Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 5161

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Energy scenario and biofuel policies and targets in ASEAN countries

M. Mojur a,n, H.H. Masjuki b, M.A. Kalam b, S.M. Ashrafur Rahman b, H.M. Mahmudul c
a
b
c

School of Engineering & Technology, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton 4701, QLD, Australia
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University Malaysia Pahang, 25000 Kuantan, Malaysia

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 23 June 2014
Received in revised form
9 December 2014
Accepted 7 February 2015
Available online 3 March 2015

Present energy situation of the world is unsustainable due to unequal geographical distribution of
natural wealth as well as environmental, geopolitical and economical concerns. Ever increasing drift of
energy consumption due to growth of population, transportation and luxurious lifestyle has motivated
researchers to carry out research on biofuel as a sustainable alternative fuel for diesel engine. Biofuel
such as biodiesel and ethanol, produced from renewable feedstocks, are the most appropriate
alternative of petroleum fuels. Government of many countries has set a target to use biofuel in
transportation and industrial sectors to reduce the fossil fuel demand in their countries. This report
compiled the ndings on global energy scenario, potential of biofuel as a renewable energy source,
biofuel policy and target of some selected countries and the effect of mixed blends of biofuel and diesel
on engine performance and emission parameters of a diesel engine. The study concluded that the energy
consumption and CO2 emissions in ASEAN countries increasing day by day. To reduce the energy
consumption and harmful gasses emission to the environment, government of ASEAN countries have set
target to use biofuel in diesel engines as biofuel-diesel blend have potential to reduce dependency on
fossil fuel as well as the exhaust emissions of the engine.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Global energy
Biofuel development
Policy
Engine performance and emission

Contents
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

6.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
ASEAN energy and CO2 emission scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.1.
ASEAN energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.1.1.
Energy demand by fuel type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.1.2.
Energy demand by sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.2.
Energy related CO2 emission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Biofuel as a potential renewable source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Biofuel standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Energy and biofuel target and policy in ASEAN countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.1.
Cambodia [81] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2.
Indonesia [22,81,82] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.3.
Laos [81] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.4.
Malaysia [81,83
85] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.5.
Myanmar [81] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.6.
Philippine [22,81,86] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.7.
Thailand [11,81,87] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.8.
Vietnam [81] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Performance and emission of internal combustion engines fuelled with biofuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.1.
Performance and emission of internal combustion engines fuelled with biodieseldiesel blend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.2.
Performance and emission of internal combustion engines fuelled with ethanolbiodieseldiesel blend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Corresponding author: Tel.: 61 749309634.

E-mail address: m.rahman@cqu.edu.au (M. Mojur).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.02.020
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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M. Mojur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 5161

7. Discussions and conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

1. Introduction

2. ASEAN energy and CO2 emission scenario

Fossil fuels are widely used as a transportation and machinery

energy sources due to its high heating power, availability and
combustion properties but its reserve is depleting day by day [13].
Today diesel-powered vehicles represent about one-third of the
vehicles sold in Europe and the United States and it is being predicted
that the sales of diesel run automotive will rise from 4% in 2004 to
11% by 2012 [4]. However, emission produced by burning of petroleum derived fuel has a serious effect on both the environment and
human health [59]. Every year more than 15 billion tons of CO2 is
added to earth0 s atmosphere. The combustion of fossil fuels is a big
contributor to the increase in the level of CO2 in the atmosphere
which is directly associated with global warming [1013]. As an
alternative to petro diesel in the transportation sector, biofuel development has potentials in addressing issues related to energy and food
security, climate change, and rural development. First, biofuels can be
regarded as integral part of emerging bio-economy and exhibiting
increasing potential to substitute materials including fuels from fossil
oil in the near future. Second, as a renewable energy, biofuels are
derived from plant materials which can contribute to the reduction of
greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions when replacing fossil oil if they
are sustainably managed [1417]. Third, biofuels production is often
associated with farmers in rural and/or poor areas. It has the potential
to produce new incomes for farmers while generating new jobs and
new businesses to alleviate poverty and improve farmers life
standards [18]. Agricultural biomass is a relatively broad category of
biomass that includes the food based portion (oil and simple
carbohydrates) of crops (such as corn, sugarcane, beets) and the
non-food based portion (complex carbohydrates) of crops (such as the
leaves, stalks, and cobs of corn stover, orchard trimmings, rice husk,
straw), perennial grasses, and animal waste [19].
To ensure the sustainability of biofuels, different regions
including the European Union, the Unites States and other countries are developing their national strategies on biofuel development [20,21]. The United States National Biofuel Action Plan has
covered the whole chain of the biofuel production process,
including feedstock production and logistics, conversion technologies, distribution and end use while at the same time, addressing
the biofuel sustainability issues. New regulations on biofuels are,
however, under-developed [22]. The EU sets out seven strategic
policy areas for the production and use of biofuels, including
measures of stimulating demand for biofuels, ensuring environmental benets, developing the production and distribution of
biofuels, expanding feedstock supplies, enhancing the trade
opportunities of biofuels, supporting developing countries, as well
as supporting research and innovation activities. In 2010 worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters (28 billion
gallons US), increasing almost by one-sixth from that of 2009.
Biofuels met nearly 2.7% of the global fuel demand for road
transport. This contribution was largely made up of ethanol and
biodiesel [23].
Although there are large number of literatures to research on
engine performances and its emissions when using biodiesels,
especially in last decades, only fewer people have analyzed and
reviewed them. This paper intends to summarize the different
production systems of biofuels, current status of application of
biofuels and their future perspective in ASEAN countries.

2.1. ASEAN energy consumption

Global energy consumption is growing every day [24,25]. In
2011, the total primary energy consumption of ASEAN was
equivalent to Japans, which is around 444 Mtoe [26]. It is
predicted that, in 2040, ASEAN energy consumption will rise to
1186 Mtoe, rising at an annual rate of 3.1%. Indonesia will surplus
Japans energy consumption in 2035 and it is predicted that they
will become 5th largest energy consumer of the world. However,
as Malaysia and Thailand population growth will decelerate from
2025, their primary energy consumption rate will be slower than
other ASEAN countries (Fig. 1).
In the last few years, industries facing problem of hiking labor
cost and earning less prot has shifted their operation to Myanmar
and other neighboring countries from Malaysia and Thailand. As a
result, primary energy consumption of Myanmar will increase
almost 2.5 times in the next 30 years.
2.1.1. Energy demand by fuel type
ASEAN countries are heavily dependent upon fossil fuel. The
demand is projected to rise from 76% in 2011 to 80% in 2035 [27].
Compared to 2011, oil demand will rise by 25.6% and 58.1%
annually per annum in 2020 and 2035. However, there total share
will drop to 31% from 38%. Coal demand increases three fold
during this time period, increasing at a rate of 4.8% per year. In
2035, it will have the second largest market share of 28% overtaking natural gas. Due to higher gas prices, the gas demand
growth will be slower compared to other sources. The market
share of natural gas will remain almost same during this time
period, at just over 20%. However, introduction of more strict
pollution regulation might boost the prospects of natural gas.
2.1.2. Energy demand by sector
Energy demand in the buildings sector increases by 1.8% year,
which results in more than 50% overall increase during the time
period [27]. Whereas, global energy demand for building sectors
increases with an average annual growth rate of 1.6% per year [28].
World energy consumption in the transportation sector increases
Indonesia
Thailand
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Myanmar
2011

2020

2030

2040

Brunei
0

200

400
600
800
1000
1200
Million tons of oil equuivalent (Mtoe)

Fig. 1. ASEAN primary energy consumption (20112040).

1400

M. Mojur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 5161

2500

Rest of ASEAN
2000

Indonesia
Thailand

CO2 emission (Gt)

by an average of 1.1% per year [28], whereas energy demand for

transportation sector in ASEAN increases at a rate of 2.7% per year
[27]. The rapid increase in transportation sector might be due to
increase in income of people, low or subsidized oil price, and
inadequate public transport. However, despite strong growth,
compared to world average, passenger light duty vehicle ownerships rose to 71 person out of 1000 in 2035 from 40 persons per
1000 in 2011 [27]. Most of the growth were seen in Indonesia,
Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines. Energy demanded by
industrial sector was the highest both in 2011 and in 2035, rising
from 120 Mtoe to 225 Mtoe (Fig. 2).

53

Malaysia
1500

Philippines

1000

2.2. Energy related CO2 emission

500

Liaquat et al. [29] reported that if the average global temperature is increased by more than 2 1C, many people about hundreds
of millions of people will lose their lives [30]. Energy-related
carbon dioxide emissions those emissions produced through the
combustion of liquid fuels, natural gas, and coal account for
much of the worlds anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. As a
result, energy consumption is an important component of the
global climate change debate. Energy related CO2 emission of
ASEAN increased to 2.3 Gt (gigatonnes) in 2035 from 1.2 GT in
2011, which is 6.1% of global emission [27]. This is mainly due to
the rapid increase in fossil fuel use throughout the time period
(Fig. 3).

3. Biofuel as a potential renewable source

Biofuel is the environment friendly and renewable source of
alternative fuel which is mainly produced from animal fats (tallow,
lard, white or yellow grease, poultry fats, or sh oils); recycled
greases (used cooking and frying oils); and most commonly, plant
oils (from soybeans, corn, rapeseed, sunowers, and cottonseeds,
etc.) [25,3033].
To use this biofuel in diesel engine there is no need for engine
modication as well [34]. In general, the term biofuel is used to
represent all the liquid and gaseous transportation fuels derived
predominantly from biomass [35]. Biofuels conversion system is
one of the important steps in the whole biofuel production chain.
Factors such as high yields and low energy consumption are
important to consider in promoting the future competitiveness
of biofuels to fossil fuels in the market. The biofuel production
process is shown in Fig. 4. Biofuels can be derived from any
biological carbon into biofuel via different production pathways to
produce source, but photosynthetic plants are the most biodiesel,

0
2011

2035

Year
Fig. 3. Energy related CO2 emission of ASEAN.

ethanol, butanol, methane, or other fuels; all are commonly used

feedstock. Biofuels are categorized the subject of ongoing research.
Technologies to produce into rst-generation biofuel and
advanced biofuel (second-rst-generation fuels are mature but
some feedstocks are generation, third-generation, etc.). Currently,
biodiesel and bioethanol are the two most promising biofuel being
projected to replace conventional fossil fuels in transportation.
Biodiesel or fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) is normally synthesized
through transesterication of vegetable oils with methanol and
the aid of appropriate catalysts. It can be used to replace mineral
diesel in compression-ignition (CI) engine which has almost
similar properties without requiring any major engines modications [3638]. Commercial production of biodiesel has been well
established and is available to be purchased as turn-key plants in
many countries [39]. On the other hand, bioethanol is suitable to
replace the usage of gasoline in petrol engine. Conventional
bioethanol is produced from the fermentation of simple sugar or
starch crops. Its large-scale production has been well proven and
demonstrated successfully in Brazil [40]. However, it competes
with food sources for human consumption which renders it
susceptible to criticisms. Another alternative raw material for
bioethanol production is using inedible food sources mainly
lignocellulosic material such as forest and agricultural biomass
waste. However, additional pretreatment steps are normally
required which will increase the overall production cost. Process
optimization is still being researched intensively at pilot plant
scale in order to nd a more cost-effective production method for
mass commercialization [41].
Biofuels have several advantages over conventional fuels diesel
and gasoline. On the other hand, there are also some disadvantages of using biofuels. The advantages and disadvantages of
biofuel are discussed in the following Table 1.

4. Biofuel standards

Fig. 2. ASEAN energy demand by sector.

Quality standards for producing, marketing and storing of

biofuel are being developed and implemented around the world
in order to maintain the end product quality and also to ensure
consumers condence. First, Austria have dened and approved
the standards for biodiesel from rapeseed oil as a petro diesel fuel.
At present the US and EU standards are the most referred
standards followed by standards from other biofuel producing

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M. Mojur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 5161

Fig. 4. The biofuel production process.

Table 1
Advantages and disadvantages of biofuels [4274]
Fuel

Advantages

Disadvantages

Biodiesel

Similar properties compared to diesel

Contains 1011% more oxygen which ensures better
combustion characteristics
Has higher cetane number than petroleum diesel which
reduces the ignition delay
Has better lubricity properties

Results in higher energy consumption for production

Contains almost 12% lower energy content than diesel, which leads to increase in fuel
consumption
Produces relatively higher NOx

Bio-ethanol

Higher yield in oil extraction

Safe for transportation, handling, distribution, utilization and
storage due to higher ash point
Up to 20% biodiesel blends no engine modication needed
Serves as climatic neutral in view of the climatic change
Has high octane number
Increases thermal efciency
Increases engine torque output
Allows the use of high compression ratio without knocking
Produce cleaner emission
Reduces greenhouse gas emission signicantly
Easily miscible in gasoline
Less toxic than gasoline

Transesterication has some environmental effects such as waste disposal and water
requirement for washing, soap formation, etc.
Higher costs for establishment and operation of production plants
Lower oxidation stability of biodiesel compared to diesel can cause corrosion of fuel
tank, pipe and injector

Energy content of ethanol is lower

Lower vapor pressure of ethanol can contribute to produce unregulated pollutants
Can enhance corrosion on ferrous components such as fuel tank
Results in higher gas heat capacity and lower combustion gas temperature
Low vapor pressure of ethanol makes starting cold engine difcult

nations [18,42]. A comparison of biodiesel standards of two ASEAN

countries (Malaysia and Indonesia) and other major countries
around the world is shown in Table 2.

5. Energy and biofuel target and policy in ASEAN countries

Biofuel production has been rising drastically in many Asian
countries in recent years. This is driven primarily by the

governments pursuit of energy security, economic development

(particularly, improvement of trade balances and expansion of the
agriculture sector), and poverty alleviation. Most Asian countries
have their biofuel strategies focused around the countrys main
agricultural product and new business opportunities. Form the
policies of ASEAN countries it can be easily comprehended that,
they are mainly focused on export rather than utilization in their
own countries and less concern about environment. All these
countries pay heavy subsidies on petroleum transport fuel which

M. Mojur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 5161

55

Table 2
Comparison of biofuel standards around the world [18,42,75,76].
Parameters

Austria (ON)

Brazil ANP 42

Density at 15 1C g/cm3
Viscosity at 40 mm2/s
Flash point (1C)
Pour point (1C)
Cetane number
Conradson carbon residue (%)
Iodine number
Methanol/ethanol (mass %)
Ester content (mass %)
Monoglyceride (mass %)
Diglycerides (mass %)
Triglyceride (mass %)
Free glycerides (mass %)
Total glycerol (mass %)

0.850.89
3.55.0
100

Z49
0.05
r120
r0.2

r0.02
r0.24

0.870.89

100

0.02 max.
0.38

France
0.870.89
3.55.0
100

10
Z 49

r 115
r 0.1
Z 96.5
r 0.8
r 0.2
r 0.2
r 0.02
r 0.25

Germany (DIN)

USA (ASTM)

0.8750.89
3.55.0
110

Z 49
0.05
r 115
r 0.3

r 0.8
r 0.4
r 0.4
r 0.02
r 0.25

1.96.0
130

Z 47
0.05

r 0.02
r 0.24

Korea
0.860.89
1.95.5
4120

o0.2
96.5
o0.8
o0.2
o0.2
o0.02
o0.25

Malaysia

Indonesia

0.8783
4.415
182
15
56

58.3
o 0.2
98.5
o 0.4
o 0.2
o 0.1
o 0.01
o 0.01

2.36
100
51

0.02
0.24

Table 3
Target to promote biofuel in some countries in the world [7880].
Countries

Years

Target

Feedstock

U.S.A

2012
2013
2020
2005
2012
2013
2020
2005
2010
2020
2010
2020
2010
2012
2012
2017
2010
2012
2017
2010
2020
2030

28 Billion ethanol
1 Billion litres of cellulosic ethanol
25% Ethanol
2% Biodiesel
25% Ethanol and B2
B5 (2.4 billion biodiesel)
B20
2%
5.75%
10%
1.52 Million biodiesel
10% Ethanol ( 8.5 million tonnes) 10.612 million biodiesel
5% Ethanol
2% Biodiesel
5% Biofuel
10% Biofuel
350 Million litres of biofuel
10% Ethanol and 10% biodiesel
20% Ethanol and 20% biodiesel
360 Million litres biofuel
6 billion litres biofuel
10% Biofuel

Corn, soybean oil, sorghum, cellulosic sources in the future

Brazil

EU

China
Canada
India
Australia

Japan

are imported. On the other hand, to commercialize self-produced

biofuel they need to pay more subsidies as biofuel price is still a bit
higher [77]. Table 3 shows biofuel target of some countries in
the world

5.1. Cambodia [81]

Master Plan on Renewable Energy (RE)
a) Study of policy to promote electrication.
b) Introduce of RE.
c) Study of Institutional and organization for sustainable operation and maintenance support by the appropriate business
model include nancial procurement plan.

Soybean, sugarcane, palm oil

Rapeseed, sunower, wheat sugar beet, barley

Corn, cassava, sweet potato, rice, jatropha

Corn, wheat
Molasses, sugarcane in the future, jatropha
Wheat, sugarcane, molasses, palm oil, cotton oil

Imported ethanol, rice bran and

 facilitate the supply of high yielding clone seeds; and

 Integrate activities of development and post-harvest.
2. National Energy Policy (Presidential Decree No. 5 year 2006):
 RE 17%; 5% biofuel in the energy mix by 2025
3. Energy Law No. 30 (10 July 2007)
 Attention on new energy development.
 Increase usage of new renewable energy by government and
local government.
 Incentives from government and local government until it
reach economic development stage.
4. Biofuel Mandatory (Energy and Mineral Resources Minister
Regulation No. 32, 2008):
 Bioethanol: 1% (2009)15% (2025);
 Biodiesel: 1% (2008)20% (2025).
5.3. Laos [81]

5.2. Indonesia [22,81,82]

1. Supply and Utilization of Biofuels as Alternative Energy (Presidential Instruction No. 1 year 2006):
 facilitate the supply of crops of Biofuel raw material;
 conduct extension of the development of crops of biofuel
raw materials;

a) Ministry of Energy & Mines

 Energy.
 Electricity sector development.
b) Ministry of Industry & Commerce
 Petroleum products trading.
c) National Administration of Science & Technology

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M. Mojur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 5161

 Renewable research
d) Ministry of Agriculture & Forestry
 Biofuel feedstock.
e) Ministry of Energy & Mines: drafted Energy Policy &
Biofuel Policy
f) Prime Minister Ofce: drafted biofuel initiatives focused on
Jatropha
g) National Administration of Science & Technology: R&D on
Bioenergy Project
 Luang Prabang Province: cultivation of Jatropha & stone
Jatropha.
 Ministry of Industry & Commerce: R&D on Jatropha cultivation in Vientiane Province.
h) Biofuel Policy
 established an Ad hoc Committee for Formulation of
National Strategy on Biofuel Energy, chaired by the Vice
Minister for Energy & Mines;
 initiated development of a strategy document on biofuel
and fuel saving opportunities from promoting biofuel
production;
 to reect its potential role in and effect on rural development and to ensure the food security.
5.4. Malaysia [81,83
85]
1. The National Biofuel Policy:
 Launched on 21st March 2006 which envisions:
a) Use of environmental friendly, sustainable and viable
sources of energy to reduce the dependency on depleting
fossil fuels; and
b) Enhance prosperity and well-being of all the stakeholders agriculture and commodity based industries
through stable and remunerative prices.
 Underpinned by 5 Strategic thrusts:
a) Biofuel for transport;
b) Biofuel for industry;
c) Biofuel technologies;
d) Biofuel for export; and
e) Biofuel for cleaner environment.
2. Malaysian Biofuel Industry Act 2007: Act 666
 passed by Parliament in May 2007;
 to facilitate the domestic development of the biodiesel
industry;
 provide mandatory use of biofuel, licensing of activities
relating to biofuel.
3. National Green Technology Policy (2009): one of the 4 key
areastransportation sector.
4. Cabinet Committee on the Competitiveness of Palm Oil (CCPO)
No. 8 (2010):
 biofuel mandatory B5 implementation programmed by
region;
 start by phases within Central Region of Peninsular Malaysia
(started June 2011); and
 Target nationwide implementation by 2013 onwards.
Recently, government has decided to fully implement B5
biodiesel program nationwide within July 2014. For this palm
biodiesel initiative, the PME requirement for the program is
estimated at 500,000 t per year to support both the subsidized
and non-subsidized sectors in Malaysia. To facilitate the program,
35 depots nationwide with in-line blending facilities had been
setup by government with help from participating petroleum
companies. Subsidy will be provided to ensure B5 price is similar
to that of diesel. Biodiesel production increased from 140,983 t in
2012 to 330,032 t in 2013, of which 155,000 t for domestic use. The

jump in production was due to increase in demand for expansion

of B5 distribution domestically.
The government also considering the introduction of B7 in 2015,
however, currently it is very difcult to predict the speed of implementation. As a result, consumption is predicted to hover between
200,000 and 400,000 t over the next few years. Also, the government
is conducting studies to evaluate prospect of B10 and B20 biodiesel
program. For B10, government is planning to revise of Malaysian
standards, which will include blending up to 10% PME which is in
accordance with Euro 2M specications. On PME supply, the government has issued 60 biodiesel manufacturing licenses with total yearly
capacity of 6.5 million ton as at September, 2013.
5.5. Myanmar [81]
1. Bio-energy Policy & Strategy:
 Energy self-sufcient with particular emphasis on
rural area.
 Efcient usage of land and water resources for biomass
production balancing food & fuel production.
 Income generation & poverty alleviation for rural population
through employment opportunity.
 Increasing national income through exporting surplus biofuel & biomass nished products.
 Promoting private sector participation: small to small &
medium enterprise, both in biomass production & biofuel
processing.
 Development of biofuel industry & appropriate regulatory
measures.
 Government support: loans, credit.
 Promoting private sector including foreign direct
investment.
 Providing improved technology through research &
development.
2. Indicative National Biofuel Program
 To reduce dependency on imported fossil fuels.
 To increase economic activities.
 To improve energy efciency.
 To generate rural employment.
 To augment farmers income.
3. Indicative National Biofuel Program Framework
 Feedstock Development, Production & Extension.
 Sugarcane, cassava, sweet sorghum & Jatropha priotized and
other potential feedstocks.
 Biofuel Industry Development.
 Investment, Incentives & Promotion.
 R&D.
 Std & Quality Assurance.

5.6. Philippine [22,81,86]

1. RA 9367: Biofuel Acts of 2006
a) Provide scal incentives and mandate the use of biofuelblended gasoline and diesel fuels:
 Develop and utilize local based renewable and sustainable clean source energy to reduce dependent on
imported oil;
 Mitigate toxic and GHG emissions;
 Improve rural socio-economic; and
 Ensure sustainability of RE.
2. Mandatory use of biofuel
 Biodiesel
- 20072009: 1% (B1) biodiesel blend sold in all gasoline
stations.
- 20092013: 2% (B2) biodiesel blend.

M. Mojur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 5161

 Bioethanol
3.

4.
5.
6.

- 20062008: 5% (E5) by total volume.

- By 2010: 10% (E10).
RA 9513: Renewable Energy Act of 2008
Accelerate the development of the countrys renewable
energy resources by providing scal and non-scal
incentives to private sector investors and equipment
manufacturers/ suppliers (more incentives for biofuel
and feedstock producers).
Republic Act 9367Biofuel Act of 2006
National Biofuels Program Framework (20072012).
 Feedstock Development, Production & Extension.
Research, Development & Deployment
 Industry Development.
 Policy Formulation & Dissemination.
 Investment, Incentives and Promotion
 Standards and quality assurance

 Support to electricity generation from RE sources in the

3.

4.

5.7. Thailand [11,81,87]

National Alternative Energy Plan 20082022:
 20082011
 Promoting the existing commercialization technologies in
relation with the high potential energy sources such as bio
fuel, co-generation from biomass and biogas.
 20122016
 Focusing on the R&D of new alternative energy technologies in order to building up the alternative energy technology industry with emphasis on bio fuel production as well
as introducing a model development of Green City to
communities for Sufcient Economy and Sustainability
Development.
 20172022
 Utilizing the economic viability technologies as well as
other proved new alternative technologies to extend Green
City models and encourage to be a hub of biofuel.
Ethanol Development Plan 20082022
 E20 & E85, promote FFVs (2008).
 2000 FFVs (20092011).
 390,000 FFVs (20122016).
 2070,000 FFVs (20172022).
Biodiesel Development Plan 20082022:
 B5 nationwide & B10 optional (20082011).
 Cabinet Resolution (10.07.2001):
- Promotion of biodiesel; and Vegetable oil blends.
 Cabinet Resolution (17.05.2004):
- Increase palm oil plantation and yield; and
- Biodiesel blended with diesel.
 Cabinet Resolution (18.01.2005):
- B10 mandate (2012).
- require 8.5 million liters/day of biodiesel

5.8. Vietnam [81]

1. Renewable Energy Action Plan (REAP, 2001).
 Set the general directions of Government intervention to
encourage RE.
 Development of an institutional framework to facilitate
grid-connected RE.
 Establishment of biofuel projects and a comprehensive
package of reforms that was planned to be in place by
end 2008.
2. Electricity Law (2004)

57

5.

6.

form of investment incentives, preferential electricity prices

& preferential taxes.
National Energy Development Strategy up to 2020, with outlook to 2050.
(Decision 1855/QD-TTg; 27 Dec. 2007)
 to boost the development of new and renewable energies,
bioenergy in order to meet the requirements of socioeconomic development.
 targets for RE to reach 5% of primary commercial energy in
2020, and 11% by 2050.
National Program for biofuel development up 2015, with outlook to 2050.
(Decision No 177/QD-TTg; 20 Nov. 2007)
 To develop biofuel, a new and renewable for use as an
alternative to partially replace fossil fuels.
 To create legal framework for biofuel development.
 To develop materials for biofuel production
 To develop relevant biofuel extraction technologies.
 Target annual output of 100,000 t of E5 and 50,000 t of B5
by 2010 (equivalent of 0.4% of the countrys projected oil
and gasoline demands; 1.8 million tonnes of ethanol and
vegetable oil, or 5% of oil and gasoline demand by 2025 and
Strategy for RE Development (2030).
Master Plan for RE Development of Vietnam (20112020; with
outlook 2030): MOIT commissioned the Institute of Energy to
prepare and approve.
National Program for Biofuels Development (up to 2015, with
2025 vision): Decision 177/2007/QD-TTg (20 Nov. 2011).
Objectives:
 Aimed to develop biofuel partly replace for fossil fuel.
 Created the legal framework for biofuel development.
 Develop materials for biofuel production.
 Develop relevant biofuel extraction technologies.

6. Performance and emission of internal combustion engines

fuelled with biofuel
Various researchers have studied the performance and emission characteristics of diesel engines using biofuel such as biodiesel, ethanol etc. Most of them reported that using biofuel with the
diesel fuel in internal combustion engine have potential to fulll
the energy demand and reduce greenhouse has emission. The next
section will discuss some of these studies.

6.1. Performance and emission of internal combustion engines

fuelled with biodieseldiesel blend
Ng et al. [88] studied the engine performance using neat palm oil
methyl ester, B50 and neat diesel (B0) at different speeds and load
conditions. The result showed that SFC for palm oil methyl ester is
higher than diesel fuel due to lower energy contents. They also found
that neat palm oil methyl ester (B100) reduces tailpipe NO, UHC and
smoke opacity by 5.0%, 26.2% and 66.7%, respectively due to improved
combustion, higher cetane number and oxidation of soot. However, it
was found that PME content in the fuel blend did not signicantly
affect tailpipe CO emission, with only a maximum 0.89% reduction
achieved with the B50 blend. The authors concluded that despite the
shortcoming of PME in its higher specic fuel consumption, its overall
reduction of regulated tailpipe emissions makes PME green technically viable alternative to fossil diesel in both neat and blended forms
for use in light-duty diesel engines. Hazar [89] studied the effect of
canola oil biodiesel and its blend on a low heat loss diesel engine
emission and performance with and without coating condition. The
author found out that the increase in power for biodiesel is between

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M. Mojur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 5161

1.6% and 3.5% compared to 8.4% for diesel. While the decrease in SFC
for biodiesel is between 4.7% and 8% compared to 4.9% for diesel.
There is a signicant reduction in exhaust gas emission CO (2224%)
compared to 25% for diesel, and smoke (4.78.2%) compared to 9% for
diesel. However, NOx emission increase (4.87.3%) compared to 4.9%
for diesel. This is attributed to the higher oxygen contents and
increase in after combustion temperature due to the ceramic coating.
Exhaust gas temperature increases by between 5.4% and 2.6% for
biodiesel while it increases by 11.4% for diesel. Qi et al. [90] studied
the combustion and performance characteristics of a direct injection
engine fueled with biodiesel from soybean oil and its different blend
(B0, B30, B50, B80, B100). The test result showed a small increase in
BSFC for biodiesel and its blends due to the lower heating value of
biodiesel. The BTE of biodiesel and its blends are slightly lower than
that of diesel at low engine loads keeping the same trend to the
higher engine load. The signicant improvement in reduction of
carbon monoxide (CO) and smoke were found for biodiesel and its
blends at high engine loads. HC emissions of biodiesel and its blends
have little difference from diesel fuel. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) were
slightly higher for biodiesel and its blends. This is because of the
increases the combustion chamber temperature due to higher oxygen
content in biodiesel. The authors concluded that the excess oxygen
contents of biodiesel play a key role in engine performance and
biodiesel is proved to be a potential fuel for complete or partially
replacement of diesel fuel. Puhan et al. [91] compared the performance and emission of a single cylinder, four stroke direct injection
constant speed compression ignition diesel engine (Kirloskar) using
biodiesel from Mahua oil. The result showed that the performance of
diesel engine with biodiesel does not vary signicantly. The specic
fuel consumption is higher (20%) than that of diesel and thermal
efciency is lower (13%) than that of diesel. Exhaust pollutant
emission are reduced compared to diesel. Carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrocarbon (HC), smoke number, oxides of nitrogen (NOx) were
reduced 30%, 35%, 11%, 4%, respectively, compared to diesel. The most
interesting nding of this study is that oxides of nitrogen reduced
even though that Nitrogen oxide is reported by several researchers to
be increased with biodiesel. Nurun Nabi et al. [92] studied the effect
of karanja (Pongamia Pinnata) biodiesel on exhaust emission of a
diesel engine and compared with the diesel fuel. They authors
reported that compared to DF, B100 reduced carbon monoxide (CO)
(50%), smoke (43%) and engine noise (2.5 dB). However, an increase in
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) of 15% was reported at high load conditions.
The reason for reducing CO, smoke and engine noise and increasing in
NOx emission is due to the presence of oxygen in karanja biodiesel
molecular structure. Moreover, low aromatics in the B100 and its
blends may be an additional reason for reducing these emissions. The
authors also reported that compared to DF the brake thermal
efciency with B100 and its blends was almost unchanged. Silitonga
et al. [93] investigated the effect of biodiesel produced from Ceiba
pentandra on engine performance and emission. The blends were 10,
20, 30 and 50% biodiesel with diesel. The authors reported that,
biodiesel blends decreased power output increased both BSFC and
exhaust gas temperature. At 1900 rpm, CPB50 exhibited 22.6% power
reduction, 85% increase in BSFC. The presence of rich oxygen in the
blends molecule enhances the combustion process and increase the
temperature [94]. Biodiesel blends decreases HC and CO emission but
increases NOx emission. As biodiesel blends have higher oxygen
content, nitrogen particle reacts easily with oxygen and increase
NOx emissions [54]. At 2400 rpm, CPB50 emitted 47% more NOx
compared to diesel fuel. Serin et al. [95] investigated emission
characteristics of a diesel engine operated with three different
mixture of biodiesel blends (tea seed, cotton seed and soybean)
blended with diesel. The authors reported reduction of CO and CO2
emission and increase in NOx emission. Nidal and Khaled [96] used
10%, 30% and 50% almond biodiesel with diesel to evaluate performance and emission parameters of a single cylinder diesel engine.

The authors reported that at a given torque, biodiesel blends exhibits

lower brake thermal efciency due to poor atomization caused
because of having higher density and viscosity. Also, biodiesel blends
have higher cetane number, as a result shorter ignition delay, which
results in higher exhaust temperature. The authors reported same
trend of decrease in CO and HC emission and increase in NOx
emission as reported by other researchers [9799]. Attal et al. [99]
investigated engine performance and emission parameters using
biodiesel produced from Kokam and Rice bran oil and reported that
thermal efciency reduced by 45% and 78%, respectively. Also, the
authors reported biodiesel blends reduced exhaust emission. Behcet
et al. [100] used biodiesel produced from waste sh oil (FOB),
hazelnut oil (HOB), rapeseed oil (ROB), and waste cooking oil (WCOB)
to operate a diesel engine. They reported that biodiesel blends
reduced torque by 10.6520.2%, power by 9.3220.58%, HC emission
by 29.4441.11%, smoke by 0.471.12% and CO emission by 14.19
29.67%, and increased BSFC by 2.369.92%, NOx emission by 4.76
22.92%. Naidu and Rangadu [101] reported that Karanja biodiesel
blends decrease BTE by 1.26%, increases exhaust gas temperature by
7.8%. Lahane and Subramaniam [102] reported that, higher percentages of biodiesel in blends signicantly reduces BTE and increases
NOx emission. Torque reduced by 0.212.76%, CO and HC emission
reduced by 75% and 81% respectively and smoke reduced by 70% for
karanja biodiesel blends.
6.2. Performance and emission of internal combustion engines
fuelled with ethanolbiodieseldiesel blend
Labeckas et al. [103] studied the effect of ethanoldiesel and
rapeseed biodiesel blends (15 vol% of ethanol and 5 vol% of biodiesel
to 80 vol% diesel fuels) on performance and emission characteristics
of a diesel engine at different loads and speed condition. The test
results showed that engine running with composite blend BDE15
developed similar brake thermal efciency as a straight diesel
operating on slightly richer airfuel mixture 1.5 at rated
2200 rpm speed. The tertiary blend BDE15 showed a signicant
reduction of NOx and the HC emissions by 6.3%, 11.9%, 9.5% and
24.6%, 14.6%, 15.1% compared to that of normal diesel fuel at 1400,
1800, 2200 rpm speeds. At 1400 rpm the emission of CO was 3.9%
lower, but 14.7% and 1.0% higher at 1800 and 2200 rpm, respectively.
They also found that smoke opacity was 26.1% lower at 1400 rpm
and 8.4% higher at 1800 rpm, and again 15.6% lower at 2200 rpm
speeds. Exclusive role of fuel bound oxygen was revealed by the
lower NOx, HC emissions along with positive changes in the CO
emissions and opacities of the exhaust. The authors concluded that
the ethanol (15 vol%), diesel (80 vol%) and biodiesel (5 vol%) blend is
the suitable blend and signicantly can be used in diesel engines.
The addition of anhydrous ethanol and RME to petro-diesel fuel
suggests ecological advantages and increases the renewable biofuel
concentration in the blend that is one of the targets recommended
by the EU Directive 2009/28/EC. Yilmaz et al. [104] investigated the
emission of biodieseldieselethanol (BDE3, BDE5, BDE15 and
BDE25) blends in a diesel engine at different engine load condition.
Experimental results indicate that emissions are strongly depended
on engine operating conditions and biofuel concentration in the
blend. Ethanol blended fuels increased CO emissions compared to
that of diesel fuel for all operating conditions but the blended fuels
reduced NO emissions for all concentrations. Overall, lower percentages of ethanol in the blend decreased HC emissions and vice versa.
But ethanol blended fuel reduced HC emissions at over 50% load
conditions. Fang et al. [105] studied the performance and emission
of ethanoldieselbiodiesel blend in a diesel engine at low combustion temperature condition. They found that ethanoldieselbiodiesel blended fuel produce lower NOx emissions and higher HC and CO
emissions due to higher latent heat of vaporization which causes
lower combustion temperature. In case of smoke emission blended

M. Mojur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 5161

fuel (ethanoldieselbiodiesel) lowered it compared to that of diesel

and biodieseldiesel fuel. The peaks of smoke emissions were
reduced in a large extent with the increase of percentage of ethanol
in blended fuels. Finally, they concluded that ethanoldieselbiodiesel is suitable alternative to reduce NOx and smoke emissions in
premixed lower temperature condition. Ferreira et al. [106] studied
the performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine
connected to an electric generator operating with dieselbiodiesel
ethanol (D70B30-E5, D70B30-E9 and D70B30-E15) blend at
1800 rpm. They found that the use of ethanol in the biodiesel diesel
blend is perfect to reduce NOx emissions of compression ignition
engines. But the CO and THC emissions increased as the ethanol
content increased in the blend. However, contradictory to the
traditional inverse relationship between NOx and particulate matter
emissions (PM), NOx emissions reduction was reported with a slight
reduction in opacity. They concluded that the ethanol fumigation
can be an effective method for controlling the emission of NOx from
diesel engines when higher concentration of biodiesel will be used
in the blends. Thus it will also help to preserves the natural
resources and reduce the dependency on petrodiesel. Zhu et al.
[107] studied the effect of ethanoldieselbiodiesel blend on particulate and unregulated emission of a diesel engine at 1800 rpm and
different engine load condition. The test results showed that adding
ethanol into the biodieseldiesel blend lowered particle number
concentration and particulate mass emission as well. However, other
than regulated emissions, blended fuels gives higher formaldehyde
and acetaldehyde emissions, due to different H-abstraction reaction
of ethanol, compared with biodiesel and diesel fuel. Armas et al.
[108] investigated the effect of using ethanolbiodieseldiesel in a
city bus at real driving condition on particle size distribution and
reported reduction of both the number and size of the
accumulation-mode particles with the use of oxygenated fuel
blends, with less proportion of aromatic hydrocarbons and sulphur
in their composition. However the nuclei diameter remains constant
as these fuels increase the nuclei concentration. Yilmaz et al. [109]
studied the performance and emission of biodieseldieselethanol
blends (B45E10D45, B40E20D40) in a diesel engine at different load
conditions. They found that the use of ethanol in the biodiesel
diesel blend showed higher fuel consumption than that of diesel
fuel. The blended fuel increased CO and HC emissions but reduced
NO emissions. They concluded that adding ethanol in the blends
would be the perfect choice to reduce NO emissions for the
concentrations presented in this study. Park et al. [110] studied the
effect of addition of soybean biodiesel in bioethanol blended diesel
fuel on engine performance and exhaust emissions characteristic.
Bioethanol ratio in the total blend was xed at 20% whereas 5, 10
and 20% biodiesel blends were used (D75B5-E20, D70B10E-20 and
D60B20E-20). The engine was operated at 120 MPa injection pressure and 1200 rpm engine speed. The authors reported that, as
biodiesel percentages increased, CO and HC emission decreased due
to increase in oxygen content resulting in more proper combustion
inside the chamber. Also, increase in biodiesel percentages slightly
reduced soot and NOx emission. Qi et al. [111] reported the effect of
addition of diethyl ether and ethanol in soybean biodieseldiesel
blends on engine performance and emission. The fuels tested were
B30 (30% biodiesel and 70% diesel in vol.), BE-1 (5% diethyl ether,
25% biodiesel and 70% diesel in vol.) and BE-2 (5% ethanol, 25%
biodiesel and 70% diesel in vol.). The authors reported that high
volatility of diethyl ether and ethanol, improves the mixing of fuel
and air, which results in improved combustion and thus increases
the combustion efciency. Both BE-1 and BE-2, exhibits lower BSFC
and CO emission compared to B30. Also, they exhibits lower smoke
emission as engine was operated at overall leaner condition.
However, addition of ethanol results in higher combustion temperature thus increases NOx emission. BE-1 and BE-2 also exhibited
higher HC emission. Yilmaz and Vigil [112] used biodiesel, ethanol

59

and vegetable oils with diesel to operate a small diesel generator.

The blends were dieselbiodiesel (7030%), dieselbiodieselalcohol
(702010%) and dieselbiodieselalcoholvegetable oil (70205
5%). They reported that addition of ethanol, increases HC and CO
emission will decreases NOx emission. Cheenkachorn and Fungtammasan [113] reported up to 8.7% increase in power output while
using biodieseldieselethanol blends compared to diesel fuel.

7. Discussions and conclusion

Due to increase in petroleum price and adverse effect on
environment of petroleum fuel, biofuel is taking its position every
day over fossil fuel. Biofuel offer a sustainable source of energy and
can play a signicant role to reduce dependency on petrodiesel
and greenhouse gas emission. Therefore, researchers are focusing
more and more on engine performances and its emissions fuelled
using biofuel in the last decades. Biofuel can become the most
suitable alternative for petroleum fuel for having numerous
advantageous. Biofuels, one of the renewable energy resources,
have interesting impacts such as the reduction of external dependence in terms of energy, their development and environmental
benets, and providing of the feed, food and raw material
industries with raw materials in the world. Here, some of the
ndings of the effect of biodieseldiesel and biodieselethanol
diesel blends on engine performance and emission are given:

 Due to lower heating value, biodiesel blends increases BSFC.

 Biodiesel blends reduce HC, smoke opacity, CO, CO and CO2









emissions due to having higher amount of oxygen than OD fuel

which results in complete combustion.
Nitrogen oxides emission increases as combustion chamber
temperature increases as biodiesel contains higher oxygen
content. However, some researchers reported slight reduction
of NOx emission while engine was operated with biodiesel
blends.
Increase in NOx due to use of biodieseldiesel blends can be
countered by the application of ethanol.
Introduction of ethanol in biodieseldiesel blends will increase
CO and HC emission.
Ethanolbiodieseldiesel blends reduces both number and size
of particles.
Tertiary blends increases BSFC.
Researchers reported up to 8.7% increase in power output while
using biodieseldieselethanol blends compared to diesel fuel.
Researchers reported that high volatility of ethanol, improves
the mixing of fuel and air, which results in improved combustion and thus increases the combustion efciency.

However there are some disadvantages of using biofuel, such as

both bioethanol and biodiesel can cause corrosion of engine parts,
biodiesel produces higher NOx emission, increase in fuel consumption, higher biodiesel production cost, food security etc. Despite
the concerns about the impacts of bioenergy, there is growing
interest in biofuels in the ASEAN countries, and they have set
policy and target to gradually increase the use of biofuel in
comparison with the production of conventional fuels.

 National biofuel policy of Malaysia launched on 21st March



2006, current target is to implement B5 nationwide. The

government also decided the introduce B7 in November, 2014.
Vietnam government targets Renewable energy to reach 5% of
primary commercial energy in 2020, and 11% by 2050. They
also targeted annual output of 50,000 t of B5 and 100,000 t of
E5. To fulll this they are looking for relevant biofuel extraction
technologies.

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M. Mojur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 5161

 Thailand targets implementing E20 and E85, and will promote




FFV. Their target is to reach 2070,000 FFVs within 20172022.

They also introduced B10 mandate and currently requires
8.5 million liters/day of biodiesel.
Indonesia targeted biofuel share to reach 5% of total energy
share and 15% bioethanol and 20% biodiesel to replace gasoline
and diesel respectively within 2025.
Laos established an Ad hoc committee for formulation of
national strategy on biofuel energy.

Economically, socially or environmentally present energy consumption trends are neither sustainable nor secured. An
approaching energy crisis may grasp social and economic growth
if there is no change in practice and selection of energy sources.
Coupled with drastic environmental consequence severe shortage
of petroleum fuels is anticipated as inevitable. Hence, the quest for
an alternative clean fuel is vital. To date, wind, solar, tidal and
fusion energies are all very prospective types of renewable-energy
resources. However, as demand of transport fuel grows rapidly,
there is an urgent need for an alternative fuel that can be easily
adapted with the present supply and storing system and biofuel
has recently become the most viable alternative for petroleum
fuel. With better targets and biofuel policy, hopefully, ASEAN
countries can implement biofuel as the major substitute of
petroleum fuel and help ensure a cleaner, safer, better world for
future generation.

Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge University of Malaya
for nancial support through High Impact Research Grant UM.C/
HIR/MOHE/ENG/07.
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