouts were used to og criminals

and political oenders. Sentences of a hundred lashes
would usually result in death. Whipping was used as a
punishment for Russian serfs.[4]

From Middle Ages to modern times

Whipping was used during the French Revolution. On

31 May 1793, the Jacobin women seized a revolutionary
leader, Anne Josephe Theroigne de Mericourt, stripped
her naked, and ogged her on the bare bottom in the public garden of the Tuileries. After this humiliation, she refused to wear any clothes, in memory of the outrage she
had suered.[3] She went mad and ended her days in an
asylum after the public whipping.

1.3 Use against slaves

Punishment with a Great Knout. Russia, 18th century.

The Whipping Act was passed in England in 1530. Under this legislation, vagrants were to be taken to a nearby
populated area and there tied to the end of a cart naked
and beaten with whips throughout such market town till
the body shall be bloody.[1]
In England oenders (mostly those convicted of theft)
were usually sentenced to be ogged at a carts tail along
a length of public street, usually near the scene of the
crime, until his [or her] back be bloody. In the late
seventeenth century, however, the courts occasionally ordered that the ogging should be carried out in prison or
a house of correction rather than on the streets. From
the 1720s courts began explicitly to dierentiate between
private whipping and public whipping. Over the course
of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries the proportion of whippings carried out in public declined, but
the number of private whippings increased. The public
whipping of women was abolished in 1817 (after having
been in decline since the 1770s) and that of men ended

Gordon, a whipped slave, photo taken at Baton Rouge, 1863.

The scars are clearly visible because of keloid formation.

Whipping has been used as a form of discipline against

slaves. It was frequently carried out during the period of
slavery in the United States, by slave owners and their employees. The power was also given to slave patrollers,
mostly poor whites, who had among their powers the abil-

1.5

Flogging as military punishment

1.5 Flogging as military punishment

In the 18th and 19th centuries, European armies administered oggings to common soldiers who committed
breaches of the military code. During the American Revolutionary War, the American Congress raised the legal
limit on lashes from 39 to 100 for soldiers who were convicted by courts-martial.[5] Generally, ocers were not
ogged. However, in 1745, a cashiered British ocer
could have his sword broken over his head, among other
indignities inicted on him.[6]

Female slave suspended by one ankle for whipping

ity to whip any slave who violated the slave codes.

1.4

Present-day ocial ogging

Flogging was a common disciplinary measure in the

British Royal Navy that became associated with a seamans manly disregard for pain.[7] Aboard ships, knittles
or the cat o' nine tails was used for severe formal punishment, while a ropes end or starter was used to administer informal, on-the-spot discipline. In severe cases
a person could be ogged around the eet": a signicant number of lashes (up to 600) was divided among the
ships on a station and the person was taken to all ships to
be ogged on each.[8]

In June 1879, ogging in the British Navy was debated

Main article: Judicial corporal punishment
in the House of Commons. John O'Connor Power, the
Ocially abolished in most Western countries, ogging
member for Mayo, asked the First Lord of the Admiralty
to bring the navy cat-of-nine-tails to the Commons Library so that the members might see what they were voting for. It was the Great 'Cat' Contention, 'Mr Speaker,
since the Government has let the cat out of the bag,
there is nothing to be done but to take the bull by the
horns.' Poet Laureate Ted Hughes celebrates the occasion
in his poem, 'Wilfred Owens Photographs: 'A witty profound Irishman calls/For a 'cat' into the House, and sits to
watch/The gentry ngering its stained tails./Whereupon
...Quietly, unopposed,/The motion was passed.'[9] '

Foot whipping in a Syrian prison, exhibit from Amna Sur Museum, Sulaymaniyah

or whipping, including foot whipping in some countries, is still a common punishment in some parts of the
world, particularly in Islamic countries and in some territories formerly under British rule. Medically supervised
caning is routinely ordered by the courts as a penalty for
some categories of crime in Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia,
Tanzania, Zimbabwe and elsewhere.

In the Napoleonic Wars, the maximum number of lashes

that could be inicted on soldiers in the British Army
reached 1,200. This many lashes could permanently disable or kill a man. Oman, historian of the Peninsular War,
noted that the maximum sentence was inicted nine or
ten times by general court-martial during the whole six
years of the war and that 1,000 lashes were administered about 50 times.[10] Other sentences were for 900,
700, 500 and 300 lashes. One soldier was sentenced to
700 lashes for stealing a beehive.[11] Another man was let
o after only 175 of 400 lashes, but spent three weeks in
the hospital.[12] Later in the war, the more draconian punishments were abandoned and the oenders shipped to
New South Wales instead, where more whippings often
awaited them. (See Australian penal colonies section.)
Oman later wrote:
If anything was calculated to brutalize an
army it was the wicked cruelty of the British
military punishment code, which Wellington
to the end of his life supported. There is
plenty of authority for the fact that the man
who had once received his 500 lashes for a fault

1 DISCIPLINARY USE AND TORTURE

which was small, or which involved no moral
guilt, was often turned thereby from a good
soldier into a bad soldier, by losing his selfrespect and having his sense of justice seared
out. Good ocers knew this well enough, and
did their best to avoid the cat-of-nine-tails, and
to try more rational meansmore often than
not with success.[13]

Meanwhile, during the French Revolutionary Wars the

French Army stopped oggings altogether. The Kings
German Legion (KGL), which were German units in
British pay, did not og. In one case, a British soldier
on detached duty with the KGL was sentenced to be
ogged, but the German commander refused to carry out
the punishment. When the British 73rd Foot ogged a
man in occupied France in 1814, disgusted French citizens protested against it.[14]
At the urging of New Hampshire Senator John P. Hale,
the United States Congress banned ogging on all U.S.
ships in September 1850.[15] Hale was inspired by
Herman Melville's vivid description of ogging, a brutal
staple of 19th century naval discipline in Melvilles novelized memoir White Jacket.[15] Melville also included
a vivid depiction of ogging, and the circumstances surrounding it, in his more famous work, Moby-Dick.
Military ogging was abolished in the United States Army Fremantle Prison whipping post.
on 5 August 1861. The punishment was abolished in the
Royal Navy in 1879.[16]
With the prisoner thus stripped and bound, either one
One of few countries where corporal punishment is still
or two oggers administered the prescribed number of
ocially used in the armed forces is Singapore, where
strokes, or lashes, to the victims back. During the ogmilitary legislation provides that errant soldiers can be
ging, a doctor or other medical worker was consulted at
sentenced by court-martial to strokes of the cane.
regular intervals as to the condition of the prisoner. In
many cases, however, the physician merely observed the
oender to determine whether he was conscious. If the
1.6 Australian penal colonies
prisoner passed out, the physician would order a halt unOnce common in the British Army and British Royal til the prisoner was revived, and then the whipping would
Navy as a means of discipline, agellation also featured continue.
prominently in the British penal colonies in early colo- Female convicts were also subject to ogging as punishnial Australia. Given that convicts in Australia were al- ment, both on the convict ships and in the penal colonies.
ready imprisoned, punishments for oenses committed Although they were generally given fewer lashes than
in the colonies could not usually result in imprisonment males (usually limited to 40 in each ogging), there was
and thus usually consisted of corporal punishment such as no other dierence between the manner in which males
hard labour or agellation. Unlike Roman times, British and females were ogged.
law explicitly forbade the combination of corporal and
capital punishment; thus, a convict was either ogged or Floggings of both male and female convicts were public,
administered before the whole colonys company, assemhanged but never both.
bled especially for the purpose. In addition to the inicFlagellation took place either with a single whip or, more tion of pain, one of the principal purposes of the ogging
notoriously, with the cat o' nine tails. Typically, the of- was to humiliate the oender in front of his mates and to
fenders upper half was bared and he was suspended by demonstrate, in a forceful way, that he had been required
the wrists beneath a tripod of wooden beams (known as to submit to authority.
'the triangle'). In many cases, the oenders feet barely
touched ground, which helped to stretch the skin taut and At the conclusion of the whipping, the prisoners lacerincrease the damage inicted by the whip. It also centered ated back was normally rinsed with brine, which served
the oenders weight in his shoulders, further ensuring a as a crude and painful disinfectant.
Flogging still continued for years after independence.
painful experience.

1.10

Islam

The last person ogged in Australia was William John the Roman Catholic Church since the time of the Great
O'Meally in 1958 in Melbourne's Pentridge Prison.
Schism in 1054.
(See also: History of Australia).

St. Thrse of Lisieux, a late 19th-century French

Discalced Carmelite nun considered in Catholicism to be
a Doctor of the Church, is an inuential example of a
saint who questioned prevailing attitudes toward physi1.7 Judaism
cal penance. Her view was that loving acceptance of the
many suerings of daily life was pleasing to God, and
Main article: Corporal punishment (Judaism)
fostered loving relationships with other people, more than
taking upon oneself extraneous suerings through instruAccording to the Torah and Rabbinic law lashes may be
ments of penance. As a Carmelite nun, Saint Thrse
given for oenses that do not merit capital punishment,
practiced voluntary corporal mortication.
and may not exceed 40. However, in the absence of a
Sanhedrin, corporal punishment is not practiced in Jewish
law. Halakha species the lashes must be given in sets of
three, so the total number cannot exceed 39. Also, the
1.10 Islam
person whipped is rst judged whether they can withstand
the punishment, if not, the number of whips is decreased.
Flogging is a form of punishment used under Islamic
Sharia law. It is the prescribed punishment (hadd) for
oences including fornication, alcohol use and slander
1.8 Pre-Christianity
and is also widely favoured as a discretionary punishment
(ta'zir) for many oences, such as violating gender interDuring the Ancient Roman festival of Lupercalia young
action laws. Punishment is normally carried out in public.
men ran through the streets with thongs cut from the hide
However, some scholars maintain that this goes against
of goats which had just been sacriced, and women who
the teachings of Islam.[17] In Islam, lashes for punishment
wished to conceive put themselves in their way to refor women are often performed with the Qu'ran under
ceive blows, apparently mostly on the hands. The eunuch
one arm to minimise the swing and as a reminder of the
priests of the goddess Cybele, the galli, ogged themsource of legislation. They are not supposed to leave perselves until they bled during the annual festival called Dies
manent scars, and when the number of lashes is high, are
sanguinis. Greco-Roman mystery religions also somefrequently done in batches to minimise risk of harm.
times involved ritual agellation, as famously depicted in
the Villa of the Mysteries at Pompeii, apparently showing
initiation into the Dionysian Mysteries.

1.9

Roman Catholicism

Flagellants. From a fteenth-century woodcut.

2 Flagellation as a religious practice

Shi'ites in Pakistan agellate themselves during the Moharram

procession.

The Flagellation refers in a Christian context to the

Flagellation of Christ, an episode in the Passion of Christ
prior to Jesus crucixion. The practice of mortication Main article: Self-agellation
of the esh for religious purposes has been utilised by

REFERENCES

that they were not present at the battle to ght and save
Husayn and his family.[23][24] In some western cities, Shi'a
communities have organized blood donation drives with
organizations like the Red Cross on Ashura as a positive
replacement for self-agellation rituals like Tatbir and
Qame Zani.

3 See also
4 References
Self-agelation is ritually performed in the Philippines during
Holy Week (on Good Friday, before Easter).

[1] Whipping. 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica.

[2] London lives

2.1

Roman Catholicism

In the 13th century, a group of Roman Catholics, known

as the Flagellants, took this practice to its extreme ends.
The Flagellants were later condemned by the Roman
Catholic Church as a cult in the 14th century because the
established church had no other control over the practice
other than excommunication. Self-agellation remains
common in Colombia, the Philippines, Mexico, Spain
and one convent in Peru.
Some members of strict monastic orders, and some members of the Catholic lay organization Opus Dei, practice
mild self-agellation using an instrument called a discipline, a cattail whip usually made of knotted cords,
which is ung over the shoulders repeatedly during private prayer.[18] Pope John Paul II took the discipline
regularly.[19]

[3] Roudinesco, Elisabeth (1992). Madness and Revolution:

The Lives and Legends of Theroigne de Mericourt, Verso.
ISBN 0-86091-597-2. p.198
[4] Chapman, Tim (2001). Imperial Russia, 1801-1905.
Routledge. p.83. ISBN 0-415-23110-8
[5] Martin, p 76.
[6] Tomasson, p 127.
[7] "Life at sea in the age of sail". National Maritime Museum.
[8] Keith Grint, The Arts of Leadership, 2000, ISBN
0191589330 pp.237-238
[9] Hughes, Ted, 'Wilfred Owens Photographs, Lupercal, 1960. See also Stanford, Jane, That Irishman: the
Life and Times of John O'Connor Power, 2011, pp. 7980.

This was also practiced during the Black Plague as a [10] Oman, p 239.
means to prevent oneself from getting it, people at the
time believed it was a punishment from God, thus the [11] Oman, p 246.
logic was that one could punish themselves to prevent the [12] Oman, p 254.
Plague.
[13] Oman, p.43.

2.2

Islam

Main article: Day of Ashura

As suering and cutting the body with knives or chains
(matam) have been prohibited by Shi'a marjas like Ali
Khamenei, Supreme Leader of Iran,[20] some Shi'a observe mourning with blood donation which is called
Qame Zani[20] and ailing.[21] Yet some Shi'ite men and
boys continue to slash themselves with chains (zanjeer) or
swords (talwar) and allow their blood to run freely.[21]

[14] Rothenberg, p.179.

[15] Hodak, George. Congress Bans Maritime Flogging.
ABA Journal. September 1850, p. 72. Retrieved 18 October 2010.
[16] "Cardwells Army Reforms 1870-1881"
[17] Ruling on the crime of rape. 9 January 2012.
[18] Opus Dei and corporal mortication. Opus Dei Information Oce. 2012.
[19] Barron, Fr. Robert. Taking the Discipline.

Certain rituals like the traditional agellation ritual called [20] Akramulla Syed (2009-02-20). Zanjeer Or Qama Zani
On Ashura During Muharram. Ezsoftech.com. ReTalwar zani (talwar ka matam or sometimes tatbir) ustrieved
2012-06-30.
ing a sword or zanjeer zani or zanjeer matam, involving the use of a zanjeer (a chain with blades) are also [21] Ashura observed with blood streams to mark Karbala
performed.[22] These are religious customs that show soltragedy. Jafariya News Network. Retrieved December
idarity with Husayn and his family. People mourn the fact
28, 2010.

[22] Scars on the backs of the young. New Statesman. UK.

June 6, 2005. Retrieved December 28, 2010.
[23] Bird, Steve (August 28, 2008). Devout Muslim guilty of
making boys beat themselves during Shia ceremony. The
Times (London). Retrieved May 1, 2010.
[24] British Muslim convicted over teen oggings. Alarabiya.net. August 27, 2008. Retrieved December 28,
2010.

Further reading
Ricker, Kat. Doubting Thomas, Trillium Press,
2010. ISBN 978-0-615-31849-3 Suspense thriller
examining the dark nature of saintliness, including
agellation.
Bean, Joseph W. Flogging, Greenery Press, 2000.
ISBN 1-890159-27-1
Conway, Andrew. The Bullwhip Book. Greenery
Press, 2000. ISBN 1-890159-18-2
Gibson, Ian. The English Vice: Beating, Sex and
Shame in Victorian England and After. London:
Duckworth, 1978. ISBN 0-7156-1264-6
Martin, James Kirby; Lender, Mark Edward. A
Respectable Army: The Military Origins of the Republic, 1763-1789. Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan
Davidson, 1982. ISBN 0-88295-812-7
Oman, Charles. Wellingtons Army, 1809-1814.
London: Greenhill, (1913) 1993. ISBN 0-94789841-7
Rothenberg, Gunther E. (1980). The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon. Bloomington, Indiana:
Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-31076-8.
Tomasson, Katherine & Buist, Francis. Battles of
the '45. London: Pan Books, 1974.

External links
Page about corporal punishment in the world
Forensic and Clinical Knowledge of the Practice of
Crucixion by Dr. Frederick Zugibe
Pilot Guides - Flogging in penal Australia (including
animation)
Information about a public punishment in Iran because alcohol and sex outside marriage
New about a public ogging of two men in Aleppo
because they missed Friday prayers, with video
Zanjeer Zani

Catholic Encyclopedia: Flagellation

Suering and Sainthood The importance of penance
and mortication in the Catholic Church
Chisholm, Hugh, ed.
(1911).
"whipping".
Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge
University Press.

7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

7.1

Text

Flagellation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellation?oldid=680275223 Contributors: The Anome, Gabbe, Sannse, TakuyaMurata, Karada, Mpolo, Jpatokal, Deisenbe, Schneelocke, Heidimo, Timwi, WhisperToMe, Sabbut, Wetman, AnthonyQBachler, Altenmann, Ashley Y, Bethenco, Hadal, Johnstone, DocWatson42, TOttenville8, Pretzelpaws, Wolfkeeper, Tom harrison, Revth, Bluejay Young, Siroxo, Kudz75, Manuel Anastcio, Piotrus, Vina, Jeremykemp, Cab88, Mike Rosoft, Adambondy, Noisy, Rich Farmbrough, FT2, SocratesJedi, Dlloyd, Mani1, Apostrophe, Orzetto, Arthena, Jeltz, Elizdelphi, Avenue, DreamGuy, Red dwarf, FrancisTyers,
Youknowyouloveit, OwenX, Woohookitty, Macronyx~enwiki, HollyI, WBardwin, Rjwilmsi, Windchaser, Sbohra, DVdm, The Rambling
Man, YurikBot, Pigman, Anders.Warga, Lao Wai, MulgaBill, Bucketsofg, Bota47, Asarelah, WAS 4.250, Vicarious, Reedgunner, SmackBot, Amcbride, Hmains, ParthianShot, Jprg1966, Mdwh, WikiPedant, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Aquarius Rising, Japeo, Pepsidrinka,
Model Citizen, Pissant, Dreadstar, Jbergquist, Mostlyharmless, Kuru, AbdullahAlAmeen, Beetstra, Grandpafootsoldier, Falsetto, Neddyseagoon, Peter Horn, Atakdoug, Quaeler, Levineps, Iridescent, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Switchercat, Patchouli, Wafulz, Neelix, Mike
7, HalJor, Mato, Dragonclaw9000, Jayen466, Amandajm, Doug Weller, Kirk Hilliard, Kablammo, Keraunos, JAnDbot, Ermeyers, Cynwolfe, Augustus Sabius, Bongwarrior, Cadsuane Melaidhrin, John.james, Brian Fenton, Josephcn, Merat, Christiangoth, Kostisl, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Liss679, Johnbod, Mkruij, Mrceleb2007, Gaussgauss, Olegwiki, KylieTastic, HenryLarsen, Moonksy29, Scewing,
Vranak, ABF, Hersfold, Bsroiaadn, Yilloslime, Davin, Cremepu222, Bearian, VanishedUserABC, Drutt, Jake73, Gaynewyorker~enwiki,
SieBot, Sf46, Oxymoron83, Dcattell, Adam Cuerden, Anchor Link Bot, Pinkadelica, PabloStraub, Tattery, RegentsPark, ClueBot, Djmaschek, Sfrintheuk, Tomeasy, Olgatkachuk, Ottawa4ever, Rui Gabriel Correia, John Paul Parks, Deerstop, Stevenrasnick, SoxBot III,
BillyZRay, Rkarl13, ZooFari, Addbot, Barsoomian, Afelah, Elmondo21st, LaaknorBot, Bigbadbeater, Glane23, Jdvillalobos, Peridon,
Alisecmail, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Claverhouse, AnomieBOT, Ulric1313, Bob Burkhardt, Xqbot, Sir Stig, Pmasters, CyrusDaVirus, Jmundo, J04n, 15241524adam, Cphistorian, Max Rebo Band, Tobby72, Alarics, Pinethicket, RedBot, Lotje, Mankx, Diannaa,
Athene cheval, HALOMISTRO, EmausBot, , PBS-AWB, Kranix, NorthernPashtun, Gagacyanide, Ebehn, ClueBot NG, AerobicFox, Handcued, Baseball Watcher, Alex Nico, Hazhk, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Aligilgiti, MusikAnimal, Bonnie13J, Floating Boat,
Harizotoh9, Oleg-ch, Maelfreda, Khazar2, Kegelstar, Kunalrks, Eduard Meister, Caparicano066, WikiCorrectah, Jerey123, Paddyhamlyn
and Anonymous: 229

7.2

Images

File:African_woman_slave_trade.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/African_woman_slave_trade.

jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs
division under the digital ID cph.3g06204.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: Attributed to Isaac Cruikshank, 1756?1811?

File:Cicatrices_de_flagellation_sur_un_esclave.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Cicatrices_de_
flagellation_sur_un_esclave.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and
Records Administration, cataloged under the ARC Identier (National Archives Identier) 533232. Original artist: Original photographers:
McPherson and Oliver. Part of the Blakeslee Collection, apparently collected by John Taylor of Hartford, Connecticut, USA
File:Flagellants.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flagellants.png License: Public domain Contributors: From the en.wikipedia Original artist: Unknown
File:Foot_whipping_in_Syria.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Foot_whipping_in_Syria.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Julian von Bredow
File:FremantletPrisonWhippingPost_2005_SeanMcClean.jpg Source:
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FremantletPrisonWhippingPost_2005_SeanMcClean.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original
artist: Original uploader was SeanMack at en.wikipedia
File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Collectie Stichting Nationaal
Museum van Wereldculturen Original artist: ?
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English Wikipedia
File:Pelourinho.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Pelourinho.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Jean-Baptiste Debret
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Original artist: Unsure - from George Grantham Bain Collection.

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Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
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Contributors: Flickr: striding Original artist: istolethetv
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License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

7.3

7.3

Content license

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0