Chapter -1

Part –A (2-Marks)

1. What is communication Network?

Ans: A collection of interconnected functional units that provides a data
communication service among stations attached to the network.
2. What is Communication Service?
Ans:
A Communication services involves the transfer of information. There are different
services which differ in details that how and in what form the data (information) is
transferred. Here we discuss the details and services of three example networks, they
are telegraph networks, telephone network, and computer network.

3. What is circuit switching?

Ans: A method of communicating in which a dedicated communications
path is established between two devices through one or more intermediate
switching nodes. Unlike packet switching, digital data are sent as a continues
stream of bits. Bandwidth is guaranteed, and delay is essentially limited to
propagation time. The telephone system uses circuit switching.

4. Telegraph network?
Ans:
The transmission rate (in bits/second) at which information would be transmitted
over a telegraph circuit was limited to the operator who could enter a sequence of
symbols. To increase the rate at which information could be transmitted over a
single telegraph circuit was achieved by multiplexing, where the symbols from
several operators are combined together onto the same communication channel. One
such type of multiplexing is the Baudot multiplexing system, which could interleave
character from several telegraph operators into a single transmission line. This led to
the practice of representing alphanumeric characters by group of binary digits as in
ASCII code (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). Baudot system
also eventually led to the development of teletype terminal, which provided a
keyboard for entering character information, and could be used to transmit and
receive digital information.

5. Telephone network?
Ans:
In 1878 telephone sw itches w ere introduced to allow hum an operator to interconnect
telephone users on dem and, because providing dedicated lines betw een eachwpair as very
of users
costly. A s N (N -1)/2 transm ission lines are required if dedicated lines betw
are deployed
een each
pair of N users.
Part –B (5-Marks)

1. Explain function of network?

Ans:
A Communication services involves the transfer of information. There are different
services which differ in details that how and in what form the data (information) is
transferred. Here we discuss the details and services of three example networks, they
are telegraph networks, telephone network, and computer network.

The telegram services was in reality when Samuel B. Morse demonstrated it

practically in 1837, where the text messages were transmitted over a long distances.
In the morse code telegraphy, the text was encoded into sequences of dots and
dashes. The short and long pulses of electrical current were used to represent each
dot or dash over a copper wire. Telegraphy made use of digital transmission relying
on these two signals (dot or dash)
In 1851 a communication channel (cable) was established networks of telegraph
stations, covering various areas. In these networks a message or telegram would
arrive at a telegraph station, and an operator would make a routing decision based on
the destination address until the communication line became available the operator
would store the message and then forward the message to the next appropriate
station. This method is called as store and forward technique and would be
repeated at each intermediate station until the message arrived at the destination
station. And this approach is called as message switching and was discussed earlier.
The transmission rate (in bits/second) at which information would be transmitted
over a telegraph circuit was limited to the operator who could enter a sequence of
symbols. To increase the rate at which information could be transmitted over a
single telegraph circuit was achieved by multiplexing, where the symbols from
several operators are combined together onto the same communication channel. One
such type of multiplexing is the Baudot multiplexing system, which could interleave
character from several telegraph operators into a single transmission line. This led to
the practice of representing alphanumeric characters by group of binary digits as in
ASCII code (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). Baudot system
also eventually led to the development of teletype terminal, which provided a
keyboard for entering character information, and could be used to transmit and
receive digital information.
Modulation is the other approach of multiplexing, which uses sinusoidal signals to
carry multiple telegraphy signals. For Example, each of binary symbols are
transmitted by sending a sinusoidal signal of a given frequency for a given period of
time, say frequency f0 to transmit a "0", f1 to transmit a “1”. These modulation
techniques formed the basis for modems.

When we consider the network from a service/architecture view point, it contains the
following key elements or functions
1. Digital transmission is the foundation for telegraphy, that enables two digits to be
sent, "dot" and "dash" in case of Morse code, or "zero" and "one" in case of Baudot
or ASCII code. Transmission media can be radio, copper wire or smoke signals.
2. A Framing method which indicates the beginning and end of message and for
taking the sequence of dots/dashes or zero's/one's and grouping them into character,
and in turn, meaningful messages.
3. A system for specifying the destination address of messages needed. A routing
procedure which determines the path that a message follow across a network of
telegraph stations interconnected be digital transmission lines.

2. Explain different types of switching?

Ans: The switching performed by different nodes can be

categorized into the following three
Types:
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
• Message Switching

Circuit Switching

Communication via circuit switching implies that there is a

dedicated communication path between the two stations. The path
is a connected through a sequence of links between network
nodes. On each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the
connection. Circuit switching is commonly used technique in
telephony, where the caller sends a special message with the
address of the callee (i.e. by dialling a number) to state its
destination. It involved the following three distinct steps, as shown
in Fig.
Circuit Establishment: To establish an end-to-end connection
before any transfer of data. Some segments of the circuit may be a
dedicated link, while some other segments may be shared.
Data transfer:
• Transfer data is from the source to the destination.
• The data may be analog or digital, depending on the nature of
the network.
• The connection is generally full-duplex.
Circuit disconnects:
• Terminate connection at the end of data transfer.
• Signals must be propagated to deallocate the dedicated
resources.
Thus the actual physical electrical path or circuit between the
source and destination host must be established before the
message is transmitted. This connection, once established,
remains exclusive and continuous for the complete duration of
information exchange and the circuit becomes disconnected only
when the source wants to do so.

Message Switching

In this switching method, a different strategy is used, where

instead of establishing a
dedicated physical line between the sender and the receiver, the
message is sent to the nearest directly connected switching node.
This node stores the message, checks for errors, selects the best
available route and forwards the message to the next intermediate
node.

The line becomes free again for other messages, while the process
is being
continued in some other nodes. Due to the mode of action, this
method is also known as store-and-forward technology where the
message hops from node to node to its final destination. Each node
stores the full message, checks for errors and forwards it.
In this switching technique, more devices can share the network
bandwidth, as
compared with circuit switching technique. Temporary storage of
message reduces traffic congestion to some extent. Higher priority
can be given to urgent messages, so that the low priority
messages are delayed while the urgent ones are forwarded faster.
Through broadcast addresses one message can be sent to several
users. Last of all, since the destination host need not be active
when the message is sent, message switching techniques improve
global communications.
However, since the message blocks may be quite large in size,
considerable
amount of storage space is required at each node to buffer the
messages. A message
might occupy the buffers for minutes, thus blocking the internodal
traffic.
Basic idea:
• Each network node receives and stores the message
• Determines the next leg of the route, and
• Queues the message to go out on that link.
Advantages:
• Line efficiency is greater (sharing of links).
• Data rate conversion is possible.
• Even under heavy traffic, packets are accepted, possibly with a
greater delay in
delivery.
• Message priorities can be used, to satisfy the requirements, if
any.

Disadvantages: Message of large size monopolizes the link and

storage

Packet Switching

The basic approach is not much different from message switching.

It is also based on the
same ‘store-and-forward’ approach. However, to overcome the
limitations of message
switching, messages are divided into subsets of equal length called
packets. This
approach was developed for long-distance data communication
(1970) and it has evolved
over time. In packet switching approach, data are transmitted in
short packets (few
Kbytes). A long message is broken up into a series of packets as
shown in Fig. 4.2.2.
Every packet contains some control information in its header,
which is required for
routing and other purposes.
Main difference between Packet switching and Circuit Switching is
that the communication lines are not dedicated to passing
messages from the source to the
destination. In Packet Switching, different messages (and even
different packets) can pass through different routes, and when
there is a "dead time" in the communication between the source
and the destination, the lines can be used by other sources.

3. Explian telegraph and message switching?

Ans: The telegram services was in reality when Samuel. B.Morse demonstrated it
practically in 1837, where the text message was remitted over a long distance. In the
morse code telegraphy, the text was encoded into sequences of dots and dashes. The
short and long pulses of electrical current were used to represent each dot or dash
over a copper wire Telegraphy made use of digital transmission relying on these two
signals (dot or dash) .
In 1851 a communication channel was established network of telegraph stations,
covering various areas. In these network a message or telegram would arrive at a
telegraph station, and an operator would make routing decision based on the
destination address until the communication lone became available the operator
would store the message and the forward the message to the next appropriate station.
This method is called as store and forward technique and would be repeated at each
intermediate station until the message arrived at the destination station. And this
approach is called and message switching and was discussed earlier.
When we consider the network from a service/architecture view point it contains the
following key elements or functions.
1. Digital transmission is the foundation for telegraphy that enables two digital
to be sent, “dot” and “dash” in case of morse code or “zero” and “one” in
case of Baudot or ASCII code. Transmission media can be radio, copper wire
or smoke signals.
2. A Framing method which indicates the beginning and nd of message and for
taking the sequence of dots/dashes or zero/one and grouping them into
character and in turn meaningful.
 3. A system for specifying the destination address of message needed. A
routing procedure which determines the path that a message follow across a
network of telegraphy stations interconnected be digital transmission lines.

4. Explain internet switching?

Ans:
Internet was developed to enable communications between computers that were
attached t different networks. The internet Protocol (IP) provides datagram service
which made it possible to transfer information in the form of Packets across many
multiple, possible dissimilar networks .This created a single global internet work out
of many diverse networks. Internet uses TCP/IP protocol. The internet works or
involves interconnection of multiple networks into a single large network.
In IP the component networks are interconnected by special packet switching
called gateways or routers. IP router directs the transfer of IP packets across an
internet.
IP provides best effort service. That is, IP make every effort to deliver the
packets but takes no additional actions when packet are lost, corrupted, delivered out
of order, or even misdelivered. In this sense the service provided by IP is unreliable.
IP uses hierarchical address space that has “grouping” information embedded in
the structure. IP is usually represented by a 4 byte dotted- decimal notation, for
example 192.168.1.100
IP address consists of 2 Parts: a network ID and a host ID.

5. Explain architecture and application?

Ans:

EVOLUTION OF NETWORK ARCHITECTURE AND SERVICES

A Communication services involves the transfer of information. There are different
services which differ in details that how and in what form the data (information) is
transferred. Here we discuss the details and services of three example networks, they
are telegraph networks, telephone network, and computer network.
TELEGRAPH NETWORKS AND MESSAGE SWITCHING
The telegram services was in reality when Samuel B. Morse demonstrated it
practically in 1837, where the text messages were transmitted over a long distances.
In the morse code telegraphy, the text was encoded into sequences of dots and
dashes. The short and long pulses of electrical current were used to represent each
dot or dash over a copper wire. Telegraphy made use of digital transmission relying
on these two signals (dot or dash)
In 1851 a communication channel (cable) was established networks of telegraph
stations, covering various areas. In these networks a message or telegram would
arrive at a telegraph station, and an operator would make a routing decision based on
the destination address until the communication line became available the operator
would store the message and then forward the message to the next appropriate
station. This method is called as store and forward technique and would be
repeated at each intermediate station until the message arrived at the destination
station. And this approach is called as message switching and was discussed earlier.
The transmission rate (in bits/second) at which information would be transmitted
over a telegraph circuit was limited to the operator who could enter a sequence of
symbols. To increase the rate at which information could be transmitted over a
single telegraph circuit was achieved by multiplexing, where the symbols from
several operators are combined together onto the same communication channel. One
such type of multiplexing is the Baudot multiplexing system, which could interleave
character from several telegraph operators into a single transmission line. This led to
the practice of representing alphanumeric characters by group of binary digits as in
ASCII code (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). Baudot system
also eventually led to the development of teletype terminal, which provided a
keyboard for entering character information, and could be used to transmit and
receive digital information.
Modulation is the other approach of multiplexing, which uses sinusoidal signals to
carry multiple telegraphy signals. For Example, each of binary symbols are
transmitted by sending a sinusoidal signal of a given frequency for a given period of
time, say frequency f0 to transmit a "0", f1 to transmit a “1”. These modulation
techniques formed the basis for modems.

When we consider the network from a service/architecture view point, it contains the
following key elements or functions
1. Digital transmission is the foundation for telegraphy, that enables two digits to be
sent, "dot" and "dash" in case of Morse code, or "zero" and "one" in case of Baudot
or ASCII code. Transmission media can be radio, copper wire or smoke signals.
2. A Framing method which indicates the beginning and end of message and for
taking the sequence of dots/dashes or zero's/one's and grouping them into character,
and in turn, meaningful messages.
3. A system for specifying the destination address of messages needed. A routing
procedure which determines the path that a message follow across a network of
telegraph stations interconnected be digital transmission lines.

TELEPHONE NETWORKS AND CIRCUIT SWITCHING

In 1876, A lexander G raham B ell developed a device that could transm it the voice signal and
that form ed the basis for voice com m unication, and w hich is now know n as m odem telephone. A
telephone netw ork w as developed to provide telephone service, w hich involve tw o w ay, real tim e
transm ission of voice signal across a netw ork.
Telephone and telegraph provided services that are fundam entally different.
telegraphThe
required an expert operator w ith know ledge of M orse code, w hile on thetelephone
other hand
term inal w as sim ple and did not require expertise.
C onnectivity in telephone, system w as provided by analog transm ission system , w hich is to
deliver a signal that is a replica of the original voice signal.
In 1878 telephone sw itches w ere introduced to allow hum an operator to interconnect
telephone users on dem and, because providing dedicated lines betw een eachwpair as very
of users
costly. A s N (N -1)/2 transm ission lines are required if dedicated lines betw
are deployed
een each
pair of N users.
 Figure a switch in the form of operator with a patch cord panel (b) Cords
interconnecting user sockets providing end to end connection

The telephone switch consists of a patch cord panel and a human operator as shown in figure. A
telephone call has 3 phases. The first phase is setup phase, which is used for establishing a
connection from source to the destination address by connecting the circuit in the telephone office
(central office) through the operator when a connection is requested. The second phase is
information transfer phase, where the users converse with each other. When the users are
done with their conversation, they "hang-up" their telephones, which generates a signal
indicating that the call is complete. At this point, the third phase connection release is
entered and the various telephone lines involved in the connection are then made available
for new connections. With the invention of the strowger switch, the patch panel switches
and operators were replaced by automated electromechanical switches that could take a
signal that contained the destination telephone number and automatically establish a
circuit to the desired telephone.
Telephone networks are connection-oriented as they require setting up of a connection
before the actual transfer of information can take place. This type of setting up network
that involves dedicated end-to-end connection is called circuit switching. Here the
routing decision is made when the path is set up in switching and transmission equipment
across the network. Once a call has been set up, information flows continuously across each
switch and transmission line along the path. No additional address information is required
after the call is setup.
At present stage digital technology has replaced the analog technology, even than the
digital transmission system had to interface to the existing analog switches upon arrival of
an analog switch, the digital signal would be reconverted to digital form for transmission in
the next hop.,
Signalling network was introduced to carry messages between the computers that
controlled switches for setting and releasing the connections. The signalling network provided
a major application in todays cellular telephone radio connectivity even as they move
from an area or cell covered by one antenna to an adjacent cell covered by a different
antenna.
 ARCHITECTURE OF THE TELEPHONE NETWORK
1. Transmission system for transfer of voice signal, analog or digital depending on the
format of voice signal.
2. Telephone switches to transfer from an incoming transmission line to an output
transmission line, switch can be analog or digital depending on the attached
transmission system.
3. A telephone numbering system to identify telephone users or stations.
4. Method for allowing users to indicate to the network that they require a
connection, to specify the desired telephone number, and to indicate the
termination of a call.

5. A system inside the network, for performing a routing decision that identifies a path
in the network, based on a request for a voice connection, and a network signalling
system to distribute signaling messages to computers that control switches to
establish the desired path between two telephones.

6. Discuss Telnet and Discuss FTP/IP utilities?

Ans:
APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS AND FTP/IP UTILITIES
Application layer protocols are high level protocols that provide services to user
applications. These protocols are more visible to the user and some of application
protocols are user written or may be standardized applications. Some of the common
application protocols are Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). Each of them has been
discussed in the next sections.
TELNET
Telnet is the login and terminal emulation Protocol common on the Internet and in
UNIX environments. It operates over TCP/IP networks. Its Primary function is to
allow user to log into remote host systems.

ft TELNET is an abbreviation of Terminal NETwork. It is the standard

TCP/IP protocol for virtual terminal service as proposed by ISO (International
Standards Organisation).
ft Telnet uses only TCP connection.
Concept
ft The Telnet Protocol is mainly used to allow a user to "log in" on any other
computer on the network. Then what do you mean by "login"?
Login

ft In a time-sharing environment, each authorized user has a identification and

probably a password. To access the system, the user logs into the system with
 his/ her user name and password. The system performs password
verification to prevent unauthorized access, if any.
ft There are two types of login:
ii) Remote login
Local login
i) LOCAL LOGIN
ft When a user logs into a local time-sharing system, it is called "local login". The
user types his identity on the keyboard of the local system. The keyboard
driver accepts the characters that are typed and passes those characters to the
operating system.
ft The operating system verifies the user name and password. If the user is
authorized, it invokes the desired application for the user.
it) REMOTE LOGIN
ft When a user wants to access an application program located on a remote
machine, he or she performs "remote login".
ft To perform "remote login" we use Telnet.

FTP (FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL)

* File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is an application protocol, which is used to
transfer a file from one host (computer) to another.
& FTP requires two TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
connections. 1. Control Connection
$ The Control connection is established on the "port number 21" at the
server FTP commands and replies are exchanged via "control connection"
$ The User Protocol Interpreter (UPI) is responsible for sending FTP
commands and interpreting the replies from the server.
% The Server Protocol Interpreter (SPI) is responsible for interpreting the
user's FTP commands'and sending replies to the user.
The creation of "control connection" is described as follows.

Control Process

Waiting for
client's
Data Transfer connection
Process request
FTP FTP
CLIENT SERVER
 (a)

Control
Connection
Established

FTP CLIENT FTP SERVER

(b)

Figure : Control Connection

• Initially, the server opens the "port number 21" and waits for the
client's connection request.

• Then the client FTP request for the connection and then the connection
between the server and FTP client will be established.

2. DATA CONNECTION
The "Data Connection" used "Port number 20" at the server. The "data connection" is used
for transfer of file between the server and the client.
The FTP session creates a data connection in the following way :
(/) After the control connection has been established, the FTP client opens a port (may be
of any port number from 1023 to 65,545) and waits for the server to be connected to
that newly opened port for data transfer.
 FTP CLIENT (b) FTP SERVER
Figure FTP Data Connection

(ii) Next, the FTP client sends the number of newly opened port for data transfer to the
FTP server.
(Hi) Then, the FTP server receives the port number sent by the FTP client through control
connection, Then, FTP server connects to the particular client's port number using its
port number 20. This connection is called as data connection.

Part –C (15-Marks)

1. Discuss various approaches through network design?

Ans:
Classification based on Scale
Alternative criteria for classifying networks are their scale. They are
divided into Local
Area (LAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and Wide Area Networks
(WAN).
Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office,
building or
campus of up to few kilometers in size. These are used to share
resources (may be
hardware or software resources) and to exchange information. LANs
are distinguished
from other kinds of networks by three categories: their size,
transmission technology and
topology.
LANs are restricted in size, which means that their worst-case
transmission time
is bounded and known in advance. Hence this is more reliable as
compared to MAN and
WAN. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of
design that would
not otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management.
LAN typically used transmission technology consisting of single cable
to which all
machines are connected. Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 to 100
Mbps (but now
much higher speeds can be achieved). The most common LAN
topologies are bus, ring
and star. A typical LAN is shown in Fig.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

MAN is designed to extend over the entire city. It may be a single
network as a cable TV
network or it may be means of connecting a number of LANs into a
larger network so
that resources may be shared as shown in Fig. For example, a
company can use a
MAN to connect the LANs in all its offices in a city. MAN is wholly
owned and operated
by a private company or may be a service provided by a public
company.
The main reason for distinguishing MANs as a special category is that a
standard has
been adopted for them. It is DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) or
IEEE 802.6.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN provides long-distance transmission of data, voice, image and

information over
large geographical areas that may comprise a country, continent or
even the whole world.
In contrast to LANs, WANs may utilize public, leased or private
communication devices,
usually in combinations, and can therefore span an unlimited number
of miles as shown
in Fig. A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is
often
referred to as enterprise network.
The Internet
Internet is a collection of networks or network of networks. Various
networks such as
LAN and WAN connected through suitable hardware and software to
work in a seamless
manner. Schematic diagram of the Internet is shown in Fig. It allows
various
applications such as e-mail, file transfer, remote log-in, World Wide
Web, Multimedia,
etc run across the internet. The basic difference between WAN and
Internet is that WAN
is owned by a single organization while internet is not so. But with the
time the line
between WAN and Internet is shrinking, and these terms are
sometimes used
interchangeably.
 2. Discuss telephone network and circuit switching?

Ans: Telephone Network

Public switched telephone network (PSTN) is an example of circuit-

switched network. It’s also known as Plain Old Telephone Service
(POTS). The switching centres used for the switching are organised in
different levels, namely: Regional offices (class 1), Section
offices (class 2), primary offices (class 3), Toll offices (class 4) and
finally End offices
(class 5) as shown in Fig. Level 1 is at the highest level and Level 5 is
the lowest
level. Subscribers or the customers are directly connected to these end
offices. And each
office is connected directly to a number of offices at a level below and
mostly a single
office at higher level.
Subscriber Telephones are connected, through Local Loops to end
offices (or central
offices). A small town may have only one end office, but large cities
have several end
offices. Many end offices are connected to one Toll office, which are
connected to primary offices. Several primary offices are connected to
a section office, which normally serves more than one state. All
regional offices are connected using mesh topology. Accessing the
switching station at the end offices is accomplished through dialling. In
the past, telephone featured rotary or pulse dialling, in which digital
signals were sent to the end office for each dialled digit. This type of
dialling was prone to errors due to inconsistency in humans during
dialling. Presently, dialling is accomplished by Touch-Tone technique.
In this method the user sends a small burst of frequency called dual
tone, because it is a combination of two frequencies. This combination
of frequencies sent depends on the row and column of the pressed
pad.

The connections are multiplexed when have to send to a switching

office, which is one
level up. For example, Different connections will be multiplexed when
they are to be
forwarded from an end-office to Toll office. Figure shows a typical
medium distance telephone circuit.
Circuit Switching

Communication via circuit switching implies that there is a dedicated

communication path between the two stations. The path is a
connected through a sequence of links between network nodes. On
each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the connection.
Circuit switching is commonly used technique in telephony, where the
caller sends a special message with the address of the callee (i.e. by
dialling a number) to state its destination. It involved the following
three distinct steps, as shown in Fig.
Circuit Establishment: To establish an end-to-end connection before
any transfer of data.
Some segments of the circuit may be a dedicated link, while some
other segments may be
shared.
Data transfer:
• Transfer data is from the source to the destination.
• The data may be analog or digital, depending on the nature of the
network.
• The connection is generally full-duplex.
Circuit disconnects:
• Terminate connection at the end of data transfer.
• Signals must be propagated to deallocate the dedicated resources.
Thus the actual physical electrical path or circuit between the source
and destination host must be established before the message is
transmitted. This connection, once established, remains exclusive and
continuous for the complete duration of information exchange and the
circuit becomes disconnected only when the source wants to do so.

3. Discuss key factor in communion network and evolution?

Ans:
1.10 KEY FACTORS IN COMMUNICATION NETWORK EVOLUTION
The traditional three factors that influence the evolution of communication network from
telegraphy to the emerging integrated service networks are: technology, regulation and
market. To these we add standards, a set of technical specifications followed by
manufacturers or service providers, as a fourth factor. Telecommunication service can
succeed if all the three basic conditions were satisfied.
Role of Technology
Technology plays a vital role in determining what can be built. The technology has
improved dramatically which results in the improvement in the capabilities and is
accompanied by reduction in costs. Hence many systems are simple, feasible and cost
effective.
The capabilities of a given technology can be traced over a period of time and found to
form an S shaped curve as shown in figure. During the initial phase the capabilities of the
technology improve dramatically, but gets saturate after they approach fundamental
limitations.
The advances in core technologies in the form of higher transmission, storage and
processing capabilities are enablers of bigger and more complex systems. These enables
the implementation and development of more intelligent, software based algorithms to
control and manage networks of increasingly larger scale.
Role of Regulation
Traditional Communication services like telegraphy and telephony have been
government regulated. Because of the high cost in deploying the requisite infrastructure
and importance of controlling communications, government often choose to operate
communication network as monopolies. Telecommunication will probably never be
entirely free of government regulation. Regulation play a role in addressing the issue of
which information should be available to people over a communication network.
Rule of Market
The existence of a market of a new service success is ultimately determined by a
customer's willingness to pay, which, of course, depends on the cost, usefulness, and
appeal to the service.
Role of Standards
Standards are agreements, with industrywide, national and international scope, that allow
equipment manufactured by different vendors to be interoperable. Standards focus on
interface that specifies how equipment is physically interconnected and what procedures
are used to operate across different equipment. Standards are extremely important in
communications where the value of a network is to a large extend determined by the size
of the community that can be reached. Many standards, especially in telephony are
developed by the International Telecommunications union (ITU). Some of other standard
Institutes are Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) which is responsible for the
development of standards related to the Internet and the Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 802 Committee, which specializes in LAN/MAN standards.
The existence of standards enables smaller companies to enter large market such as
communication networks. Standards provide a framework that can guide the
decentralized activities of the various commercial, industrial and government
organisations involved in the development and evolution of networks.

4. Discuss architecture of OSI model with example?

OSI Network Architecture 7 Layers Model

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference model developed by ISO (International
Organization for Standardization) in 1984, as a conceptual framework of standards for communication
in the network across different equipment and applications by different vendors. It is now considered
the primary architectural model for inter-computing and inter-networking communications. Most of the
network communication protocols used today have a structure based on the OSI model. The OSI
model defines the communications process into 7 layers, dividing the tasks involved with moving
information between networked computers into seven smaller, more manageable task groups. A task
or group of tasks is then assigned to each of the seven OSI layers. Each layer is reasonably self-
contained, so that the tasks assigned to each layer can be implemented independently. This enables
the solutions offered by one layer to be updated without adversely affecting the other layers.

The OSI 7 layers model has clear characteristics at each layer. Basically, layers 7 through 4 deal with
end to end communications between data source and destinations, while layers 3 to 1 deal with
communications between network devices. On the other hand, the seven layers of the OSI model can
be divided into two groups: upper layers (layers 7, 6 & 5) and lower layers (layers 4, 3, 2, 1). The
upper layers of the OSI model deal with application issues and generally are implemented only in
software. The highest layer, the application layer, is closest to the end user. The lower layers of the
OSI model handle data transport issues. The physical layer and the data link layer are implemented in
hardware and software. The lowest layer, the physical layer, is closest to the physical network medium
(the wires, for example) and is responsible for placing data on the medium.

The specific description for each layer is as follows:

Layer 7: Application Layer

• Defines interface-to-user processes for communication and data transfer in network

• Provides standardized services such as virtual terminal, file and job transfer and operations

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

• Masks the differences of data formats between dissimilar systems

• Specifies architecture-independent data transfer format

• Encodes and decodes data; encrypts and decrypts data; compresses and decompresses data

Layer 5: Session Layer

• Manages user sessions and dialogues

• Controls establishment and termination of logic links between users

• Reports upper layer errors

Layer 4: Transport Layer

• Manages end-to-end message delivery in network

• Provides reliable and sequential packet delivery through error recovery and flow control
mechanisms

• Provides connectionless oriented packet delivery

Layer 3: Network Layer

• Determines how data are transferred between network devices

• Routes packets according to unique network device addresses

• Provides flow and congestion control to prevent network resource depletion

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

• Defines procedures for operating the communication links

• Frames packets

• Detects and corrects packets transmit errors

Layer 1: Physical Layer

• Defines physical means of sending data over network devices

• Interfaces between network medium and devices

• Defines optical, electrical and mechanical characteristics

Information being transferred from a software application in one computer to an application in another
proceeds through the OSI layers. For example, if a software application in computer A has information
to pass to a software application in computer B, the application program in computer A needs to pass
the information to the application layer (Layer 7) of computer A, which then passes the information to
the presentation layer (Layer 6), which relays the data to the session layer (Layer 5), and so on all the
way down to the physical layer (Layer 1). At the physical layer, the data is placed on the physical
network medium and is sent across the medium to computer B. The physical layer of computer B
receives the data from the physical medium, and then its physical layer passes the information up to
the data link layer (Layer 2), which relays it to the network layer (Layer 3), and so on, until it reaches
the application layer (Layer 7) of computer B. Finally, the application layer of computer B passes the
information to the recipient application program to complete the communication process. The following
diagram illustrated this process.

OSI Network Architecture 7 Layers Model - 1

The seven OSI layers use various forms of control information to communicate with their peer layers in
other computer systems. This control information consists of specific requests and instructions that are
exchanged between peer OSI layers. Headers and Trailers of data at each layer are the two basic
forms to carry the control information.

Headers are prepended to data that has been passed down from upper layers. Trailers are appended
to data that has been passed down from upper layers. An OSI layer is not required to attach a header
or a trailer to data from upper layers.

Each layer may add a Header and a Trailer to its Data, which consists of the upper layer's Header,
Trailer and Data as it proceeds through the layers. The Headers contain information that specifically
addresses layer-to-layer communication. Headers, trailers and data are relative concepts, depending
on the layer that analyzes the information unit. For example, the Transport Header (TH) contains
information that only the Transport layer sees. All other layers below the Transport layer pass the
Transport Header as part of their Data. At the network layer, an information unit consists of a Layer 3
header (NH) and data. At the data link layer, however, all the information passed down by the network
layer (the Layer 3 header and the data) is treated as data. In other words, the data portion of an
information unit at a given OSI layer potentially can contain headers, trailers, and data from all the
higher layers. This is known as encapsulation.
 OSI Network Architecture 7 Layers Model - 2

For example, if computer A has data from a software application to send to computer B, the data is
passed to the application layer. The application layer in computer A then communicates any control
information required by the application layer in computer B by prepending a header to the data. The
resulting message unit, which includes a header, the data and maybe a trailer, is passed to the
presentation layer, which prepends its own header containing control information intended for the
presentation layer in computer B. The message unit grows in size as each layer prepends its own
header and trailer containing control information to be used by its peer layer in computer B. At the
physical layer, the entire information unit is transmitted through the network medium.

The physical layer in computer B receives the information unit and passes it to the data link layer. The
data link layer in computer B then reads the control information contained in the header prepended by
the data link layer in computer A. The header and the trailer are then removed, and the remainder of
the information unit is passed to the network layer. Each layer performs the same actions: The layer
reads the header and trailer from its peer layer, strips it off, and passes the remaining information unit
to the next higher layer. After the application layer performs these actions, the data is passed to the
recipient software application in computer B, in exactly the form in which it was transmitted by the
application in computer A.
 OSI Network Architecture 7 Layers Model - 3

One OSI layer communicates with another layer to make use of the services provided by the second
layer. The services provided by adjacent layers help a given OSI layer communicate with its peer layer
in other computer systems. A given layer in the OSI model generally communicates with three other
OSI layers: the layer directly above it, the layer directly below it and its peer layer in other networked
computer systems. The data link layer in computer A, for example, communicates with the network
layer of computer A, the physical layer of computer A and the data link layer in computer B. The
following chart illustrates this example.