Cambridge DELTA Module 1 Terms

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1.

accomodation

PHONOLOGY Squeezing syllables in an utterance into the same amount of time so that they occupy the same length of
time.

2.

acculturation

SLA The process by which a person integrates into a particular culture. One of the first theories of SLA that attempted to
prioritize social factors over purely cognitive ones. It has been partly rehabilitated under the name socialization.

3.

accuracy

SLA The extent to which a learner's use of a second language conforms to the rules of the language. Once thought to be
a precondition for fluency.

achievement
test

TESTING Designed to test what learners have learned over a week, month, term or entire course. Because ___ ___s are
directly related to the content of the teaching program, they provide feedback on the teaching-learning process, and are
therefore useful data for course evaluation.

achievement
test

TESTING A form of assessment administered at the end of a course to monitor the learning process. Also called
summative tests.

action
research

METHODOLOGY A form of teacher-driven research, the twin goals of which are to improve classroom practice, and to
'empower' teachers. Typically motivated less by the desire to answer the 'big' questions than by the need to solve a
specific teaching problem in the local context.
planning->acting->observing->reflecting

7.

adolescents

METHODOLOGY The ideal time to learn a second language. This age group tends to outperform adults and to progress
more rapidly than younger learners.

8.

affect

PSYCHOLOGY The general word for emotion or feelings. These factors positively or negatively influence language
learning. Often contrasted with cognitive factors such as intelligence and learning style. Low ___ive filter=emotionally
well-disposed to processing input High ___ive=won't process input so effecitively.

affix,
affixation

VOCABULARY An element that is added to a word and which changes its meaning. The process of doing this.

10.

affordance

LINGUISTICS The language learning opportunities that exist in a learner's linguistic 'environment.' Maximized with
meaningful activities and giving learners feedback.

11.

agency

METHODOLOGY Control of your own actions, including your mental activity. A notion from critical pedagogy.
Learners are not objects of the teaching process; they are subjects of the learning process. A factor that contributes to
motivation.

12.

allophone

PHONOLOGY A phonetic variation of the same phoneme. Does not affect meaning.

applied
linguistics

LINGUISTICS Concerned with the application of linguistic theory to solving language-related problems in the real
world. Language planning, speech therapy, lexcography, translation studies, forensic linguistics.

14.

appraisal

LINGUISTICS Also called stance; the way speakers and writers use language to express their personal attitude to what
is being said or written; one of the main ways that language's interpersonal function is realized; consists of 3
categories: affect (personal feelings), judgment (social values and social esteem), appreciation (opinions). These can
all be expressed lexically, grammatically or through the use of paralinguistic devices.

15.

appropriacy

SOCIOLINGUISTICS Using language in a way that is suitable for the context and in a way that meets the expectations
of the people you are communicating with. An aspect of sociolinguistic competence, which is a component of a
speaker's overall communicative competence. (Dell Hymes)

16.

appropriation

SLA To make something your own. Gaining ownership of a skill by first doing it with someone who is more skilled
than you are until you can control or regulate the skill yourself. A key concept in sociocultural learning theory.
Language is not simply a behavior that is conditioned through repeated practice, but that it is one of collaborative
construction, in which skills are transferred in socially-situated activity.

17.

aptitude

PSYCHOLOGY The innate talent or predisposition for language learning. 3 kinds of ability: auditory, linguistic,
memory.

18.

ARC

METHODOLOGY Lesson design proposed by Jim Scrivener that focuses on authentic language use, restricted language
use and then clarification. These stages can be rearranged and occur many times within one lesson.

19.

aspect

GRAMMAR The way the speaker's 'view' of an event is expressed by the verb phrase, regardless of the time of the event
itself. 2 of these in English: progressive and perfect.

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20.

assimiliation

PHONOLOGY When a sound is modified by a neighboring sound, such as when the final /n/ of green is followed by
a /p/, and is pronounced /m/; /t/ /d/=/p//b/; /t//d/=/k//g/

21.

audiolingualism

METHODOLOGY Became widespread in the US in the 1950s and 60s. Distinctive feature=drilling of sentence
patterns. Came from a view of learning as habit formation (behaviorism). Spoken language was prioritized;
translation and the use of metalanguage were discouraged; accuracy was considered a precondition for fluency. Shot
down by Chomsky in the early 60s and the birth of mentalism.

22.

authenticity

LINGUISTICS Became a priority with the communicative approach. The idea of "grade the task, not the text" was
born. This kind of interaction is both more communicative and offers more affordances for learning.

23.

automaticity

PSYCHOLOGY The ability to perform a task without having to focus attention on it. This frees a learner's limited
attentional resources for more demanding activities. A process of setting up chunks and associations that link one
step with another. This doesn't mean a sacrifice of accuracy. When chunks of language are produced in a preassembled form, the speaker has much less chance of making mistakes.

24.

autonomy

PSYCHOLOGY Also called self-directed learning. The capacity to take responsibility for your own learning.

avoidance
strategy

SLA Abandoning a message or replacing an original messae with one that is less ambitious.

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backwash

TESTING The way a test affects the classroom teaching that leads up to it.

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behaviorism

PSYCHOLOGY A psychological theory popular in the mid-twentieth century that viewed learning as a sort of habit
formation and positive reinforcement. Audiolingualism is the teaching method that is associated with this. stimulusresponse-reinforcement.
This theory rejected any role, in learning, for mental processes such as thought and reasoning.

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bilingualism

SLA At one point it was considered a handicap to second language learners since (according to behaviorist theory)
the first language interferes with the second. ADDITIVE=second language added to first without threatening the
speaker's first language identity; SUBTRACTIVE=the second language replaces the first, threatening the speaker's
language identity.

broad-band
curriculum

METHODOLOGY Curriculum in which objectives are broadly identified, eg in terms of general competencies. Allows
each learner to contribute to the best of his/her abilities. Also allows for the teaching and learning of a variety of
language areas concurrently. Learning is viewed as holistic, emergent and concurrent. Better suited to cope with
diversity and turn it into a resource.

cognitive
learning theory

PSYCHOLOGY A learning theory that draws upon ideas from cognitive psychology, the branch of psychology that
deals with perception and thinking. Piaget first proposed the view that language develops out of the child's thoughts
and growing awareness of the world. A later version suggests that the child acquires language by forming and testing
hypotheses about the adult language it hears around it. Has been criticized as being mechanistic, and for ignoring
social and affective factors.

31.

coherence

DISCOURSE How the sentences in a text relate to each other.

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cohesion

DISCOURSE The use of grammatical and lexical means to achieve connected text. LEXICAL: repetition, synonyms,
general words, same thematic field, substitution, ellipsis; GRAMMATICAL: references, substitution, ellipsis, linkers,
parallelism

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collocation

VOCABULARY Words that frequently occur together. Can be grammatical (collocate with specific prepositions:
"account for") or lexical: "narrow escape."

communication
strategy

SLA Ways that learners get around the fact that they may not know how to say something, but that help the learner
achieve their intended message: paraphrase, word coinage, foreignizing a word, approximation, all-purpose words,
language-switching, paralinguistics, appealing for help.

communicative
activity

METHODOLOGY Activity in which real communication occurs. Key features: purposefulness, reciprocity,
negotiation, unpredictability, heterogeneity, synchronicity.

communicative
approach

METHODOLOGY An umbrella term used to describe a major shift in language teaching that occurred in Europe in
the 1970s. Shift away from language systems and toward how these systems are used in real communication.
Linguistic competience replaced with focus on communicative competence. Directly related to functional-notional
syllabus.

communicative
competence

LINGUISTICS First proposed by Dell Hymes, what you know in order to be able to communicate effectively. The term
contrasts with linguistic competence (Chomsky). Hymes introduced the notion of appropriacy.

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community
language
learning

METHODOLOGY Also called counseling learning, a teaching method developed by Charles Curran in the 70s in the
US. The learners (clients) sit in a circle having a conversation. They consult with the teacher-knower, who is outside
the circle, to help formulate each utterance. The conversation is recorded, played back, translated, transcribed,
boarded and read aloud.

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competence

LINGUISTICS What we intuitively know about a language in order to be able to use it. Contrasts with performance.
This motivates he use of corpus data to inform grammars, dictionaries and classroom materials. I language
(internalized language) and E language (I language put to use externally).

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competency

METHODOLOGY A specific practial skill. sometimes in the form of 'can do' statements.

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complexity

SLA Gauged by the following factors: amount of subordination, complex sentences, reference, lexical/linking verb
ratio, conjunctions

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comprehension

PSYCHOLOGY The process of understanding speech or writing. It results from an interaction between different kinds
of knowledge. Bottom-up vs. top-down processing is involved. Involves different psychological operations, including
perception, recognition and inferencing.

computermediated
communication
CMC

METHODOLOGY The use of networked computers in order to communicate. Can be synchronous (people
communicate in real time) or asynchronous (delayed communication).

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concord

GRAMMAR Also called agreement. The name given to the grammatical relationship whereby the form of one word
requires a corresponding form in another. In English, it's the case with subjects and verbs (I like, He likes...).

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connectionism

PSYCHOLOGY A model of learning which belongs to what are called usage-based accounts of language acquisition.
It does not presuppose any innate language-learning faculty, nor any rule-learning and rule-using. It assumes we are
mentally predisposed to look for associations between elements and create links between them in response to
frequently encountered patterns of usage.

consciousnessraising CR

PSYCHOLOGY The way that learners become aware, or are made aware, of features of the language they are learning.
The term belongs to cognitive learning theory, which claims a central role for conscious mental operations in
learning. Things teachers do with this potential: enhancing the input in some way so as to make certain items more
salient; asking learners to infer rules from examples (inductive learning); asking them to compare their own output
with that of more proficient users of the target language (noticing the gap); problematizing the input; pushed output
(noticing the holes in the present state of their language.

constructivism

PSYCHOLOGY A theory of learning that claims that individuals actively construct knowledge, rather than passively
receiving it. Supports the case for learner-centered instruction and experiential learning. Underscores the argument
for personalization. Key figures=Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner. Contrasts with behaviorist theory and is
ideologically aligned with cognitive learning theory, mentalism and, most closely, humanism.

content and
language
integrated
learning

METHODOLOGY CLIL Teaching a subject through English. Also called content-based teaching. A strong form of the
communicative approach in that there is no predetermined language syllabus.

contingency

PSYCHOLOGY The sense that what is happening is connected to what has just happened and what is about to
happen.

contrastive
analysis

SLA The way the the linguistic systems of two languages are compared and contrasted. Used to be thought that a
comparison between a learner's L1 and L2 would predict the errors that a learner would make; the underlying
assumption was a behaviorist one--that L1 interference was to blame. Many errors are now attributed to
developmental causes, not interference. The best predictions of this are in the area of phonology.

conversational
implicature

DISCOURSE The ability to infer from what has been said what has not been said.

conversation
analysis

DISCOURSE Concerned with describing the structure of conversational interaction, including the sequential
organization of talk and the ways that speakers repair communication problems. The basic unit of talk is the turn.
Managed by turn taking, includes adjacency pairs, conversational openings and closings, backchanneling and repair
strategies. Limited in that it divorces conversation from its context.

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cooperative
principle

DISCOURSE The principle that speakers try to co-operate with one another. When people take part in a conversation they
do so on the assumption that the other speakers will observe certain unstated rules. First articulated by H.P. Grice,
included 4 maxims:
maxim of quantity: make your contribution as informative as required
maxim of quality: make your contribution one that is true
maxim of relation: make your contribution relevant
maxim of manner: avoid obscurity and ambiguity. be brief and orderly.
Has been criticized as being culturally biased.

corpus

LINGUISTICS A collection of actually occurring texts (either spoken or written) stored and accessed by means of
computers, and useful for investigating language use.

corpus
linguistics

LINGUISTICS The use of corpora for researching language structure and use; has lead to the development of grammars
and dictionaries that claim to be more reliable than their forbears, in that they are based on attested data. Has been
criticized on the grounds that the information it reveals relates only to language performance.

course
design

METHODOLOGY The design of a language teaching program and of the specific materials to be used on a program. Stages
include needs analysis, goal setting, syllabus design, materials choice, assessment instruments, evaluation procedures.

criterionreferenced
test

TESTING Test in which the candidate has to achieve a certain agreed standard in order to pass.

critical
pedagogy

METHODOLOGY Has roots in progressive education and is also sometimes called transformative education. Gained
prominence through Paulo Freire. Assumes that education can never be purely disinterested or neutral. It either functions
to maintain the status quo or it works to change the status quo. Has been influenced by humanism, learner autonomy,
literacy training, critical discourse analysis, identity politics and cultural studies.

critical
period
hypothesis

PSYCHOLOGY Neurological factors occurring at puberty mean that thereafter you can't just pick up a language as you did
when you were a child.

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Culture

LINGUISTICS Refers to those highly valued activities and artifacts related to the arts.

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culture

LINGUISTICS Addresses these questions:

What is the relationship between language and culture and to what extent do languages express cultural values?
Does learning a second language involve learning a new set of cultural values?
Does teaching a second language involve teaching the culture of the language? Is there a homogeneous English culture?
How do cultural factors impact on methodology? How and to what extent should methodology adapt to take account of
local cultural practices?
Is there such a thing as intercultural competence, analogous to communicative competence, and if so, how is it fostered?

62.

curriculum

METHODOLOGY The whole complex of ideological, social and administrative factors which contribute to the planning of
its teaching program. Embodies several decisions:
1. about the objectives or goals of the program
2. about the content--from these decisions the syllabus will be derived
3. about the method of instruction
4. about how the program is evaluated
Concerned with the beliefs, values and theory, not with how they are realized.

deductive
learning

PSYCHOLOGY Occurs when a rule or a generalization is first presented to the learners, and then they go on to apply it in
practice activities. Associated with approaches such as grammar-translation. Can be very effective in teaching form of the
language.

deixis

GRAMMAR The way language points to spatial, temporal and personal features of the context. The speaker's location is
the _____ center, and these expressions distinguish between 'near' the speaker and 'away' from the speaker. Can be
expressed by certain verbs, which have direction built into their meaning: come, go, bring, take.

descriptive
grammar

LINGUISTICS Describes, in a systematic way, the rules that govern how words are combined and sequenced in order to
form sentences in a given language. Deal with morphology and syntax. Can be formal or functional.

diagnostic
test

TESTING A form of assessment given before the entry of a course to identify a learner's particular needs (as in needs
analysis).

dialect

SOCIOLINGUISTICS A regional or social variety of a language.

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dictogloss

METHODOLOGY A form of dictation in which students hear the complete text (short) and then reconstruct it from
memory. Learners first work individually, then in pairs, then in groups, each time comparing their versions of the text
and negotiating changes.

direct
approach to
conversation

METHODOLOGY Argues that the characteristic features of conversation, as identified in conversation analysis, should
be taught explicitly and in isolation, before being integrated into freer practice activities. These features include
conversational gambits, turn-taking, use of discourse markers, appraisal language, vague language, etc.

direct
method

METHODOLOGY An umbrella term for a wide range of language teaching methods that emerged in the later part of the
19th century.
They shared the belief that only the target language should be used in the classroom and that therefore translation should
be avoided at all costs. Started with Maxmilian Berlitz. Borne out of the demand for learning languages for international
commerce and tourism. Laid the foundations of applied linguistics. In the US, it ingested behaviorist theory and became
audiolingualism.

discourse
analysis

DISCOURSE Any connected piece of speech or writing. The study of how such stretches of language achieve both
cohesion and coherence.

discourse
marker

DISCOURSE Also called pragmatic markers. Words or expressions that normally come at the beginning of an utterance,
and function to orient the listener to what will follow. Can indicate some kind of cane of direction in the talk or appeal to
the listener in some way.

discretepoint test

TESTING Test that tests individual components in isolation.

discussion

METHODOLOGY Opportunity for learners to interact freely and spontaneously, to cope with unpredictability, to voice
opinions using language that is both complex and fluent. More structured than conversation. Risks: might get out of
hand, learners might feel unduly constrained by the TL, some learners might dominate.

display
question

METHODOLOGY Questions asked by the teachers in order that learners can 'display' their knowledge. They typically
initiate a 3 part exchange that is characteristic of classroom interaction and is called IRF (interaction, response, followup). Usually aimed at finding out what learners can say in the TL. Contrast with real questions.

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dogme ELT

METHODOLOGY The name of a loose collective of teachers who challenge what they consider to be an over-reliance on
materials, including published coursebooks, in current language teaching. Based on DOGME 95, a group of Danish
filmmakers who vowed to make films using minimal means for maximum effect. Proponents say they are not so much
anti-materials as they are pro-learner, and thus align themselves with other forms of learner-centered instruction and
critical pedagogy.

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drama

METHODOLOGY Can provide entertaining practice opportunities, as well as offering a useful springboard into real-life
language use. A greater range of registers can be practised than are normally available in classroom talk. Can include
roleplays and simulations.

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drill

METHODOLOGY Repetitive oral practice of a language item, whether a word, a sound, a phrase or a sentence structure.
Follow a prompt-response sequence. Were a defining feature of the audiolingual method and were designed to reinforce
good language 'habits.' Can still be communicative with an information gap type element built in ('find someone who...').

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dynamics

METHODOLOGY The actions and interactions, both conscious and unconscious, that take place between members of a
group, whether the whole class or sub-group. Instrumental in forging a productive and motivating classroom
environment. Determined by the composition of the group (age, sex, status), the patterns of relationships between group
members, physical factors such as group size, the task itself.

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eclecticism

METHODOLOGY Combining techniques and activities from different methods in your teaching. Motivated by different
reasons, one being a general distrust of a 'one size fits all' method. Ts sometimes think that certain methods are not
sensitive enough to such variables as the context, culture and learning styles of the students. Has been criticized on the
grounds that it lacks principle and encourages an 'anything goes' approach to teaching. Principled ____ subscribes to a
'post-method' philosophy.

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elision

PHONOLOGY This happens when a sound is omitted, because another, similars, sound follows. This is common when
two plosive sounds occur togeher. walked to=walktuh; baked beans= bakebeans; last week=lasweek; next,
please=neksplease

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ellipsis

DISCOURSE Leaving elements out of a sentence because they are either unnecessary or because their sense can be
worked out from the immediate context. Very common in spoken language and is also a common feature of certain text
types where brevity is a priority (i.e. postcards).

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end-weight

DISCOURSE A principle in which new information is placed at the end of a sentence rather than at the beginning, which
is normally reserved for given information.

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error

SLA An instance of the learner's language that does not conform to accepted norms of usage, and which is attributed to
incomplete or faulty learning. Usually defined in terms of adult native speakers. Sometimes distinguished from mistakes,
the former being due ot lack of knowledge (i.e. competence), and the latter being due to the demands of performance.
Categorized in a number of ways:
pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar or discourse; or according to the way they depart from the norm (omission,
addition, mis-selection, misformation, misordering); also categorized according to their cause.

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evaluation

METHODOLOGY Not to be confused with assessment. Can be ongoing (formative): getting feedback on the curriculum in
action. Can be final (summative): when the outcomes of the program are evaluated according to the goals that were
established at the outset. Procedures involve the use of questionnaires, interviews, observation, meetings and focus
groups.

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examination

METHODOLOGY A formal test that is usually administered by some examining body.

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exercise

METHODOLOGY An activity that involves the controlled manipulation of the forms of the language. Contrasts with more
meaning-focused, and less tightly controlled, activities such as tasks. Usually written, like the equivalent of drills.
Closed=only 1 answer; open=more than one possible. include gap fills, sentence transformations, ordering exercises,
matching exercises, insertion exercises, deletion exercises, translation exercises, error-correction exercises.

experiential
learning

METHODOLOGY A general term for 'deep end' approaches to learning that rate direct practical experience over the
learning and application of abstract rules. This might take the form of TBL, discovery learning or content-based learning.
Belongs to the constructivist school of learning theory in which knowledge is a mental construct which is subject to
constant re-evaluation and reconstruction. The cycle consists of alternating stages of action and reflection. Shares with
mentalist theory a belief in the value of inductive learning. Shares with humanism a commitment to whole-person
learning and with critical pedagogy a belief in the transformative power of direct experience. Particularly appropriate in
teaching young learners.

face

DISCOURSE The desire to be appreciated (called positive __) or the desire not to be imposed upon (negative ___).

face
threatening
acts

DISCOURSE Requests and invitations are these because they expose both the speaker and the addressee to the risk of a
refusal. Often prefaced by a question which gives the addressee a let-out.

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facilitation

METHODOLOGY A way of thinking about teaching that recognizes the fact that teachers do not directly cause learning,
but that they can provide the conditions in which learning happens. The notion comes from humanist theory and partly
from critical pedagogy, both of which credit the learner with agency in the learning process. Community Language
Learning is a good example of this.

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feedback

SLA The information, either immediate or delayed, that learners get on their performance. Traditionally takes the form of
correction. Can be explicit or implicit.

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finite verbs

GRAMMAR Show that they are related to a subject by having person, number and tense. "Brad works for his uncle."

first
language
acquisition

PSYCHOLOGY It takes place relatively quickly. It is systematically staged. It happens despite the 'poverty of the stimulus.'
It results from contact and interaction and not from any formal teaching. Given a reasonable amount of exposure, it is
always 100% successful. We are hard-wired to learn a first language.

fluency

SLA The ability to speak a language idiomatically and accurately, without undue pausing, without an intrusive accent,
and in a manner appropriate to the context. The ability to produced and maintain speech in real time. This involves:
appropriate pausing, long runs, formulaic language, production strategies. Can also be called "communicative
effectiveness" regardless of formal accuracvy or speed of delivery.

focus on
form

SLA When conscious attention is directed to some formal feature of the language input. It has been argued that this is a
necessary condition for language learning. Meaning is not enough. It can occur at any stage in classroom instruction.
Correction is also a kind of this.

form

LINGUISTICS The way a word, phrase or sentence is written or pronounced, independent of its meaning. Often
contrasted with function.

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formal
language

SOCIOLINGUISTICS A style of language that is appropriate in situations where there is social distance between
speakers, or where the situation or topic requires a degree of seriousness. Not to be confused with politeness. It is more
common in print, such as in official documents. Characterized by:
complex sentences, frequent use of the passive, reported speech, fast modals, long and complex noun phrases, long
words with Greek or Latin roots.

formulaic
language

LINGUISTICS Those sentences of two or more words that operate as a single unit. They are not generated word by word,
but are stored in the memory and retrieved as if they were one-word vocabulary items. Also called lexical chunks, multiword units, ready-mades, prefabricated language and holophrases. Can be classified in the following categories:
collocations, phrasal verbs, idioms, sentence frames, social formulae, discourse markers.
They make for easy access in real-time speaking conditions and aid fluency because of the low planning time required.
Can also help make speaker sound idiomatic, a feature of the target speech community. The central platform of the
Lexical Approach.

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fossilization

SLA When an error becomes a permanent feature of a learner's interlanguage. In theory such errors are resistant to
correction. It has been hypothesized that the lack of instruction (and therefore the lack of a focus on form) is the main
cause. May also be due to a lack of negative feedback on errors or the lack of a push to make learners' output more
accurate. Some learners also have no social motivation to improve their interlanguage.

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function

LINGUISTICS The communicative purpose of a language item. It is also the communicative uses to which forms and
meanings are put. To assign a ____ to a text or an utterance requires knowledge of the context in which the text is used.
Can be micro (speech acts with +ing) or macro (expressive purposes, regulatory purposes, etc). Differ from notions,
which describe areas of meaning.

functional
syllabus

METHODOLOGY A syllabus based around a list of language functions. Often combined with notions. They were
developed to support a communicative approach. If these have survived at all, it's as one strand in a multi-layered
syllabus.

function
words

GRAMMAR Those words which have a mainly grammatical function (also called grammar words). Includes auxiliary
verbs, determiners, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and some adverbs. Contrast with content words. Of the 50
most common words in English, 49 are these.

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futurity

FUNCTION Expressed by
will + infinitive
going to + infinitive
present simple
present progressive
will + be + present participle
will + have + past participle
Sometimes determined by speaker's perception of, or attitude to, the future event being referred to.

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genre

LINGUISTICS Any type of spoken or written discourse which is used and recognized by members of a particular culture
or sub-culture. As these become established, they acquire a conventionalized structure and often a characteristic
vocabulary and grammar. Involves features at macro level (overall organization) and micro level (specific grammatical
and functional features).

genre-based
approach to
writing

METHODOLOGY An approach that is similar to a product approach. Starts with a model text (authentic) that is
subjected to analysis and replication. These are closely associated with their contexts of use, and they are analyzed in
functional terms as much as in linguistic ones. Has been particularly influential in the teaching of academic writing.

grammaring

LINGUISTICS A term coined by the applied linguist Diane Larsen-Freeman in order to capture the notion of grammar
being more a skill than an inert body of knowledge. The process by which a sequence of words if fine-tuned in order to
create a more complex message than mere words can express. Has also been used to describe the way the learner's
mental grammar develops, over time, from a mainly lexical mode into a fuller mode (mirrors L1 acquisition).

grammartranslation
method

METHODOLOGY Developed out of a way that classical languages (Greek and Latin) were traditionally taught. It wasn't
fully formalized until the mid-19th century, when it became institutionalized in schools in Germany. First known as the
Prussian Method. Grammar is taught deductively (rules first) and accuracy is highly prioritized. Seriously challenged by
the Reform movement of the late 19th century.

highlighting
form

METHODOLOGY When a teacher draws learners' attention to features of spoken or written language using:
modelling, finger-coding, cuisenaire rods, boardwork, substitution tables. Takes place in close association with the
meaning of the item.

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homographs

VOCABULARY Words that are written the same way, but pronounced differently, and which have different meanings.
A long and windy road. A windy night.

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homonyms

VOCABULARY Words that are written and pronounced the same way, but have different meanings.
I like pizza. What does she look like?

humanistic
approaches

METHODOLOGY Learning approaches that assert the central role of the 'whole person' in the learning process.
Emerged in the mid-20th century as a reaction to behaviorism and to counterbalance the exclusive intellectualism of
mentalism. Identifies with the autonomy movement, learner-centered instruction, whole language learning and critical
pedagogy. Most closely associated with the Silent Way, Community Language Learning and Suggestopaedia. In recent
years, has come to include NLP and the theory of multiple intelligences.

hyponym

VOCABULARY A specific item of a larger category. An orange is a fruit (orange is the specific item).

hypothetical
meaning

FUNCTION Contrasts with factual meaning and refers to situations that are assumed to be improbable or impossible.
Sometimes the term counterfactual is used to describe impossibility. Frequently expressed by conditional constructions.

115.

identity

PSYCHOLOGY One of the most important functions of language is as a marker of _____. Speakers make accent and
dialect choices in order to align themselves with particular socially and geographically defined groups. Learners can
also try to identify with a discourse community. L2 ___ may either support or threaten their first language ___, and this
in turn will affect their success. Multiple factors affect the learner's notion of this: gender, ethnicity, job, family
relationship, etc.

116.

idiom

VOCABULARY A word sequence whose meaning is not literal (cannot be easily worked out from its individual words.
Can be classified in a variety of ways:
metaphorical: a hot potato, the tip of the iceberg
restricted collocations: pitch black, fat chance
phrasal verbs: pick up, get on
frozen similes: as old as the hills, as easy as pie
binomials and trinomials: hook, line and sinker, spick and span
proverbs and catchphrases: waste not, want not
euphemisms: pass away
true idioms (fixed and non-literal): spill the beans, fly off the handle
More in informal spoken language and often with an interpersonal function.

117.

idiomaticity

LINGUISTICS The extent to which a person's language sounds native-like. Has been a key influence on the development
of the lexical approach.

118.

immersion

SLA When children, as a group, are taught some or all of their school subjects in a language that is not their mother
tongue. It is aimed at fostering bilingualism. Can be total (when all curriculum subjects are taught in the second
language) or partial (when only some subjects are taught in the second language). Should be distinguished from
submersion (only individuals, not a group).

indirect
approach to
conversation

METHODOLOGY Argues that conversation is best learned by having conversations. Syllabus might consist of a list of
topics to talk about or of situations where conversations are likely to occur.

individual
learner
differences

PSYCHOLOGY Variations based on learning styles, abilities, needs and drives. Reflected in the differences in the rate at
which learners learn and in their eventual levels of attainment. Key factors are biological, personality, cognitive and
affective. Outcomes of this research were: learner training procedures, learning strategies, one-to-one teaching and selfaccess centers.

inductive
learning

PSYCHOLOGY The process of working out rules on the basis of examples. Also called discovery learning. Has been a
core principle in such natural methods as the direct method and audiolingualism. More recently has been promoted as a
means of consciousness-raising.

122.

input

SLA the spoken or written language that learners are exposed to. You cannot learn a language without this. Krashen
argues that this is all that is necessary for language acquisition to take place, but it must be comprehensible and one step
above the learner's interlanguage.

123.

input flood

SLA To include an item lots of times in a text to increase the chances of learners noticing it.

112.

113.
114.

119.

120.

121.

124.

instructions

METHODOLOGY The way that teachers manage classroom learning. Usually verbal. Will normally include some of
the following features:
a frame, a brief summary, the organization, the procedure, the mode, the outcome, a strategy, the timing, a cue
Have a directive function and are typically realized using the imperative.

125.

intake

SLA According to cognitive learning theory, the conscious process of noticing features of input results in this. The part
that was taken into short-term memory, the first step in the process off accommodating it into the learner's developing
interlanguage system.

integrative
test

TESTING Test that combines various components of a skill.

127.

intelligibility

PHONOLOGY When other people can understand what you are saying. Has resulted in the phonological core--features
of phonology that are crucial.

128.

interaction

SLA When learners communicate with one another, or with their teacher, or with the other speakers of the target
language. Learner-learner ____ is a defining feature of the communicative approach, promotes good group dynamics
and is a step toward learner autonomy.

interaction
hypothesis

SLA Michael Long's theory that tasks that promote negotiation of meaning are beneficial. Exchanges where learners
jointly resolve a communication problem provide a source of comprehensible input. Long argues for the need for
interaction, primarily because it is a site for negotiating meaning, called discourse repair strategies.

130.

interlanguage

SLA The grammatical system that a learner creates in the course of learning another language. it is neither their first
language system, nor the target language system, but occupies a transitional point between the two. Seen as an
independent system in its own rright, and not simply a degenerate form of the target language. Reflects the learner's
evolving system of rules. It follows particular stages, no matter what the learner's first language is. Initially called the
basic learner variety. Partial competence is a valid objective in second language learning.

131.

intonation

PHONOLOGY The music of speech. A suprasegmental feature of pronunciation, meaning that it is a property of whole
stretches of speech rather than of individual segments. Functions of this are:
grammatical function: indicating the difference between statements and questions
attitudinal function: indicating interest, surprise, boredom; what is called high and low involvement
discoursal function: contrasting new information with information that is already known, hence shared between
speakers
Serves both to separate the stream of speech into blocks of information (tone units), and to mark information within
these units as being significant.
High key=implies a contrast in attitude with respect to the preceding utterance
Low key=Speaker is adding something that is obvious or by the way

132.

juncture

PHONOLOGY This is the pausing (or lack of pausing) at the boundary between two sounds, which accounts for the
difference between ice cream and I scream.

language
acquisition

SLA The non-conscious and natural process of internalizing the rules of a language, as in L1. What is popularly called
picking up a language. Learners will construct a mental grammar of the language naturally by a process called creative
construction.

language
analysis

LINGUISTICS The study of the systems of a language, such as grammar and phonology, for the purposes of the
language. Typical topic areas are tense, modality, vocabulary, discourse analysis, phonemes, stress and intonation.

language
awareness

LINGUISTICS A teacher's or learner's explicit knowledge about language, often gained through language analysis.
Includes not only systems of the subject language, such as its grammar and phonology, but also knowledge of its social
and cultural role. Helps inform the design and choice of materials, syllabuses, classroom teaching methods and tests.

learnercentered
instruction

METHODOLOGY Aims to give learners more say in areas that are traditionally considered the domain of the teacher or
of the institution. Movement toward learner autonomy. Also describes ways of organizing classroom interaction so that
the focus is directed away from the teacher.

learner
training

METHODOLOGY The aim of this is to help learners make the most of the learning opportunities that are available to
them. in the long term, it is directed at achieving autonomy in language learning. Typical procedures include:
having learners complete questionnaires designed to help them identify their own learning style
showing learners how to get the most out of available resources
training learners in effective reading and listening strategies
experimenting with techniques to aid memorization

126.

129.

133.

134.

135.

136.

137.

learning
strategy

PSYCHOLOGY Techniques or behaviors that learners consciously apply in order to enhance their learning. Becomes a
___ ____ when the intention is long-term learning rather than solely immediate understanding. Some characteristics of
good learners include:
actively seeking out real-life opportunities to use the L2
not being afraid of appearing foolish in using the L2
paying attention to the formal properties of the L2
monitoring their own performance in the L2 and trying to learn from their errors
making intelligent guesses
Often grouped according to whether they are cognitive, metacognitive or social/affective strategies.

learning
style

PSYCHOLOGY Your preferred way of learning. Can be influenced by biographical factors or by innately endowed factors.
Usually presented in polarities. Includes:
analytic, global, rule-users, data-gatherers, reflective, impulsive, group-oriented, solitary, extroverted, introverted,
verbal, visual, passive, active.

lesson
design

METHODOLOGY The way that individual lessons are structured. Provides a secure framework within which a certain
amount of spontaneity and improvisation can be accommodated. Includes PPP, TTT, TBL.

lesson plan

METHODOLOGY A document that maps out the teacher's intentions for the lesson. It reflects the teacher's planning
decisions as well as the teacher's understanding of the principles of lesson design.

lexical
approach

METHODOLOGY An approach to language teaching that has chosen vocabulary (including collocations and formulaic
language/chunks) as the main focus for syllabus design and classroom teaching. Emerged out of development of corpus
linguistics, especially with frequency and collocations. Michael Lewis argues that language consists of grammaticalized
lexis, not lexicalized grammar. Jane and Dave Willis worked on the assumption that the most frequent words in any
language express its most frequent meanings. In their view, words are really 'small grammar' and grammar is 'big
words.' Willis' favored TBL; Lewis argues for a more analytic, text-based approach.

lexical item

VOCABULARY A term used to get around the fuzziness of the word 'word.' Any item that functions as a single meaning
unit, regardless of its different derived forms, or of the number of words that make it up.

lexical
priming

LINGUISTICS First elaborated by Michael Hoey, suggests that learning a language is essentially learning the primings
of its words. This includes its grammar, which itself is the accumulated effect o the primings of function words.
According to this approach, learners need massive exposure to input, and guidance in extracting patterns from it.

145.

lexical set

VOCABULARY Sets of words that share a meaning relationship. menu, starter, napkin, wine glass, tip, bill all share a
meaning relationship. Sometimes a close association can cause 'interference'.

146.

lexical verb

GRAMMAR A content verb, not a function verb. It has a dictionary meaning, rather than serving any sort of grammatical
function.

147.

lexis

LINGUSTICS A technical term for the vocabulary of a language, as opposed to its grammar.

148.

liaison

PHONOLOGY This is where a sound is introduced at word boundaries, especially after words ending in a vowel, as in
law and order=lohrandorder

linguistic
imperialism

SOCIOLINGUISTICS The often destructive effect that majority languages have on minority languages and cultures. Some
scholars, such as Robert Phillipson and Alistair Pennycook, argue that the teaching of English not only threatens local
languages, but does so in was that perpetuate colonial attitudes and practices.

150.

linguistics

LINGUISTICS The study of human language in general. Includes not only the structure of language (grammar,
phonetics, semantics), but also the purposes for which language is used (pragmatics). Prior to the 20th century, was
called 'philology' and was primarily focused with the comparative study of languages (always written and often dead).
Early 20th century, Swiss philologist Ferdinand de Sausseure shifted the focus on to the principles governing the
structure of living languages. His primary concern was semiotics. Lead to the Prague School-->functional approaches +
behaviorist theory--> structuralism, which was concerned with describing linguistic structures, with little or no reference
to their meaning or use. 1950s=Noam Chomskky and mentalism. Still a focus on forms that how they're realized in real
use. Michael Halliday was one linguist who accounted for the way linguistic forms related to their contexts.

151.

linker

DISCOURSE Words that join what has already been said or written to what follows. Show the sense relationship
between the two linked elements and include:
additives (and, firstly), summatives (in sum), appositives (namely, in other words), contrastives (but, instead),
concessives (however), resultatives (so, therefore), temporals (then, next).
Discursive texts often have a high frequency of linkers to achieve cohesion.

138.

139.

140.

141.

142.

143.

144.

149.

linkers

DISCOURSE Used to connect what has been said to what follows. and, but, or, so, because

listening
subskills

METHODOLOGY The skill of understanding spoken language; can be practiced through comprehension activities,
bottom-up processing activities, top-down processing activities,

154.

literacy

SOCIOLINGUISTICS The ability to read and write in a language, usually one's own. Increasingly becoming a
necessary skill in ESL/EFL.

155.

literature

DISCOURSE Refers to texts that have a mainly expressive function and which are highly valued in a particular culture.
These texts do not feature much in ELT material because they are considered difficult.

156.

long passive

GRAMMAR A passive construction followed by a by-phrase, identifying the agent.

157.

materials

METHODOLOGY Anything that is used to support the learning process. Includes coursebooks, workbooks, visual
aids, charts, etc. They relieve the teacher of having to do copious preparation; they are a stimulus to language
production; they provide immersion-like language exposure; they allow learners to continue studying outside class;
they provide variety and entertainment.

158.

meaning

LINGUISTICS Language consists of forms that express certain ____s. The study of ____ is called semantics.
Establishing this is one of the most important functions of a language teacher. Can be literal (denotation) or simply
associated or cultural (connotation).

159.

memorization

METHODOLOGY To intentionally commit something to memory. Has been out of favor in language teaching because
it's associated with rote learning. It doesn't necessarily have to be mindless or meaningless, though. A speaker's
fluency depends on having a bank of chunks. 3 key processes that aid in this:
elaboration: processing new information more elaborately improves its chances of being remembered.
rehearsal: mental recycling of material
retrieval: the more times a word is retrieved from long-term memory, the easier it will be to access in the future. Best
way is through distributed practice.
Mnemonics, keyword technique and word cards are all useful techniques.

160.

memory

PSYCHOLOGY Distinguish between:

sensory: An echo or visual impression that lasts only a few seconds
working: holds and processes information in the short term
long-term: the part that stores information more permanently.

mental
grammar

LINGUISTICS The way that a language is represented in your mind: it is the internalized, and usually implicit,
knowledge about the way the language works. It is part of every user's competence. Should not be confused with
accuracy.

162.

mentalism

PSYCHOLOGY The theory that language is an innate property of mind. Primarily associated with the work of Noam
Chomsky, and represents a reaction to a purely behaviorist view of language acquisition and a return to the rationalist
philosophy of Descartes: "I think, therefore I am." Assumes the existence of a built-in universal grammar and
presupposes an inborn language acquisition device.

163.

metaphor

LINGUISTICS A figure of speech where one thing is stated in terms of another. Tends to be associated with literary
language. They structure the way we think about, and perceive, the world. Can help learners make sense of phrasal
verbs and the way prepositions are used in time expressions. Includes a lot of formulaic language and collocations.
Grammatical: the way in which concepts that are normally expressed in one grammatical form (such as verbs), are
expressed in another (such as nouns). Can sometimes thinly mask a particular ideology or mindset (a flood of
immigrants=disastrous).

164.

method

METHODOLOGY A system for the teaching of a language that is based either on a particular theory of language or on
a particular theory of learning, or both. These theories underpin syllabus type, materials and activities. Should not be
confused with coursebook or methodology. Nowadays, the term 'approach' is used almost exclusively because had been
too prescriptive and too insensitive to local contextual factors.

165.

minimal pair

PHONOLOGY A pair of words which differ in meaning when only one sound (one phoneme) is changed. The
differences can be either vowels or consonants.

166.

mixed ability

METHODOLOGY A marked difference among learners in terms of aptitude, learning style and/or motivation. Should
be distinguished from mixed levels. Can be viewed as either a classroom management issue or as a syllabus and
materials issue. More acute problem in narrow-band curriculum than in broad-band curriculum.

152.
153.

161.

167.

modality

GRAMMAR The lexical and grammatical ways used by speakers to express their attitude to what they are saying. Can be
divided into two groups: extrinsic and intrinsic.
intrinsic: reflects speaker's attitude to the necessity or desirability of the situation; allows us to express a range of
interpersonal meanings.
extrinsic: the speaker's assessment of the likelihood of the situation; allows us to talk about 'the world out there.'

168.

modal verb

GRAMMAR A class of auxiliary verb. There are nine 'pure'. Pure in the sense that they fulfill the formal requirements of
auxiliary verbs: form their negatives with 'not'; form questions by inversion with their subject; no infinitive forms,
participles or the 3rd person; always 1st in the verb phrase. Can express 2 kinds of meaning: likelihood/possibility
(extrinsic) or speaker's attitude (intrinsic).
A number of other single-word and multi-word verbs that combine with other verbs to express modal meaning. Semi-___
or marginal ____.

model
muddle
meddle

METHODOLOGY Lesson design in which the teacher models a task; learners attempt to do the same task in pairs or
small groups, while the teacher monitors, intervening where necessary in order to help the learners perform the task
effectively; finally, individuals perform the task to the whole group.

170.

monitoring

SLA When speakers attend to what they are saying as they say it. Often involves repairing (either by self-correcting or
clarifying). Krashen's ____ hypothesis claims that learners use knowledge that they have learned in order to edit
utterances that are generated by knowledge that they have acquired. He claims that this is the only use of learned
knowledge. Can be monitor over users and under users.

171.

morpheme

PHONOLOGY The smallest meaningful unit in a language. Mean ing ful. Mean can stand on its own (free morpheme),
but ing and ful can't (bound morphemes). Bound morphemes are mainly affixes.

172.

morphology

GRAMMAR The area of grammar concerned with the formation of words. Contrasts with syntax. Divided into two
branches: inflectional and derivational.
inflectional=describes the way that words, such as verbs, are inflected in order to convey different grammatical
meanings. She works, she worked, she is working; where s, ed, and ing are different inflectional affixes.
derivational=the way lexical words are formed, by, for example, affixation and compounding. Thus, the words inflection
and inflectional are derived from inflect.

173.

motivation

PSYCHOLOGY What drives learners to achieve a goal; a key factor in determining success or failure in language
learning. A distinction is made between 2 orientations: instrumental and integrative.
instrumental=when the learner has a functional objective, such as passing an exam or getting a job.
integrative=when the learner wants to be identified wit the target language community.
Sources: intrinsic or extrinsic.
intrinsic=pleasure of doing a task for its own sake.
extrinsic=receiving some sort of reward.
Factors that contribute: attitudes, goals, value learner attaches to achieving the goals, expectancy of success, self-esteem,
intrinsic interest, group dynamic, teacher's attitude

multiple
intelligences

PSYCHOLOGY First proposed by Howard Gardner, views intelligence as being multi-dimensional. Includes:
verbal/linguistic, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, bodily/kinasthetic, musical/rhythmic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal.
Advocates argue that learning is optimized when these different intelligences are engaged. Belongs to humanistic
approaches with a 'new age' flavor.

narrating

FUNCTION Telling stories. A universal function of language. Covers many sub-genres: anecdotes, fables, jokes, urban
legends, etc. Serves an interpersonal function. Structure has been broken down into the following components:
abstract, orientation, complicating event, resolution, coda.
Sequence varies according to genre.

narrowband
curriculum

METHODOLOGY Curriculum in which each stage of the syllabus is highly specified, usually in terms of discrete items of
grammar, and where mastery of one stage is a prerequisite for the next. Learning is viewed as segmented, incremental
and sequential.

natural
approach

METHODOLOGY First used in the 19th century to describe teaching methods such as the direct method, that attempted
to mirror the process of learning a first language. Translation and grammar explanations were rejected, learners were
exposed to sequences of actions and the spoken form was taught before the written form. Term was resurrected by Tracy
Terrell in the 70s. Endorsed by Krashen and shared principles with TPR.

169.

174.

175.

176.

177.

naturalistic
language
acquisition

SLA Language acquisition that takes place in naturalistic (ie, non-classroom) settings. Contrasts with instructed
language acquisition.

needs
analysis

METHODOLOGY The process of specifying the learners' language needs in advance of designing a course for them,
especially an ESP course. Data are usually collected by means of questionnaires or interviews.

negative
politeness

DISCOURSE Social behavior which avoids imposing on others. Achieved by saying please or acknowledging
imposition and then apologizing.

neurolinguistic
programming

PSYCHOLOGY A theory about the way the mind processes experience and language. Concerned with the brain,
language and learning. Shares with the theory of multiple intelligences the view that the mind is predisposed to process
experience in different ways/modalities. Learners have preferred thinking styles, or metaprograms. Many of its ways of
establishing rapport are already well-established in literature on affect and in humanistic approaches.

no-interface
position

SLA The claim that acquisition and learning are separate, independent processes, that do not influence one another.

non-finite
verbs

GRAMMAR Do not show person, number or tense contrasts. The infinitive, present and past participles are forms of
these. "Before working for his uncle, Brad used to work for his father."

normreferenced
test

TESTING Test in which there is no criterion for passing, but a candidate's results are interpreted in relation to the
results of other candidates.

noticing

SLA When your attention is attracted to a feature of the language that you are exposed to and you make a mental note of
it. Proponents of cognitive learning theory believe that it's a prerequisite for learning, but not the only one. Turns
'noise' into input before it becomes intake (before it's moved into long-term memory).

noticing the
gap

SLA When learners are made aware of a gap in their language knowledge. Can trigger the restructuring of
interlanguage.

notional
syllabus

METHODOLOGY A syllabus that is organized according to general areas of meaning that are used in most grammars.
A reversal of the form to meaning organization. When combined with functions, forms the backbone of the
communicative approach. Survives now as just one strand of what are known as multi-layered syllabuses.

object

GRAMMAR The person or thing in a sentence or clause that is affected by the action of the verb. Usually a noun phrase
or a pronoun.

one to one
teaching

METHODOLOGY Individualized instruction, in contrast to the teaching of small or large groups. Usually occurs face
to face, and at times, over the phone, or at a distance.
Advantages for the student: undivided attention of the teacher, optimal opportunities for participation, classes can be
tailored to their particular needs, pace and learning style.
Advantages for the teacher: no mixed levels, mixed abilities, diverse interests or different learning styles. Teacher can
allow learner some choice in lesson content and direction.
Disadvantages: can be intensive, tiring experiences for both the learner and the teacher. Limited possibilities for
communication (only 1 channel).

order of
acquisition

SLA The order in which grammar items are thought to be acquired. It is also called the natural order and the order of
development. Research was first carried out in L1 acquisition by means of morpheme studies. In the 70s, applied to
SLA. The order is the same, irrespective of the learner's L1, age, or the order in which they are taught these items.
Prompted Krashen to formulate his natural order hypothesis. According to this view, teaching can't change the route of
acquisition, but it can speed up the rate of acquisition.

output
hypothesis

SLA The theory that output, especially spoken output, is a necessary condition for language acquisition. Contradicts
Krashen's input hypothesis. Merrill Swain argues that learners have to be pushed to produce comprehensible output as
well. Forces learners to pay attention to features of the grammar that they might otherwise not notice. Puts them in a
better position to notice the gaps in their language knowledge. Developed out of immersion teaching in Canada.

192.

pairwork

METHODOLOGY A form of classroom interaction in which learners work in pairs to achieve a task. Open pairs,
closed pairs. Can be organized around mingling or milling, dyadic circles, parallel lines, poster carousel

193.

paradigm

LINGUISTICS A way of displaying the different forms of a word in the form of a list or table. The relationship between
elements in a chain is called a syntagmatic relationship: This little pig went to market; this little pig stayed at home.
Went and stayed have the same paradigmatic relationship, as do the words market and home.
These are typically displayed in substitution tables.

178.

179.

180.

181.

182.

183.

184.

185.

186.

187.

188.

189.

190.

191.

194.

paragraph

DISCOURSE A way of organizing written texts into a sequence of topic-related sentences. The division of a text into
these is an indication of its macro-structure. These contribute to the overall coherence of a text.

195.

paralinguistics

LINGUISTICS The study of non-linguistic means of vocal communication. This includes the different kinds of voice
quality, as well as the use of loudness, intonation and tempo to convey particular emotions and attitudes. Also used
to describe non-vocal features of communication--such as the use of gesture, facial expression and eye contact. Body
language=kinesics. A related area is proxemics--the study of how speakers use and interpret variations in
interpersonal distance, posture and touch, during face-to-face communication.

196.

parameter

SLA One of the 2 components of Chomsky's universal grammar. Different languages construct phrases differently.
The limited choice of variants is controlled by ____s. These are switched to one setting or another when the child is
first exposed to language data. English is head-first (verbs before their complements). The choice between head-first
and head-last is governed by a ____. Principles are universal, but ___s are language-specific. Learning a second
language involves learning its particular ___ settings.

197.

parsing

GRAMMAR The process of analyzing sentences into their component parts. Once a staple activity in traditional
grammar teaching. Also the term used to describe the largely unconscious mental processes by which a reader or
listener works out the grammatical structure of sentences or utterances.

198.

participle

GRAMMAR Non-finite forms of verbs. That is, they don't show contrasts of tense, number or person, and they can't
occur alone as the main verb of the sentence. There are two types: present and past. Generally, present ___ expresses
the course of a process; past ___ describes its result or effects.

199.

passive

GRAMMAR Contrasts with active, and together they make up the system called voice. Voice is the way that the
relationship between the subject and the object of the verb can be changed without changing the basic meaning of
the sentence. Many reasons for this: to distribute information according to what is not known and what is known.
Only transitive verbs can take this voice. Much more common in written language.

200.

pause filler

DISCOURSE A word or sound used to avoid frequent, long or silent pauses. Used to maintain fluency.

pedagogical
grammar

LINGUISTICS A kind of descriptive grammar designed for teaching and learning purposes. Focuses on grammar as a
subsystem of overall language proficiency, as distinct from form, phonology or discourse. More selective than a
linguist's grammar. Formal rather than functional.

202.

perfect

GRAMMAR One of the two verb aspects in English, the other being the progressive. It combines with tense. The
basic meaning is 'before--and connected to--a point in time.' At least 2 reasons to view an event in this retrospective
way:
1. although finished, it is still relevant.
2. to indicate that an event is unfinished. Why it often combines with expressions of duration.

203.

personalization

METHODOLOGY When someone uses language to talk about their own knowledge, experience and feelings. Good
preparation for the kinds of situations of genuine language use that learners might encounter outside the classroom.
Influenced by humanistic approaches, which give it more coherent rationale and suggest a broader range of activity
types. Creates better classroom dynamics. The mental and emotional effort that is involved in finding personal
associations with a language item is likely to add cognitive and affective depth.

204.

phatic language

DISCOURSE Language whose purpose is to smooth the conduct of social relations. Unlike transactional language,
this language has an interpersonal function. Typically formulaic, as in the case of greetings, and is a characteristic
of what is called small talk. Plays a very important role in the formation and maintenance of social groupings.

205.

phoneme

PHONOLOGY One of the distinctive sounds of a particular language. It is not any sound, but it is a sound that, to
speakers of a language, cannot be replaced with another sound without causing a change in meaning.

206.

phonetics

PHONOLOGY The science of speech sounds, including the ways that these sounds are produced, transmitted and
received. Language teaching is less concerned with this than phonology.

207.

phonics

METHODOLOGY An approach to the teaching of L1 reading that is based on the principle of identifying sound-letter
relationships and using this knowledge to 'sound out' unfamiliar words when reading. Has been criticized because it
encourages an exclusively bottom-up approach to reading, ignoring the value of recognizing whole word shapes, or
using context clues to decode new words. Contrasts with more holistic, top-down approaches to teaching literacy,
such as those advocated in whole language learning. In second language teaching, only really applies to young
learners.

201.

phonological
core

PHONOLOGY The name given to those features of pronunciation that are considered essential in order to be
understood when speaking English as an International Language. Features that are crucial in ensuring intelligibility
between non-native speakers of English. Includes the following features (as proposed by Jennifer Jenkins):
most consonant sounds
consonant clusters at beginnings of words, but not necessarily the end
vowel length distinctions (long vs. short vowels)
nuclear stress (correct placement of stress in an utterance)

209.

phonology

PHONOLOGY The study of the sound system of a particular language, and how this system is used by its speakers to
express meaning. Describes the abstract system that allows the speakers of a language to distinguish meaning from
mere verbal noise. Concerned with both segmental (smallest units of speech) and suprasegmental (larger elements)
features, such as stress, rhythm and intonation (sometimes called prosody of speech).

210.

phrasal verb

GRAMMAR A combination of a verb and one or two particles. The particle is either an adverb or a preposition, or both.
Four types:
prepositional verbs: V + Prep. particle + object 'Can you deal with it?'
intransitive phrasal verbs: V + adv. particle 'A storm blew up.'
transitive phrasal verbs: V + adv. particle + object 'I'll pick you up at 8.'
phrasal prepositional verbs: V + adv. particle + prep. + object 'We've run out of gas.'

211.

phrase

GRAMMAR A unit of one or more words that form a single element of a clause structure. It occupies the level on the
grammatical hierarchy between individual words and clauses. 5 types, each associated with one of the 5 word classes:
noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition.

placement
test

TESTING A form of assessment given at the entry of a course to ascertain a learner's level.

213.

polysemy

VOCABULARY "Many meanings." Refers to the case where one word has more than one related meaning. Thus, the
word "chip" can mean 1) a piece of deep-fried potato, 2) a small piece of wood, 3) an electronic component. The words
all have a common, core meaning.

214.

portfolio

TESTING A collection of original work that is put together by a student for the purposes of assessment. It may include
samples of classwork, homework, or even audio/video recordings. May also include some form of self-assessment or
reflection.

positive
politeness

DISCOURSE Social behavior which expresses positive attitudes to other people. Can take the form of thanking, paying
compliments, showing agreement, using terms of address that increase the hearer's sense of importance, using terms of
familiarity that imply a close friendship, even if there isn't one.

216.

possibility

FUNCTION Degrees of likelihood of past, present and future events and situations. Degrees range from certainty,
through probability, to impossibility. Expressed by:
modal verbs (may, could)
adverbials (perhaps, maybe, probably)
adjectives (likely, possible)
nouns (chance, likelihood)
A distinction is made between factual ___ and theoretical ___.
The beach may be crowded. vs. The beach can be crowded.

217.

practicability

TESTING How easily a test is able to be administered.

208.

212.

215.

practice

METHODOLOGY To do something a number of times in order to gain control of it. Fundamental to cognitive learning
theory. Through ___, a skill becomes automatic. Sociocultural learning theory also finds room for __: performing a skill
with the assistance of someone who is good at it can help in the appropriation of the skill.
Different types:
Controlled: can be controlled in language or in interaction. Maintains a focus on accuracy and pre-empts or corrects
errors.
Free: allows learners a measure of creativity, and the opportunity to integrate the new item into their existing language
'pool.'
mechanical: form of controlled where the focus is less on the meaning of an item than on manipulating its component
parts.
meaningful: requires learners to display some understanding of what the item that they are using actually means.
communicative: learners interacting to complete some kind of task
receptive: involve the learners in identifying, selecting, or discriminating between language items but not actually
producing them.
productive: learners have to produce the target items.

pragmatic
competence

LINGUISTICS The knowledge that language users have that enables them to take contextual factors into account when
using and interpreting language.

pragmatics

LINGUISTICS The study of how language is used and interpreted by its learners in real-world situations.

prescriptive
grammar

LINGUISTICS A manual that states rules for how language shoudl be used, rather than how it is used. Many traditional
grammars were of this type, and most manuals of correct usage and style guides still are. This type of grammar is
considered at best a curiosity and at worst reactionary.

prescriptive
grammar

LINGUISTICS Prescribes correct usage, according to the standards of some group. What you ought or ought not to say.
Seen as a marker of group membership. Not what we mean in the context of EFL/ESL.

presentation

METHODOLOGY The stage of a lesson in which a new language item--typically a grammar structure, but can also be
vocabulary, pronunciation or features of discourse--is introduced to the learners. Can be either deductive or inductive.
Aimed at matching a language form with a meaning. Should normall include some check on the learners' understanding
(CCQs). Should be a short stage of the lesson, to allow maximum time for communicative practice.

presentation
practice
production

METHODOLOGY Lesson design in which a pre-selected grammar item is first presented using direct method
techniques, then practised in a controlled way, then practised by means of a freer, productive activity such as a roleplay.
The design that has prevailed in ELT methodology for the past half century. Final stage reinforced by the advent of the
communicative approach. This design has been criticized because the first two phases receive undue emphasis. To some
it's a very mechanical model of learning.

priming

LINGUISTICS The process by which, through repeated encounters, a word gathers particular associations. These
associations may be with other words, as is the case with collocations. Or may be semantic associations (particular
meanings), colligtions (grammatical patterns). These patterns are strengthened through repeated encounters.

process
approach to
writing

METHODOLOGY Approach in which writers do not in fact start with a clear idea of the finished product. The text
emerges out of a creative process which includes: planning, drafting and re-drafting, reviewing, publishing. It's a more
organic sequence of classroom activities. Has a lot in common with the communicative approach in that the writer
interacts with a reader for a particular purpose.

product
approach to
writing

METHODOLOGY An approach in which the focus is exclusively on producing a text that reproduces the model learners
are initially given. Involves analyzing and imitating models of particular text types. Each of the features is practiced in
isolation, then recombined in tasks aimed first at reproducing the original and then at producing similar texts
incorporating different content.

228.

proficiency

SLA The degree of skill with which a learner can use the language.

229.

progressive

GRAMMAR One of the two verb aspects in English. Combines with tense to tell us what an action is/was like. The event
is viewed as being 'in progress' (in the present or in the past, depending on the tense). Not usually possible with stative
verbs.

230.

progress test

TESTING A form of assessment administered periodically during a course to monitor the learning process. Also called
formative tests. These are set because they encourage revision.

231.

project work

METHODOLOGY The preparation and presentation of a project, either by an individual or (more usually) a group. The
rationale is essentially the same as TBL. The preparation of these usually extends over more than one lesson.

218.

219.

220.
221.

222.

223.

224.

225.

226.

227.

pronoun

GRAMMAR The relatively small word class of words that can be used to substitute for a noun or a noun phrase. They
include:
personal pronouns
possessive pronouns
demonstrative pronouns
interrogative pronouns
relative pronouns
indefinite pronouns
reflexive pronouns
reciprocal pronouns
quantifiers
They aid in the overall cohesion of a text.

pronunciation
teaching

PHONOLOGY The general term for that part of language classes and courses that deals with aspects of phonology in
English. Includes segmental and suprasegmental features. Can be either integrated or segregated. Integrated=dealt
with as part of the teaching of skills of grammar and vocabulary, or of speaking and listening. Segregated=treated in
isolation.
Pre-emptive or reactive.

234.

quanitifiers

GRAMMAR Words or phrases which specify quantity or amount. They either precede nouns (as determiners) or stand
on their own (as pronouns). The choice of these is often determined by whether the noun that follows is countable or
uncountable; and if, countable whether it is singular or plural. These can be categorized as being:
inclusive (all, both, each, every)
an indefinite quantity (some, several, any)
a large quantity (most, much, lots of)
a small quantity (a few, a little, a bit of)
a comparative quantity (more, less)
negative quantities (no, neither, none)
numbers
partitives (a piece, a bottle)

235.

question

GRAMMAR The basic distinction between asking and telling. This is the main way of performing the asking function.
Contrasts with statements. Classified as:
yes-no
wh
alternative (Shall, Did)
tag
declarative: "You're sure you're okay?"
rhetorical
indirect and reported
Basic operation in forming questions in English is the inversion of the subject and the (first) auxiliary of the verb

236.

reading

METHODOLOGY A receptive skill, but it doesn't mean that it's passive. It's an active, even interactive process.
Learners need to be able to decode the letters, words and grammatical structures of the individual sentences (bottomup processing). They also enlist top-down processes, such as drawing on discourse and schematic knowledge, as well
as on immediate contextual knowledge. Involves an interaction between these different levels of knowledge, where
knowledge at one level can compensate for lack of knowledge at another. Different subskills incluce:
skimming (gist)
scanning (searching for specific information and ignoring everything else)
detailed (extracting the maximum detail from a text)
aloud (a prepared speech or lecture, or a story or extract from a newspaper)

received
pronunciation

PHONOLOGY The type of pronunciation of British English that is considered the regionally neutral standard.
Provides the model most widely used in the teaching of British English. The argument for using this English in recent
years has been challenged, especially with the growth of English as an international language.

232.

233.

237.

238.

reference

DISCOURSE The relation between language forms and things in the real world. Also has a narrower sense, and
describes the relation between language forms and their referents in discourse.
Anaphoric: back reference
cataphroic: forward reference
exophoric: direct reference to the non-linguistic context
These all aid in cohesion. Deicitic terms typically have exophoric reference.

239.

reflection

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT A key stage in an experiential learning cycle that also includes planning, action
andlearning. This involves more than simply remembering. Being able to think critically about experience, to identify
problems, and to 're-frame' these problems. Also a component of the action research model.

240.

register

LINGUISTICS The way that language use varies according to variations in the context. It is a term that is used
particularly by proponents of systemic functional linguistics. They argue that there is a correlation between the forms of
language and features of the social context. Key factors are
the field of discourse (what is being talked or written about)
the tenor (the relationship between the participants)
the mode (whether the language is written or spoken).
These constitute the ___ variables of a situation. It is of particular relevance in the teaching of genres.

241.

reliability

TESTING When a test gives consistent results. Often an effect of the test design. Also at risk the more subjective the
scoring is.

242.

repair

DISCOURSE To correct or modify what you have just said, so as to make it more accurate or more intelligible. Can be
self-initiated or other-initiated.

243.

repetition

METHODOLOGY Underlies many language learning strategies, and it has always been considered a sound learning
strategy. Audiolingualism helped make __ scientific and developed a sophisticated repertoire of drills. Post-behaviorist
approaches continued to promote ___, believing that it helps fix language in the memory. The way the item is processed
is more important than the number of times it is repeated.

244.

requesting

FUNCTION Belongs to the general class of speech acts that are about getting people to do things, such as commanding,
persuading, and asking favors. Most of these involve the use of modal verbs.

245.

restructuring

SLA Responding to new information by re-organizing to accommodate it. The term in cognitive learning theory used to
describe what seemed to happen to the learner's developing interlanguage system as it adapted to new input. At some
point, a rule for regular past tense formation is applied to all verbs in past contexts. The system has now sped up
processing, but it may result in what is called backsliding, which is what happens when the learner overapplies the rule
(or overgeneralizes it). Without ____, fossilization can occur.

246.

revision

TESTING The process of reviewing previously studied material, especially in advance of a test. The most effective forms
involve revisiting previously studied material and processing it in a novel way. This should happen as soon as possible
after first meeting it, and then at successively longer intervals of time.

247.

rhythm

PHONOLOGY The way that some words are emphasized so as to give the effect of regular beats. Can be stress-timed
(English) or syllable-timed (French and Spanish). Interacts with stress and intonation to help speakers organize
speech into meaningful units.

248.

routine

METHODOLOGY Regular procedures that impart a sense of structure, rhythm and flow to the class. Some are
management-oriented, some are teaching-oriented. Expert teachers regularly use a relatively small number of these in
their classes, but they are performed fluidly and purposefully. Learning to teach is primarily a case of acquiring a
repertoire of these that can be adapted to different classes, levels and circumstances.

249.

rubric

METHODOLOGY The set of instructions (usually written) that tells students what they have to do for a test or an
exercise.

250.

scaffolding

SLA The temporary interactional support that is given to learners while their language system is under construction. It
is this support that enables them to perform a task at a level beyond their present competence. The term derives from
sociocultural learning theory, which views learning as being jointly constructed. it not only provides a conversational
framework, but it is believed to shape language acquisition itself.

251.

schemata

PSYCHOLOGY The way that knowledge about a topic or a concept is represented and organized in the mind. They help
us to make sense of experience, and hence they are crucial in comprehension. Also used to refer to the temporary mental
picture that a reader or listener constructs when processing a text.

second
language

SLA Any language that has been learned subsequent to the acquisition of the first language. The term additional
language is sometimes preferred.

second
language
acquisition

SLA The study of how second (or additional) languages are acquired. It is a relatively new field of study, emerging in the
wake of behaviorism to offer a satisfactory explanation of either first or second language acquisition.
To what extent are the processes the same as those of FLA?
Why is it seldom, if ever, as successful as FLA?
Why do some learners learn better and/or faster than others?
Why do learners make errors?
How does the L1 affect the learning of the L2?
Does instruction help? And if so, how?
Researchers use as data learner output, the input they're exposed to, age, aptitude, motivation and learning style.
3 areas account for this study: UG, cognitive learning theory and sociocultural learning theory.

self-access
center

METHODOLOGY That part of a language teaching institution that is allocated to self-directed study. Popular at the
height of the learner autonomy movement. Many are re-absorbed into the instution's library or turned into internet
rooms.

255.

semantics

LINGUISTICS The study of meaning, including the way words relate to the things that they refer to in the real world. In
language teaching the focus is on the meaning relationship between words, such as similarity and oppositeness. Often
contrasted with pragmatic meaning, in that it focuses on the literal meaning instead of the effect.

256.

sentence

GRAMMAR the largest purely grammatical unit in a language. Everything beyond the ___ is only weakly linked in
grammatical terms. In speaking, speech is sometimes broken into utterances instead.

short
passive

GRAMMAR A passive construction without a by-phrase. Used when the agent is not known, is obvious or because the
speaker doesn't wish to identify the agent.

258.

silent period

SLA The lengthy period of time children learning their first language go through when they simply listen before they
venture their first words. Some researchers have argued that this is a necessary stage in language acquisition. It
provides and opportunity to comprehend input. Methods based on this are TPR and the natural approach. Some
evidence suggests that learners use this period to engage in private speech (a kind of silent or sub-vocablized rehearsal
phase).

259.

silent way

METHODOLOGY A method that was developed by Caleb Gattegno in the '60s. Normally grouped among the humanistic
approaches to language learning. Gattegno believed language learning was self-initiated and self-directed. T's role was
as a facilitator. Learning is largely mediated through the use of two aids: Fidel charts of color-coded sounds of the
language, and cuisinaire rods--small, colored blocks of wood of varying length. Rods and charts were used to create and
reflect upon basic sentence patterns. This method deliberately keeps the vocab load low. It has only ever had fringe
status.

260.

skills

METHODOLOGY A way in which language is used. Language ___ contrast with language systems. These are divided
into receptive (reading and listening) and productive (speaking and writing). This division has been fundamental in
course design and lesson planning. The separation into discrete skills overlooks the fact that mot communication is
interactive, involving both reception and production, and often in equal measure. To separate these distorts how
language is really used.

261.

socialization

SLA The process by whcih we become members of a particular group. It means adopting--or adapting to--the values and
customs of the target group. A growing school of thought views L2 learning as a process of this, not of acquisition. The
dominant metaphor is that of apprenticeship, in which the learner is gradually inducted into the target culture,
including its language. This makes more sense in an EFL context than and ESL one.

sociocultural
learning
theory

PSYCHOLOGY Comes from the pioneering work of Lev Vygotsky, a child psychologist in the 30s in the then USSR. Saw
learning as a social process: through social interaction the learner is assisted from dependency toward autonomy. This
theory situates the learning process firmly in its social context (as opposed to mentalism). All learning--including L1
and L2--is mediated through social and cultural activity. Mediation typically takes the form of assisted performance with
scaffolding until learner is able to appropriate the knowledge. Learner graduates from a state of other-regulation to selfregulation.

252.

253.

254.

257.

262.

263.

sociolinguistics

SOCIOLINGUISTICS The study of the way language and society are interrelated, and in particular the way different
social contexts influence language use. The major contribution to language teaching was the impetus it gave to the
development of the communicative approach. Descriptions of how language is used in different communities
prompted scholars to re-think the goals of L2 teaching and to describe these in terms of functions rather than
structures. Bilingualism, language and gender, language and power and language planning all fall under this
umbrella.

264.

songs

METHODOLOGY An entertaining and often memorable way of contextualizing language. Have inbuilt repetition,
which adds to their potential as sources for incidental learning. Many display instances of high frequency idiomatic
language, including formulaic language. Downside=often ungraded, colloquial, and even ungrammatical.

265.

speaking

METHODOLOGY Generally thought to be the most important of the 4 skills. Often equated with proficiency in the
language. Main difficulties include: takes place spontaneously and in real time, so planning and production overlap.
If too much time is spent planning, production suffers. If too much focus on production, accuracy suffers, which
could prejudice intelligibility. Speaker needs to have achieved a degree of automaticity in both planning and
production. A core vocabulary of 1000-1500 high-frequency words and expressions will provide most learners with a
solid basis.

266.

speech act

DISCOURSE "Doing something" with words. Most require their purpose/illocutionary force to be inferred. The
conditions that determine the appropriacy and interpretation of these are the concerns of pragmatics. Can be 1 of 5
types:
representatives: describe states or events in the world.
directives: aimed at getting people to do things.
commissives: commit the speaker to a course of action.
expressives: express feelings and attitudes.
declaratives: by uttering these, speaker changes the situation.
This theory originated in philosophy with JL Austin and John Searle.

spoken
grammar

GRAMMAR Shares the same basic structure as that of written English, but because of its on-line production, there
are some significant differences. Speech is built up clause by clause and phrase by phrase, rather than sentence by
sentence. Utterance boundaries are less clearly defined in spoken language, and why co-ordination is preferred to
subordination. Typically consists of frequent sequences of short clauses joined by and, but, then, because. In
utterances, content can be added before or after (heads and tails) the main body of the message in ways that sentence
grammar does not allow. Also shows a preference for direct speech rather than reported speech. There is also the use
of vague language.

standard
English

SOCIOLINGUISTICS The variety of English that is usually used in writing, taught in schools, and used as the model
for teaching non-native speakers. Each major English-speaking country has its on variety. The linguistic features are
codified in its grammar and vocabulary, including its spelling. Pronunciation may vary. There are arguments both for
and against using this as the norm. For: even if not all English speakers speak it, they can understand it. There is
also no real viable alternative. Against: It is too closely associated with native speakers.

269.

stative verb

GRAMMAR Refer to states: I am curious. It's a wonderful life.

Refer to inactive emotional, cognitive or perceptual processes: I want to live. I know what you did last summer.
These cannot normally be used in the continuous.

270.

stress

PHONOLOGY The effect of emphasizing certain syllables by increasing their loudness, length or pitch. Can be at
word level or sentence level. Learners start working this out on the basis of intuition, but highlighting it can be a
useful memory aid. There is some evidence that words are stored and recalled according to their 'shape.'

stress-timed
language

PHONOLOGY Stressed syllables tend to recur at different intervals, and the intervening syllables are accommodated.

272.

strong CLT

METHODOLOGY An emphasis on deep-end communication. You learn language by using it. Led to task-based
learning.

273.

structure

LINGUISTICS A pattern that a language has for generating specific instances. Now loosely used to mean any
grammar item that appears on a syllabus, and in particular the different combinations of tense and aspect. The
communicative approach tried to replace these with functions, but these are easier than functions to grade.

267.

268.

271.

274.

style

LINGUISTICS A usually deliberate choice of a particular way of saying or writing something. There is often more
than one way of conveying the same message. The choice is determined by 1) specific contextual factors; 2) a
particular effect the person wants to achieve. Ranges from formal to informal. These choices affect both grammar and
vocabulary. Can include literary, old-fashioned, humorous and medical. If these are related to particular fields, they're
called registers.

275.

stylistics

LINGUISTICS The study of style, or the way language is used to create particular effects, especially those associated
with the expressive and literary uses of language. Rather than simply interpreting styles, it aims to explain them by
employing the concepts and analytical techniques of linguistics and applying these to literary texts. Has a lot in
common with genre analysis.

276.

subordination

GRAMMAR One way of linking clauses so that one clause is embedded in another. This embedded clause is said to be
dependent on the other clause. The conjunctions when, even if, although, because, while, after, unless are all used for
this.
There are 3 clauses:
adverbial: act like an adverbial in a sentence and give extra info about time, manner, reason, conditions, etc.
relative: attached to a noun phrase, which they modify by providing extra information.
reported: report statements, questions, thoughts and which typically begin with that or if or a wh word.

277.

substitution

DISCOURSE The replacing of a noun phrase or a whole clause by a single word. This is done in order to avoid
repetition, or to make a text more cohesive.

substitution
table

METHODOLOGY A way of displaying the way the different elements of a structure relate to one another, both on a
horizontal axis, and on a vertical one. Horizontally (syntagmatic), the table displays the order of elements. Vertically
(paradigmatic), it displays the items that may be substituted for one another. These were a popular aid to learning in
audiolingualism, since they displayed the structural patterns of the language.

subvocalization

PSYCHOLOGY When learners repeat, under their breath, what they have just heard.

280.

suggesting

FUNCTION Attempting to influence the behavior of people. Less forceful than a command, although it may be a way
of disguising a command.

281.

suggestopaedia

METHODOLOGY A method that applies principles of suggestion to teaching. Georgi Lozanov believes that, in the
right conditions, the human mind is highly suggestible and capable of prodigious feats of learning (superlearning or
accelerated learning). Any negative feelings associated with learning need to be eliminated by a process called desuggestion, which involves background music, adopting fictitious names and personae, and the T in control. It is
assumed that learning takes place subliminally. Emphasis on affect makes it highly humanistic. It anticipated NLP.

282.

superordinate

VOCABULARY A larger category with specific items under its umbrella. An orange is a fruit (fruit is the larger
category).

283.

syllable

PHONOLOGY A unit of pronunciation that is typically larger than a sound but smaller than a word. Consist of vowel
sounds or combinations of vowels and consonants. Some consonants can form these on their own. It is difficult to
say where one ends and another begins.

syllable-timed
language

PHONOLOGY Syllables in the language are given equal length.

285.

syllabus

METHODOLOGY An item-by-item description of the teaching content of a course. On the basis of this a
timetable/scheme of work can be drawn up. Helps specify what should be tested. A distinction is sometimes made
between this and the curriculum. The ___ is one way that the curriculum is operationalized. To design this, involves
at least 2 sets of decisions: selecting and grading. Tradition also plays a part in the design. There are many kinds of
these:
semantic, structural, topic-based, situational, task-based, test-based, genre-driven, multi-layered.

286.

synonym

VOCABULARY A word that has the same meaning as, or a very similar meaning to, another one. This relationship
contrasts with other sense relations, such as antonymy and hyponymy. Words may have a similar meaning, but differ
in style, in their geographical distribution, in their connotations or in their collocations.

287.

syntax

GRAMMAR The rules for sequencing words so as to show their relationships of meaning within sentences. Contrasts
with morphology. Together these make up what is traditionally known as grammar. Traditionally taught by the
process of parsing sentences.

278.

279.

284.

288.

289.

290.

291.

292.

systemic
functional
linguistics

LINGUSTICS A model for linguistic analysis developed by Michael Halliday. It describes language as a network of a
small fixed set of choices. It also describes the conditions for choosing among each set of choices. Identifies language as
having 3 main (mega) functions that are realized at every level of analysis:
experiential (ideational): language expresses the way we experience the world.
interpersonal: language is used to act upon the world and to interact with other people.
textual: language can be used to make connections between a text and its context, or to make connections within the
text.
Underlying this model of language is the claim that the grammatical system is determined by the social functions for
which langauge is used.

task

METHODOLOGY A classroom activity whose focus is on communicating meaning. In contrast, practising a preselected item of language for its own sake would not be a valid __ objective. In the performance of the __, learners are
expected to make use of their own language resources. May be receptive or productive and may be done individually or in
pairs or small groups.
Factors which influence the degree of difficulty include:
linguistic factors: How complex is the language learners will need to draw on? How much help will they get with their
language needs?
cognitive factors: Does the task require the processing of complex data? Is the task type familiar to learners?
performance factors: Do the learners have to interact in real time in order to do the task? Do they have time to rehearse?
Do they have to 'go public?'

task-based
learning

METHODOLOGY An approach that makes the task the basic unit for planning and teaching. Rationale originated in
the communicative approach, particularly in the deep-end version. You learn a language by using it. One of the first
experiments took place in the 70s in southern India (Bangalore project; N.S. Prabhu). Classroom instruction involved
the demonstration (by the T) and the performance (by the Learners) of these tasks. Prabhu rejected any focus on form,
either before, during or after the task, on the grounds that it might detract from meaning. Some argue that feedback
should happen pre, during or post task. Shares many principles with whole language learning. It has been more
theoretically influential than practically.

teacher
development

PROFESSIONAL Refers to the ongoing professional growth of teachers, particularly that which takes place after their
initial training. May take the form of in-service training of a more formal kind, such as attendance on course.
Incorporates cycles of classroom practice and reflection, which might include:
a mentoring system
classroom observation
keeping a teaching journal
action research
locally-based workshops and seminars
guided reading, and discussion
Often contrasted with teacher training. TT has more technical goals. ____ has a more holistic orientation, aimed at
developing the T's capacity for self-directed growth and professional well-being.

teacher talk

METHODOLOGY The term used to describe the variety of language used by teachers when addressing learners. Shares
qualities with the way speakers often adapt their language when talking to non-native speakers and the way that parents
talk to children. Generally refers to the way that teachers interact with their learners. T provides a source of input as well
as feedback. Has a number of different functions:
managing: giving instructions, nominating turns
explaining: giving definitions, presenting grammar
checking understanding
modelling
giving feedback
eliciting
providing input
interpersonal talk
Being intelligible as a teacher is less a question of grading language than of being sensitive to, and know how to resolve,
misunderstandings.

teaching
young
learners

METHODOLOGY Teaching children of pre-primary and primary school age. Can sometimes include adolescents. Has
a long history. The special characteristics of this group can be broken down as cognitive, affective and social.
cognitive factors: relatively limited world knowledge, still developing concepts and memory, short attention span,
preference for holistic learning, etc.
affective factors: lack of self-consciousness about expressing themselves inaccurately, need for encouragement and
support, intrinsically motivated.
social factors: lack of social skills, dependency on the teacher.
General rules:
provide opportunities for learning through doing
situate the content in the world of the learners
plan short, varied activity cycles
systematically recycle language in different contexts
provide plenty of comprehensible input
scaffold the learners' talk
establish regular routines
Sociocultural learning theory offers the most support for the above principles.

294.

tense

GRAMMAR Refers to the way that verbs are inflected to express a relation with time. The relation between time and __
is not an exact match. Grammatical ___ and notional time are not the same thing. There are only really 2 of these in
English: the present and the past. This combines with aspect to create the variety of verb structures in English that are
commonly mistaken as its different ___s. A focus on them has traditionally dominated course design.

295.

test teach test

METHODOLOGY Lesson design in which learners first perform a task; the T uses this in order to identify the learners'
specific language needs; they are then taught whatever it is they need in order to re-do the task more effectively.

test-teachtest

METHODOLOGY An approach to lesson design in which decisions about what to teach are based on the way learners
perform particular tasks. Also called a deep-end strategy, this approach grew out of the communicative approach. In
this kind of lesson, the T first diagnoses learners' strengths and weaknesses in some sort of communicative activity. T
then teaches the language they need to communicate more effectively. Finally, learners repeat the initial task (or
something similar). Focused on learners' immediate needs, rather than a theoretical notion of their competence. A
precursor to TBL.

297.

text

DISCOURSE A continuous piece of spoken or written language. Normally consists of a number of linked sentences,
and has a distinctive internal structure and an identifiable communicative function. Classified into genres. These are
not as rule-bound as sentences, there is the expectation that they will be coherent. It is useful to teach language
through ___s, rather than apart from them.

298.

theme

DISCOURSE The way messages are constructed. This is the 'point of departure' of the message. It typically expresses
known (or given) information, often information that is carried over from a previous sentence. The rest of the sentence
is called the rheme, and constitutes the new information.

299.

timetable

METHODOLOGY Also called a scheme of work. The plan for a sequence of lessons that takes place over a fixed period
of time. Translates the information contained in the syllabus into a series of lesson plans. Decisions need to be made
based on amount and distribution of time available, intensive or part-time course, and how best to allocate the time.

300.

topic

DISCOURSE What the sentence is about. ___ and comment often correspond to what, in grammatical terms, are called
subject and predicate. They also correspond to theme and rheme. Not always the subject. Also a term used in discourse
and conversation analysi to refer to what people are talking about.

301.

topicalization

DISCOURSE The process of moving an element to the front of a sentence so that it functions as the topic.

total physical
response

METHODOLOGY A language-teaching method that was developed by James Asher in the early 70s. Like the natural
approach, it is a comprehension approach, based on the silent period. This method is based on the way that young
children receive comprehensible input in their L1. Involves a sequence of commands that L1 learners see being
demonstrated. Belongs firmly in the holistic camp. As a method, it's had only marginal impact, but as a classroom
technique it's particularly suited to young learners.

transfer

SLA The effect that one language--particularly the L1--has on another. Can occur at all levels--pronunciation,
vocabulary, grammar and discourse. Used to be called interference, since, according to behaviorist theory, all instances
of this were seen as negative. Now it is accepted that this can be positive as well, particularly as a communication
strategy. It's one of many factors that affects a learner's interlanguage.

293.

296.

302.

303.

304.

transitivity

GRAMMAR The capacity of a verb to take an object. Verbs with this capacity can be used in passive constructions. Some
verbs can take two objects: a direct and an indirect object. These verbs are called ditransitive: 'Give me some light.' Verbs
can be used both ___ and in____. These are sometimes called ergative verbs. Linking verbs (be, feel, seem) take
complements, so they don't have this capacity.

305.

translation

METHODOLOGY To produce a version of a written text in another language. In spoken texts, this is called interpretation.
Has been central to some teaching methods (grammar-translation) and frowned upon by others (direct method).
CONS:
encourages dependence on the L1, encourages the notion of equivalence between languages (no 2 are alike), L1 system
interferes with development o L2 system, the 'easy' approach and therefore less memorable, the 'natural way' of acquiring
a language is through direct experience/exposure, not feasible in classes of mixed nationalities
PROS:
new knowledge (L2) is constructed on the basis of existing knowledge (L1), languages have more similarities than
differences and translation encourages the positive transfer of similarities, a time-efficient means of conveying meaning,
an integral part of being a proficient L2 user (contributes to overall pluralingualism), a natural way of exploiting the
inherent bilingualism of language classes.

universal
grammar

LINGUISTICS The name given to the theory that all languages share certain fundamental principles. Adopted by Noam
Chomsky in order to argue that we are genetically programmed with an innate language leaning faculty (language
acquisition device). These principles are adjusted for individual languages according to choices that are governed by a
narrow range of options (parameters), the choice of one of which determines a whole proliferation of grammatical
features. Proponents argue that only this theory can explain the highly sophisticated rule systems that children develop in
a relatively short time. Critics argue that it is a 'magical' faculty whose existence hasn't been proven.

307.

uptake

SLA What learners report to have learned from a language lesson. Typically doesn't match what the teacher intended to
teach. Can vary from learner to learner. Factors that enhance this are salience (how much emphasis was given to an item
or topic) and source (whether the item or topic originated in the teacher or in another learner). Those topics generated by
other learners foster better ___.

308.

usage

LINGUISTICS The way a community actually uses a language, as described in descriptive grammars of the language or in
books of language ___. Also refers to a person's abstract knowledge of the rules of grammar (competence). This contrasts
with use--using those rules to achieve some communicative purpose.

usagebased
acquisition

SLA A way of describing those theories of second language acquisition that argue that acquisition occurs primarily
through engaging in communication. The bulk of learning is implicit and there is a direct effect of the frequency of
encounters with an item. Learner's grammar is derived from frequent encounters with individual instances (exemplars),
sometimes called exemplar theory. Learner's grammar emerges, so it is also known as emergentism. Rejects mentalist
views instead embracing general learning processes: pattern extraction, tallying, association learning, chunking and
rehearsal.
This theory is associated with connectionist models of learning.

utterance

GRAMMAR One speaker's turn or a stretch of speech between pauses, or one that falls under a single intonation contour,
or one that fulfills a single function. Now generally accepted as preferable to sentence when talking about spoken
language.

vague
language

DISCOURSE A common feature of spoken language. It performs an important interpersonal function in that it allows
speakers to avoid either committing themselves to a proposal or sounding too assertive. Can also be placeholder words
used to substitute for more specific terms that the speaker either has forgotten or doesn't want to mention. Also a useful
communication strategy that compensates for gaps in lexical knowledge.

312.

validity

TESTING When a test measures accurately what it is intended to measure. Face, content and construct are different factors
to consider.

313.

variability

SLA A characteristic of learners' interlanguage in which they use more than one way of expressing the same idea, more or
less interchangeably. May be systematic or free. Systematic=preferred to another in certain conditions, such as when
learner is being more careful. Free=random and unsystematic. Supports the belief that a learner's interlanguage is
inherently unstable. ___ also exists across learners. This could be influenced by attitudes, L1, motivation, learning style,
exposure amount/type, etc.

306.

309.

310.

311.

vocabulary
teaching

METHODOLOGY Teaching the area of language learning that is concerned with word knowledge. In audiolingualism,
this was subordinated to the teaching of grammar structures. Words were simply there to fill slots in the sentence patterns.
Corpus linguistics, discourse analysis and the lexical approach started to blur the boundaries between grammar and
vocabulary. The lexical approach in particular concerned itself both wit the selection of items and the type of items.
Learners need opportunities for incidental learning and constant recycling of newly-learned words is essential.

voiced
sound

PHONOLOGY One which is produced while the vocal cords are vibrating. All English vowels are ___.

316.

weak CLT

METHODOLOGY An emphasis on shallow-end communication. You learn language and then you use it. Learn the
language systems first and then put them to communicative use.

317.

weak form

PHONOLOGY The non-stressed pronunciation of some words. Most function words in English (of, at, to, can, must, was,
have, and) have 2 possible pronunciations, depending on whether they are stressed or not. Most of these ___ ___ involve
replacement of the vowel by schwa, although some consonant deletion can also occur. The use of these helps in achieving
an English-sounding rhythm.

318.

webquest

METHODOLOGY An educational task that is carried out by means of the internet. The aim of this is to focus on processing
information rather than simply copying it, and thereby to encourage analytic and critical thinking. Developed in 1995 by
Bernie Dodge and Tom March. Fits into the frameworks of both project work and TBL.

whole
language
learning

METHODOLOGY An educational approach to the teaching of literacy. Its guiding principle is that language skills are best
learned in authentic, meaningful situations. Teacher=facilitator. Core principles:
learning goes from whole to part
4 skills develop together
lessons should be learner-centered because learning is the active construction of knowledge
learning takes places in social interaction
Emphasizes the social and cultural dimension of education. Aims to promote learner's self-realization through learning.
Found in a process approach to the teaching of writing and an activity-based approach to teaching young learners.

320.

word

VOCABULARY The smallest language item that can occur on its own. The concept has been refined to distinguish
between:
word forms: written or spoken words that are spelled or pronounced as single units.
lexical items (lexemes): the way words are represented in a dictionary: take, to take, taking.

321.

word class

GRAMMAR A group of words that, from a grammatical point of view, behave in the same way. The ___ of pronoun,
determiner, preposition and conjunction are called closed classes because they cannot readily be added to. Nouns, verbs,
adjectives and adverbs are open.

word
family

VOCABULARY A group of words that share the same root but have different affixes: care, careful, careless, carefree,
uncaring, carer. A base word plus its inflections and its most common derivatives.

word
formation

VOCABULARY The process by which new words are created out of elements of existing ones. In English, there are two
main processes by which this is achieved: affixation and compounding. Affixation=adding prefixes or suffixes.
Compounding=the joining together of two or more words.
Other ways include: conversion (a word changes its word class without any change of form), clipping (when a word is
shortened), blends (2 words merge to form 1), abbreviations and acronyms.

word
order

GRAMMAR The way words are sequenced, particularly with regard to the sequencing of elements in a clause or sentence.
A frequent source of learner error. As an uninflected language, English ___ ___ is generally less flexible than that of
many languages.

world
Englishes

SOCIOLINGUISTICS Varieties of English (also called nativized varieties) that are spoken in countries such as India,
Nigeria and Singapore, where, for historical reasons, English plays an important second language role. Deliberately
challenges the notion that English is still 'owned' by its native speakers, or that there is a universal World Standard
English.

writing

METHODOLOGY A productive skill that involves a hierarchy of sub-skills, including:

produce grammatically accurate sentences
select and maintain an appropriate style
signal the direction that the message is taking
Writers need an extensive knowledge base, not only at the level of vocabulary and grammar, but at the level of connected
discourse.

314.

315.

319.

322.

323.

324.

325.

326.

327.

zone of proximal
development

PSYCHOLOGY This is the 'window of opportunity' where the learner is not yet able to solve a problem
independently, but can do so with the assistance of others. A feature of sociocultural learning theory.