THE ENGLISH VERB

Verbs in English
A verb in syntax is a part of speech which conveys
1. action (bring, read, walk, run, learn)
2. or state of being (exist, stand)
Sentences in English have a main verb which is stated in a tense (simple present, simple past, simple
future...)

Inflections
Verbs are inflected, modified in form, when conjugated. For example, verbs take s, ed or ing in some
of its forms depending on the tense and the subject-verb agreement.

Agreement
In English a verb may agree with the person and number of its subject. For example, verbs take s in the
third person singular of the simple present:

Bare Infinitive

Third Person Singular

play

he she it plays

work

he, she, it works

When the verb to have conjugates in the third person singular of the simple present, the right
inflection is has NOT haves
The verb to be has different inflections:

to be
I

am

he, she, it

is

we, you, they

are

Transitive or intransitive verbs

Verbs can be classified according to whether they are transitive or intransitive verbs:
Intransitive: the verb only has a subject.
For example:
he runs - it falls.
Transitive: the verb has a subject and a direct object.
For example:
she speaks English - we visit him.

Transitive verbs
Transitive verbs are verbs that require one or more objects.
Examples:
She cut the cake.
They climbed the mountain.
He gave her a flower.
The verbs cut, climbed, and gave have objects.
Transitive verbs

Objects

cut

the cake

climbed

the mountain

gave

her and a flower

Transitive verbs can be categorized into two types: monotransitive and ditransitive:

1. Monotransitive verbs are verbs that require exactly one object.

Example:
He wrote a poem
2. Ditransitive verbs are verbs that may require two objects, a direct object and an indirect
object.
Example:
She offered him (first object) her car (second object).

Intransitive verbs
By contrast, intransitive verbs do not require an object.
Examples:
They run.
He died.
She slept.
It snows.
The verbs run, died, slept and snows have no objects. They are intransitive.

Finite Verbs

What is a finite verb?

A finite verb is a form of a verb that has a subject and exhibit tense and number in an independent
clause or sentence. Finite verbs are distinguished from non-finite verbs which do not show a distinction
in tense and number, and cannot stand alone as the main verb in an independent clause.

Examples
They watched the match. - They is a subject; watched is a finite verb; the match is an object.
They are watching the match. - They is a subject; are is a finite; watching is a non-finite verb (which
does not exhibit tense); the match is an object.

Non-Finite Verbs
What is a non-finite verb?
A non- finite verb is a form of a verb that does not have a subject and and does not exhibit tense and
number in an independent clause or sentence. In English, the non-finite verb forms
are infinitives and gerunds and participles. Non-finite verbs are distinguished from finite verbs which
show a distinction in tense and number, and may stand alone as the main verb in an independent
clause.

Examples
They are writing the letter. - They is a subject; are is a finite; writing is a non-finite verb (which does
not exhibit tense nor number); the match is an object.
They wrote the letter . - They is a subject; wrote is a finite verb; the letter is an object.

Auxiliary verbs
What are auxiliary verbs?
Basically, auxiliary verbs are function words, a type of closed class which is constituted of words that
have a grammatical function as opposed to content words, which are an open class of lexical words. An
auxiliary verb is used to add functional or grammatical content to the information expressed by
another verb, considered to be the main verb. Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs
Examples:

I am writing a book.
He has done the work.
We will be there in a minute.
Would you help me with this homework?
Can you open the door?
Did you visit New York last holiday?
Do you like chocolate?
They must get there on time.

List of auxiliary verbs

This is a list of English auxiliary verbs:

be (am, are, is, was, were, being),

can,
could,
do (did, does, doing),
have (had, has, having),
may,
might,
must,
shall,
should,
will,
would

Auxiliary verb or full verb?

To distinguish a full verb from an auxiliary verb, you can carry out the following test:
If the verb
1. allows subject-auxiliary inversion
2. and can take can take not in the negative form,
then it is an auxiliary verb.

Examples:

You are going to travel to London. -Are you going to travel to London?
You are not going to travel to London.
= are is an an auxiliary verb
You see what I mean. -*See you what I mean.
*You see not what I mean.
= see is not an auxiliary verb; it is a full verb.
(The asterisk * indicates that the sentence is not grammatical.)

Linking verbs

What are linking verbs?

Linking verbs (also referred to as copulas or copular verbs) don't show action like ordinary verbs. They
rather link or connect the subject to a subject complement, the part of the sentence that follows the
verb. This complement which contains additional information describes and identifies the subject.
Examples:

Larry looks happy. (looks is a linking verb; happy is a complement that describes and identifies
Larry, the subject)
The play was good. (was is a linking verb; good is a complement that describes and identifies
the play, the subject

List of linking verbs

This is a list of common linking verbs:

appear
be
become
feel
get
grow
look
prove
remain
seem
smell
stay
sound
taste
turn

Linking verb?

Some of the verbs listed above can function as linking verbs and as ordinary verbs. One trick that you
can use to identify whether a verb is a linking verb or an ordinary verb is to see the relation between
the subject and complement. If the relation is indicative of an equal sign (=), then it is a linking verb.
Consider the following examples:

He looks angry. (He = angry | linking verb)

He looked at the man. (He = at the man | action verb)

Examples:
look:

Nadia looked happy. (linking verb)

Nadia looked at the window. (ordinary verb)

taste

The food tastes delicious. (linking verb)

They tasted the food. (ordinary verb)

appear

She appeared quiet. (linking verb)

She appeared in the room. (ordinary verb)

Parts of Speech

Parts of Speech
In grammar, a part of speech (also called lexical categories, grammatical categories or word classes)
is a linguistic category of words. In English there are eight parts of speech.

A list of parts of speech

A list of parts of speech in English grammar include the following:
1. Verb
A verb is used to show an action or a state of being
go, write, exist, be
2. Noun
A noun is a word used to refer to people, animals, objects, substances, states, events, ideas and
feelings. A noun functions as a subject or object of a verb and can be modified by an adjective.

John, lion, table, freedom, love ...

3. Adjective
Adjectives are used to describe or specify a noun or pronoun
good, beautiful, nice, my ...
4. Adverb
An adverb is used to modify a verb, adjective and other adverbs.
completely, never, there ...
5. Pronoun
A pronoun is used in the place of a noun or phrase.
I, you, he, she, it ...
6. Preposition
Prepositions are used before nouns to form a phrase that shows where, when, how and why
in, above, to, for, at ...
7. Conjunction
Conjunctions join clauses or sentences or words
and, but, when ...
8. Interjection
Interjections are used to show surprise or emotion.
oh!, Good Lord

Examples of parts of speech

Here are some examples of parts of speech:

My (adjective) friend (noun) speaks (verb) English (noun) fluently (adverb).

Oh! (interjection) I ( pronoun) went (verb) to (preposition) school (noun) and (conjunction) I
( pronoun) met (verb) Fred (noun).

Direct and Indirect Object

What is an object?
An object in grammar is a part of a sentence, and often part of the predicate. It refers to someone or
something involved in thesubject's "performance" of the verb. It is what the verb is being done to. As an
example, the following sentence is given:

Subject
Leila

Verb
wrote

Object
the poem

"Leila" is the subject, the doer or performer,

"wrote" is a verb that refers to the action,
"the poem" is the object involved in the action.

Transitive and intransitive verbs

A verb can be classified as transitive or intransitive according to whether it takes or doesn't take an
object:

If a verb takes objects, then it is a transitive verb.

Example:
They played soccer. (The verb play takes ONE object 'soccer')
They sent him a postcard. (The verb send takes TWO objects 'him' and 'a postcard')
If a verb doesn't take an object, then it is an intransitive verb.
Example:
She lies. (The verb 'lie' doesn't take any object)
The building collapsed. (The verb 'collapse' doesn't take any object)

Types of objects
There are two types of objects: direct and indirect objects:

Direct object
A direct object answers the question "what?" or "whom?"
Examples:

David repaired his car his car is the direct object of the verb repaired. ( What did David
repair?)
He invited Mary to the party Mary is the direct object of the verb invited. (Whom did he
invite?)

Indirect Object

An indirect object answers the question "to whom?", "for whom?", "for what?"...
An indirect object is the recipient of the direct object, or an otherwise affected participant in the
event. There must be a direct object for an indirect object to be placed in a sentence. In other words
an indirect object cannot exist without a direct object.

Examples:

They sent him a postcard - him is the indirect object of the verb sent. (To whom did they send
a postcard?)
He bought his son a bike - his son is the indirect object of the verb bought. (For whom did he
buy a bike?)

Sentence and sentence structure

What is a sentence?
In grammar, a sentence is the basic grammatical unit. It contains a group of words and expresses a
complete thought.
A sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. For example in the sentence "Bill writes good
poems" Bill is the subject of the sentence and writes good poems is the predicate.

Simple and complex sentences

Simple sentences contain one clause:

The girl is learning how to drive

Complex sentences contain more than one clause.

The girl who is learning how to drive is still twelve years old.
She faced the whole trouble with courage and managed to solve the problem all by herself.

Types of sentences
There are four types of sentences:
1. Declarative sentence
Applicants will be answered in due time. (It makes a statement.)
2. Imperative sentence
Show me your photo album, please. ( Gives a command or makes a request.)
3. Interrogative sentence
Do you like this photo? (Asks a question.)
4. Exclamatory sentence
What a beautiful dress she is wearing ! (Shows strong feeling)

Subjunctive

Subjunctive
The subjunctive is a rare form. There are two sorts of subjunctive in English:

the present subjunctive,

the past subjunctive.

The form of the subjunctive

Present
The subjunctive in the present is the same as the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to") for all verbs.

Subject pronouns
I
you
he, she, it
we
you
they

The verb to be
be
be
be
be
be
be

The verb to meet

meet
meet
meet
meet
meet
meet

Past
The past subjunctive relates only to the verb to be. It takes the form were

Subject pronouns
I
you
he, she, it
we
you
they

The verb to be
were
were
were
were
were
were

Use of subjunctive
1.We generally use the subjunctive when talking about events that are not certain to happen,
especially when talking about events someone wants to happen, hopes will happen or imagines
happening.

Examples

The minister hopes that you help him with the new law.
If I were you I would buy this house.

2.Typically, the subjunctive is used after these structures:

It is essential, vital, important, necessary, desirable,...+ that

The verbs ask, recommend, request, suggest, insist, propose, command + that

Examples

It is vital that you finish your studies.

I suggest that you visit Paris.

3.Some fixed expressions use the subjunctive. Here are some examples:

Long live the King!

God bless America!

In conditional sentences type II

The subjunctive form of the verb to be is used in conditional sentences type II, So after 'if' (and other
words having the same meaning) the verb 'to be' takes the form of the past subjunctive.

If I were rich I would buy that beautiful car.

If she were attentive to his problems she would help him.
Suppose you were a millionaire, what would you do?

The form and use of the imperative

Form of the imperative
The imperative form is the same as the bare infinitive. It has only one form for both second person
singular and plural 'you'
Examples:

hurry up; you'll be late

go out immediately

In the negative form you add 'do not' or 'don't'

Examples:

Don't disturb me; I'm working.

Do not smoke!

Use of the imperative

You can use the imperative to give instructions, commands, advice or to invite:
1. To give instructions

Push the button

Turn left

2. To give commands

Stop saying nonesense

don't lie.

3. To give advice

Go to hospital; you are ill

Tell her that you love her

4. To invite

Please, come to the party

Have a drink

Use of the emphatic do with the imperative

You can use 'do' before the imperative to emphasize what you want to say:
Example:

Do write down your name.

Do think of our offer.

Conditional Simple

Conditional simple is a form used to refer to a hypothetical state of affairs, or an uncertain event that
is contingent on another set of circumstances. It is formed as follows:

Would + Verb
Forms
Affirmative
I would travel around the world.

Interrogative
Would you buy a castle?

Negative
I wouldn't stay here.

Use
Conditional simple is used in the following cases:

in a hypothetical actions that might take place.

in conditional sentence type II. For example,

Example:
If I had enough money, I would buy a new laptop.

Conditional Progressive

The conditional progressive refers to an action that might take place.

Form
Would + be + present participle
Present participle = Verb + ing (e.g. playing, writing, driving...)

Affirmative
I would be traveling around the world

Interrogative
Would you be watching the match?

Negative
I wouldn't be sleeping all day long?

Use
Conditional progressive is used for actions that might take place and puts emphasis on the course of an
action. It is used in the main clause of conditional sentences type 2.

Examples

If he had a lot of money, he would be traveling around the world.

If I were free, I would be watching the movie.
If the music were better, everybody would be dancing.
I would be having a good time if I met my friends.

Conditional Perfect
Conditional perfect is an English grammatical tense. It relates an action that someone would have
done.

Form
would + have + past participle

Affirmative
I would have traveled around the world.

Interrogative
Would you have traveled around the world?

Negative
I wouldn't have stayed in my hometown.

Use

Conditional perfect is used for something that might have happened in the past.
It is also used in the main clause of conditional sentences type in type III.

Examples

She would have met him if she had come earlier.

You would have got more money, if you had worked harder.
He would have passed the test, if he had studied.
We would have arrived on time, if we had run faster.

Passive Voice

The passive vs the active voice:

The Active Voice

The Passive Voice

Most countries in Latin America speak Spanish.

Spanish is spoken in most countries in latin America.

Use of the passive voice:

1. Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known,
however, who or what is performing the action.
Example: "A letter was written."
The focus, here, is on the fact that a letter was written. We don't know, however, who wrote
it.
2. Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example
shows:
Example: A vase was broken.
Focus, here, is on the fact that a vase was broken, but we don't blame anyone. Compare this
to: "You broke the vase."

Form of the passive voice:

Subject + the appropriate form of to be + Past Participle

NOTE: The appropriate form of to be = To be is put in the the tense of the active voice main verb.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
The form of the verb is the appropriate form of to be (the tense of the active voice main verb)
+ the past participle.
The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped.)

Example:

Active

Nancy

makes
subject

verb

Tea
Passive

tea
object

is made (by Nancy)

object becoming
subject

verb

subject becoming object or is

dropped

Examples of the passive voice:

Tense
Simple Present
Present
Progressive
Simple Past
Past
Progressive
Present Perfect
Past Perfect

Subject
Active: Nancy
Passive: Tea
Active: Nancy
Passive: Tea
Active: Nancy
Passive: Tea
Active: Nancy
Passive: Tea
Active: Nancy
Passive: Tea
Active: Nancy
Passive: Tea
Active: Nancy

Future simple
Future perfect
Conditional
Modals

Passive:

Tea

Active: Nancy
Passive: Tea
Active: Nancy
Passive: Tea
Active: Nancy

Verb

Object

makes

tea.

is made

by Nancy.

is making

tea.

is being made

by Nancy.

made

tea.

was made

by Nancy.

was making

tea.

was being made

by Nancy.

has made

Tea.

has been made

by Nancy.

had made

tea.

had been made

by Nancy.

will make

tea.

will be made

by Nancy.

will have made

tea.

will have been made

by Nancy.

would make

tea.

would be made

by Nancy.

can make

tea.

Passive: Tea

can be made

by Nancy.

Passive voice sentences with two Objects:

Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects
becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject
depends on what you want to put the focus on.

Active/Passi
ve

Subject

Verb

Object 1

Object 2

Active:

Nancy

offered

a flower

to me.

Passive:

A flower

was offered

to me

by Nancy.

Passive:

was offered

a flower

by Nancy.

Impersonal Passive:
Study these examples:

They say that the planet is in danger.

It is said that the planet is in danger.

This type of passive is called impersonal because we use the impersonal form "it is..." This is only
possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know ...)

Examples:

It
It
It
It

is said that...
is thought that...
is believed that...
is known that...

It is also common that we start the passive form of these sentences with the subject of the thatclause:

Examples:

They say that the planet is in danger.= The planet is said to be in danger.
They think that women live longer than men. = Women are thought to live longer.

Adjectives

What are adjectives?

1. An adjective is a word which modifies a noun or a pronoun. In the example below:
He's got a beautiful car
beautiful is an adjective modifying car (it gives more information about the noun car.)

2. Adjectives may come before a noun

He found a nice job
3. Adjectives may also come after certain verbs like be, feel, seem, look:
He is intelligent
I feel happy
She seems unhappy
They look fantastic

Adjectives versus adverbs

A distinction must be made between adjectives and adverbs.
1. An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun.
She lives in a big house.
2. An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
She sings well
Her house is very big
She did it really well

Comparatives and superlatives

Adjectives can be used for comparison:
New York is bigger than Paris.
This is the nicest student in the class.

Other noun modifiers

There are other noun modifiers which function very much like adjectives:
1. Nouns can function as adjectives. A noun can help describe an object.
A business meeting
2. Past participle can also be used to modify a noun
He was exhausted
The hidden secret
3. Compound adjectives are used to modify nouns. They are called compound because they are made
up of two or more words, usually with hyphens between them.

A heart-breaking news
An English-speaking country .

Participle Adjectives / Participial adjectives

Participles
A participle is a word that may function as a verb or as adjective. It can be used in verb tenses or as a
modifier.

Present participle
The present participle ends in -ing form.
Examples:

playing
visiting
working

Past participle
The past participle ends in -ed if it is a regular verb. However it may end differently if it is irregular.
See the list of irregular verbs.
Examples:

painted
deceived
burnt

Adjectival participle
Adjectival participles are used like adjectives. They are derived from verbs and contrast with verbal
participles, which are considered to be forms of verbs rather than adjectives.
Examples:

a
a
a
a
a
a

very frightening experience.

very interesting book.
working mother
nicely written article.
completely burnt house.
newly painted room.

Cumulative and Coordinate Adjectives

Where to place adjectives?

Adjectives are placed:

before a noun which they modify

or after a verb like be, feel, seem, look.

Examples:

They bought a big house.

They are nice.

Cumulative or coordinate adjectives

When adjectives pile up in front of a noun, however, you may sometimes have difficulty arranging
them. Such a string of adjectives can be either cumulative or coordinate adjectives.

Coordinate Adjectives
These are adjectives that separately modify a noun. Their order can be scrambled and they can be
joined by and. A comma is needed to separate each coordinate adjective. But if there is a the
word and no comma is needed.
Example:
While strolling in the woods, they found a strange, mysterious and frightened child.

Cumulative Adjectives
When adjectives pile up to jointly describe the noun and need to be arranged in a specific order, they
are called cumulative adjectives. No commas are needed to separate the adjectives.
Example:
He bought a wonderful old French car.
Cumulative adjectives generally follow a certain order of arrangement.

Opinion

good, attractive, beautiful, delicious...

Size

large, small, enormous...

Age

old, new, modern, young...

Length or shape

long, short, square, round...

Color

red, blue, green...

Origin (nationality, religion)

American, French, Muslim, Christian...

Material

plastic, woolen, wooden, cotton..

Purpose

electric (wire) , tennis (shirt)

It should be noted that long strings of cumulative adjectives tend to be awkward. It would be
acceptable to use no more than two or three of them.
Examples:

An attractive young American lady.

A modern Japanese electric car.
A big square blue box.

Possessive Adjectives
What are possessive adjectives?
Possessive adjectives - my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their - modify the noun following it in order
to show possession.
Examples:

I'll get my bag.

Is this your luggage?

Possessive adjectives are often confused with possessive pronouns.

Examples:

Your bike is blue. (your is an adjective which modifies bike)

Mine is yellow. (mine is a pronoun which functions as the subject of the verb is)

Examples
Subject Pronouns
Possessive Adjectives

you

he

she

it

we

you

they

my

your

his

her

its

our

your

their

Examples:

Why didn't you clean your room?

(your modifies the noun room)
Mary doesn't like her dress.
(her modifies the noun dress)
The chameleon can change its color.
(its modifies the noun color)

Her hair is long.His hair is short

Things to remember:
1. Possessive adjectives are different from possessive pronouns.

This is your (possessive adjective) book and this is mine (possessive pronoun).

2. its, their are possessive adjectives.

Its color is beautiful.

Their car is in their garage.

3. it's, they're and there are not possessive adjectives its is a contraction of it is or it has; they're is
a contraction of they are;there is an adverb of place.

It's not my book = It is not my book.

My house is big. It's got five bedrooms = It has got five bedrooms.
Nancy and Alan are from New York. They're my friends = They are my friends.
Please, put the chair there. (adverb)

You may also be interested in:

possessive pronouns,
object pronouns,
subject pronouns,
and reflexive pronouns.

Review:
Personal pronouns Possessive adjectives Possessive pronouns Reflexive pronouns Object pronouns
I

my

mine

myself

me

you

your

yours

yourself

you

he

his

his

himself

him

she

her

hers

herself

her

it

its

its

itself

it

we

our

ours

ourselves

us

you

your

yours

yourselves

you

they

their

theirs

themselves

them

Demonstratives - This, that, these, those

What are demonstratives?

Demonstratives are words that show which person or thing is being referred to. In the sentence:
'This is my brother',
'this' is a demonstrative
The demonstratives in English are this, that, these, and those

Demonstrative pronouns vs demonstrative adjectives

A distinction must be made between demonstrative adjectives (or demonstrative determiners)
and demonstrative pronouns (orindependent demonstratives).
A demonstrative adjective modifies a noun:
This apple is good. I like those houses. (This modifies 'apple' and those modifies 'houses')
A demonstrative pronoun stands on its own, replacing rather than modifying a noun:
This is good. I like those. (This and those don't modify any nouns they stand alone and replace other
nouns)

Use of demonstratives
Demonstratives differ according to:

distance: near or far,

or number: singular or plural.

Here are the main distinctions:

This modifies or refers to singular nouns that are near to the speaker.
That modifies or refers to singular nouns that are far from the speaker.
These modifies or refers to plural nouns that are near to the speaker.
Those modifies or refers to plural nouns that are far from the speaker.

Demonstratives

Singular

Plural

This

That

These

Those

Adjectival Nouns
Adjectival Nouns

Near

Far
-

An adjectival noun is an adjective that functions as a noun.

Before we give examples of adjectival nouns, let's see what nouns and adjectives refer to.

Nouns vs Adjectives
A noun is a part of speech that is used to name a person, place, thing, quality, or action.
An adjective is another part of speech which gives us more information about nouns. Adjectives
modify nouns.
Examples:

Adjectives

Poor
Long
Ugly
Considerable
Bad

Nouns

John
River
Table
Courage
Wrok

Nominalization of Adjectives
It is sometimes possible that adjectives, by the process of nominalization, become adjectival nouns.
That is, these adjectives function very much like nouns.
Consider the following examples:

The
The
The
The

ugly is coming.
other is different.
bad always loses
rich must help the poor.

The words ugly, other, bad, rich in the above examples function as adjectival nouns.

Comparatives and Superlatives

Forming regular comparatives and superlatives
1. We use comparatives to compare two things or two people. (e.g She is taller than her
husband.)
2. Superlatives are used, however, to compare to show the difference between more than two
things or more than two people. (e.g Paris is the biggest city in France)
3. To form comparatives and superlatives you need to know the number of syllables in the
adjective. Syllables are like "sound beats".
For instance:

"find" contains one syllable,

but "finding" contains two find and ing.

The rules to form comparatives and superlatives:

1. One syllable adjective ending in a silent 'e' nice

Comparative add 'r' nicer

Superlative add 'st' nicest

2. One syllable adjective ending in one vowel and one consonant big

Comparative the consonant is doubled and 'er' is added bigger

Superlative the consonant is doubled and 'est' is addedbiggest

3. One syllable adjective ending in more than one consonant or more than a vowel high, cheap

Comparative 'er' is added higher, cheaper

Superlative 'est is added highest, cheapest

4. A two syllable adjective ending in 'y' happy

Comparative 'y' becomes 'i' and 'er' is added happier

Superlative 'y' becomes 'i' and 'est' is added happiest

5. Tow syllable or more adjectives without 'y' at the end exciting

Comparative more + the adjective + than more exciting than

Superlative more + the adjective + than the most exciting

Examples:

The Nile River is longer and more famous than the Thames.
Egypt is much hotter than Sweden.
Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
This is one of the most exciting films I have ever seen.

Peter (6 years old)

Charley (5 months old)

Peter is older than Charley.

Charley is younger than Peter.
Irregular comparatives and superlatives
Adjectives
Comparatives

Superlatives

bad

worse

worst

far(distance)

farther

farthest

far(extent)

further

furthest

good

better

best

little

less

least

many

more

most

much

more

most

How to use comparatives and superlatives

Comparatives

Superlatives

Comparatives are used to Superlatives are used to compare more

compare two things or two than two things or two people.
people:
Superlative sentences usually use 'the':
Alan is taller than John.
Alan is the most intelligent.
Similarities
To express similarities use the following structure:

... as + adjective + as ...

Examples:

Mike is as intelligent as Nancy.

Larry is as popular as Oprah.

Adverbs

What are adverbs?

An adverb is a word that modifies verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.

Adverbs vs Adjectives
The difference between an adverb and an adjective is the following:

An adjective modifies a noun.

Example:
"John is tall." (The adjective tall modifies the noun John)
An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
Examples:
"That idea is simply ridiculous." (The adverb simply modifies the adjective ridiculous)

"She sings nicely." (The adverb nicely modifies the verb sing)
"She did it really well." (the adverb really modifies the adverb well)

Read the passage:

Mrs Smith immediately called the police when she saw the
criminals assaulting the poor boy aggressively. It was the
most horrible scene that she had everwitnessed in her life.
She had always lived peacefullyin that neighborhood. No
one had ever disturbed her quiet nights there.
The words " immediately, aggressively, peacefully, ever, always, there" are
adverbs.

What are the different types of adverbs?

Basically, most adverbs tell you how, in what way, when, where, and to what extent something is
done. In other words, they describe the manner, place, or time of an action. Here are some examples:

He speaks quietly. ( quietly is an adverb of manner.)

I live here. (here is an adverb of place.)
We'll leave tomorrow . (tomorrow is an adverb of time.)
She never sleeps late . (never is an adverb of frequency.)

Adverb rules:
1. Regular adverbs:
Adverbs in English often end in -ly.
These adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the end of an adjective:
Adjective + ly

Examples:
Adjective

Adverb

slow

slowly

beautiful

beautifully

careful

carefully

violent

violently

Spelling rules:

true truly (the silent e is dropped and add ly)

happy happily ( y becomes i and add ly.)
possible possibly (e after a consonant is dropped and ly is added.)
full fully (after ll and add y is added.)
fanatic fanatically (after adjectives ending in -ic add -ally - there is an exception: publicpublicly)

2. Exceptions:
However, this is not the only way to form an adverb. Many adverbs do not end in -ly.
This is a list of adverbs that don't follow the rule:
Adjective

Adverb

fast

fast

hard

hard

late

late

early

early

daily

daily

Some adjectives change their form when they become adverbs:

adjective

adverb

good

well

3. Things to remember:
Many words are not adverbs although they end in -ly. Here are examples of adjectives that end in -ly.

Examples:

a kindly teacher
a lonely girl
an elderly person
a friendly policeman

To decide whether a word is an adverb ask questions with how, where and when.

How does James speak Spanish? He speaks Spanish fluently.

Where do the kids play soccer? They play soccer here.
When did she write the email to her husband? She wrote the email immediately.

Adverbs of Frequency
What are adverbs of frequency?
We use adverbs of frequency to say how often we do something. Adverbs of frequency are often used
with the present simplebecause they indicate repeated or routine activities.

Adverbs of frequency :
Alway
s
Usuall
y
Often
Somet
imes
Seldo
m/rare
ly
Never

They often go out for dinner.

I never go to cinema. I don't like it.
I don't mind going to the theater. I sometimes go with my husband.
Never say never. (proverb)
She likes dancing. She always go to the night club to dance.
They usually quarrel. I rarely see them in good terms with each other.

Other adverbs of frequency include:

occasionally
frequently

Position of adverbs of frequency

Generally speaking adverbs of frequency come before the main verb except the main verb "to
be":
o I sometimes visit my uncle.
o We have often seen him pass by the house.
o They are seldom at work.
Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the beginning or end of
a sentence:
o Sometimes they visit him.
o I miss him occasionally.

Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with "very"):
o We see them rarely.
o John eats meat very seldom.

Adverbs of frequency include (form most often to least often):

1

always

usually

often

sometimes/occasionally

seldom/rarely

never

Position of Adverbs
Position of adverbs
1. Adverb of Manner
Examples of adverbs of manner are " nicely, beautifully, slowly, carefully, awfully..."
These adverbs come after the direct object or after the verb if there isn't any direct object.

He did the work efficiently. (The adverb of manner efficiently comes after the direct
object the work.)
He drove the lorry carelessly. (The adverb of manner carelessly comes after the direct
object the lorry.)
He spoke fluently. (The adverb of mannerfluently comes after the verb spoke.)

2. Adverbs of Place
Examples of adverbs of place are "here, there, behind, above..."
Adverbs of place are like adverbs of manner. They come after the direct object or the verb.

I met him here. (The adverb of place here comes after the direct object him.)
He sat there. (The adverb of place there comes after the verb sat.)

3. Adverbs of Time
Examples of adverbs of time are " recently, now, then, tomorrow, yesterday..."
Adverbs of time are usually put at the end of the sentence but they may also come at the beginning of
the sentence.

I will show you the house tomorrow.

Tomorrow, I will show you the house.

4. Adverbs of Frequency
Examples of adverbs of frequency are "always, never, seldom, usually..."

Adverbs of frequency come before the main verb except the main verb "to be":
o I sometimes visit my uncle.
o We have often seen him pass by the house.
o They are seldom at work.
Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the beginning or at the
end of a sentence:
o Sometimes, they visit him.
o I miss him occasionally.
Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with "very"):
o We see them rarely.
o John eats meat very seldom.

Reported Speech (Indirect Speech)

What is reported speech?
Reported speech is when you tell somebody else what you or a person said before.
Distinction must be made between direct speech and reported speech.

Direct speech vs Reported speech:

Direct speech
She says: "I like tuna fish."

Reported speech
She says that she likes tuna fish.

She said: "I'm visiting Paris next weekend" She said that she was visiting Paris the following weekend.

Different types of sentences

When you use reported speech, you either report:

statements
questions
requests / commands
other types

A. Reporting Statements
When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:

pronouns
tense
place and time expression

1- Pronouns
In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on who says what.

Example:
She says, My dad likes roast chicken. She says that her dad likes roast chicken.

2- Tenses

If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in reported speech.
If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in reported speech.

Direct speech

Reported speech

(no backshift)

I write poems.

He says that he writes poems.

(backshift)

I write poems.

He said that he wrote poems.

No backshift
Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in a present tense (e. g. He says). Note, however,
that you might have to change the form of the present tense verb (3rd person singular).
Example:
He says, I write poems. He says that he writes English.
Backshift
You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in a past tense (e. g. He said).
Example:
He said, I am happy. He said that he was happy.
Examples of the main changes in tense:

Direct Speech

Reported Speech

Simple Present
He said: "I am happy"

Simple Past
He said that he was happy

Present Progressive
He said: "I'm looking for my keys"

Past Progressive
He said that he was looking for his keys

Simple Past
He said: "I visited New York last year"

Past Perfect Simple

He said that he had visited New York the
previous year.

Present Perfect
He said: " I've lived here for a long
time "

Past Perfect
He said that he had lived there for a long
time

Past Perfect
He said: "They had finished the work
when Iarrived"

Past Perfect
He said that they had finished the work
when he had arrived"

Past Progressive
He said: "I was playing football when
the accident occurred"

Past Perfect Progressive

He said that he had been
playing football when the accident had

occurred
Present Perfect Progressive
He said:"I have been playing football
for two hours."

Past Perfect Progressive

He said that he had been
playing football for two hours

Past Perfect Progressive

He said: "I had been reading a
newspaper when the light went of"

Past Perfect Progressive

He said that he had been reading a
newspaper when the light had gone of

Future Simple (will+verb)

He said: "I will open the door."

Conditional (would+verb)
He said that he would open the door.

Conditional (would+verb)
He said: "I would buy Mercedes if
I were rich"

Conditional (would+verb)
He said that he would buy Mercedes if
he had beenrich"

The modal verbs could, should, would, might, needn't, ought to, used to do not normally change.
Example:
He said, "She might be right." He said that she might be right.
Other modal verbs may change:

Modal

Direct speec

Repored speech

can

"I can do it."

He said he could do it.

may

"May I go out?"

He wanted to know if he might go out.

must

"She must apply for the

job."

He said that she must/had to apply for the

job.

will

"They will call you."

He tod her that they would call her.

3- Place, demonstratives and time expressions

Place, demonstratives and time expressions change if the context of the reported statement (i.e. the
location and/or the period of time) is different from that of the direct speech.
In the following table, you will find the different changes of place; demonstratives and time
expressions.
Direct Speech

Reported Speech
Time Expressions

today

that day

now

then

yesterday

the day before

days ago

days before

last week

the week before

next year

the following year

tomorrow

the next day / the following day

Place

here

there
Demonstratives

this

that

these

those

B. Reporting Questions
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:

pronouns
place and time expressions
tenses (backshift)

Also note that you have to:

transform the question into an indirect question

use the question word (where, when, what, how) or if / whether

Types of questions

Direct speech

With question word (what, "Why" dont you

why, where, how...)
speak English?
Without question word
(yes or no questions)

Do you speak
English?

Reported speech
He asked me why I
didnt speak English.
He asked me whether / if
I spoke English.

C. Reporting requests / commands

When transforming requests and commands, check whether you have to change:

pronouns
place and time expressions
Direct speech

Reported speech

Nancy,do the exercise.

He told Nancy to do the exercise.

"Nancy, give me your pen, please."

He asked Nancy to give him her pen.

Tenses are not relevant for requests simply use to / not to + verb (infinitive without "to")

Example:
She said, Sit down." - She asked me to sit down.

She said, "don't be lazy" - She asked me not to be lazy

For affirmative use to + infinitive (without to)

For negative requests, use not to + infinitive (without to).

D. Other transformations

Expressions of advice with must, should and ought are usually reported using advise / urge.
Example:
You must read this book.
He advised / urged me to read that book.
The expression lets is usually reported using suggest. In this case, there are two possibilities
for reported speech: gerund or statement with should.
Example:
Lets go to the cinema.=
1. He suggested going to the cinema.
2. He suggested that we should go to the cinema.

Main clauses connected with and/but

If two complete main clauses are connected with and or but, put that after the conjunction.
Example:
He said,I saw her but she didn't see me. He said that he had seen her but that she hadn't seen
him.
If the subject is dropped in the second main clause (the conjunction is followed by a verb), do not
use that.
Example:
She said,I am a nurse and work in a hospital. He said that she was a nurse and worked in a
hospital.

Free Indirect Speech

What is free indirect speech?
Free indirect speech is also called as free indirect discourse, free indirect style, or discours indirect
libre in French.)
While indirect speech conveys the report in the words of the reporter, with verbs generally
'backshifted' in tense and changes in pronouns and adverbials of time and place are made to align with
the time of reporting; free direct speech lacks a reporting clause to show the shift from narration to
reporting, it is often used in fiction to represent the mental reactions of characters to what they see or
experience.

Indirect speech vs free indirect speech

Similarities:

Free indirect speech resembles indirect speech in shifting tenses and other references

Differences:

There is generally no reporting clause in free indirect speech and it retains some features of direct
speech (such as direct questions and vocatives).

Examples:
Direct speech:
He sat down on the sofa carelessly. "Why are they asking me to contribute to the project?" he asked.

Indirect speech:
He sat down on the sofa carelessly and asked himself why they were asking him to contribute to the
project.

Free indirect speech:

He sat down on the sofa carelessly. Why are they asking him to contribute to the project?

Famous writers who use free indirect speech

Goethe
Jane Austen
Gustave Flaubert
James Joyce
Virginia Woolf

Expressing a wish or a regret

Use of I wish / if only:
There are three distinct types of I wish / if only sentences:
1. Wish, wanting change for the present or future with the simple past.
2. Regret with the past perfect.
3. Complaints with would + verb.

Expressing a wish:
Form:
If only / I wish + simple past
Example:

If only I knew how to use a computer. (I dont know how to use a computer and I would like to learn
how to use it)

Use:

To express a wish in the present or in the future.

The simple past here is an unreal past.
When you use the verb to be the form is were.
Example:
I wish I were a millionaire!

Expressing regret:
Form:
If only / I wish + past perfect
Example:
If only I had woken up early. (I didn't wake up early and I missed my bus.)

Use:

To express a regret.
The action is past.

Complaining:
Form:
I wish / if only + would + verb
Example:
I wish you wouldn't arrive so late all the time (I'm annoyed because you always come late and I want
you to arrive on time)

Use:

To complain about a behavior that you disapprove.

Expressing impatience, annoyance or dissatisfaction with a present action.

Used to, be used to, get used to

Used to
Used to shows that:

a particular thing always happened or was true in the past.

But it no longer happens or is no longer true now:

Examples:

David used to live in Madrid.

She used to exercise every morning, but since she had that terrible accident she doesn't
exercise anymore.
Why don't you come and see me like you used to?

Forms of used to
Here are the interrogative, affirmative and negative forms of used to

Did you use to exercise regularly?

Yes, I used to go jogging nearly everyday.
No, I didn't use to exercise on a regular basis.

Used to, be used to, get used to

1.Used to shows that a particular thing always happened or was true in the past (see examples above)
2.Be used to is used to say that something is normal, not unusual.
Examples:

I'm used to living alone.

Don't worry, John is used to driving for long hours. He has worked as a professional driver for
20 years.

3.Get used shows that something is in the process of becoming normal.

Examples:

He doesn't like that small town, but he'll get used to it.
She found the heels too high, but she got used to them.
Since the divorce, she has become very sad. But I think she'll get used to her new life.
I got used to living in Canada in spite of the cold weather.

4. Get used to and be used to are followed by either a noun or a gerund.

Get used to + noun

I got used to the noise
I'm used to the cold weather

Get used to + gerund (verb+ing)

I got used to waking up early
I'm used to working late at night