Ferromagnetism

Ferromagnetic material have unbalanced electron spins

Unmagnetized material have randomly oriented small domains
All atoms in a domain are aligned
Domains tend to polarize in the direction of external field
Flux density is sum of field intensity and magnetic polarization
B = 0 (H + M) = 0 (1 +

M
H )H

= 0 r H = H

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AC excitation of magnetic circuits

from faradays experiments,

V =N

d
d
=
dt
dt

(1)

the induced voltage direction tends to oppose change in flux linkage,

d
d
di
=N
=
dt
dt
dt
thus for linear magnetic circuits,
V =L

L=

=
i
i

(2)

(3)

hence, inductance is the number of flux linkage per unit current.

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Energy stored in a magnetic field I

The electrical input is,

Z
W =

Z
vi dt =

d
N
.i dt =
dt

Ni d

(4)

but,
Ni = F = Hl and d = A dB

(5)

Ni d = (Hl)(A dB) = (lA)H dB

(6)

therefore,

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Energy stored in a magnetic field II

Where lA is the volume of magnetic core.
Hence, the energy density(energy stored per unit volume) is interpreted
as the area between the magnetization curve and the B axis.
W
=
Wv =
lA

H dB

(7)

B
B2
dB =

(8)

Assuming linear magnetic characteristics,

B

Z
Wv =

Z
H dB =

or
Z

Z
H dB =

Wv =
0

HdH =
0

H 2
2

(9)

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Hysteresis

Process of magnetization/demagnetization not completely reversible

Cyclic magnetization results in generation of heat
For commercial magnetic steel hysteresis power loss in watts
n
Ph = Kh fBm
where Kh is a constant and n varies with material

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Eddy currents

Induced voltage cause localized eddy currents

The resulting current generates heat
2
For a given core eddy current power loss given by Ph = Ke f 2 Bm

Ke depends on conductivity of core and square of the thickness

Hence instead of solid iron core thin laminations used
Together hysteresis and eddy current loss constitute core losses
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Example

example 1
An iron core is designed to operate at 120 V at 60 Hz. estimate the
effect of hysteresis and eddy currents losses at 150 V at 50 Hz
Neglecting IR drop induced voltage equal to applied voltage
The flux density will be Bm = k Vf
The ratio of new B to old is
Assuming n = 1.6 we have
Similarly

Pe
Pe

Bm
Bm

Ph
Ph

=
=

V f
V .f

3
2

f Bm 1.6
f .( Bm )

= 1.59

Bm

= ( ff )2 .( Bm )2 = 1.56

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Transformers

Consists of two or more multi turn coil wound on magnetic core

Changing voltage applied to primary induces voltage in secondary
Used to insulate a circuit from another permitting energy exchange
Coils usually of copper to reduce resistance loss
Copper loss due to the I 2 R power in the windings

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Voltage relations

The voltage induced by changing flux called emf

In general induced emf e is different from terminal voltage v
Assuming sinusoidal variations in flux = m sint
Thus the induced voltages are
e1 = N1 d
dt = N1 m cost = 2E1 cost
d
e2 = N2 dt = N2 m cost = 2E2 cost
Turn ratio is defined as

E2
E1

N2
N1

The flux phasor lags behind the emf by 90

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Exciting current

Exciting current is the current in primary when secondary open

It consists of two parts magnetizing current and core loss current
IE = Ic + IM
Magnetizing current establishes the flux in the circuit
Core loss current represents the hysteresis and eddy current losses
In efficient transformers core loss current small
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Current relations

Assuming load Z2 is connected V2 = E2 , V1 = E1 and IE = IM

With switch S closed load current in secondary coil I2 =

V2
Z2

load current produces mmf that tends to oppose the magnetic flux
Flux cant change without change in primary voltage hence
I1 is induced
To Maintain core flux net mmf N1 IM N2 I2 + N1 I1 = N1 IM
This requires N2 I2 = N1 I1 or

I1
I2

N2
N1

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Example
example 2
The laminated silicon steel core of a transformer has a mean length of
0.06 m and a cross section of 0.005 meter square. there are 150 turns on
primary winding and 450 turns on the secondary. the input is 200 V rms
at 50 Hz. estimate the primary current (a) with secondary open (b) with
a load of 120 ohm connected across the secondary
(a) The necessary
maximum
flux is,

2200
3
1
=
m = N2E
150260 = 5 10 Wb
1

the maximum flux density is Bm = Am = 510

5103 = 1T
for silicon steel at this flux density using the B H curve
H = 200 Aturns
m

Im = F
= Hl
= 2000.6
= 0.6A
2N1
2N1
2150
assuming low eddy current loss IE = IM = 0.6A
(b) Assuming voltage ratio equal to turn ratio
450
2
V2 = N
N1 V1 = 150 200 = 600V
with resistance load connected I2 = VR22 = 600
120 = 5A
2
component of primary current due to load is I1 = N
N1 I2 = 15A
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Transformer as a two Port

Based on the model choose the 2 independent variables

I1 = f1 (V1 , I2 ) = YV1 + aI2
V2 = f2 (V1 , I2 ) = a V1 ZI2
For secondary open circuited I2 = 0 and I1 = IE
Y = VIE1 = VIc1 j VIM1 = G + jB where G is conductance for power loss
and B susceptance for energy storage
For suitable approximations a =

N2
N1

=a

With transformer loaded i.e.

I2 6= 0 power loss is due to Z = R + jL
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Open and short circuit tests

Open circuit test:

secondary open circuited, I small and wattmeter indicates core loss
I2 = 0 and I1 = IE
G = PVOC
Y = VI1O
2
1O
1O

B = Y 2 G 2 a = VV2O
1O
Short circuit test:
at rated current, secondary shorted, WM indicates copper loss
a2 PSC
2
I1S

Z=

aV1S
I2S

aV1S

= a IV1S1S
q

2
the reactance given by X = Z 2 R 2 = ( a IV1S1S )2 R 2
R=

I1S
a

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Example I
example 3
Primary of a transformer is rated at 10 A and 1000 V. On open circuit
the readings are V1 = 1000V V2 = 500V I1 = 0.42A POC = 100W . On
short circuit the reading are I1 = 10A V1 = 126V PSC = 400W .
Determine the hybrid parameters predict the output voltage across a load
impedance of ZL = 19 + j12

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Example II
From open circuit test data:
G=

POC
2
V1O

Y =

I1O
V1O

= 420S

100
(1000)2

= 100S

B = Y 2 G2
= 400S
V2O
1
a = V1O = 2
From short circuit test data:
R=
Z=
X =

a2 PSC
2
I1S
2

a V1S
I1S

400
4102

= 1

= 3.15

Z 2 R2
= 3

hence under load I2 =

1
2 V1
Z +ZL

= 20 37 A

output voltage V2 = I2 ZL = 450 5 A

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Other models

17 / 18

Nameplate ratings efficiency and regulation

nameplate ratings:
A typical nameplate : Transformer 4400:220 V, 60 Hz, 10 kVA
Thus the turn ratio is 1:20 either side can be primary
Its optimum operation is at 60 Hz and 10 kVA apparent power
efficiency:
efficiency =

output
output
losses
=
=1
input
output + losses
input

(10)

no load voltage rated voltage

rated voltage

(11)

voltage regulation:
voltage regulation =

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