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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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PAGES

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Abstract/Summary
Introduction
Aims
Theory
Apparatus/Materials
Procedure
Results
Calculations
Discussion
Conclusion
Recommendations
Reference
Appendices

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10
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20
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1.0

ABSTRACT

2
3
4
4
9
9
10
14
15
17
17
18
19

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In this experiment, we use as pandan leaves a sample. This is because

pandan leaves take short time to dry and decrease the moisture content
faster with time. The measurement of the moisture content is based on the
weight of the sample which inversely proportional with the temperature and
time. The weight of water was recorded every ten minutes until there was no
more water in the sample (Reaching the equilibrium). Thus, the drying rate of
the sample can be determined. Based on the data from the experiment, the
mass and moisture content is decreasing with time, whereas the drying rate
is varying rapidly with time.

2.0

INTRODUCTION

Page | 3

Drying is a process of removal of relatively small amounts of water

from material. In drying the water is usually removed as a vapor by air.
Besides, some water also can be removed by mechanically from solid
materials by presses, centrifuging and other methods. This method is much
cheaper than drying by thermal means for removal of water. When a wet
solid is subjected to thermal drying, two processes occur simultaneously;
first is the transfer of energy, mostly as heat from the surrounding
environment to evaporate the surface moisture, and second is the transfer of
internal moisture to the surface of the solid and its subsequent evaporation
due to the first process.
Drying processes can be classified as batch, where the material is
inserted to the drying equipment and drying proceeds for a given period of
time, or as continuous, where the material is continuously added to the dryer
and dried material continuously removed.
The common type of dryer in many industrial applications that involve
drying operation is tray dryers (or cabinet dryers). The dryers are made of
trays held in a cabinet, which is

connected to a source of heated air by gas,

diesel or biomass. The food, which is to be dried, is spread out, generally

quite thinly, on trays which the drying takes place.
Most tray dryers are heated by air, which also removes the moist
vapours. The dryer trays are tight-fitting in the cabinet to prevent air from
bypassing the material to be dried. Tray dryers require low capital and
maintenance costs but have relatively poor control and produces more
variable product quality. However, in recirculation designs, the moisture
laden air, after evaporating water from food, would have to be dried before
being undergo recirculation, or else it would soon become saturated and
further drying of the food would stop.

Page | 4

One of the most important problems encountered is not to supply the

same drying rate at the all position within the tray dryers. The other is the
fast drying of food in the position where the air first enters to the system and
the slow drying of food in the other position. Therefore, additional heaters
and fans may be placed above or alongside the trays to increase the rate of
drying. Tray dryer are used for small-scale production or for pilot-scale work.
3.0

OBJECTIVES

To determine the drying rate of the sample by drying method using tray
dryer

4.0

THEORY

4.1

Principle of drying

The purpose of drying is to remove the liquid adhering to a material and

contained within it. The drying curve depends on the form in which the
moisture is present in the material to be dried. The surface moisture is
evaporated first and carried away by the drying air as it surrounds the
materials to be dried as a thin film.
The drying process proceed more slowly for the moisture that is located in
capillaries and pores within the material. This is because the capillary forces
or diffusion resistance must be overcome.
The removal of the water of crystallization contained in the material to be
dried is even more difficult as it is bonded by relatively strong molecular
forces. To expel it, the material to be dried has to be intensely heated. The
drying curve is therefore divided into several stages. In the first drying stage,

Page | 5

the liquid adhering to the surfaces of the material to be dried evaporates

rapidly at a uniform drying rate.
Drying of the capillaries is followed by drying in the pores. To do this, the
liquid situated there must be evaporated so that it can diffuse through the
material to be dried. This process is relatively slow and thus further reduces
the drying rate. Intense heating of the material to be dried over longer
period of time finally expels the liquid bonded within the crystal structure. In
most technical drying does not continue to absolute dryness but to an
agreed residual moisture level.

4.2

Drying process

Drying is the process of thermally removing volatile substances (e.g.

moisture) to yield a solid product. Mechanical methods for separating a liquid
from a solid are not considered in thermal drying. When a wet solid is
subjected to thermal drying, two processes occur simultaneously. First, is the
transfer of energy, mostly as heat from the surrounding environment to
evaporate the surface moisture, and second is the transfer of internal
moisture to the surface of the solid and its subsequent evaporation due to
the first process.
Drying occurs with the help of evaporation by supplying heat to the wet
feedstock. There are two option for medium of heat transfer that is through
convection by direct driers or conduction by contact or indirect driers. The
removal of water from drying is to inhibit the growth of microorganisms and
therefore the food is well preserved besides reducing the weight and bulk of
food for cheaper transport and storage. When carried out correctly, any
alternation of nutritional quality, colour, flavour and texture of rehydrated
foods will not be affected to much.

Page | 6

Drying methods and processes can be classified as batch, where the material
is inserted into the drying equipment and drying proceeds for a given period
of time, or as continuous, where the material is continuously added to the
dryer and dried material continuously removed. Drying processes can also be
categorized according to the physical conditions used to add heat and
remove water vapour. In the first category, heat is added by direct contact
with heated air at atmospheric pressure, and the water vapour formed is
removed by the air. In vacuum drying, the evaporation of water proceeds
more rapidly at low pressure, and the heat is added indirectly by contact with
a metal wall or by radiation (low temperature can also be used under
vacuum for certain materials that may decolourize or decompose at higher
temperature). Infreeze drying, water is sublimed from the frozen material.

Figure 4.1: Drying process

The first consideration in selecting a dryer is its operability. The equipment

must produce the desired product in the form at the desired rate. The quality
required in a final product, and its necessary physical characteristics, are
determined by its end use. The final choice is then made on the basis of
capital and operating costs. Attention must be paid, however, to the costs of
the entire isolation system, not just the drying unit alone.
Thermally sensitive materials must be dried at low temperature under
vacuum, with a low-temperature heating medium, or very rapidly. The dryer

Page | 7

must also operate reliably, safely, and economically. Operation and

maintenance costs must be excessive, pollution must be controlled, energy
consumption must be minimised. As far as the drying operation itself is
concerned, adiabatic dryer are generally less expensive than non-adiabatic
dryers, in spite of the lower thermal efficiency of adiabatic units.
Unfortunately there is usually a lot of dust carry over from adiabatic dryers,
and these entrained particles must be removed almost quantitatively from
the drying gas.
In herbs and medicinal industry, most medicinal and culinary herbs are sold
dried. When drying large quantities of herbs for commercial sale, growers
should use a forced-air dryer to preserve their colour, flavour, oil content,
and medicinal properties. To achieve this, good air circulation with in the
dryer is important, as it reduces drying time and allows the use of lower
temperature, both of which can prevent the degradation of chemical
constituents during the drying process. Therefore, dependable temperature
control and the ability to provide high air flow throughout the plant material
are important. Drying temperature and times differ by plants, and plant
parts, thus most herbs should be dried at low temperatures, ideally around
90-100F. When outside conditions are hot and humid, however, it may be
necessary to raise temperatures to as high as 130F. The size of the dryer
should be based on the herb production area and how much will be
harvested at one time.
The dryer should have well-spaced racks to ensure that all sides of the plant
receive sufficient air flow and the plant material dries evenly. Then shelves
should be constructed of food grade screens or covered with an acceptable
food grade material. The dryer should be free of dust, dirt, insects, and
rodents. Evidence of any of these in the final product can lower its value or
render it unmarketable (University, 2008).

Page | 8

The dryer should be able to hold an entire harvest and dry it fast enough that
the crop does not spoil. Efficiency and economic concerns must be taken into
consideration to ensure the cost-effectiveness of its operation. Likewise, a
dryer can be constructed from a new or existing shed outfitted with a heater,
fan, and dehumidifier. Additionally, a grower may choose to construct one
from scratch. In this experiment, pandan leaves are chosen as herbs that
undergo drying process by operating tray dryer. The best method to dry herb
will depend largely on the physical characteristics of the material, the
volume of herb in the dryer, and the relative humidity of the outside air.
Different herbs will require different temperatures. Typically, the higher the
ambient humidity, the higher the temperature that is required to dry the
material thoroughly. Introducing drier air will reduce the amount of time the
material is in the dryer, thus reducing the cost of drying the material. The
moisture content of dried products is very important, and if it is too high,
moulds and yeasts tend to grow. The moisture content may be checked using
content may be checked using scales and an oven. The following is the
expression that we may use in order to calculate the moisture content of our
drying tea leaves.
The most important key figure in drying is the moisture content V of the
material to be dried. This is defined as :
mFL
V= mST

............. Equation (1)

mFL

= mass of liquid in kg

mST

= mass of solid in dry state in kg

The change in the moisture content during the drying process can be used to
derive the drying rate v.

Page | 9

V
t

V=

............. Equation (2)

= Change in moisture content

= Drying time for this change

4.3

The Mollier h,x diagram

The Mollier diagram provides information about the loading of the air with
water, depending on the temperature and the relative humidity. This diagram
only applies at atmospheric pressure. The loading X describes the mass ratio
of water vapour in the air

X=

m0

to the mass of the dry air

mD
mL

mt

.....................Equation (3)

The axis labels have the following meanings:

X : Loading [g/kg]

: Relative humidity [hPa/hPa]

: Temperature of moist air [C]

h : Specific enthalpy of air [kJ/kg]

h/ X

: Change in enthalpy for 1 kg absorbed water vapour [kJ/kg]

The lines in the Mollier diagram have the following meanings:

1. Lines of constant temperature (isotherms)
2. Lines of constant specific enthalpy (isenthalps)
3. Lines of constant relative humidity,
4. Lines of constant loading X

As we move along a line in the Mollier diagram, the corresponding variables

does not change.

P a g e | 10

Other important parameter for drying process is the drying rates, v (min-1)

V=

5.0
1.
2.
3.
4.

6.0

xt 1 xt
T 2T 1
2

APPARATUS
Tray dryers
Analytical balance
Pandan leaves
Anemometer

PROCEDURE

1. All of the equipment which used in this experiment were switched on.
2. Rinse the empty tray using water before start.
3. The mass of the empty tray were measured and tare. The data was
recorded.
4. The dry pandan leaves were sprinkled with enough of water to make it
wet.
5. The pandan leaves were placed onto the empty tray and put into the
tray dryers to be prepared to be dried.
6. The initial mass of the wet tea herbs were measured and recorded
being dried.
7. The initial temperature and humidity which shown on the tray dryers
taken and recorded. The initial air flow inside the tray dryers were
measured using the anemometer and the readings was recorded.
8. The drying process is started by pressing the HEAT button on the tray
dryers.
9. All of the data read and recorded every 10 minutes in one hour thirty
minutes of the drying process of the pandan leaves.
10.
The moisture content and the drying rate were calculated.
11.
The graph of drying rate against moisture content was plotted.

P a g e | 11

7.0

RESULTS

7.1

Data

Initial values:
Weight of tray (4 trays) = 1390.2 g
Initial weight of sample pandan = 120.5 g
Initial Temperature 1 = 27.4 C
Initial Temperature 2 = 42.3 C
Initial Humidity 1 = 42.5 %rF
Initial Humidity 2 = 00.5 %rF
Moisture content = 43.8 g
Table 7.1: The data during 90 minutes
Time

Weig

Temperatur

Temperatur

Humidity

Humidity

Velocit

Moistu

Dryin

(mins

ht (g)

e1

e2

re

(C)

(C)

(%rF)

(%rF)

(m/s)

conten

Rate

(g/mi

(g)
41.1
34.6
29.1
23.5

n)
0.270
0.460
0.490
0.506

10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0

117.8
111.3
105.8
100.2

43.6
44.9
45.5
45.8

42.6
44.2
46.9
45.2

08.0
07.5
07.5
07.5

06.7
06.6
06.6
06.6

0.47
0.66
1.28
1.43

P a g e | 12

50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0

94.4
89.8
85.6
81.7
76.7

7.2

46.0
45.8
46.1
45.8
46.8

45.4
45.2
45.6
45.4
46.3

07.5
07.5
07.5
07.5
07.5

06.6
06.6
06.6
06.6
06.6

1.51
1.49
1.50
1.55
1.38

17.7
13.1
8.9
5.0
0.0

Graph
Weight of sample against time
140
120
100
80
Weight (g)

60
40
20
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Time (minutes)

Figure 7.1: Graph of weight against time

80

90

0.522
0.512
0.499
0.485
0.487

P a g e | 13

Temperature vs Time
50
45
40
35
30
Temp (C)

25

Temperature 1

20

Temperature 2

15
10
5
0
0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
TIme (minutes)

Figure 7.2: Graph of Temperatures 1 and 2 against time

Humidity vs Time
45
40
35
30
25
Humidity (%rF)

Humidity 1

20

Humidity 2

15
10
5
0
0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time (minutes)

Figure 7.3: Graph of Humidity 1 and 2 against time

P a g e | 14

Velocity vs Time
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

TIme (minutes)

Figure 7.4: Graph of velocity against time

Moisture content vs Time

50
45
40
35
30
Moisture content (g)

25
20
15
10
5
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Time (minutes)

Fig
ure 7.5: Graph of moisture content against time

P a g e | 15

Drying Rate vs Time

0.6
0.5
0.4
Drying rate (g/min)

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Time (minutes)

Figure 7.6: Graph of drying rate against time

8.0

CALCULATIONS

8.1

Calculation of moisture content:

To calculate the total moisture content of the sample pandan leaves, the
following formula is used:
Total Moisture content , mTotal =minitialm final
Total Moisture content , mTotal =120.576.7=43.8 g
To calculate moisture content at certain time, the following formula is used:
Moisture content =mTotal (m initialmt )

P a g e | 16

Where mt is the mass of pandan sample at a certain time t. For example, to

calculate moisture content at 30 minutes:
Moisture content =mTotal ( m initialm t =30 ) =43.8(120.5105.8)=29.1 g
8.2

Calculation of Drying Rate:

To calculate the overall drying rate of the tray dryer, the following formula is
used:
Overall Drying rate=

mTotal 43.8 g
=
=0.489 g /min
t
90 mins

To calculate the drying rate at a certain time range, the following formula can
be used:
Drying rate=

m t 1mt 2
; t 1 >t 2
t 1t 2

For example, to calculate the drying rate at t=40 mins:

Drying rate=

mt 1mt 2 23.543.8
=
=0.508 g /min
t 1t 2
400

To calculate drying rate from t=20 mins to t=50 mins:

Drying rate=

9.0

mt 1mt 2 17.734.6
=
=0.563 g /min
t 1t 2
5020

DISCUSSION
Based on the graphs plotted, for graph A, which is mass of pandan

sample versus time, the mass of pandan sample decreases with time. This is
due to the loss of moisture content during the drying process, in which we

P a g e | 17

can observe from graph E, which is graph of moisture content versus time.
These two graphs show similar patterns, that is they both show declining
slope.
The moist content in the pandan leaves sample decreases with time by
evaporation process. During the first 10 minutes, the drying rate is relatively
low, compared to the drying rates after that. The best explanation for this is,
at this time, the heat is being transferred by various methods to the sample
and the moist content in it. Heat is transferred by conduction from the trays.
Heat is also transferred via convection with the moving air surroundings.
Besides that, heat is also transferred by radiation with the air surroundings.
This heat will cause the moist in the pandan sample to migrate to the surface
of the sample. This explains the small decrease in weight and moisture
content, as the moist particles are mostly still within the sample.
After the 10-minute period, we can observe from graph F, drying rate
against time, starts to increase drastically. This pattern is also related to the
pattern in graphs A and E, where the mass of sample and moisture content
starts to show a larger decrement. This is because, at this stage, the moist
content, which has already migrated to the surface of the sample, starts to
evaporate to the surroundings. Thus, the moisture content in the pandan
sample becomes lesser as the drying is conducted. At this stage as well, the
velocity of the dryer starts to increase rapidly, thus increasing the rate of
evaporation. This is because at high speeds, the moisture particles
surrounding the pandan leaves sample will be pushed away from the sample,
thus leaving more space for more moist particles to be evaporate from the
pandan.
As for the humidity in the dryer, it is observed that after the 10-minute
mark, the humidity shows a much lower value than compared to before the
10-minute mark. Low humidity also promotes faster evaporation rate. Low
humidity means that there is low moist content in the dryer surroundings.

P a g e | 18

This means that there is not much space in the air which is occupied by
moist particles, thus allowing the moist from the pandan to evaporate
quicker, as there is less barrier in the air surrounding it. It is also observed
that the humidity remains constant throughout the process, after the 10minute mark.

For the temperature inside the dryer, for temperature 2, which is the
temperature after the tray and samples, is nearly constant throughout the
entire process. As for temperature 1, which is the temperature before the
tray and samples, before the 10-minute mark, the temperature is quite low,
as compared to the temperature after t=10 minutes. After 10 minutes, both
temperatures show similar values, which are in the range 40C < T < 50C,
which is quite high. This can be related to the larger decrease in moist
content and mass of samples during the same period of time. High
temperatures promote faster evaporation, thus explaining the higher drying
rate at this time interval.
However, after the 50-minute mark, the drying process starts to
become slower. From graph A and E, the decrement in weight and moist
content respectively, starts to become smaller, as compared to before this
time period. A similar pattern is observed for graph F, graph of drying rate.
The drying rate starts to decrease after t=50 minutes. These conditions
occur, as the rate of evaporation has become the limiting factor. The
evaporation rate as a limiting factor, means that unless the rate of
evaporation increases, the drying rate will remain nearly constant.
The rate of evaporation at this period starts to slow down, as the moist
content at this time has become very low, thus less moist particles
evaporate from the pandan leaves. Although the temperature remains high,
the humidity remains low and the air velocity remains high, these factors
give no effect as the evaporation rate has become the limiting factor.

P a g e | 19

10.0 CONCLUSION
The mass of pandan sample decreases with time. The moist content in the
pandan leaves sample decreases with time by evaporation process. During
the first 10 minutes, the drying rate is relatively low. As for the humidity in
the dryer, it is observed that after the 10-minute mark, the humidity shows a
much lower value than compared to before the 10-minute mark.
For the temperature inside the dryer, for temperature 2, which is the
temperature after the tray and samples, is nearly constant throughout the
entire process. As for temperature 1, which is the temperature before the
tray and samples, before the 10-minute mark, the temperature is quite low,
as compared to the temperature after t=10 minutes. After 10 minutes, both
temperatures show similar values, which are in the range 40C < T < 50C,
which is quite high.
Although the temperature remains high, the humidity remains low and
the air velocity remains high, these factors give no effect as the evaporation
rate has become the limiting factor.

11.1 RECOMMENDATION
There are several steps of recommendation to be considered in this experiment to
get an accurate data and progressing smoothly. Firstly, general step-up must be
conducted as given, then followed by the experiment procedures and end with the

P a g e | 20
general shut-down procedures. It is to make sure that the experiment can be
performing successfully. Besides, use a proper knife or scissor to cut pandan leaves.
Do not operate this unit in cold condition. In addition, during taking the reading of
weight of pandan leaves by using digital weighing balance, the reading of weight
should be taking in more significant figures so that to avoid any error and get result
more accurate in order the true values could be minimized. Moreover, the average
weight of pandan leaves should be calculated by taking weight of pandan leaves in
three or two time in order to get more accurate value.

12.0 REFERENCES

1. Limiting Factor. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limiting_factor
2. The Rate of a Chemical Reaction. (n.d.). Retrieved from ChemWiki:
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Kinetics/Reaction_Rates/Reac
tion_Rate/The_Rate_of_a_Chemical_Reaction
3. University, N.C.S. (2008) 'Dryer for Commercial Herb Growers', October, pp.
1-8.
4. Bird, R.B, Steward. WE, and Lightfoot, EN, Transport Phenomena, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc, 1960.
5. Lab manual (2014). Chemical engineering Laboratory 1.

P a g e | 21

13.0 APPENDICES

Figure 13.1: Control panel

Figure 13.2: Fan

P a g e | 22

Figure 13.3: Pandan leaves

Figure 13.4: Dryer

Figure 13.5: Anemometer

Figure 13.6: Tray dryer unit