Final Project Report

Concrete
Stairs
Auto cad

Written by:
Imtiaz khan Libran

1 Concrete................................................................................... 2
1.1

Concrete:....................................................................................2
1.1.1 Advantages:............................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Disadvantages:.........................................................................3
1.1.3 Constituents:.............................................................................3

1.2

Properties Of Concrete:...........................................................3
1.2.1 Workablty:...............................................................................4
1.2.1.1 Factors Affecting Workability:.....................................4

1.2.2 Consstency:..............................................................................4
1.2.2.1 Test Methods For Measuring Consistency:....................4

1.2.3 Segregaton:..............................................................................4
1.2.4 Bleedng:.................................................................................... 5
1.2.5 Unformty:.................................................................................5

1.3

Type Of Concrete:......................................................................5
1.3.1 Plain Cement Concrete:...........................................................5
1.3.2 Reinforced Cement Concrete:.................................................5
1.3.3 Light Cement Concret:.............................................................6
1.3.4 Pre Stressed Concrete:............................................................6
1.3.5 Rein Forced Concrete:..............................................................6

2 Stair......................................................................................... 7
2.1

Stair:............................................................................................7

2.2

Parts Of Stair:............................................................................7

2.3

Type Of Stair:.............................................................................8
2.3.1 Straight Flight:..........................................................................9
2.3.2 Quarter Turn:............................................................................. 9
2.3.3 Dog-Legged/ Half Turn:............................................................9
2.3.4 Open Well/ Open Newel:..........................................................9
2.3.5 Circular/ Spiral........................................................................10

2.4

Requirements For Good Stair:...............................................10

2.4.1 Fixing The Going And The Rise Of A Step:..........................10

3 auto cad................................................................................. 11
3.1

Auto Cad:..................................................................................11

3.2

Types Of Drawings:.................................................................11
3.2.1 Two Dimensional:....................................................................11

3.2.2 Three Dimensional:................................................................12

3.3

Uses And Benefits Of AutoCAD:............................................12

3.4

Commands:...............................................................................12
3.4.1 Line:.......................................................................................... 12
3.4.1.1 Method To Draw A Line:............................................12

3.4.2 Rectangle:................................................................................13
3.4.3 Break:....................................................................................... 13
3.4.4 Rotate:...................................................................................... 14
3.4.5 Polygon:................................................................................... 14
3.4.6 Construction Lines:................................................................14
3.4.7 Poly Line:.................................................................................15
3.4.8 Area:......................................................................................... 15
3.4.9 Layers:...................................................................................... 16
3.4.10........................................................................................... Array:
16
3.4.10.1 Rectangular Array:..................................................17

3.4.11................................................................................Polar Array:
17

1 CONCRETE
1.1 Concrete:
Concrete is a product or mass, made by the use of cement, water and
aggregates (fine and course).
There is some fact about concrete;
Concrete is one of the most commonly used building materials.
Concrete is a composite material made from several readily
available constituents (aggregates, sand, cement, water).
Concrete is a versatile material that can easily be mixed to meet a
variety of special needs and formed to virtually any shape.

1.1.1Advantages:
There is some advantage of concrete;
Ability to be cast
Economical
Durable
Fire resistant
Energy efficient
On-site fabrication

1.1.2Disadvantages:
There is some disadvantage of concrete;
Low tensile strength
Low ductility
Volume instability
Low strength to weight ratio

1.1.3Constituents:
These are the main constituents of concrete;
Cement
Water

Fine Aggregates

Coarse Aggregates
Admixtures

1.1.4Mixing Of Concrete:
After measuring the different ingredients of concrete the next operation is
their mixing. The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes
homogeneous, uniform in colour and consistency. Segregation should not
take place during mixing operation. There are two methods of mixing.
Hand mixing
Machine mixing
1.1.4.1 Method Of Transportation Of Of Concrete:

Some method of concrete mixing;

Steel pan method

By wheel barrow
By dumper
By tripper
By truck mixer
By tower lift
By cable way
By crane
By pumping

1.1.5Transportation Of Concrete:
Factor affecting of transportation of concrete;

Time factor
Prevention from segregation
Check against loss of water
Easement in use
Yield of concrete

1.2 Properties Of Concrete:

Fresh concrete contain these some properties;
Workability
Consistency
Segregation
Bleeding
Uniformity

1.2.1Workablty:
It is desirable that freshly mixed concrete be relatively easy to
transport, place, compact and finish without harmful segregation. A concrete
mix satisfying these conditions is said to be workable.
1.2.1.1 Factors Affecting Workability:

Some effecting workability factor is

Method and duration of transportation
Quantity and characteristics of cementing materials
Aggregate grading, shape and surface texture
Quantity and characteristics of chemical admixtures
Amount of water
Amount of entrained air
Concrete & ambient air temperature

1.2.2Consstency:
Consistency is the fluidity or degree of wetness of concrete.
It is generally dependent on the shear resistance of the mass.

 It is a major factor in indicating the workability of freshly mixed

concrete.

1.2.2.1 Test Methods For Measuring Consistency:

Most use test for measuring consistency are;

Flow test measures the amount of flow
Kelly-Ball test measures the amount of penetration
Slump test (Most widely used test!)

Slump Test:

Measure the slump by determining the vertical difference between the top of
the mold and the displaced original center of the top surface of the

specimen. The slump cone is

filled in 3 layers. Every layer is
evenly rodded 25 times.

1.2.3Segregaton:
Segregation refers to a
separation of the
components of fresh concrete, resulting in a non-uniform mix
The primary causes of segregation are differences in specific gravity
and size of constituents of concrete. Moreover, improper mixing,
improper placing and improper consolidation also lead to segregation.

1.2.4Bleedng:
Bleeding is
Bleeding is the tendency of water to rise to the surface of freshly
placed concrete.
It is caused by the inability of solid constituents of the mix to hold all of
the mixing water
as they settle
down.
A special case of
segregation.
1.2.4.1 Undesirable
Effects Of
Bleeding Are:

With the
movement of water towards the top, the top portion becomes weak &
porous (high w/c). Thus the resistance of concrete to freezing-thawing
decreases.

Water rising to the surface carry fine particles of cement which weaken
the top portion and form laitance. This portion is not resistant to
abrasion.

Water may accumulate under the coarse agg. and reinforcement.

These large voids under the particles may lead to weak zones and
reduce the bond between paste and agg. or paste and reinforcement.

1.2.5Unformty:
Due to heteregeneous nature of concrete, there will always be some
variations. These variations are grouped as:

Within-Batch Variations : inadequate mixing, non-homogeneous

nature

Batch-to-Batch Variations : type of materials used, changes in

gradation of aggregates, changes in moisture content of
aggregates

1.3 Type Of Concrete:

There are many type of concrete. Some of them we discuss here

Plain cement concrete

Reinforced cement concrete
Light cement concrete
Pre stressed cement concrete
Reinforced brick

1.3.1Plain Cement Concrete:

Simplest form of concrete which is the mixture of cement water and
aggregate It is strong in compression and week in tension. So it is generally
used when there is no possibility of tensile stress its density is 144 lb/ft 3.

1.3.2Reinforced Cement Concrete:

As plain cement concrete is week in tension. The strength of concrete
increase by providing steel bars and the resulting concrete is called
reinforced cement concrete. It density is 150 lb/ft3.

1.3.3Light Cement Concret:

Concrete having density less than 100 lb/ft3. Is called has light weight
concrete. Is used for partition wall or non load bearing wall it is produced by
using 1. Light weight aggregate 2. Air entrained cement

1.3.4Pre Stressed Concrete:

Prescreened concrete is 3 to 4 time more strength then that ordinary
concrete. In this technique compression is produced at the bottom due to
which its ability to resist the load is increased in bridge guarder and railways
sleepers are mostly constricted following the pre stressed concrete.

1.3.5Reinforced Concrete:
In this type of concrete some portion of concrete is replaced by bricks. It is
cheaper to same extend then RCC but strength of concrete is decreased. It is
never recommended where there is direct contact to mixture if will transfer
the mixture to concrete and steel due to which strength of concrete is
decreased.

2 STAIR
2.1 Stair:
A stair is a convenient means of access between the floors of a building. It is
constructed to provide ready, easy, comfortable and safe ascent/descent
with series of steps that are neither laborious nor difficult to climb within an
enclosure
called
stairwell
(staircase).
Stairs may be made from timber, bricks, stone, metal and plain and
reinforced cement concrete. Finishing of marble, tiles, plaster, etc. are also
provided.

2.2 Parts Of Stair:

a stair consist on these part

Flight: Flight is an uninterrupted series of steps between floors or

between floor and landings, or between landing and landing.
Landing: Flat platform at the head of a series of steps.

 Stairwell: The space in which stair/landing are housed.

Tread: it is the upper surface of a step on which the foot is placed
during ascent/descends.
Riser: The vertical member between two successive treads.
Steps: The steps of a stair are made from a series of horizontal treads
with risers in between.
Rise: It is the distance measured vertically from the surface of one
tread to the surface of other.
Going: distance measured horizontally from the face of one riser to
the face of the next riser.
Nosing: The exposed edge of a tread, usually projecting with a square,
rounded or splayed edge. An imaginary line connecting all the nosing
points parallel to the slope of stair is called line of nosing.
Handrail: rail of metal/wood on the side of a stair fixed at about waist
high parallel to the slope of stair.
Newel: A post forming the junction of flights of stair. They are at the
top/bottom of a stair to support handrails.
Stringers: Inclined member in wooden stairs acting as wooden beams
to support the steps.
Baluster: Vertical member to support the handrail and placed
between steps and handrails.
Pitch: the inclination of stair can be defined as either by the rise and
going of the steps or as a pitch of a stair, which is the angle of stair
with the horizontal. The dimensions of the rise/going of steps
determine whether stair is steep (practically imposible to climb) or
shallow (too laborious/exhausting to climb).
Headroom/Clearance: It is the clear vertical distance between the
tread of the step and soffit of the stair above. For people and for
moving goods/furniture, the minimum headroom of 2.1m (measured
vertically) is recommended between line of nosing/soffit of stair, with
minimum clearance of 1.5m measured at right angle to the nosing line.
Winder: Radiating steps for changing direction of a stair.

2.3 Type Of Stair:

They are following type of stair;
Straight Flight
Quarter Turn
Dog-legged / Half turn
Circular / Spiral

2.3.1Straight Flight:
The type of flight in which No of
rises is more than 18 without a
change in direction.
Floor to floor
With / without landing
Simple
Economical / cheapest
Traditional
Used where space
is limited

2.3.2Quarter Turn:
Rises to landing
between floors
Turns through 90 degree
Economic / compact
Winders for economy / space saving

2.3.3Dog-Legged/ Half
Turn:
Rises to landing between
floors
Turns through 180 degree
Rises parallel to the lower
flight
Landing half space / half turn
Common, advantageous in planning with its dog-legged shape
Ends roughly where we start
Used in most buildings

2.3.4Open Well/ Open Newel:

similar to dog-legged but with larger space in between flights
also can be three quarter turn
with no. of flights
used in public buildings

2.3.5Circular/ Spiral
Economical / less use of floor
space
All the step are winder

2.4 Requirements For Good Stair:

Any well planned stair should meet the following criteria for easy, quick and
safe ascent/descent.
Location: It should be located so as to get sufficient light and
ventilation with easy access from all the rooms.
Stair width: Varies with situation however should follow the standard
recommended dimensions according to the building types.
Length of flight: A flight should have not lesser than three risers and
not more than 16 risers.
Pitch of stair: Stairs are pitched from 15 degrees to 55 degrees;
however recommended angle is between 25 to 40 degrees. Pitch of
long should be flattened by using landings.
Headroom: Minimum Clearance from tread to the soffit of stair above
(true vertical measurement) is 2.1m.
Materials: Should be fire resisting as far as possible.
Baluster: Open well staqirs should have it to avoid accidents.
Landing: Width of the landing should not be lass than with of the stair
flight at any case.
Winders: Should be avoided as far as possible, if not, should be kept at
lower end of flight. These are not suitable for public buildings
Step Proportions: The rise/going of each step in one flight and in flights and
landing between floors should be equal. Any variations may spoil rhythm. The
rise/going are proportioned so as to ensure comfortable access.

2.4.1Fixing The Going And The Rise Of A Step:

To set out a stair it is necessary to select a suitable rise and adjust the rise to
the floor to floor height so that the rise of each step is same throughout.
In general the following rules are used as a guide.
2R (Rise) + G (Going) = 600 (in mm)
R x G = 400 450 approx. (in sq. cm.)
Adopt standard size of going and rise as 300 and 140 respectively and
for each 25mm reduced from going add 12 13 mm to riser.

2.4.2Dimensions For Stairs:

Rise (mm)

Pitch
degree)

Going (mm)

(in

Unobstructed
width (mm)

Private stair

100
175 190
220 absolute max.

225

250

300

35
40
42 absolute max.

800

Reduced
min.
where
stair has
limited
use
600

Semi-public stair
(factories, offices,
shops,
schools,
etc.)

100

165

190

250

275

350

31

38

1000

800

Public
stair
(cinema, theatre,
stadium, hospitals,
etc.

100

150

180

280

300

350

27

33

1000

Stair
Min.

Opt.

Max.

Min.

Opt.

Max.

Opt.

Max.

Min.

Hospitals 1200

3 AUTO CAD
3.1 Auto Cad:
Auto cad is application software in which we can design all types of
drawings.
Many types of drafters use Autodesk software to create innovative drafting
plans and technical drawings. In order to aid in sketching diagrams and
technical drawings, Autodesk offers an AutoCAD software with drafting tools
for several industries. These industries include architecture, electrical,
mechanical, engineering and plumbing. Thousands of symbols, and design
and drafting functions are designed to common features within each of these
industries.
AutoCAD is a means of creating theoretical designs, practical drawings, and
documentation in many industries. It fits any design solution that requires a
general, customizable drafting, and design tool

3.2 Types Of Drawings:

There are two type of drawing;
Two dimensional
Three dimensional

3.2.1Two Dimensional:

A shape that only has two dimensions (such as width and height) and no
thickness.
Squares, Circles, Triangles, etc are two dimensional objects.
It having the dimensions of height and width only: a two-dimensional surface
(of a work of art) having its elements organized in terms of a flat surface, esp
ecially emphasizing the vertical and horizontal character of the picture plane
(in a literary work) shallow, unconvincing, or superficial in execution: a novel
having two-dimensional characters.

3.2.2Three Dimensional:
An object that has height, width and
depth, like any object in the real
world.
Example: your body is three-dimensional

3.3 Uses And Benefits Of Autocad:

The benefits of using
AutoCAD are as follows:
Saves time, money, and
reduce errors with dynamic
engineering model
.
Reduces purchase,
deployment, and support
costs with one complete
solution.
Increases value to clients
by delivering more design
alternatives in less time.

Creates production sheets faster.

Completes projects faster and reduce the chance of coordination errors.
Builds a foundation for your custom solution.
Clearly communicates design intent and complete final proposals with
realistic 3D rendering.

3.4 Commands:
Command is a shortcut way from which we can work on AutoCAD objects
easily for many purpose. There are many commands in auto cad software
but we are going to discuss some of them.

3.4.1 Line:
Line is the first and basic command to make any object
Process:Enter L
And give first point of line you can select this point after clicking anywhere or
using ( x , y ) values After selecting first point we select end point as we
need.
3.4.1.1 Method To Draw A Line:

There are four method to draw a line

Polar quardinate system
Relative quardinate system
Relative and polar quardinate system
Direct distance method

3.4.2Rectangle:
To draw a rectangle we inter (rec) command.
Process
Select 1st point of rectangle by clicking or giving the values of (x , y)
And then enter other corner of rectangle by giving the size of rectangle for
example we required a rectangle of 10 * 20, so that after select 1st corner
point give this size and then click enter

3.4.3Break:
This command is used to break the line from one point to an other

Process
Enter the command (BR) in command bar then select the 1st point from
where you want to break and then enter 2nd point so this line will break.

3.4.4Rotate:
It is used to rotate the objects at any angle
Process
To work at this command center (RO) in command bar and select the object ,
then click enter and put the object from any point and move the cursor at
any angle where you need to rotate the object. We can rotate the objects by
putting the angles in command bar.

3.4.5Polygon:
This command is used to draw a regular geometrical figure which have more
than four sides
Process
Enter the command (POL) and then write the sides of figure as well as you
need

3.4.6Construction Lines:
These lines used for help to making a drawing and we use these line for the
purpose of projection for making top , front, and side views, these lines
have no start point and no end point, with out horizontally and vertically
these line should be at any angle
Process

Enter the command of construction line which is (XL) and click on the point
of objects where you need a help line form making its internal parts or
showing the views of the objects

3.4.7Poly Line:
If we want to draw a line which is consciously going on. By using this
command we worked on object draw a continues line without giving the
command of line again and again
Process
enter the command (PL) and click on the specific point consciously without
giving the command of line for next
point where you should draw a line.

3.4.8Area:
This command is used to defined
the area of regular and irregular
geometrical shapes
Process
to defined the area of figure put the command (AA) in command bar and
then click on the corner points of figure one by one and then press the
button of enter

3.4.9Layers:
This is used to convert the different parts of object in different format so that
we can defined easily all doors of a drawing in same format and all windows
are in same format in format we can use the different colors . Different line
weight and we can also hide the lines of any one layer
Precess
Enter the command (LA) a dialogue box will be open in which we can change
color , line type and line weight and description of line and then enter
Now as you need all doors in same format then select the all doors and go to
layer bar and select layer which is prepared by you.

3.4.10

Array:

There are two types of array

To use array command put (AR) in the command bar.
Rectangular array
Polar array
3.4.10.1

Rectangular Array:

In rectangular array a rectangle is be divided into some number of rows and

Colum which we put in the dialogue box table

3.4.11

Polar Array:

In polar array a circle will be found radius lines

which are we put in the dialogue box table.