Math Methods Reference Materials 2014

COMPLIMENTARY MATHEMATICAL
METHODS REFERENCE MATERIALS

EXTRACT FROM THE NOTES THAT ARE
BEING HANDED OUT AT THE
"THE ESSENTIALS"
TSFX FINAL EXAM REVISION LECTURES
DIFFERENTIATION
REFERENCE MATERIALS
IMPORTANT NOTES
Specialist Mathematics and Further Mathematics students will also be issued a
complete set of Reference Materials for the exams.
Note: All mathematics students will also receive a comprehensive collection of
exam style questions to include in their question banks.
CALCULUS
LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES
The limit of a function is the value of y that the function approaches as x gets closer to a
particular value.
The limit of f (x) as x approaches a is written as lim f ( x) .
xa
CONDITIONS FOR THE

EXISTENCE OF A LIMIT
A limit may exist at x a if:
If the function f x is continuous at x a .

If there is point discontinuity at x a .
y
6
0
-6
-4
-2
-2
-4
lim f x exists and is equal to 4 .

x 2
A limit will not exist at x a if:
There is discontinuity across an interval and x a lies within this interval.
A limit does not exist

at this value of x
The School For Excellence 2014
A limit does not exist

at this value of x
Reference Materials Maths Methods Differentiation
Page 1
EVALUATING LIMITS GRAPHICALLY

SINGLE FUNCTIONS
Step 1: Observe the value of y as x approaches a value below the point of interest.
Step 2: Observe the value of y as x approaches a value above the point of interest.
Step 3: If the left hand limit is equal to the right hand limit a limit exists at x a .
The limit is simply equal to the value of y that the curve is approaching on either
side of the point of interest.
For example: Find lim ( x 2 3 x 5) .
x 1
As x approaches 1 from below

(or from the left hand side), f (x) approaches 3 .
As x approaches 1 from above

(or from the right hand side), f ( x) approaches 3 .
-4
lim ( x 2 3 x 5) 3
-2
x 1
HYBRID FUNCTIONS
Limits of hybrid functions are evaluated in the same manner as previously described.
Step 1: Find the limit of each individual function at the given value of x .
Step 2: If the limiting values are the same, the limit exists at that value of x .
If one or more of the limiting values are different, the limit does not exist at that
particular value of x .
For example:
y
4
3
x 1 for x 1
lim f ( x) , where f ( x)
x 1
for x 1
x
2
1
x
0
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
As x approaches 1 from above,

f (x) approaches 2 .
-2
-3
-4
As x approaches 1 from below,

f (x) approaches 1 .
As the two limiting values are different, we say that the lim f ( x) does not exist.
x 1
Page 2
EVALUATING LIMITS ALGEBRAICALLY

The manner in which we evaluate limits algebraically depends on whether the denominator
of the function carries terms involving x :
Given lim f ( x) :
xa
(a)
If the expression does not carry a denominator or if the denominator has NO terms
involving x , simply substitute the value of a into the given expression and simplify.
For example: lim(5 2 x x 3 ) 5 2(1) (1)3 2
x 1
(b)
If the denominator carries terms involving x , we need to first determine whether the
value of x (or a ) in question causes the function to be undefined.
Substitute the value of a into the denominator of the given expression.
If the answer does not equal zero, substitute the value of a into the expression.
x 2 1
(2) 2 1
4 1
For example: lim

x 2
4
4
x 2 (2) 2
If the answer is equal to zero, we need to eliminate the term(s) that is/are causing
the function to become undefined. Factorise the given expression and eliminate
these terms by cancellation. Before evaluating the limit, substitute the value of a
into the new denominator to ensure there are no other terms present that will make
the function undefined.
( x 2 5 x 6)
( x 3)( x 2)
For example: lim
lim
lim ( x 2) 3 2 1
x 3
( x 3) x 3 ( x 3) x 3
Note:
When there are terms involving x in the denominator of a fraction, there may be some
values of x which cause the function to become undefined. These values of x must be
stated with your answer.
To determine which values of x will make the function undefined, before the function is
factorised and terms are eliminated by cancellation:
Step 1: Let the denominator of fraction equal zero .
Step 2: Solve for x .
x 2 3x 4
( x 1)( x 3)
For Example: lim

x 1
Restrictions: x 1 or x 3 .
Note: Even though this function is undefined at x 1 , we may still investigate what
happens to the value of y as x approaches this value (i.e. the limit).
Page 3
LIMIT THEOREMS
(a)
The limit of a constant is equal to the value of the constant:

If f ( x) k then lim f ( x) k .
xa
For Example: lim 5 5

x 2
(b)
The limit of the sum and/or difference of a series of terms is equal to the sum
and/or difference of the limits of each individual term.
lim f x g x lim f x lim g x

x a
xa
x a
For Example: lim x 2 3 x 1 lim x 2 lim3 x lim1 4 6 1 3

x2
(c)
x2
x2
x2
The limit of the product of two functions is equal to the product of the
limits of each individual function.
lim f x .g x lim f x lim g x

xa
xa
xa
For Example: lim x 2 1 4 x lim x 2 1 lim 4 x 0 4 0

x 1
(d)
x 1
x 1
The limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the quotient of the limits of each
individual function.
f x lim f x
lim
g x lim g x
Note that g x 0 .
( x 2 5 x 6) 1 5 6
( x 2 5 x 6) lim
2
x 1
For Example: lim
x 1
1 3
2
( x 3)
lim ( x 3)
x 1
WATCHOUTS
A point does not need to exist in order for a limit to exist.
If the function is discontinuous across an interval and the value of x lies in this interval,
the limit cannot be evaluated.
Page 4
DIFFERENTIATION
dy
or f '( x ) describes the gradient of the tangent to a curve at any value
dx
dy
of x . The process of finding f ' ( x ) or
is referred to as differentiation.
dx
The derivative
WATCHOUTS
Whenever you see the following words/phrase, automatically think of differentiation:

gradient, gradient function, gradient of the tangent.
dy
is an operation it is not a quotient (it is not the same as dy dx).
dx
dx
reads as the derivative of with respect to
x.
DERIVATIVES FROM FIRST PRINCIPLES

The derivative from first principles is obtained by applying the rule:
Derivative lim
h 0
[ f ( x h) f ( x)]
dy
f '( x)
h
dx
Step 1: Write expressions for f (x) and f ( x h) .

Step 2: Substitute the expressions for f (x) and f ( x h) into the rule
dy
[ f ( x h) f ( x)]
lim
dx h0
h
Step 3: Expand and collect like terms.
Step 4: Remove h as a common factor and simplify.
Step 5: Substitute h 0 .
Note:
To obtain f ( x h) from f (x) , replace x in the given equation with ( x h) .

For Example: If f ( x) x 2 6 x 1 , then f ( x h) ( x h) 2 6( x h) 1 .
To find the gradient at a specific point, we substitute the value of x into the derivative.
Note: The gradient at x 2 is denoted as f ' (2) .
Page 5
For example: Differentiate f x 1 2 x 3 using first principles.
f ' ( x) lim
[ f ( x h) f ( x)]
h
f ' ( x) lim
[1 2 x 3 6 x 2 h 6 xh 2 2h 3 ] [1 2 x 3 ]
h
h 0
h 0
[6 x 2 h 6 xh 2 2h3 ]
h[6 x 2 6 xh 2h 2 ]
lim 6 x 2 6 xh 2h 6 x 2
lim
lim
h 0
h
h 0
0
h
h
Note: The lim notation is included in each step, until such time that h 0 is substituted
h0
into the equation.
WATCHOUTS
If the limit from first principles rule is correctly applied, you will need to cancel out the
terms in the original equation.
If this does not occur, you have probably incorrectly expanded the second set of
brackets (remember to multiply each term in these brackets by negative 1 ).
You may check your answers by differentiating the given equation by rule. If the two
answers are different, it is likely that an error has been made when expanding the
brackets in the limit formula. Remember to multiply every term in the second set of
brackets by negative one!
Be careful to ensure that the gradient rule is correctly applied taking careful note of the
limiting value. For example, to find the gradient of the tangent to f ( x) at x 4 we
must find the limit as h 0 NOT h 4 .
i.e. lim
h0
f (h 4) f (4)
h
Page 6
DIFFERENTIATION BY RULE
DERIVATIVES OF POLYNOMIAL AND
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
The derivative of an algebraic term is obtained by multiplying the coefficient by the power
and then lowering the power by one. This rule applies for all algebraic expressions,
including rational functions, providing that n 0 .
If y ax n then
dy
anx n 1
dx
For example: If y 2 x 6 then
dy
2 6 x 61 12 x 5
dx
The derivative of a constant (a term that does not contain any variables) is equal to zero.
If y k then
dy
0
dx
For example: Given y 5a then
dy
0.
dx
The derivative of the sum and/or difference of terms is equal to the sum/difference of the
derivatives of each individual term.
If y ax 2 bx c then
dy d
d
d
(ax 2 ) (bx) (c) 2ax b

dx dx
dx
dx
For example: Given y x 2 5 x 6 then
dy d 2
d
d
x 5 x 6 2 x 5
dx dx
dx
dx
Page 7
SUMMARY OF DIFFERENTIATION TECHNIQUES

There are a variety of techniques available to find derivatives. Which technique is employed
simply depends upon the manner in which the rule of the function is presented.
Given a function in terms of x
Simplify:
If the expression is a composite

function, apply the Chain Rule to
find the derivative.
Rewrite expressions as a series of terms

Separated by addition and subtraction or
reduce the expression to 1 term.
Expand simple products.
Apply index laws.
Express surds as rational powers.
Factorise and simplify.
Rewrite terms over individual

denominator.
Differentiate
Given an expression/equation consisting of two separate functions in terms of x
If written as:
Rewrite expressions as a series of terms
separated by addition and subtraction or
reduce the expression to 1 term.
(expression in terms of x )
(expression in terms of x )
And products cannot be simplified, apply the
Product Rule to find the derivative.
Differentiate
If written as:
expression in terms of x
expression in terms of x
and quotients cannot be simplified,
apply the Quotient Rule
to find the derivative.
Page 8
FINDING DERIVATIVES METHOD

Step 1:
Rewrite all terms as powers on x .
xx
Step 2:
1
2
xx
1
3
Bring terms involving x in the denominator (bottom of a fraction) to the top, by

changing the sign on the power.
For example:
1
x2
x2
x 2
1
6
6x 2
Note:
For example: Given y 2 x

Step 3:
1
p q
( x ) (x ) x p
p
3
x
3 x then y 2 x 3 x
3x
Simplify expressions so that terms are separated by addition and subtraction and
then differentiate each term individually. Alternatively, reduce expressions down
to 1 term only.
Products:
Expand simple products rather than applying the Product Rule.
Apply index laws to convert products involving the same base into
single terms.
For example: x m 1.x1 2 m x 2 m
Reduce the expression to one term using Log Laws.

For Example: logequation equation Use log a (mn) log a (m) log a (n)
Page 9
Quotients:
Remove common factor(s) and simplify.
Factorise and eliminate terms by cancellation.
If there is only one term in the denominator, write each term in the numerator
over the denominator so that individual fractions are formed. Then simplify
each term by cancellation.
x 1 x2 1
For example:
2 2 1 x 2 (Dont use the Quotient Rule).
2
x
x
x
2
Simplify expressions using Index Laws.

For example: y
therefore
5e 3 x 4 5 3 x 4(1 x ) 5 3 x 41 x 5 2 x 5
e
e
e
2
2
2e (1 x ) 2
dy
5e 2 x 5
dx
Simplify expressions using Log Laws.
expression 1
m
, use log a log a m log a n
n
expression 2
For example: Given log a

Other Suggestions:
Try to write expressions in terms of one trigonometric function and simplifying

before differentiating.
For example: y tan(1 2 x) cos(1 2 x)
sin(1 2 x)
cos(1 2 x) sin(1 2 x)
cos(1 2 x)
Step 4:
Differentiate.
Step 5:
Re-write the answer using positive powers. Bring terms with negative powers in
the numerator (top of a fraction) to the bottom, by changing the sign on each
power.
Step 6:
State any restrictions on the values of x .
Page 10
WATCHOUTS
Differentiation is the opposite process to antidifferentiation. Use differentiation when

given y and
dy
is required.
dx
Look carefully at what you are differentiating with respect to. We differentiate with
respect to the last letter in the bottom of the derivative expression
d#
i.e. " * ".
d*
Lower the power on this variable if the term is algebraic.

For example: Given y 5a then
dy
dy
5 and
0
da
dx
Always check each calculus question to confirm whether you are meant to differentiate
or antidifferentiate.
IMPORTANT DERIVATIVES
y ax n , n 0
dy
anx n 1
dx
y sin x
dy
cos x
dx
y cos x
dy
sin x
dx
y tan x
dy
sec 2 x
dx
y log e x
dy 1
dx x
y ex
dy
ex
dx
To differentiate more complex expressions involving trigonometric,

logarithmic and exponential functions, we apply the Chain Rule.
Page 11
THE CHAIN RULE

The chain rule states that:
dy dy du
.
dx du dx
The Chain Rule is used to differentiate complex expressions/equations involving one

function in terms of x . For example:
(a)
Functions containing brackets with high powers, negative powers or fractional
y (1 2 x) 3 ,
powers. For example: y (1 2 x ) 9 ,

(b)
y cos(tan x)
Logarithmic functions where the base numeral is not a linear expression.

For example: y log e (1 x 3 ),
(d)
Trigonometric functions whose angles are not linear expressions.

2
For example: y sin( x ),
(c)
y (1 2 x)
y log e (sin x)
Exponential functions whose powers are not linear expressions.

For example: y 5e cos x ,
y e(x
6 x 1)
METHOD:
If y f (u ) where u g (x) then differentiate as follows:
Step 1: Write an expression for u (the inner function) in terms of x .
Bracket/power functions:
Trigonometric functions:
Exponential functions:
Logarithmic functions:
Step 2: Find the derivative
Let
Let
Let
Let
u
u
u
u
contents of bracket
the angle
the power
the base numeral
du
or u ' .
dx
Step 3: Write an expression for y in terms of u i.e. y f (u ) .

Step 4: Find the derivative
dy
or y f '(u ) .
du
Step 5: Substitute the derivatives into the Chain Rule.

Step 6: Replace u with its original expression and simplify.
For example: Find the derivative of y ( x 3 1) 5 .
Let u x 3 1
du
3x 2
dx
y u5
dy
5u 4
du
dy dy du
5u 4 3 x 2 15u 4 x 2 15 x 2 ( x3 1) 4
dx du dx
Page 12
QUICK WAYS OF APPLYING THE CHAIN RULE

BRACKET/POWER FUNCTIONS
Expressions containing brackets with high powers, fractional or negative powers
dy
power derivative of contents of bracket
dx
given expression but lower the power on the brackets by one
For Example:
If y (1 2 x ) 9 then
If y
1
x3
( x 3)
dy
9 2 (1 2 x ) 8 18(1 2 x ) 8
dx
`1
then
dy 1
1
3
1 ( x 3) 2
3
dx
2
2( x 3) 2
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
If y a sin | cos | tan [ f ( x)] then
That is,
dy
af '( x) cos | sin | sec 2 x f ( x)
dx
dy
coefficient of trig derivative of the angle derived trig
dx
function with the original angle
Note: sin cos and cos sin and tan sec 2
For Example:
If y 4sin x 2
then
dy
4 2 x cos x 2 8 x cos x 2
dx
If y cos(1 3x 4 ) then
If y cos(tan x ) then
dy
1 12 x 3 sin(1 3x 4 ) 12 x 3 sin(1 3x 4 )
dx
dy
1 sec 2 x sin(tan x ) sec 2 x sin(tan x )
dx
Page 13
WATCHOUTS
Do not lower powers on trigonometric terms.
Always re-write expressions in terms of 1 trigonometric function before differentiating.

For example: y
sin(4 x)
1 sin(4 x)
1

tan(4 x)
2 cos(4 x)
2 cos(4 x)
2
dy
1
4 sec 2 (4 x) 2 sec 2 (4 x)
dx
2
Watchout: y cos 4 x cos x 4 .
y cos 4 x cos x which needs to be resolved using the bracket/power chain rule.
4
For example:
dy
4 sin x (cos x) 3 4 sin x(cos x) 3
dx
y cos x 4 cos( x 4 ) which needs to be resolved using trig chain rule .

For example:
dy
1 4 x 3 sin( x 4 ) 4 x 3 sin( x 4 )
dx
Page 14
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
dy
Derivative of the power Given term
dx
For Example: If y e ( x
6 x 1)
then
If y 5e cos x then
2
2
dy
( 2 x 6)e ( x 6 x 1) 2( x 3)e ( x 6 x 1)
dx
dy
sin x 5e cos x 5 sin xe cos x
dx
Given the product of two exponential functions with the same base, write the expression as
one term using index laws. Do not apply the product rule.
For Example: If y
2
2
dy
1
e 2 x 1 x 2 1 2 x x 2 1
.e
e
then
( 2 2 x ) e 2 x x 1 (1 x )e 2 x x 1
2
dx
2
2
Given the quotient of two exponential functions with the same base, write the expression as
one term using index laws. Do not apply the quotient rule.
For Example: If y
1
1
1
dy
5
e 2 x 1
e5x
e2 x 1 (1 3 x ) e( 2 x 11 3 x ) e5 x then
(13 x )
dx
2
2
2
2
2e
WATCHOUTS
Do not lower powers on exponential terms.
The rule
d
ae f ( x ) af '( x).e f ( x ) only applies to functions with the base e.
dx
Page 15
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
derivative of base numeral

dy
Coefficient of loge
dx
base numeral
For Example: If y 2 log e (1 x 3 ) then
dy
3x 2 6 x 2
2
dx
1 x3 1 x3
WATCHOUTS
Do not lower powers on logarithmic terms.
The base numeral does not change when differentiating logarithmic expressions.
The rule
Given a logarithmic function where the base numeral consists of the product or quotient
of two functions, write the expression as a series of individual terms by applying
logarithmic laws. Do not apply the Product or Quotient Rule.
d
af '( x)
only applies to functions with the base e.
a log e f ( x)
dx
f ( x)
For Example:
If y log e (cos x sin x ) log e (cos x ) log e (sin x ) then
dy sin x cos x
dx cos x
sin x
dy 1
1
1
x

log e ( x) log e ( x 1) then

dx x x 1 x(1 x)
x 1
If y log e
Page 16
THE PRODUCT RULE
The Product Rule is used to find the derivative of the product of two functions.
Expressions are usually presented in the form:
(expression with x) (expression with x)
The Product Rule states that given y u.v , where u and v represent the individual
functions, then the derivative is given by:
dv
du
dy
u v
dx
dx
dx
Example: Find the derivative of y x 2 ( x 2 2 x) 4 .
Let one function equal u:
Let the other function equal v:
Let u x 2
Let v ( x 2 2 x) 4
Find the derivative
du
:
dx
Find the derivative
du
2x
dx
dv
:
dx
dv
4( x 2 2 x)3 (2 x 2)
dx
Substitute the relevant expressions into the Product Rule and simplify:
dy
2 x( x 2 2 x) 4 4 x 2 ( x 2 2 x)3 (2 x 2)
dx
Quick Rule:
dy
(1st expression derivative of 2nd)+(2nd expression derivative of 1st)
dx
For example:
Given y (3 x 2 1) sin x then
Given y (1 x 3 )e x then
dy
[(3x 2 1) cos x] [sin x 6 x]
dx
(3x 2 1) cos x 6 x sin x
dy
(1 x 3 )e x e x (3x 2 ) e x (1 x3 3x 2 )
dx
Page 17
THE QUOTIENT RULE
The Quotient Rule is used to find the derivative of the quotient of two functions.
Expressions are usually presented in the form:
The Quotient Rule states that given y
Expression with x
Expression with x
u
, where u and v represent the individual
v
functions, then the derivative is given by:
dy
dx
v.
dv
du
u.
dx
dx
2
v
For example: Find the derivative of y
x
.
x 1
2
Let one function equal u:
Let the other function equal v:
Let u x
Let v x 2 1
Find the derivative
du
:
dx
Find the derivative
dv
:
dx
dv
2x
dx
du
1
dx
Substitute the relevant expressions into the Quotient Rule and simplify:
dy
dx
v.
du
dv
u.
dx
dx
v2
dy ( x 2 1)1 x.2 x
dx
( x 2 1) 2
( x 2 1) 2 x 2
( x 2 1) 2
x2 1 2x2
( x 2 1) 2
1 x2
( x 2 1) 2
Page 18
Quick Rule:
dy (Bottom expression derivative of top ) - (Top expression derivative of bottom )
dx
( Bottom expression) 2
For example: If y
dy e x cos x sin x e x
sin x
e x cos x e x sin x
then
dx
ex
e2x
e x 2
e x cos x sin x cos x sin x
e x .e x
ex
WATCHOUTS
Always let the numerator equal u .
The order in which the products v.
du
dv
and u.
are subtracted is critical.
dx
dx
Page 19
APPLICATIONS IN DIFFERENTIATION EXTRACT

GRADIENTS AT SPECIFIC POINTS
The derivative in terms of x represents the gradient of the tangent at any value of x .
If the given equation is that of a line, the derivative will be a constant value independent
of x (this should make sense as the gradient of a straight line is constant).
The gradient of a curve other than a line continually changes, and is dependent upon the
value of x at which the tangent is drawn. Therefore, the derivative will be an expression in
terms of x .
To find the gradient at a specific point:
Step 1: Determine whether the derivative can exist at the required point.
(Check the Conditions for Differentiability and the given domain).
Step 2: If the derivative exists at the point, substitute the value of x into the derivative
expression.
Note:
The gradient at x 2 is denoted as f ' ( 2) .
For example: Given that f ( x ) sin( x 1) does f '( x ) at x 1.5 exist?

4 y
0
-6
-4
-2
-2
-4
f ' (1.5) exists only if the derivative exists at that point. As:
(a)
(b)
the graph is continuous at that point;

the gradient of the tangent on either side of the point x a converges to the
same value;
Then f ' (1.5) exists.
f ( x ) sin( x 1)
f '( x ) cos( x 1)
f '(1.5) cos(1.5 1) cos(0.5)
3
2
Page 20
WATCHOUTS
Before finding a derivative at a specific point, first determine whether a derivative can
exist at that point.
Remember to use single inequalities ( or ) when stating the domain of the derived
function at its end points.
DERIVATIVES OF HYBRID FUNCTIONS

METHOD:
Step 1: Write/identify the rule describing each part of the domain.
Step 2: Find the derivative of each individual rule.
If asked to find the derivative at a specific point:
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Identify the equation describing the part of the curve that the point lies on.
Determine whether the derivative is defined at the point in question.
If the derivative exists, differentiate the appropriate equation.
Substitute the required value of x .
For example:
x 2 5 x 6 for x 1
for x 1
4
Given that f ( x)
2 x 5 for x 1
Then f '( x)
for x 1
0
0
-6
-4
-2
-5
-10
Note the use of the single inequality for

x 1 (the derivative does not exist at the
end points of a domain and hence cannot be used).
To find f ' (3) :
Determine whether the derivative can exist at the required point. (Yes)
Substitute x 3 into the rule describing the derivative across that part of the domain.
f ' ( x) 2 x 5 for x 1
At x 3 , f ' (3) 1
Page 21
To find f ' ( 1) :
Determine whether the derivative can exist at the required point.
As the derivative is not defined at an end point, a derivative does not exist at x 1 .
To find f ' ( 4) :
Determine whether the derivative can exist at the required point. (Yes)
Substitute x 4 into the rule describing the derivative for that part of the domain.
f ' ( x ) 0 for x 1
At x 4 , f ' ( x ) 0
WATCHOUTS
Before finding a derivative at a specific point, first determine whether a derivative can exist at
that point.
You can find the derivative of a composite function if that composite function exists.
Before differentiating, confirm whether the value of x in question lies within the domain of the
composite function. If the value of x does not fall inside the domain of the composite, the
derivative cannot be found at that point.
For example:
If f :[ 1, 1] R where f ( x) 1 x 2 and g : R R where g ( x) 2 x 2 g '( f ( x )) exists as
r f dg .
However, g '( f (3)) does not exist as x 3 lies outside the domain of g ( f ( x )) , which is equal
to d f [ 1, 1] .
Remember to use single inequalities ( or ) when stating the domain of the derived function
at its end points.
Page 22
JOINING FUNCTIONS SMOOTHLY

Functions can only be joined if they intersect.
When functions are joined, one of two scenarios may arise:
The Join is Smooth
The Join is not Smooth
g(x)
g(x)
f(x)
f(x)
Gradients are equal at point of

contact i.e. f(x) = g(x)
Gradients are NOT equal at point

of contact i.e. f(x) g(x)
If two curves are joined smoothly:

The curves intersect i.e. the x and y values of the individual curves are the
same.
The gradients at the point of contact are the same.
METHOD:
To find the point at which two curves join smoothly:
Step 1: Find the derivative of each equation.
Step 2: Let the derivatives equal one another.
Step 3: Solve for x .
Step 4: Show that the curves intersect at the calculated value of x
To prove a join is smooth:
Show that the curves intersect AND that the gradient at the points of contact are the same.
i.e.
Show that f '( x ) g '( x ) at x a .

Show that f ( x) g ( x) at x a and that the y values are the same.
Page 23
STRICTLY INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS
Increasing Function
Decreasing Function
STRICTLY INCREASING FUNCTIONS

A function is said to be strictly increasing over the interval [ a, b] when a b and
f ( a ) f (b) for all a and b in its domain. i.e. The value of f (x ) increases as x increases
over a particular interval.
When a function is strictly increasing over an interval then f '( x ) 0 across the same
interval. i.e. The gradient of the tangent to the curve at any point within this interval is
positive.
STRICTLY DECREASING FUNCTIONS
A function is said to be strictly decreasing over the interval [ a, b] when a b and f ( a ) f (b)
for all a and b in its domain. i.e. The value of f ( x ) decreases as x increases over a particular
interval.
When a function is strictly decreasing over an interval then f '( x ) 0 across the same
interval. i.e. The gradient of the tangent to the curve at any point within this interval is
negative.
y
For example: Given f ( x) x 4 x 2
0.4
0.2
2 2
f ( x ) is strictly increasing for

, 0
, .
2
2
2
2
0,
f ( x ) is strictly decreasing for ,
2
2

0
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
-0.2
-0.4
Page 24
1.5
For example:
1
g ( x) strictly increasing over the interval 0,
.
3
g ( x) strictly increasing over the interval

1.2, 0 0.577, 1.5
g ( x) is differentiable across all values of x within

its domain, except for at the end points and sharp
corner ( x 0 ). i.e. (1.2, 1.5) \{0} .
IMPORTANT NOTES
If asked to find the value of x for which f (x ) changes from strictly increasing to strictly
decreasing or visa versa find the coordinates of the stationary point(s), cusps or
sharp corners.
To prove that a function is strictly increasing: Show that gradient is positive

between the upper and lower values of x : Let f '( x ) 0 .
To prove that function is strictly decreasing: Show that gradient is negative
between the upper and lower values of x : Let f '( x ) 0 .
Note: The gradient of a function is undefined at the endpoints of an interval.
If a function is strictly increasing, then it is a one-to-one function and has an inverse

function that is also strictly increasing.
If a function is strictly decreasing, then it is a one-to-one function and has an inverse

function that is also strictly decreasing.
If a function with rule y f ( x ) is strictly increasing over an interval then the function
with rule y f ( x ) will be strictly decreasing on the same interval.
Page 25
WATCHOUTS
Functions need to be continuous across ( a, b) in order to be able to classify the interval

as increasing or decreasing.
A function DOES NOT need to be differentiable at a point in order to be included in an

interval describing strictly increasing or decreasing functions.
i.e. Endpoints and stationary points can be included in intervals describing strictly
increasing and decreasing functions as long as they are defined at these points.
A single point cannot be classified as strictly increasing or decreasing.
The same point can be included in the domains being used to describe both strictly
increasing and decreasing functions. This is because the concept of increasing and
decreasing functions are associated with intervals, not particular values of x .
For example:
The below function is both strictly increasing and decreasing across x 0 .
x=0
Regarding gradients:
Watch inequalities at all times. For example, the gradient in the graph
above is negative for x 0 NOT x 0 as the gradient at x 0 is zero!!!
Page 26

Math Methods Reference Materials 2014

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COMPLIMENTARY MATHEMATICAL

METHODS REFERENCE MATERIALS

CONDITIONS FOR THE

If the function f x is continuous at x a .

lim f x exists and is equal to 4 .

A limit will not exist at x a if:

There is discontinuity across an interval and x a lies within this interval.

A limit does not exist

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A limit does not exist

Reference Materials Maths Methods Differentiation

EVALUATING LIMITS GRAPHICALLY

As x approaches 1 from below

As x approaches 1 from above

As x approaches 1 from above,

As x approaches 1 from below,

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Reference Materials Maths Methods Differentiation

EVALUATING LIMITS ALGEBRAICALLY

For example: lim

For Example: lim

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Reference Materials Maths Methods Differentiation

The limit of a constant is equal to the value of the constant:

For Example: lim 5 5

lim f x g x lim f x lim g x

For Example: lim x 2 3 x 1 lim x 2 lim3 x lim1 4 6 1 3

lim f x .g x lim f x lim g x

For Example: lim x 2 1 4 x lim x 2 1 lim 4 x 0 4 0

A point does not need to exist in order for a limit to exist.

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Reference Materials Maths Methods Differentiation

Whenever you see the following words/phrase, automatically think of differentiation:

reads as the derivative of with respect to

DERIVATIVES FROM FIRST PRINCIPLES

Step 1: Write expressions for f (x) and f ( x h) .

To obtain f ( x h) from f (x) , replace x in the given equation with ( x h) .

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Reference Materials Maths Methods Differentiation

For example: Differentiate f x 1 2 x 3 using first principles.

into the equation.

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Reference Materials Maths Methods Differentiation

For example: If y 2 x 6 then

For example: Given y 5a then

(ax 2 ) (bx) (c) 2ax b

For example: Given y x 2 5 x 6 then

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Reference Materials Maths Methods Differentiation

SUMMARY OF DIFFERENTIATION TECHNIQUES

If the expression is a composite

Rewrite expressions as a series of terms

Expand simple products.

Apply index laws.

Express surds as rational powers.

Factorise and simplify.

Rewrite terms over individual

Given an expression/equation consisting of two separate functions in terms of x

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Reference Materials Maths Methods Differentiation

FINDING DERIVATIVES METHOD

Rewrite all terms as powers on x .

Bring terms involving x in the denominator (bottom of a fraction) to the top, by

For example: Given y 2 x