ADSL Statistcis

Line Attenuation:
<20dB
20dB-30dB
30dB-40dB
40dB-50dB
50dB-60dB
60dB>

Outstanding
Excellent
Very Good
Good
Poor and May Experience Connectivity Issues
Bad and Will Experience Connectivity Issues

SNR:
<6dB
7dB-10dB
11db-20dB
20dB-28dB
29dB>

- Bad and will experience no synch or intermittent synch problems

- Fair but does not leave much room for variances in conditions
- Good with not syncs problems
- Excellent
- Outsanding

xDSL Broadband Data - Error Correction

Error Detection and Correction

Our modems are responsible for Error Detection and Correction, which can have several different
states

No errors detected

Error detected which requires retransmission. (eg CRC)

Decoder detects and corrects bit errors. (eg FEC)

Decoder detects an error but is unable to correct it.

Decoder detects no errors even though an error may be present.

If no errors are detected then data can be processed and passed on to our computers, elsewise the
modem decides which action to take depending on whether or not the data can be recovered.

~ Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ)

A function that allows your modem to detect flawed data and request that it be retransmitted.
ARQ is a networking protocol responsible for error detection and relies on each data packet being
acknowledged by the receiver. If an error is found, ARQ will automatically request that the data packet
is resent.

~ Error Correction Methods

DSL Broadband utilises error correction at different levels:

Convolutional Coding. - Performed on each symbol in the data stream of non-fixed length,
by adding redundant bits to the code. A highly efficient form of encoding data and used in
telecoms (mobile phones, satellite, voice modems), digital radio and bluetooth to aid
performance.
Convolutional coding is efficient at correcting random or white noise errors with little
overhead, but doesn't fair well if a longer noise burst disrupts the sequence making the path
impossible to recreate. (See Trellis Coded Modulation)

Block Coding - Performed on blocks of data packets of fixed sizes. An algorithm is used to
produce a code word from the original data. Commonly used for storage devices such as CDs,
DVDs but also used in many digital communication methods such as WiFi, satellite, DSL
Block coding is better suited for burst errors as it utilises more parity bits, but the downside of
block coding is the redundancy increases bandwidth and delay. (See Reed Solomon encoding)

Both of these methods work independently but can be combined so that any burst type errors not
corrected by convolutional coding may be caught by the block coding method.
Concatenating these two different coding methods gives a high degree of correction. It's usual for the
convolutional code such as TCM to be the "Inner code" whilst a block code such as RS is classed as
the "Outer Code".
Also applying Interleaving to the block code, in order to scatter the errors from noise bursts, gives near
optimum performance.

~ Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is a block code used for error detection only. CRC is when a special
checksum code is attached to each packet of data that is transmitted.
A very simplified example of a checksum would be:
Data Transmitted :

1, 3, 5, 7, 9

Checksum:

= 25

At the receiving end a decoder then performs the same calculation on the data in the packet and then
compares it to the transmitted CRC code. The outcome will be one of the following options:

Checksum match - indicating no errors - Decoder produces the output data for transmission.

Checksum mis-match - indicating error - Decoder signals an erasure (loss of data) and a
higher level ARQ then re-requests the data. Modem records a CRC Error.

More sophisticated CRC codes (eg HEC) can correct some number of errors. Only if the number of
errors exceeds the codes correction ability will it signal a CRC erasure.

~ Header Error Control (HEC)

A CRC type of algorithm used for checking and correcting an error in an ATM cell header. HEC has
single bit error correction and multiple bit error detection capabilities. ATM equipment checks for an
error and if possible will correct it.
A simplified example would be
Transmitted

Received

Data

1, 3, 5, 7

Data

1, ?, 5, 7

Checksum code :

= 25

Checksum code:

= 25

Using the code, the missing item can be calculated.

Multiple bit errors are discarded and re-requested.

~ Forward Error Correction (FEC)

FEC sends additional redundant data which can be used by the decoder to check for errors and correct
data without the need for retransmission. Reed Solomon (RS) coding is commonly used in Forward
Error Correction and typically incurs an overhead of circa 8%.
Forward Error Correction is often used in conjunction with interleaving to help stabilise adsl lines, but
the redundant data will obviously carry an overhead. There are two ways of dealing with the
overhead:1. Reducing payload capacity. (Less useful data per transmission).
2. Transmission of the redundant data in specially assigned channels. (Out of Band)
ADSL uses out-of-band signals to carry redundant data for FEC whereby certain sub-channels are
specifically assigned to carry the overhead data. These sub-channels are not available for transmission
of normal data and used purely for FEC overheads. Assigning sub-channels as out-of-band has the
effect of reducing the maximum sync speed available for normal data transmission.

~ Reed Solomon (RS) Coding

Reed Solomon encoding is a form of block (or algebraic) coding. Depending on the algorithm used the
encoder at the sending end inserts "x" number of parity bits into the payload data.
This new output is called a codeword, and its length is the the original data plus the check symbols
after it has been encoded.
Different levels of redundancy can be applied. Obviously the more check bits that are used gives
higher chance of data recovery, but will cause a higher increase in latency. Some routers will show the
level applied by the DLM. eg
R (number of check bytes in RS code word) 16 16
R (number of check bytes in RS code word) 12 8
When data is received at the other end the decoder then converts back to the original data, and if
necessary using the additional redundancy to recover any data that may have been corrupted.

~ Trellis Coded Modulation (TCM)

TCM is a type of convolutional code which utilises parity bits on each symbol within a continuous
data stream. Its also a highly efficient form of modulation for data which is to be transferred over such
mediums as the telephone line.
Trellis encoding works well for general background type noise. It has negligible data overheads for
redundancy and instead uses complex constellations for mapping of the data path. The advantage is a
higher data rate than with block encoding but it relies on the modem chipset to undertake more
complex calculations and therefore a faster processor is required to avoid latency.
Whilst Trellis encoding may cause a tiny amount of buffering during the encoding and decoding stage
it should be negligible on most decent modems and not cause any noticeable latency. The end result
should be low error rates for environments experiencing low level repetitive noise as it detects patterns
from noise sources and is able to correct these.
The net coding gain for TCM is said to be circa 3dB in most environments, although it must also be
said it does not offer any advantage if the line is completely noise free. It should work best on longer
lines which are more likely to pick up background noise from the environment.

~ How does Trellis Coding work?

So called because of the "trellis" like structure in which the data is encoded, data can only follow one
of 2 paths in a branch like (or garden trellis type) structure. If one bit is corrupted then using this
technique its possible to recalculate the missing bit of data based on the data either side of the
corrupted data.

If the data received had an error then the path through the trellis would be broken, but could be
recalculated from the preceding and following data.
For example if data sent was 1,3,5,7,9 and the far end received 1,3,?,7,9 then the far end would be able
to calculate the missing number based on a parity check of the numbers on either side of the missing
number.
Below is a simple diagram showing Trellis Coded Modulation
Blue arrows show possible paths through the
"trellis" from any one point to the next. Each
point can only go 1 of 2 ways which will be
encoded as 0 or 1.
Red lines show a sample path through the trellis.
Incoming data symbols are shown at the top and
underneath the converted code for transmission.
Its important to note that the converted transmit
data (with the double bits) record a distinct path
through the trellis.
This bit stream does NOT directly relate to the
original data bits ***** which is later decoded
back into the original format,
* In reality the code is much more complicated and can be multi-dimensional constellations which
allows more data to be remapped.

~ Glossary
ATM - Asynchronous Transfer Mode - Protocol used to transport data - See ATM
BER - Bit Error Rate - Ratio of Errored bits to Transmitted bits. BERT = Bit Error Rate Test
Code Rate - Ratio of data bits to the total bits transmitted in the code word.
Code Redundancy - Ratio of the redundant bits to data bits.
Coding Gain - Measurement of efficiency of the coded signal over an un-encoded signal.