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METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9
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Mechanical Properties
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Introduction
Apply a stress to a metal and it will deform. Mechanical properties characterize how a
metal will react to an applied stress. The deformation that occurs may either be
temporary, that is, it will disappear if the stress is removed, or it may be permanent. For
example, suppose we place a small, metal rod into a load frame and apply a tensile
load. The rod will begin to stretch or increase in length. The volume of material cannot
change hence as the rod becomes longer, its diameter must become smaller. Up to a
certain point of loading the dimensional changes that occur will be completely
reversible. The rod will return back to its original diameter and length if the load is
removed. This is known as elastic behavior. If we continue loading beyond this point,
some permanent deformation will occur. The rod will still contract slightly in length and
increase in diameter if the load is removed, but will not it return all the way to its original
dimensions. It has become permanently deformed. This is known as plastic behavior.
There are many tests available for characterizing the mechanical properties of metals.
In this module we will address the tensile test, impact testing, hardness testing, and
fracture toughness testing.
The Tensile Test

The tensile test is one means of characterizing a metals mechanical properties in terms
of strength and ductility when a tensile load is applied. All of the ARGUS material
specifications reference ASTM A370 for the mechanical testing. ASTM A370, in turn,
invokes ASTM E8 for tensile testing.
A typical tensile tester consists of a load frame, a movable crosshead, and a pair of
specimen grips: one fixed and one attached to the movable crosshead. The movable
crosshead can move up and down and is actuated by a hydraulic or electromechanical
mechanism. The test specimen is placed in the grips and a device called an
extensometer is attached to the specimen. The test specimen will be put in tension (or
stretched) as the movable crosshead moves away from the fixed grips. The test
specimen will elongate and eventually break as the load continues to increase. The test
is finished after the test specimen has fractured in two. The speed that the movable
crosshead travels is a critical test parameter and is controlled by ASTM. It may vary
during different stages of the test.
The load frames used in tensile testing come in many sizes depending on the size and
strength of the material that they are designed to test. Those for testing standard size
steel specimens as well as full size parts will be large and robust as shown in Figure 1.
A medium duty frame is shown in Figures 2. Metals arent the only things that are
tensile tested. A light duty frame may be used to test the tensile properties of fabrics,

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plastics, and elastomers. These materials are often tested in a table top model of
tensile tester as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 1: Heavy Duty Load Frame (Photo Courtesy of Ron Richter, Houston
Metallurgy Laboratory, Inc.)
Figure 2: Medium Duty Load Frame ( Photo Courtesy of Ron Richter, Houston

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Figure 3: Light Duty Load Frame (Photo Courtesy of Ron Richter, Houston
There are two basic measurements made during a tensile test: the load that the test
specimen is subject to at any given moment of time, and the corresponding elongation
or displacement (stretching) of the test specimen. The load is continuously measured
by a load cell attached to the fixed grip in the tensile tester, while the elongation is
measured by the extensometer that was clipped on the test specimen (see Figure 4 for
an example). The extensometer sends out an electrical signal proportional to the
amount of movement that occurs between its two arms that are in contact with the test
specimen. The outputs from the load cell and extensometer are digitally recorded on
modern test machines and may also be recorded on an X-Y plotter. The extensometer
is removed before the specimen fractures to prevent it from being damaged.
There are many types of tensile test specimens. The two basic types for steel products
are round and flat specimens (see Figure 5). Both come in a number of standard sizes
as prescribed by ASTM. There are many ways to affix the ends of a tensile specimen in
the load frame so ASTM does not cover the configuration of the ends of the test
specimens. Test specimens may have threaded ends, button head ends, etc. A round
specimen will be turned so that it has a reduced cross section in the middle section of
the specimen. The purpose of this is to ensure that fracture occurs in the approximate
middle of the test specimen and not in the gripped ends. This reduced cross section is
called the gage diameter. ASTM specifies a nominal gage diameter of 0.500 for a full

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size round specimen. ASTM also prescribes the minimum length of this reduced
section. Flat tensile test specimens are typically used for flat, rolled products or for thin
wall pipe. The ends of a flat specimen are considerably wider than the center section
giving them a dumbbell shape (flat specimens are often referred to as dog bone
specimens because of their shape). The thickness of the flat specimen is usually the
thickness of the flat product or the wall thickness of the pipe from which it was removed.
Figure 4: Example of a Contact Extensometer
Figure 5: Tensile Test Specimens (From Wikipedia,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_testing)

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After the test specimen (either round or flat) has been machined, the reduced section of
the specimen is marked with a steel punch that leaves two small indentations. The
distance between the two points is called the gage length. It is an arbitrary distance
specified by ASTM that serves as a reference in our calculations and interpretations of
the test results. A gage length for a full size round specimen is 2 while that of a full size
flat specimen is 8.
The values of load versus elongation obtained during the test are used to develop an
engineering stress-strain curve. The load - elongation curve and the engineering stressstrain curve have the same shape and differ only in units. A typical engineering stress
strain curve for a ductile steel is shown in Figure 6. Engineering stress is defined as
the load at any given point in time divided by the original cross sectional area of the test
specimens gage diameter section. It has units of pounds force per square inch or psi.
Strain is the amount of elongation that occurs per unit of length at any given moment of
time. It is expressed as a percentage or in inches/inch. A lot of useful information can
be obtained from an engineering stress-strain curve. Well examine the key points.
Figure 6: Engineering Stress-Strain Curve Typical For A Ductile Steel

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Proportional Limit (Point A) The initial portion of the curve is a straight line hence
stress is proportional to strain from the start of the test at point O to point A. If the stress
is divided by the corresponding value of strain anywhere along this segment, youll get a
constant known as Youngs modulus or the modulus of elasticity. The higher this
constant is, the more rigid the material. The curve starts to deviate from linearity at
Point A. This marks the proportional limit where stress is no longer proportional to
strain.
Elastic Limit (Just Beyond Point A) - The elastic limit denotes the end of elastic
behavior and the onset of plastic behavior. Up to the elastic limit, if the load is removed,
the test specimen will return back to its original size and shape. If, however, the load is
increased beyond the elastic limit and then removed, the test specimen may contract
slightly, but will not return to its original size and shape. It has become permanently
(plastically) deformed. The elastic limit cannot be precisely determined from an
engineering stress-strain curve, but for most steels it lies just beyond the proportional
limit (Point A).
Offset Yield Strength (Point B) The yield strength of a metal is the maximum stress
that metal can withstand before the onset of plastic or permanent deformation. Some
metals such as carbon steels will have an abrupt change in the engineering stressstrain curve that marks the change from elastic to plastic behavior, but for ductile
metals such as quenched and tempered, low alloy steels the exact point for the
transition is not readily discernible. ASTM developed the concept of offset yield strength
to get around this difficulty. It allows a standardized approach to deriving the yield
strength from a stress-strain curve. Most ARGUS material specifications specify that a
0.2% offset yield strength be reported in accordance with ASTM E8. This is derived
from the engineering stress-strain curve by drawing a line parallel to the initial, straight
portion of the curve and passing through 0.2% strain (Point X) on the X-axis. The point
where this line intersects the stress-strain curve is called the 0.2% offset yield strength
(Point B in Figure 6). Not all standards use 0.2% offset (some pipe standards use 0.5%
for example). Obviously the amount of offset will cause the reported yield strength to
vary so it is very important that it be specified in standards and reported as part of the
test results.
Extension Under Load Yield Strength (Point C) - Extension under load or EUL is
another method for determining the yield strength from an engineering stress-strain
curve. To find the specified EUL yield strength, a vertical line is drawn through the
specified strain on the X-axis and the EUL yield strength is found where this vertical line
intersects the stress-strain curve. For example, a specification may require that a
material have a minimum 0.8% EUL yield strength of 80ksi. To find the 0.8% EUL yield
strength value, draw a vertical line through 0.8% strain on the X-axis (Point Y in Figure
6) and. Where this vertical line intersects the stress-strain curve is the 0.8% EUL yield
strength (Point C in Figure 6). The yield strength is read off the Y axis and must be at
least 80ksi.

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Curve Segment C to D - Plastic deformation is uniform along this part of the curve. The
diameter along the gage length will uniformly contract as the specimen elongates (the
volume must remain the same!).
Ultimate Tensile Strength (Point D) - The ultimate tensile strength or just tensile
strength is the highest point on the engineering stress-strain curve. It defines the
highest load or stress that the metal can withstand before breaking.
Curve Segment D to Fracture The load necessary to cause a given amount of strain
begins to lessen after the tensile strength of the metal has been reached because the
test specimen no longer has uniform deformation. There will some point along the gage
length where localized deformation will be much greater than other points due to
inhomogeneities of the cross-sectional area or the local work-hardening rate. This
causes an abrupt change in diameter (see Figure 7) referred to as necking. As the
specimen necks down in diameter, the curve will begin to drop. Necking will continue
until fracture occurs and the specimen breaks into two halves.
Figure 7: Necking In A Tensile Specimen
After the test is completed, we will have to take some measurements from the broken
test specimen. The size and shape of the specimen have changed during the test. If the
broken halves are fitted together, well see that the overall length has increased while
the diameter of the gage length section has decreased especially in that portion where
necking occurred. The distance between the punch marks used to denote the gage

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length has become greater. The percent increase in gage length that occurs during the
test is called percent elongation. It is found using the following formula:
%El = L final L original X 100%
L original
Where %El = percent elongation

L = distance between gage
length punch marks
It is apparent from the formula why it is important to specify the desired gage length in a
material specification as well as when reporting the percent elongation results. The
original gage length is the reference distance against which we will compare the final
distance between the punch marks. The calculated value of %El for a given specimen
after testing will vary depending upon the original gage length.
The test specimen volume doesnt change during the test. Material is rearranged, but
none is lost. If the length of the specimen elongates, then the diameter must contract.
The percent decrease in cross sectional area that occurs when the initial gage diameter
is reduced to the smallest diameter at the point of fracture is called percent reduction of
area. It is found by the following formula:
%RA = A final A original X100%
A original
where %RA = percent reduction of area

A = area based upon
the gage diameter
Note that the reduction of area cannot be calculated for flat tensile test specimens
because of their rectangular cross sections.
Ductility is the metals ability to undergo plastic deformation under a tensile load without
cracking or fracturing. Minimum values of elongation and reduction of area are
prescribed in material specifications to insure adequate ductility. The greater the
ductility, the harder it will be for a crack to initiate and grow. Even though the average
bulk stresses on a metal part may be well below its yield strength, localized stresses at
a stress riser such as a notch or a machine mark may easily exceed its yield strength.
This can lead to rapid crack initiation and growth and result in brittle fracture. A ductile
metal, on the other hand, will be able to plastically deform without cracking thus
redistributing and lowering the stresses at the stress riser to below the yield strength. As
a metals yield and tensile strengths increase, the percent elongation and reduction of
area go down. Maximizing strength will minimize ductility and vice versa. Compromises
must always be made. Microcleanliness has an important influence on a metals
ductility: the cleaner the steel, the better its ductility. Small inclusion act as stress risers
that can initiate microcracking.

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The yield and ultimate tensile strength of a metal both will vary by test temperature
(decreasing as temperature increases). Material specifications for parts destined for
high temperature service will frequently specify that elevated temperature tensile tests
be run. To run a high temperature test, a longer than normal test specimen may be
used (still with a standard gage length). The specimen is placed in the grips of the
tensile tester and a small, electric clamshell furnace is placed around it. When the
specimen reaches the test temperature, the clamshell furnace is removed, an
extensometer clipped on the specimen, and then the test started. High temperature
tensile testing requires special equipment and not all labs can do it. These issues can
be avoided by using a material specification that requires only a room temperature
tensile test, but imposes a higher minimum yield strength than that required at room
temperature to allow for the drop that will occur at service temperatures.
As a given steel is heat treated to higher strength levels, the yield strength will begin to
approach the value of the ultimate tensile strength. The yield must not be allowed to
become too close to the ultimate tensile strength or else there will be little room for
plastic deformation to occur to redistribute stresses at stress risers and prevent rapid,
brittle fracture. Many high strength steel specifications will specify a maximum yield
strength/ultimate tensile strength ratio (often 0.9 or so) to insure that some plastic
deformation can occur before fracture.
The orientation of a tensile specimen in forged material is not particularly important
unless the material has poor hardenability. Transverse or longitudinal specimens should
have approximately the same strength levels, although % elongation and reduction of
area may be slightly lower in a transverse specimen. Most specifications allow either
orientation as convenient. Only one test is typically run, but occasionally several tests
may be required if a part has several different critical areas that need to be examined.
Tensile testing pipe presents several special problems. Heavy wall pipe may not have
uniform tensile properties throughout its wall. Heavy wall, seamless pipe, for example,
will typically have better properties near the OD than the ID because the OD gets a
more effective quench during heat treating. A dog bone (flat) specimen may give results
that are more representative of the overall properties of the pipe than a round specimen
in this case. The dog bone specimen encompasses the entire wall thickness of the
pipe. A round specimen may have a gage diameter much smaller than the pipe wall
section so results may vary depending on where the specimen is removed. Pipe made
from rolled and welded plate should have very uniform properties throughout the wall.
Some pipe specifications require that tensile specimens be taken in a circumferential
orientation (transverse to the longitudinal axis of the pipe). Usually either a round tensile
specimen or a full cross section, dog bone specimen is permitted. A dog bone
specimen blank removed in a transverse orientation from a large pipe will obviously
have to be flattened to get rid of the curvature before tensile testing. Flattening the

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specimen prior to testing will induce some new, plastic strains that may alter the
resulting yield strength during the tensile test. This is known as the Bauschinger effect.
As a result of the Bauschinger effect, metal plastically deformed will see an increase in
yield strength in the direction of plastic flow, but a reduction in yield strength in other
directions. A transverse tensile blank removed from a large diameter pipe will be curved
somewhat like a banana. The OD surface will be strained in compression and the ID in
tension during the flattening process. The final strain pattern in the flattened metal will
be very complex. The magnitude and orientation of the imparted strains is highly
dependent on how the flattening process is done. In most cases there will be a
decrease (up to 10% or so!) in the yield strength of the flattened tensile specimen in
comparison to the actual yield strength of the pipe. The Bauschinger effect can be
minimized by flattening in small increments along the length of the tensile blank rather
than flatten the entire specimen all between two platens. Pipe mills are thoroughly
familiar with this effect, but some commercial labs are not. If you ever have to retest
pipe at a commercial lab using transverse specimens and the yield strength results vary
significantly from what the mill reported on the MTR, then check on how the lab
flattened the specimen. You can have the lab run a longitudinal specimen for
comparison. The longitudinal specimen does not require flattening. The yield strengths
in both orientations should be approximately the same.
The use of turned (round), transverse tensile specimens avoids the problem of
flattening and the Bauschinger effect, but now another problem arises. In a heavy wall,
seamless pipe, the gage section of the turned specimen will be closest (tangent) to the
ID surface while the ends of the specimen will be nearer the OD due to geometry
constraints. The material near the ID surface often has the poorest properties. The
advantage of a dog bone when the tensile specimen must be taken in a transverse
orientation is that it can be full section size and thus take advantage of the stronger
material on the OD.
The Impact Test

The purpose of a Charpy V-notch impact test is to determine the notch toughness of a
metal. Notch toughness is the energy it takes to initiate and propagate a crack in a
prescribed metal specimen that contains a stress riser in the form of a notch. The notch
toughness of a metal varies with strength level, microstructure, test specimen
configuration, orientation of the test specimen to the direction of greatest hot working in
the metal, and testing parameters. Toughness is an important property in a metal
because the higher a metals toughness, the harder it is for a crack to initiate and grow,
and the less likely the metal will fail by rapid, brittle fracture. There are many standards
for Charpy impact testing. ARGUS material specifications invoke ASTM A370 for
mechanical testing. ASTM A370 in turn references ASTM E23 for impact testing.

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A standard ASTM E23 Charpy V-notch impact specimen is illustrated in Figure 8. The
V refers to the shape of the small notch that is milled or broached into one side of the
specimen. The root of the notch acts as a stress riser where a crack will initiate during
the test. Specimen preparation must be done with care in order to obtain accurate and
consistent test results. The notch dimensions and tolerances are tightly controlled by
ASTM. Any small machining mark or variation in the radius at the notch tip can
significantly change results. Notches should always be checked on an optical
comparator or using a gage to insure that they have the exact radius. If the part to be
impact tested is too small to obtain a full size Charpy specimen (such as a thin wall
pipe), then ASTM allows the next smaller subsize specimen to be used instead. A
subsize specimen will be thinner (less material under the notch) than a standard size
specimen. A reduction factor must be applied to the acceptance criteria specified for a
full size specimen. Most material specifications require a minimum of three specimens
be tested and the results averaged due to the inherent scatter of the test. Often a
minimum average is specified with a stipulation that no single value be below a certain
minimum.
Figure 8: Standard SizeASTM Charpy V-Notch Test Specimen Dimensions (mm)
A typical impact tester consists of a rigid base and column securely bolted to the floor, a
free swinging pendulum arm, and a cradle or anvil at the bottom to hold the test
specimen (see Figure 9). The arm is weighted and has a vertical striking edge on the
free swinging end. The arm is raised to the upright position where it latched in place
and the dial indicator on top of the column is zeroed. The specimen to be tested is
placed in a cradle (also called an anvil) at the bottom of the tester such that the cradle
supports just the ends of the test specimen and allows the striking edge of the arm to
freely pass through. The test specimen is held in the horizontal position, perpendicular
to the arc of the swinging pendulum. The side of the specimen with the V-notch is
placed directly opposite the side that will be struck by the pendulum (see Figure 10).
Once the specimen is properly positioned, the pendulum arm will be released by
tripping the latch. The arm will swing down and strike the specimen. The amount of
energy absorbed by the test specimen is read off the dial indicator on top of the column.

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At the start of the test, the pendulum arm is fully raised and locked into position thus it
has potential energy due to its weight and height, but no kinetic energy. When the latch
is released, the pendulum swings down and the potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy. At the bottom of its path, all of the potential energy has been converted
to kinetic energy. If we allow the pendulum to freely swing (i.e. there is no test specimen
in the cradle), the pendulum will begin to swing back upwards on the opposite side now
converting kinetic energy back into potential energy. The pendulum will swing back up
to its original height (ignoring minor energy losses due to friction of the bearing). The
dial indicator will show 0 there is no energy loss.
Figure 9: Impact Tester (From the National Institute for Standards and Testing)

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Figure 10: Orientation of Notch

Now lets see what happens when a test specimen is in the cradle. After the latch is
tripped, the pendulum arm swings down and strikes the specimen on the side opposite
of the notch and breaks it in two. The pendulum will continue its swing after breaking
the specimen and will start to rise on the other side, but this time its final height will be
lower than its release height. Some of the kinetic energy that the pendulum had at the
bottom of its swing was absorbed by the test specimen as it fractured so theres now
less kinetic energy to convert back into potential energy. The pendulum is always
released from the same height at the start of the test so will always strike the test
specimen with same kinetic energy. The difference between the release height and the
final height multiplied by the weight of the pendulums striking head will give the amount
of energy lost or absorbed by the test specimen. The energy loss is read directly from
the dial indicator on top of the column. It is usually reported in ft-lbs (or joules in metric).
A tough metal will absorb more energy than a brittle metal when impact tested. The
term impact strength is occasionally seen in specifications, but this is incorrect toughness is measured in terms of energy and not a stress. Toughness of a particular
steel bar varies with orientation of the test specimen, test temperature, the strength of
the material, and the microstructure. The toughness of a wrought material such as
rolled or forged bar will vary with how the test specimen is oriented to the direction of
greatest hot work. For a bar, the direction of greatest hot work is always along the
longitudinal axis of the bar. The grains of metal will elongate and align themselves in
the direction of greatest hot work. A longitudinal impact test specimen will be removed
from a bar such that its longitudinal axis is parallel to the axis of the bar the direction
of greatest hot work. The notch in the test specimen will then be perpendicular to the
bar axis. This will produce the highest toughness because a propagating crack will have
to traverse a greater number of grain boundaries in this orientation. Grain boundaries
help to strengthen and toughen the material. A transverse impact test specimen is
taken with its longitudinal axis perpendicular to the bar axis (that is, in a radial or
circumferential direction). A propagating crack will have fewer grain boundaries grain
boundaries to cross in a transverse specimen consequently the toughness will be lower.
A material specification requiring impact testing must always specify the orientation of
the test specimens. Typically the acceptance criteria for longitudinal specimens will be
higher than that for transverse specimens.
If a material specification calls for a certain minimum impact value when testing is done
in the longitudinal orientation, it is generally acceptable to accept transverse results as
long as they meet the specified criteria because the transverse orientation is a worst
case. If a material specification calls for a certain minimum impact value in the
transverse orientation, you cannot accept longitudinal results regardless of their values.
ASTM E1823 gives the nomenclature for specifying the orientation of test specimens.
Orientation is specified by a two letter code. The first letter gives the orientation of the
longitudinal axis of the test specimen in relation to the direction of greatest working. The

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second letter gives the direction that the crack initiating at the V-notch root will
propagate in. The nomenclature for a rolled bar is illustrated in Figure 11. Nomenclature
may vary with other product forms.
R - Radial
L Longitudinal
C - Circumferential
Note: If the disk shown is off a bar,

then C-R, R-C, C-L, and R-L would
all be considered transverse impact
specimens.
Figure 11: Orientation Nomenclature for Rolled Bar (From ASTM E1823)
The impact toughness of many metals, especially ferritic metals such as quenched and
tempered steels, may vary significantly with test temperature. Most API and other
design standards require that material be impact tested at or below the minimum design
temperature to insure adequate toughness. Test specimens are cooled down in a bath
(the bath may be water and/or acetone with ice or dry ice as needed, or liquid nitrogen,
chilling gas, etc.) until the specimen temperature stabilizes at the test temperature.
ASTM requires at least 5 minutes in the bath when liquids are used. A pair of tongs is
used to transport the specimen from the bath to the test cradle. The specimen handling
end of the tongs is kept in the bath with the specimens so it does not affect the
temperature of the specimen as it is removed from the bath. The test specimen is
removed from the bath using the tongs and immediately placed on the test anvil such
that the root of the V-notch is in the vertical position and the notch itself is opposite from
the direction that the pendulum will strike from. The latch holding the pendulum in place
is then released and the pendulum begins its swing. ASTM requires that the latch must
be released within 5 seconds after the specimen has been removed from the bath. The
toughness of the broken test specimen is read directly from the dial indicator or digital
readout.
The variation of a given metals toughness with temperature is often illustrated by a
Charpy impact transition curve. A transition curve is made by testing a large number of
specimens at different test temperatures and then plotting the results. A typical curve
for a quenched and tempered, low alloy steel will look like Figure 12. There are several
important things to note in Figure 12. First is that as the test temperature decreases
eventually a point is reached where the toughness bottoms out to a minimum value.
Decreasing the test temperature further will not alter the absorbed energy. This area of

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the curve is known as the lower shelf. Fracture is 100% brittle on the lower shelf a
worst case. Similarly there is a maximum toughness value that will be obtained with
increasing test temperature. This maximum is indicative of 100% ductile fracture a
best case. Once we have attained this maximum, increasing the test temperature even
further will not increase the absorbed energy. The portion of the curve where absorbed
energy is at a maximum is called the upper shelf. The area between the upper and
lower shelves is called the transition area. Note that a few degrees may make a big
difference in toughness within the transition area.
Because absorbed energy varies with temperature, material specifications that require
impact testing must specify a test temperature. The test temperature is always at or
below the minimum design or service temperature of the part being made from the
material. Depending on the material and/or application, some customers may specify a
test temperature equal to the minimum service temperature minus 10F or more just to
be conservative. From the shape of the curve in Figure 11, it can be seen that if the
absorbed energy at test temperature T o is equal to X ft-lbs, then the absorbed energy at
To + To (any higher temperature higher than T o) will also be equal to or exceed X ftlbs. Test temperatures are thus typically given as maximums. It is generally permissible
to test either at or lower than the specified temperature as long as the specified
acceptance criteria are met. It is never permissible to test at higher than the specified
test temperature. For example, if a spec requires 45ft-lbs minimum at 0oF, you could
accept a material cert that reports 50 ft-lbs at -50oF, but not one that has 215ft-lbs at
10oF.

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Figure 12: Charpy Impact Transition Curve

There are two other pieces of information we can obtain from an individual Charpy test
besides the absorbed energy: the percent ductile or fibrous fracture, and the lateral
expansion. These are determined from the broken test specimen after the test has
been run. The fracture surface of a broken Charpy specimen may appear shiny, dull, or
have areas of both. The shiny area is the result of brittle or cleavage fracture where little
energy is absorbed. A dull, sooty colored surface is indicative of a ductile or shear
failure where a lot of energy is absorbed. The percent of the surface that failed in a
ductile mode can quickly be estimated by comparing the broken end of the Charpy
specimen to a series of reference photographs in ASTM E23. Material specifications for
bars and forgings typically do not require a minimum value for the percent shear or
ductile fracture, although they may require it to be reported for information. Carbon
steel pipe specifications used in the natural gas transportation industry, however, often
require a specified minimum of 50% ductile fracture to insure a predominately ductile
failure mode.
When the striking edge of the pendulum hits the test specimen in the cradle, the side of
the impact specimen that is struck will flare out. The overall increase in the width of the
struck side of the specimen is called lateral expansion or LE. It can be quickly
measured by running the broken specimen halves along a gage with a dial indicator as
shown in Figure 13. It is typically reported in mils (thousandths of an inch). Lateral

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expansion is another measure of the ductility of a fracture. It is generally reported for

information only.
At one time API 6A had a minimum LE requirement of 15 mils for PSL 4 pressure
containing parts, but this requirement has been removed from the standard.
Figure 13: Lateral Expansion Gage
Figure 14 shows a series of Charpy v-notch impact specimens that progress from 100%
ductile fracture on the left side of the figure to 100% brittle fracture on the right side.
Note the sooty gray appearance as well as the large amount of plastic deformation
on the ductile fracture faces on the left side of the figure. The brittle fracture faces on
the right show little deformation. They have a shiny, granular appearance. The first two
sets of ductile specimens on the left clearly show the flaring that occurred on the side
opposite the notch, while the brittle specimens show no discernible flaring thus the
ductile specimens have a much greater lateral expansion.

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Figure 14: Broken CVN Impact Specimens Showing Lateral Expansion & Ductile
Fracture (Photo Courtesy of Ron Richter, Houston Metallurgy Laboratory, Inc.)
The absorbed energy of an impact specimen generally varies inversely with strength.
The higher the strength that a metal is heat treated to, the lower its impact energy will
be. Impact energy is also be a function of the microstructure of the metal. A small grain
size will result in higher toughness. A microstructure with more rounded features will
typically be tougher than a microstructure with coarse, sharp features that can act as
stress risers. Microcleanliness is an important parameter in determining the toughness
of a metal: the cleaner the steel, the better the toughness. Inclusions act as stress
risers where cracks can initiate.
The impact properties of a metal part large bar can vary significantly from surface to
mid-wall to center because of the changes in strength, microstructure, and grain size
due to the limits in hardenability of the alloy and variation in hot work. Material
specifications must thus specify exactly where test specimens are to be taken because
results will vary depending on location.
The impact test acceptance criteria given in a specification is a somewhat arbitrary
number. It is not an inherent material property like tensile or yield strength because it
varies with the size of the test specimen. Engineers do not design using an impact
value as they would with a tensile or yield strength. Very often the acceptance criteria
for a given material (such as in API 6A) is based upon a level of toughness found in
parts that have a good track record in service. What constitutes a tough metal? There
is no one answer to this because it depends on the metal and how it was processed. An
impact value of 15 ft-lbs at 0oF would be a very low toughness for 4140 low alloy steel
heat treated to 75ksi yield strength, yet it would be an outstanding value for 4140 heat
treated to 150ksi yield strength. A Stellite having an impact value 2 ft-lbs at 0oF would
have outstanding toughness. The acceptance criteria specified should reflect the
toughness needed for the part in service as well as what toughness would reflect proper
processing for a given metal heat treated to the required minimum strength. Because

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an impact value is highly dependent on the material being properly processed (sufficient
hot work, proper grain size, good microcleanliness, correct heat treatment, etc.), impact
testing is a very effective quality control tool for verifying correct processing. Many
specifications for CRAs (especially for duplex stainless steels and age hardenable
nickel based alloys such as 718) require impact values higher than those for low alloy
steels or higher than the minimum values specified by design standards such as API
6A. This insures that the CRAs are correctly processed.
Introduction to Hardness Testing

Hardness is a measure of a metals ability to resist penetration of its surface. The
surface hardness of a metal is an important factor in determining its resistance to wear,
abrasion, and galling. The hardness of a metal can be correlated to its strength if the
metals heat treat condition is known. The susceptibility of metals to stress corrosion
cracking in certain environments is often a function of the metals hardness. Hardness
testing is a powerful quality control tool to verify that a metal part was processed
correctly. Clearly a thorough understanding of hardness is important!
Tensile and impact testing are destructive tests. Test specimens are destroyed during
the test and are no longer of any use. We can destructively test a QTC (Qualification
Test Coupon) such as a prolongation on a production part, a sacrificial part, or a
separately forged test bar, but we cannot tensile or impact test an actual production
part without destroying its usefulness. Hardness, on the other hand, is a non-destructive
test. The hardness of a metal part can be determined without impairing its subsequent
usefulness. In comparison to other mechanical property tests, hardness testing is fast,
easy to perform, inexpensive, and non-destructive.
Hardness testing is often the only mechanical test performed on a production part. Only
one bar in a heat treat lot of 20 may have a prolongation cut off and be tensile and
Charpy V-notch impact tested. The prolongation is wasted material and testing is
expensive. It is assumed that the properties obtained are representative of the other
bars in the lot. How do we know this is a good assumption? All of the bars in the lot will
typically be hardness tested. If the resulting hardness values all fall within the allowable
hardness range specified in the applicable material specification, then it is assumed
that all the bars were correctly processed and have the necessary mechanical
properties similar to those reported for the sacrificial prolongation. Hardness testing of
production parts is for acceptance so it must be done correctly. A single hardness value
out of range can cause the rejection of a part worth thousands of dollars. We need to
have confidence that the surface preparation was done correctly, the indentation was
properly made, that the hardness value was accurately read, and that the resulting

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hardness is indeed a true reflection of the hardness of the part before rejecting or
accepting a part!
The person performing or evaluating a hardness test needs to have a basic
understanding of metallurgy in order to avoid pitfalls and errors. Lets review some of
the things we covered previously in the modules on Basic Metallurgy and Heat Treating
that pertain to hardness testing. Low alloy steels used in our products are typically
austenitized, quenched, and tempered. The austenitizing step consists of heating the
steel up to a high temperature (typically 1550-1650F) and holding it until it becomes
homogenized and develops a completely austenitic (FCC) crystal structure. The steel is
then immersed or quenched in a fluid to cool it as rapidly as possible without cracking it.
The austenite will transform into several possible products as it is cooled down
depending on the cooling rate. In order of increasing hardness, these transformation
products include ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite. Bainite and martensite will
only form if a critical cooling rate is exceeded during quenching. The as-quenched steel
is very strong and hard, but also very brittle. To restore some of the ductility and
toughness, it is tempered. The tempering temperature is selected to produce the
desired mechanical properties (typically somewhere between 900-1350F for low alloy
steels). This is well below the austenitizing range. The steel is held at the tempering
temperature until the desired properties are obtained. Tempering reduces the strength
and hardness, but will greatly improve ductility and toughness.
The hardness properties of a steel bar are dependent on its composition, the specific
heat treatment, and the size (cross section) of the part at the time of heat treatment.
The hardenability of a steel is a measure of how easy it is to attain a given hardness or
other mechanical properties at a specific location within its cross section during heat
treatment. Steel is essentially an alloy of iron and carbon. As the amount of carbon
increases, so does the strength and hardness of the steel for a given heat treatment.
4130. 4140, and 4145 are all members of the Cr-Mo low alloy steel family (the 41XX
series). They differ primarily in carbon content (the last two digits in the number
represent their nominal carbon content in hundredths of a per cent). Thus 4130 has a
nominal carbon content of 0.30%, 4140 has 0.40% nominal carbon, and 4145 has
0.45% nominal carbon. 4145 will have a higher as-quenched hardness than the 4130
because of the higher carbon content in 4145. Similarly, if one heat of 4130 has an
actual carbon content of 0.28% and another heat of 4130 has a 0.32% carbon content
and they are both heat treated together in the same furnace load, you would expect the
heat with 0.32% carbon to be stronger and harder after heat treatment.
The carbon content of a heat of steel is fixed once its melted and solidified, however,
the surface carbon content of a steel part can change during hot working or during
annealing or austenitizing through a process called decarburization. Carbon at the
surface of the steel can react with oxygen in the air to form carbon monoxide gas which
is then lost to the atmosphere. This leaves a carbon depleted zone on the surface of
the metal about 1/16 thick that will be much softer than the underlying metal. This

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decarb layer, as it is called, must be removed during surface preparation in order to

obtain an accurate bulk hardness. Steels have many different alloying elements added
for varying reasons. Elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, molybdenum,
vanadium, and columbium are added to increase the hardenability of the steel. These
elements make it easier to meet the required properties in heavy cross sections by
reducing the critical cooling rate necessary for bainite and martensite formation. The
higher the content of these alloying elements, the greater the hardenability of the steel
will be resulting better hardness uniformity.
The specific heat treat parameters obviously will have a profound effect on the
hardness of the steel. The as-quenched hardness is primarily a function of the
composition of the steel and how rapidly it is quenched. The hardness of the steel
following the temper is dependent on tempering time and temperature. The higher the
tempering temperature, the softer the metal will become. The longer the holding time at
a given tempering temperature, the softer the metal will become. The size at the time of
heat treatment affects the hardness of a low alloy steel part. There is a certain critical
rate that must be exceeded in order to get the desired change in crystal structure. The
faster part can be cooled after austenitizing, the higher the resulting hardness will be
and the greater the depth of hardening.
Consider a 1 diameter bar and a 12 diameter bar of 4130 low alloy steel. Well
austenitize both at 1625F, water quench, and then temper both at 1250F. If we then
take a transverse slice through the middle of each bar and make a hardness traverse
across a diameter, how will the hardnesses compare? The surface hardness of the 1
bar will be higher than that of the 12 bar because it cools more rapidly during the
quench. The second thing to notice is that the hardness throughout the cross section of
the1 bar is uniform, while there is a significant drop in hardness as you get below the
surface of the 12 bar. The reason for this behavior is obvious. The 1 bar can be
cooled much more rapidly during the water quench than the 12 bar.
The 1 bar in our example has uniform properties throughout its cross section because
the surface and the center cool at approximately the same rate. This is not true for the
12 bar where the center will cool at a much slower rate than the surface. There may be
a point below the surface in the 12 bar where the cooling rate falls below the critical
rate and no hardening will occur. If we cant cool a large bar fast enough to get the
desired properties where we need them, we must either change the steel to another
grade with higher hardenability or we can preheat treat machine the bar. If we can
rough out the part to be made from the bar prior to heat treating, we may remove
enough material to significantly improve the cooling rate during quenching and hence
improve the properties. Often preheat treat machining a simple bore is sufficient.
The bottom line of this discussion is that the surface hardness of an autenitized,
quenched, and tempered low alloy steel will always be harder than the center hardness.
As you go below the surface, the cooling rate during quenching drops off and hardness

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will decrease until it reaches a minimum at the center. Steels always behave like this
its the nature of the beast. If your hardness values dont show this, then theres
something wrong with the way you are doing the surface preparation, your test set-up,
or how youre reading the results!
The surface hardness of metals may be increased mechanically through work
hardening, cold straightening, cold rolling, etc. All of these impart high residual stresses
in the metal that strengthen and harden the surface. The hardness of a work hardened
metal may be considerably higher than the bulk hardness developed during heat
treatment. The hardness increase due to work hardening can be removed by stress
relieving..
Hardness Acceptance Criteria

An inspector performing a hardness test on a part in the shop will evaluate the results
against the required hardness range in the applicable material specification. How were
the minimum and maximum values in the material spec established? A rough
correlation between a metals hardness and its tensile and yield strengths can be made
provided the heat treatment is known. The minimum acceptable value of the specified
hardness range is generally based upon the minimum specified yield strength of the
metal in the specified heat treated condition. In some cases a slightly higher hardness
value may be selected to be conservative. The maximum acceptable hardness of the
specified range can be based on several different parameters. It may be based on the
highest allowed strength level in the metal that still has adequate ductility and
toughness for a given application. As hardness increases in a metal with a given type of
heat treatment, strength increases, but toughness and ductility decrease. To get the
required ductility and toughness, the hardness and strength must have an upper limit.
Many metals are subject to stress corrosion cracking in certain environments if they
exceed a certain strength or hardness. Thus a maximum hardness may be based a
threshold hardness limit below which stress corrosion cracking in service will not occur.
A good example of this is 22 HRC hardness limit imposed by NACE MR0175/ISO
15156 for low alloy steels used in oilfield applications that may be exposed to H 2S.
The rough correlation between hardness and the tensile and yield strengths of a metal
only holds true if the metals heat treatment is known. What if you have a part no
pedigree? If the hardness falls within range can we assume that the tensile and yield
strength are also acceptable? No we cannot. For example, a 4 bar of normalized 4140
has a surface hardness around 241 HBW. The same bar can be austenitized,
quenched, and tempered to exactly the same surface hardness. The tensile strengths
in both bars will be approximately the same about 115 ksi. The yield strengths,
however, will be significantly different. The normalized yield strength will be

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approximately 70 ksi, while the austenitized, quenched, and tempered bar will have a
yield strength of approximately 100 ksi.
An acceptable surface hardness, depending on the grade of steel, does not necessarily
mean that the mechanical properties are acceptable throughout the entire cross section
of a part nor does it necessarily mean that the part was correctly processed. This is due
to the hardenability limitations of the alloy, the cooling rate limitations in the section size
being quenched, and the adequacy of the quench. You can have an acceptable surface
hardness, but an inch or two below the surface in a large bar may have a hardness well
below the minimum. The engineer that uses the bar must take this decrease in
properties into account or else change materials. Unless otherwise stated in the
material specification, hardness ranges apply only to the surface hardness readings.
Sometimes a hardness test may be specified at some point below the surface of a bar
in a location that may be a critical area in the finished part. If this is the case, a
transverse slab may be required off the bar. The slab can be ground flat and then
hardness tested along a diameter. An appropriate hardness range can then be given for
each specific location of interest (such as midradius or midwall). This may or may not
be the same range specified for surface hardness. An engineer may specify a higher or
more restrictive hardness range for raw material than for the finished part made from
that raw material to allow for the drop in hardness occurring after final machining or
welding and stress relieving.
Hardness Test Surface Preparation

Proper surface preparation is critical to obtaining a valid hardness test. Surface
preparation is necessary for a number of reasons. Ideally the surface to be tested
should be flat, clean, free from decarburization, and smooth. While it may be possible
to accurately hardness test a finished part on a machined surface with little or no
surface preparation, surface preparation will definitely be required on a raw materials
as-heat treated surface. All hardness test methods require good surface preparation,
but it is particularly important for those that have a small indenter footprint. These
produce results that are easily skewed by surface irregularities, decarb, etc.
Grinding is may be necessary to produce a flat surface on which to test. ASTM does
allow testing curved surfaces for some test methods depending on the radius of
curvature. A correction factor may have to be applied to the results - follow the
recommendations in the specific procedure. The size of the flat should be sufficient to
allow an indenter to make an impression perpendicular to the surface. The indentation
should be at least 2.5 X the indentation diameter away from an edge of the flat. The
proper depth of grinding depends on several factors. It should be deep enough to
develop a flat of the necessary surface area for the indentation. It must remove surface
irregularities. It should be deep enough to remove all oxides (scale). It should be deep
enough to completely remove a decarburized layer if present. The worst case for

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decarburization is on forged surfaces that have been batch heat treated. Here the
decarb layer may be 1/16 to as much as 1/8 thick. For continuously heat treated bar
and pipe, the decarb layer will be relatively thin. A 1/16 deep flat should be more than
sufficient to completely remove it. Finished machined parts or peeled bar will not have a
decarb layer. If in doubt about the depth of grinding, perform a test and then grind a
little more and then perform a second test. The second reading should be about the
same value or slightly less than the first. If its higher, the first was probably influenced
by a remaining decarb layer.
The grinding technique and equipment are important. Bearing down hard while grinding
can significantly work harden the metal and give a false, high hardness reading. This is
especially a problem with stainless steels and nickel base alloys. Its always good
practice to use a rotary flapper wheel (abrasive strips joined at one end on a spindle) to
make a flat or at least to make the final finish on a flat. This minimizes cold work and
produces a smooth surface by cutting action rather smearing the surface as a
conventional grinder would. Grinding should never be deeper than necessary. Deep
grinding increases the chance of work hardening. The hardness may vary significantly
from the surface to a point 1/8 below the surface just due to the limited hardenability of
the alloy in a heavy cross section. Grinding too deep on a thin wall product may
encroach upon the minimum wall thickness. Grind a 1/8 deep flat on a pipe that only
has a wall and you may scrap the pipe.
It is often necessary to prepare not only the surface being tested, but also the surface
directly on the opposite side when testing with certain hardness test methods. The
opposite surface should be clean, smooth, and parallel to the test surface. If the
opposite side is rough, greasy, has burs, is tapered, etc., some deflection or rocking of
the part can occur when the load is applied to the indenter leading to an error in the
hardness reading. Microhardness test methods require exacting surface preparation.
The test surface must be polished to a mirror finish. The surface will often be acid
etched to highlight the microstructure so different structures can be identified under a
microscope and the tested.
Number, Location, & Frequency of Testing

What is the hardness of a finished metal part? A simple question, but the answer may
be very complex! Parts may have different hardnesses in different areas due to
differences in section size at the time of heat treatment. The amount of material
removed in different areas of the part during final machining may vary. More than one
hardness test may be necessary in order to completely characterize the parts
hardness. Uniform products such as pipe and bar seldom require more than a single
hardness punch per piece. They have tight chemistry control, uniform hot work, uniform
cross sections, and tight heat treat controls so hardness should not vary significantly.

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Small parts heat treated in a lot may require only sample hardness testing. Large,
complex parts with varying cross sections may require multiple hardness tests. There
may be several critical areas that need to be checked. Subsurface hardness tests may
be required on prolongations to verify the adequacy of the heat treatment especially of
the quench.
The inspector must follow the hardness testing requirements in the applicable material
specification and the engineering bill-of-materials (BOM). Unless otherwise specified, a
single hardness test on each piece is required. Design standards such as API 6A often
specify the minimum number of hardness tests to be performed on each part. The
engineer setting up the BOM for the part must insure that the hardness testing
instructions meet these minimum requirements, but he is not limited to just this number
of tests. He can impose additional tests to better characterize the hardness of the parts.
It is very important for large parts that an adequate number of tests be performed.
There may be a large amount of scatter in the hardness of a large part one side may
be closer to a pump discharge during quenching for example. The precise locations
must be specified. An engineer may want each high stressed area tested. A metallurgist
may want the smallest and heaviest cross section tested. Customers frequently specify
the number and location of hardness tests that they want on their finished parts. It is
very important that raw material be checked in these locations so that there are no
surprises when the finished part is tested in front of the customer!
The engineer specifying the hardness testing locations on the BOM must take into
account the specified hardness test method. Some methods require access to both
sides of the part. Curved or skewed surfaces not perpendicular to the hardness tester
indenter may be impossible to test with the required method. Always consider the ease
of testing when specifying a location.
The inspector performing the hardness test has the option of doing more than required
punches if he feels it necessary to validate results. Retests may be allowed by some
specifications if an out-of-range value is obtained. Suspect readings should always be
followed by additional punches to validate the first reading. It is often a good idea to do
a preliminary hardness punch for information before doing the official punch for
acceptance. This insures that the surface preparation is adequate and that the part is
properly seated during the official test (doesnt rock or deflect while under load).
Hardness Tester Calibration

Every hardness testing machine that is used for acceptance testing must be under a
formal calibration program. This requires that the test machine be periodically checked
against one or more reference blocks of known hardness that are traceable to NIST
National Institute of Standards and Technology (formally called the Bureau of

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Standards). This calibration program is the responsibility of the Quality Manager. He

determines the frequency of this official calibration test taking into account the
requirements of any pertinent standards.
Hardness test machines can go out of calibration very quickly. This may be due to
abuse, wear, dirt, hydraulic leaks, etc. An up-to-date calibration sticker on a hardness
testing machine doesnt mean that it is still in calibration! The inspector that uses the
hardness test machine should perform a working calibration check at the start of each
shift in which the hardness test machine will be used or when indenters, loads, or
scales are changed. This check is done on working test blocks of known hardness that
bracket the expected hardness values of the parts to be tested. If the hardness values
arent right, dont use the machine! It may be time to have the machine serviced,
cleaned, or change out the indenter. This working check should be always be
documented in a log. If there is a problem, the number of parts that may have invalid
hardness test results can be limited to those tested since the last working calibration
check.
In some cases it may be prudent to do a calibration check on the part to be tested itself
in order to verify a proper set up before doing the official test. A test block can be
placed on the surface to be tested immediately under the indenter and then hardness
tested. If t the right value is obtained, then the set-up is acceptable. The test block can
then be removed and the official hardness test performed on the part. If an
unacceptable value is obtained on the test block, adjustments will have to be made. A
thin wall pipe may distort under a high load during hardness testing. Again a test block
can be placed directly on the part and tested to see if deflection occurs. Any time
multiple, unexpected hardness readings are obtained on a part, always check the test
machine out using a test block!
Survey of Hardness Test Methods

There are many types of hardness testers available. Most are indenter types: a known
load is applied to an indenter with fixed size and geometry. This forces the indenter into
the surface of the metal being tested. The size of the impression left in the surface after
the indenter is withdrawn gives an indication of the metals hardness. In this section we
will briefly look at the more common types of hardness testers used in the Oil Patch and
discuss their advantages and disadvantages. Any hardness test method can be used
for in-process hardness testing, but many standards (such as API 6A) restrict the test
methods allowed for acceptance testing of the end product to either Rockwell or Brinell
testing.
1. Brinell Hardness Testing

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Brinell hardness testing (see Figure 15) is covered in ASTM E10. A Brinell tester for
steels has an indenter with a 10mm diameter, tungsten carbide ball at the tip. The
applied load varies with the material being tested. A 3000kg load is used for steels. As
the load is applied, the ball is pushed into the surface of the part being tested. The load
is held for 12-15 seconds to insure all plastic (permanent) deformation occurring in the
metal under the indenter is complete. The load is then released and the indenter
retracted. A round indentation will remain on the part. The diameter of the indentation is
measured at two places at 90o to each other using a lower power, hand held magnifier
(called a Brinell scope) fitted with a measuring reticle, and the average diameter
calculated.
Figure 15: Brinell Hardness Testing (Photo Courtesy of Ron Richter, Houston
The Brinell hardness number is defined as the applied load divided by the surface area
of the indentation, or
HBW =
P /(D/2) [ D (D2 d2 ) 1/2 ]
Where HBW = Brinell Hardness Number

P = applied load in kg
D = diameter of ball indenter in mm
d = average surface diameter of indentation in mm

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The Brinell hardness number is readily found in published tables once the average
diameter of the indentation is calculated. When reporting the hardness, the letters HBW
must be added after the number. The HB means Hardness Brinell. The W means
that a tungsten carbide ball was utilized in making the indentation.
Brinell hardness testers come in many sizes. Some are bench models. Others are floor
standing models. The size of parts that can be tested in these machines is limited by
the throat size of the tester. A part is placed in the throat such that desired area to be
tested is directly under the indenter. This may not be practical for very large parts.
These can still be Brinell hardness tested using specially modified test equipment. The
indenter head and hydraulic actuator can be mounted on a large steel frame that spans
large parts (a bridge Brinell hardness tester). The part is placed under the bridge and
the test head lowered until it contacts the part. Alternatively the test head and actuator
can be mounted on an old radial arm drill press frame (or something similar). The arm
with the test head and actuator is positioned over the part to be tested. Both of these
types of Brinell testers are usually custom made.
Brinell testing has many advantages compared to other hardness test methods. It
produces a large indentation which gives a good average bulk hardness value. Metals
are not homogeneous on a microscopic level. There will always be hard areas and soft
constituents in the microstructure. These can skew the hardness results if an indenter
has a very small footprint. The large Brinell indentation makes it less sensitive to
minor surface irregularities that may influence small footprint indenters. Brinell testing
uses only one hardness scale that is suitable for all materials: from the very soft to the
very hard. A bad test is usually easily discernible by comparing the diameter
measurements. The two measurements should be nearly identical. If the indentation is
oval or egg-shaped, the surface being tested wasnt flat, the indenter is worn, or the
indenter wasnt perpendicular to the surface. And lastly, the Brinell indentation can be
read at any time even after the part has been removed from the tester. It is a
permanent record of the parts hardness.
The main disadvantage of Brinell testing is that the indentation must be carefully
measured. Measuring is typically done by the inspector using a Brinell scope containing
a measuring reticle capable of measuring to the nearest 0.05mm. Human error in
making this measurement is a major source of inaccurate hardness values and also for
the variations that can occur between different inspectors measuring the same
indentation. An optical scanner (see Figure 16) should always be used when available.
An optical scanner will automatically make and average multiple diameter readings,
evaluate the impression for roundness compliance as prescribed in ASTM E10, display
the Brinell hardness number, evaluate the hardness against specified limits, and store
the data all in a matter of a few seconds. It can measure to the nearest 0.01mm. An
optical scanner is a tremendous time saver and eliminates human error. It is a necessity

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for any shop doing a lot of Brinell testing and will pay for itself in saved labor costs and
preventing parts from being unnecessarily scrapped.
Some parts may not be able to be Brinell hardness tested because of their size,
geometry, etc. Thin wall parts may deflect under the large load and give a false high
hardness reading. Seal surfaces may not be able to tolerate the large indentation. It
can be difficult or very time consuming to position large parts so that the desired area
can be Brinell hardness tested. Brinell testing is totally unsuitable for testing small,
precise areas such as platings, heat affected zones of welds, case hardened layers,
etc.
Figure 16: Optical Scanner for Brinell Hardness Reading. Shown is the B.O.S.S.
(Brinell Optical Scanning System) PC Desk Top Model OS-100WX by Newage
Testing Instruments, Inc. ( Newage Testing Instruments, Inc., Used with
Permission).
The accuracy of Brinell testing is not as high as with some other hardness test
methods. A Brinell tester can measure hardnesses ranging from 67HBW to 945HBW.
The acceptance criteria given in most ARGUS material specifications have spread from
minimum to maximum hardness of 40 Brinell points or less. This is less than 5% of the
total range. Brinell testing machines have a precision of 7 points. The variation
between two inspectors manually measuring the same indentation can be as high as
10 points. Bottom line is that there can be a lot of variation in Brinell values even when
everything is done correctly.
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Rockwell hardness testing (see Figure 17) is covered in ASTM E18. A Rockwell
hardness tester may use several different combinations of indenter types and loads to
test materials depending on their hardness. A specific combination of indenter and load
constitutes a scale. The two scales most commonly used for steels are the B and C
scales. The C scale is used for testing the high end hardnesses while the B scale is
used for softer steels. The C scale uses a Brale indenter an indenter made out of a
diamond ground into a 120o cone with a spherical apex having a 0.2mm radius and a
major load of 150kg. The B scale uses a 1/16 diameter tungsten carbide ball as the
indenter and a major load of 100kg. There are other combinations of indenters and
loads for testing other materials.
Most Rockwell hardness testers are bench models. The part to be tested is placed on
the bottom anvil within the throat of the tester. The area to be tested is positioned
directly under the indenter. The anvil with the part is then raised by turning the capstan
at the bottom of the column until the part comes into contact with the indenter. A minor
load of 10kg is applied. This eliminates any backlash in the load train and allows the tip
of the indenter to break through any slight surface roughness or foreign matter. The
depth of the indenter after the minor load is applied is used the base line on the dial
gage of the tester. Once we have zeroed the gage on this point, the major load is then
applied by tripping a lever. Through a cam, weight, and dash pot system, the indenter
automatically comes done forcing the indenter deeper into the surface of the part. After
the full load has been applied and held at least 3 seconds, the indenter is retracted.
The minor load is maintained on the part throughout the test. The difference between
the initial indenter depth with just the minor load applied and the indenter depth with the
major load applied is automatically measured by the tester. Each division on the gage
represents a difference in indentation depth of 0.002 mm. The hardness value can be
read directly off the gage. There is no measuring required.
Each Rockwell scale is accurate only over certain hardness ranges. If the hardness of
the material you are hardness testing falls outside of the allowed range, then you must
change scales. The scale must always be reported along with the Rockwell hardness
number. For example, 22 HRC means a hardness value of 22 using a Rockwell C
scale. Rockwell hardness testing can be done on parts too thin for Brinell testing. Parts
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Figure 17: Two Models of Rockwell Hardness Testers (Photo Courtesy of Ron
Richter, Houston Metallurgy Laboratory, Inc.)
Bench type testers can only test parts small enough to fit in their throats. Long parts
may need additional support on their free end(s). Large parts such as gate valve bodies
may be impossible to test with a bench model. Fortunately there are some alternative
testers that can handle the big guys! The Versitron tester is a Rockwell tester that
uses a spring rather than dead weights to provide the load onto the indenter. Access to
the part need only be to the surface being tested. The test head is brought into contact
with the part being tested rather than raising the part itself to the test head as in
conventional test machines. The test head can be rotated so that it is perpendicular to
the desired surface: the surface does not need to be horizontal. Large parts can thus be
tested by mounting the test head on a movable arm. There are some portable Rockwell
testers available that have a magnetic base for mounting on large parts such as plate,
bar, or pipe. Most of these have limited available scales: too high a major load can lift
the magnetic base off the part and give a false reading.
The main advantages of Rockwell testing include it is fast, automatic (no measuring of
indentation required), and has a small footprint allowing precise positioning of the area
to be tested. Small or thin parts that cannot be tested with Brinell because of the large
indentation can often be tested with Rockwell. A seal surface may tolerate a Rockwell
indentation, but not a Brinell. The small foot print also reduces the size of the area that
must be ground in preparation for testing. Rockwell is the referee method of hardness
testing in NACE MR0175. If a part is destined for sour (H2S) service and must be NACE
compliant, but has a slightly high Brinell reading, it is generally permissible to retest with
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and the part accepted. This is particularly important when dealing with stainless steels
or nickel alloys that tend to work harden rapidly. The large Brinell indenter requires
much more material to be moved while making the indentation than does the Rockwell
indenter. The Brinell indentation has a lot of cold work associated with it that increases
the localized hardness above the bulk material hardness.
As with any hardness testing method, Rockwell testing has some limitations and
disadvantages. Weve already mentioned that only small parts can be tested on most
test machines (this is not a limitation for portable Rockwell or the Versitron). Parts
must fit within the throat of the machine. Because of the small footprint of the Rockwell
indentation, there is likely to be more variation in multiple hardness readings taken in
the same general area with a Rockwell tester than with a Brinell tester. The smaller
Rockwell indentation is more likely to be skewed by inhomogeneities on the surface
being tested. The large Brinell indentation tends to average these areas out. Unlike
Brinell testing, Rockwell testing requires the selection of a scale appropriate for the
hardness of the material being tested. Scales cannot be directly correlated to each
other. The Rockwell hardness can only be determined when the part is actually in the
test machine. Once the part is taken out of the tester, the indentation can no longer be
measured.
Great care must be taken to insure that surface preparation is done correctly, the part is
properly supported during testing, and that the indenter moves perpendicular to the
surface being tested. You can usually tell when a Brinell punch is bad because the
indentation will be out-of-round. The Rockwell test machine will still produce a hardness
value on the gage even if the set-up is wrong. The resulting hardness value will be
wrong, but you may not know it! The indenter must be exactly perpendicular to the test
surface otherwise a soft reading may result. This is a major issue when testing the end
of a long part such as a gate valve stem or a stud. If the end faces of the part arent
exactly parallel to each other and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the part, a
soft reading may result. Soft readings on these long parts should be suspect until the
end faces can be checked on an optical comparator or other device for parallelism and
perpendicularity to the longitudinal axis. The supporting anvil can wear with time. The
part being tested may have perfectly flat and parallel surfaces, but if the anvil is no
longer flat, a bad reading will result. Anvils should be routinely inspected and lapped as
necessary.
Dirt, grinding dust, and other contaminants on the elevating screw threads and
bearings, on the anvil, on fixtures, etc. can cause errors in the hardness readings as
they become compressed with time. Keep the test machine clean and covered when
not in use. If you get an unexpected hardness value during the initial test of a part,
repeat the test to see if you get the same results before rejecting the part. Sometimes a
small amount of dirt or other contaminant or a machine mark on the surface of the part
skews the initial reading. After the initial load has been applied, the part becomes
seated in the tester and a second test will be accurate.

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The Brale indenter used in the Rockwell C scale has a diamond tip. The diamond, while
very hard, is very brittle. The tip of the diamond will occasionally fracture. This
increases the surface area of the tip making it more difficult for the indenter to penetrate
into the surface of the part being tested and produce a false, high reading. Similarly, the
B-scale uses a tungsten carbide ball. These also can chip or wear and cause a false,
high reading. Always do a calibration check at the start of each shift to catch these
problems or to validate an unexpected reading on a production part. A Rockwell
machine will give a hardness value regardless of the condition of the indenter. Theres
no way for you to know if its valid or not unless you do the calibration check. Make sure
that when you calibrate your Rockwell B set up with a tungsten ball, you use a
calibration block that was calibrated with a tungsten ball and not with one calibrated
with one of the old hardened steel ball indenters.
Heavy vibrations can give false, soft readings. Vibrations can cause the dead weights
that apply the load to jiggle or vibrate. This minute bouncing increases the load ever
so slightly, but when dealing with depth measurements in millionths of an inch, it can
make a difference! Locate the Rockwell machine well away from other heavy
machinery.
3. King Portable Hardness Testing

King Portable hardness testing (see Figure 18) is covered in ASTM E110. It is
essentially a portable Brinell hardness tester. The indenter and test head are similar to
those described for the Brinell test. The test head contains a manual hydraulic pump
that is actuated by stroking a lever. The King Portable is clamped onto the part to be
tested. The indenter is brought into contact with the surface to be tested and then the
load applied by stroking the lever until a gage on the test head shows that the required
load is 3000kg has been reached. A relief valve in the pump insures that this load is not
exceeded. Once the 3000kg load is reached, the inspector strokes the lever 2-3 more
times to insure any plastic deformation of the metal under the indenter is complete. The
pressure is then bled off, the indenter retracted, and the tester removed from the part
so that the indentation can be read. The indentation is read with a hand held magnifier
or scope with a measuring reticle just as with a standard Brinell test. Two
measurements are taken 90o to each other. The average of the two diameters is then
used to determine the Brinell hardness number just as described for the standard
Brinell test.
There are several different ways to attach a King Portable hardness tester to the part
being tested. As shown in the photograph, the test head is mounted on a frame. The
lower anvil is fixed on the frame and the test head can be raised or lowered by turning
the crank. It can thus be clamped onto any part that fits in within the throat. There are a
number of different attachments that can be made to the lower anvil to make a more

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secure clamp depending on the part being tested. For example there is a dome shaped
anvil that is used when testing pipe. Rather than clamping on the entire outside
diameter, the lower anvil with the dome is inserted into the end of the pipe and the head
brought down to the OD surface thus clamping on a single wall. For large, solid parts
too big to fit in the throat of the frame, the test head can be removed from the frame
and a chain attachment added. The chain is wrapped around the part and the ends
attached to opposite sides of the test head. Regardless of the clamping arrangement
used to secure the test head to the part, it is very important that the test head be rigidly
fixed on the surface to be tested so that the indenter doesnt rock back and forth when
the hydraulic lever is being stroked. Improper fixturing is the greatest cause of error
when testing with a King Portable.
The dome anvil can be a source of error when clamping on the ID and OD at the end of
a large diameter cylinder. A soft reading may result. Use a two prong anvil instead.
There are several custom made shoes that can be added to the chain attachment that
help prevent the chain from twisting while the test head hydraulic pump is being
stroked. These should always be used to prevent false, soft readings.
Figure 18: King Portable Hardness Tester (Photo Courtesy of

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Sunbelt Steel Texas, LLC)

The King Portable, as the name says, has the advantage of being portable: it can be
taken to parts too big to fit in a bench Brinell tester. It can be used anywhere. Its
relatively easy to position the test head over the area you want to test: no need to move
a large, heavy part. It is a true Brinell test so it has all the advantages of the Brinell test
previously discussed. As a true Brinell test, the King Portable has the same limitations
and disadvantages as the standard Brinell test.. The large indentation cannot be
tolerated on some parts. Small parts may not be able to be tested because of
geometry. The indentation diameter must be measured and is subject to human error.
Securing the test head properly to the part is critical to getting a valid reading especially
when using a chain.
4. Vickers Hardness Testing

The Vickers hardness test, also called a diamond pyramid hardness test, is a laboratory
test that is not suitable for testing large parts (see Figure 19). It is covered in ASTM
E384. Specimens to be tested must be small enough to fit in the throat of the tester,
have a flat surface parallel to the surface being tested, and must be polished. A
microscope is built into the tester. It is used to precisely locate the area to be tested on
the specimen. When the desired location is found, the microscope is rotated out of the
way to the side. This brings the indenter head directly over the area previously under
the microscope. The anvil and specimen are raised to within a millimeter of the
indenter. The indenter is then tripped and a cam and weight arrangement will cause the
indenter to go down, make an indentation in the surface of the specimen, and then
return back to its original position. The rate at which the load is applied as well as the
time the indenter is on the surface are all controlled by the test machine mechanism.
The indenter is a diamond cut in the shape of a square base pyramid. The angle
between opposite sides is 136o. Applied loads can vary between 1-120 kilograms with
1, 5, 10, 30, and 50 kg being the most common. The resulting indentation has a square
cross section (see Figure 20). The lengths of both diagonals are measured using a
reticle in the same microscope used to position the area to be tested. The Vickers
hardness number is equal to the applied load divided by the surface area of the
indentation.
2 P sin ( /2)
HV =
2
d
Where HV = Vickers Hardness
P = applied load
= angle between faces of the indenter (136)

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d = average length of diagonals
Note indenter head swung

to the right allowing the use
of the microscope.
Figure 19: Vickers/Knoop Hardness Tester. (Photo Courtesy of Ron Richter,

Houston Metallurgy Laboratory, Inc.)
Figure 20: A Vickers Indentation

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The applied load must be reported along with the Vickers number, e.g. 150 HV 10 where
the 10 subscript refers to a 10 kg applied load. The Vickers hardness number is
independent of the applied load over most of its range except for extremely light loads
that are used for microhardness testing (loads less than 1kg). This allows
measurements to be made on parts regardless of hardness using any standard load.
The main advantage of Vickers hardness testing is that the indenter can be positioned
in a precise location with the aid of the microscope and the indenter has a small
footprint. This allows the Vickers test method to measure the hardness of very small,
localized areas such as the heat affected zones of welds, case hardnesses, the depth
of a decarburized layer, extremely thin parts, etc. By using very light loads (measured in
grams), the Vickers hardness test becomes a microhardness test that can be used to
hardness test the individual phases in a microstructure.
Vickers hardness testing is a lab test that is not suited for checking production parts - a
small test slab must be cut and polished. The surface to be tested and the back face of
the test slab must be exactly parallel to each other. Test slab surface preparation is
time consuming and must be done with care. A Vickers test can be too precise for
some applications. Metals are not homogeneous. They consist of a variety of phases
and may have various inclusions, contaminants, areas of work hardening, etc. in them.
These inhomogeneities may have different hardnesses. A Rockwell or a Brinell punch
has a foot print broad enough so that an average, bulk hardness reading is obtained. A
Vickers indentation has a very small footprint (see Figure 21) so the resulting hardness
value is much more likely to be skewed by an isolated hard or soft spot. Multiple tests in
close proximity can have a large variation in hardness values because of this.

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Figure 21: Hardness Testing Method Footprints On A Weld Clad Layer (Photo
Courtesy of Ron Richter, Houston Metallurgy Laboratory, Inc.)
5. Knoop Hardness Testing
Knoop hardness testing, like Vickers testing, is another laboratory test method. It is
covered, along with Vickers hardness testing, in ASTM E384. It is used for making
microhardness measurements. The hardness tester itself is the same as that used for
Vickers (often the same test machine can be used for either method), but utilizes a
different indenter. The Knoop indenter is a diamond ground into a pyramid that makes a
diamond-shaped indentation having an approximate ratio of seven to one between the
long and short diagonals (see Figure 22). The pyramid has an included longitudinal
angle of 172 30' and included transverse angle of 130. The depth of indentation is
about 1/30 of its length. The Knoop indenters shape allows multiple tests to be closely
spaced, and allows accurate results with extremely light loads. This makes Knoop
hardness testing ideal for many microhardness applications including, hardness testing
microconstituents, testing platings and coatings, determining case depth, etc.
The Knoop hardness number is the ratio of the load applied to the indenter to the
projected area of the indentation or
Error! Objects cannot be created from editing field codes.
Where
HK = Knoop hardness
P = applied load
A = projected area of indentation
C = 0.07028
L = measured length of long diagonal in millimeters
The applied load must always be referenced. Microhardness values may change with
the applied load at these low load levels because of the differences in the rate of strain
hardening as the indenter penetrates the surface.

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Figure 22: Knoop Hardness Indentation

Knoop hardness testing is often used to determine the degree of banding in a metal
(see Figure 23). Banding is a type of chemical segregation that is characterized by
alternating layers having different chemistries and different properties. Banding may
result from many processing factors including melting practice, hot work, heat treat, etc.
Severe banding may be detrimental to a part because of its non-homogeneous
properties. There may be degradation in corrosion resistance. The degree of banding in
a material can be measured by performing a Knoop hardness traverse along a line
perpendicular to the banding and evaluating the variation in the resulting hardnesses.
Figure 23: A Banded Steel Structure

Knoop hardness testing has the same limitations and disadvantages as the Vickers test
method.
6. Shear Pin Hardness Testing

There is no ASTM standard for shear pin hardness testing. It is an inexpensive, simple,
easy to use, portable means of hardness testing very large parts. It can be used in any

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orientation as long as it is perpendicular to the surface being tested. Access is needed

only to the surface on the part to be tested. The tester (see Figure 24) consists of the
cylindrical housing; the indenter, and of course the shear pin. The housing has a blind
hole on the bottom end that extends about half way up its length and terminates into a
large cavity. The indenter rod will be inserted into this hole. There is a second hole in
the housing transverse to and intersecting the indenter hole just below the cavity of the
blind hole. This hole holds the shear pin.
Figure 24: Shear Pin Hardness Tester. Illustrated is the Model CPIT
Impact Pin Brinell Hardness Tester by Newage Testing Instruments, Inc.
( Newage Testing Instruments, Inc., Used with Permission)
To use the tester, a shear pin is first inserted into the transverse hole in the housing.
Both ends of the shear pin are supported by the walls of the cylinder. The indenter rod
is then inserted into the bottom of the tester and stops when it reaches the shear pin.
Were now ready for testing. The tip of the indenter is placed on the part perpendicular
to the area to be tested. The top of the tester is then sharply struck with a heavy
hammer. The shear pin transmits the load to the indenter which is then forced into the
surface of the metal being tested. The shear pin is designed to break at a constant,
specific load. Once this load is reached and the pin breaks, the indenter is free to move
up into the housing so no additional load is applied. The diameter of the impression is
then read with a hand held microscope containing a measuring reticle. The hardness

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number is found in a table of impression diameters versus hardness numbers. In a

variation of this tester, a C clamp type housing with a screw drive may be used. Here
the load is applied by tightening the screw rather than striking the tester with a hammer.
Very large parts can be quickly tested without having to move them around. It produces
an indentation smaller than a Brinell, but much larger than a Rockwell so it gives a
good, average bulk hardness.
There is some variability inherent in shear pin hardness testing. The load that causes
the shear pins break may vary slightly from heat treat lot to heat treat lot or even within
a given lot. Theoretically it shouldnt matter how hard you strike the tester with the
hammer as long as you do so with sufficient force to break the shear pin, however,
some small variation in results does occur with the way you swing the hammer. The
tester must be held perpendicular to the surface or a bad reading will result, although
testing can be done at any angle as long at the tester is perpendicular to the surface.
Measuring the indentation can introduce human error.
Many standards do not allow shear pin testing for final acceptance testing of production
parts. It is still a very useful hardness test method for performing in-process checks on
very large parts. It can be very accurate and repeatable when performed by an
experienced inspector. It is invaluable for giving a quick, second opinion when the
results of hardness testing using another method are in question.
7. Telebrineller Hardness Testing

The Telebrineller hardness test is covered in ASTM A833. It is a portable, inexpensive
hardness tester that can be used in the field (see Figure 25). Referring to Figure 26, a
soft rubber head (3 in the illustration) that can be slid along the test bar (1) holds the
anvil (2) directly over the indenter ball (5). The test bar has a known hardness and is
supported on the opposite end with a rubber shoe (4). The tester is placed on the part
to be tested. The indenter ball is in contact with both the bottom surface of the test bar
and the top surface of the part. The anvil is struck sharply with a heavy hammer. This
simultaneously creates indentations both in the part and the test bar. Because the force
used to make both indentations is identical, the diameters of the resulting indentations
are strictly a function of hardness. The diameters of the indentations on the part and the
test bar are measured (again two readings of each impression are taken 90o to each
other and averaged) and the hardness of the part is determined using the formula:
Hardness of Part = hardness of test bar X diameter of test bar indentation

diameter of part indentation

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The Telebrineller has many of the same advantages as the shear pin test. It is very
inexpensive and easy to use. It can be used in any orientation. Large parts can be
easily checked in the field. Unlike the shear pin tester, there is no variability due to
hammer force. The hardness value is independent of load. The major downside is that
you have to measure two indentations which increases the likelihood of human error
and increases inspection time. Part size or geometry may preclude the use of the
Telebrineller.
Figure 25: Telebrineller Hardness Tester Kit ( Qualitest, Used With

Permission)
Figure 26: Telebrineller Principle of Operation ( Qualitest, Used With

Permission)

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8. Ultrasonic Impedance Hardness Testing

Ultrasonic impedance testing is covered in ASTM 1038. It is a portable hardness tester
that utilizes an oscillating rod inside a hand held probe (see Figure 27). The end of the
rod has a diamond tip with a 136o angle. The rod is ultrasonically oscillated
longitudinally by a piezoelectric transducer at a frequency of about 70 kHz. The tip is
depressed into the surface of the part being hardness tested under a fixed spring load.
This causes a shift in the resonant frequency of oscillation of the rod and is measured
by a receiver in the probe. The amount of frequency shift is related to the indent area
(the contact area between the material and the indenter) which, in turn, is related to the
materials hardness. The softer the material, the greater the indent area, and the
greater the frequency shift will be.
Figure 27: Ultrasonic Impedance Hardness Tester. Illustrated is the Phase II

Model MET-U1A (Photo Courtesy of Sunbelt Steel Texas)
The amount of frequency shift that occurs when the end of the rod is embedded into the
surface of the part is also a function of the modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus) as
well as the hardness of the material being tested. Consequently the tester needs to be
recalibrated for materials having different moduli such as steel and titanium.

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Ultrasonic impedance hardness testers are easy to use in the field on almost any size
part. The indentation is extremely small so even seal surfaces can be tested. Hardness
testing is rapid and no operator measurements have to be made. Complex geometries,
parts as thin as 1 mm, internal bores and cavities large enough to put the probe in are
all easily and quickly tested. Only the surface being tested needs to be accessible. It
can be used to check the hardness of platings or surface hardened layers that are at
least 10X the thickness of the depth of indentation.
Ultrasonic impedance hardness testing is very sensitive to improper surface
preparation. Too rough a surface, decarb, cold work from grinding, etc. can all skew the
hardness readings. Rust, scale, grease and other surface contaminants must be totally
removed. Surface grinding must be done with care to avoid excessive work hardening.
The results can be reported in a number of different scales such as Rockwell and
Brinell. If a material spec requires a Rockwell or Brinell hardness for acceptance, then
testing must be done per ASTM E10 or E18 using a Rockwell or Brinell tester. A
Rockwell or Brinell value obtained using an ultrasonic impedance hardness tester does
not satisfy the requirement! Although it may not always be allowed for final acceptance
testing, an ultrasonic impedance hardness tester is invaluable for performing in-process
hardness checks.
9. Leeb Hardness Testing

Leeb hardness testing (see Figure 28) is covered by ASTM A596. A common Leeb-type
portable hardness tester in the U.S. is called the Equotip. The Equotip has a hollow
test probe that contains a free falling indicator with a permanent magnet. The end of the
probe is placed on the surface to be tested. A button on top of the probe is pushed
releasing a compressed spring that propels the indicator down the tube towards the
surface of the part. It strikes the surface and rebounds back up the tube. The velocities
of the indicator just before and after impact with surface are measured electronically. As
the indicator travels through the tube, a current proportional to its velocity is generated
in the coils surrounding the tube as the permanent magnet passes through. The
rebound velocity will increase with increasing hardness. The probe is connected to a
small console where the electrical signal is processed and the hardness displayed. The
indentation made by the indicator is almost imperceptible. Because of this tiny footprint,
there is a lot of variation in results. Hard and soft constituents in the microstructure of
the metal can skew results. Multiple readings are made and then averaged for each
area being tested in order to obtain a bulk hardness value.

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There are many advantages to Leeb hardness testing. The indentation is virtually
indiscernible after the test so testing seal surfaces on a part is possible. A Leeb
hardness tester is the fastest possible way of making a hardness test. It is very
portable. The computer console can store readings, average readings, evaluate the
readings, etc. Many mills that produce high volume products such as bar or pipe use
the Equotip because of its speed. The small probe allows hardness testing to be done
in areas impossible to do with Brinell or Rockwell methods (the seat pockets of a gate
valve body, the bottom of a ring groove, in the bore of a pipe, for example). Leeb
testers like the Equotip are an excellent way of doing a rapid survey of a part to find
high and low hardness areas.
Figure 28: Leeb Hardness Tester. Illustrated is the Equotip #3 by

Proceq USA,Inc. ( Proceq USA, Inc., Used With Permission)
There are some issues with Leeb type testers. They are extremely sensitive to minute
surface imperfections on the metal being tested. Surface roughness, work hardening
during grinding, oxides, surface contaminants, etc. that would not affect a Brinell or
Rockwell test may skew Leeb results. A very large part that has the exact same
Rockwell or Brinell hardness as a small part may give a different result than the small
part when tested with a Leeb tester - size does matter. The probe must be held
perpendicular to the surface being tested. The rebound velocity is sensitive to the
modulus of elasticity of the material being tested so recalibration may be necessary

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when switching between materials with different moduli. There can be wide scatter in
the results. The results can be reported in a number of different scales including
Rockwell and Brinell, however, if a material spec requires a Rockwell or Brinell
hardness for acceptance, then testing must be done per ASTM E10 or E18 using a
Rockwell or Brinell tester. Reporting Leeb hardness tester obtained values in Rockwell
or Brinell does not satisfy the requirement! Although it may not always be allowed for
final acceptance testing, a Leeb hardness tester is an excellent instrument for
performing in-process hardness checks.
Hardness Conversions
Hardness values obtained using one method of hardness testing must occasionally be
converted into another methods values (Brinell to Rockwell, Rockwell to Vickers, etc.).
You may have only one type of tester available yet the specification you are working to
gives the acceptance criteria based upon another method for example. In some
applications it may be impossible to use the method referenced in a specification
because of the size or geometry of the part so another test method must be used and
the results converted. ASTM E140 provides hardness conversion tables for many
common metals. There are different tables for different materials so be sure you use
the correct one when making a conversion. Carbon and low alloy steels are considered
ferritic steels in E140. The ferritic steels make up the largest table in E140 and a
common error is to use this table for non-ferritic metals as well. The hardness test
report should always give the value obtained using the actual test method and then give
the converted value.
ASTM E140 does not include conversion tables for all materials, heat treat conditions,
etc. or they may not be accurate for certain alloys. If the material you are dealing with is
not included in one of the tables in E140, then ASTM allows you to develop your own
correlation curve for the different test methods you are interested. This consists of
hardness testing a number of parts having a wide range of hardnesses using both test
methods and then plotting the results. This testing should be overseen by a quality
manager and a metallurgist. The results should be documented in an engineering
report. NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 typically prescribes hardness limits in terms of the
Rockwell C scale. It allows the use of other hardness test methods (as agreed upon
with the end user). When methods other than Rockwell C are used, the results must be
converted to HRC. NACE references ASTM E140 and thus allows the use of either the
tables in E140 or the development of a conversion curve for the specific material.
Always get a customer approval before using a conversion curve developed for a
specific material.

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A customer may require a specific type of hardness test on his equipment and not allow
conversions from other hardness test methods. This requirement should be highlighted
in the material spec and in the quality plan for the part. Unless it is otherwise stated in a
material spec and quality, either Rockwell or Brinell testing may be performed
regardless of how the acceptance criteria are stated. The inspector is free to use either
method at his discretion as appropriate for the part being tested, and report the results.
He is not free to use another test method (shear pin, etc.), convert the results into
Rockwell or Brinell values, and then report these converted results!
Interpreting Hardness Test Results

A single hardness test may be the only mechanical test actually performed on a part.
We must be confident that the hardness test is valid and that the reported hardness
value is accurate. Theres a lot riding on this test. One bad value, either too hard or too
soft, can sink a part worth many thousands of dollars. Evaluating a set of hardness test
values is not just a matter of comparing each value to the specified range and rejecting
those that fall outside of it. The inspector performing the hardness test and the engineer
evaluating any discrepant values must be thoroughly familiar with the hardness test
method know its limitations and likely source of errors. They must also be thoroughly
familiar with the metal being tested its hardenability and expected hardness behavior.
Both need to be able to find the root cause of discrepant hardnesses whether it be
material or procedural related. An invalid hardness reading can cause the rejection of a
perfectly acceptable part. It creates tons of paperwork. It slows production. The rejected
part sits taking up space while people try to figure out what went wrong. It can cause
missed deliveries. The old adage about an ounce of prevention certainly applies here.
The inspector performing a hardness test must have the applicable material spec,
hardness test procedure, and quality plan available in order to know the required
hardness range and the number, location, and frequency of testing. He must have
access to the mill and heat treat certs to help evaluate discrepant hardness results. A
knowledgeable inspector will be familiar with the alloy he is testing: how it responds to
heat treatment in various sizes, how variations in composition can affect hardness, how
hardness in the alloy changes with the tempering temperature, how it work hardens, the
hardenability of the alloy, etc. He will have a feel for how the hardness of material from
a given supplier/ heat treater combination typically comes in (mid-range, high side, low
side, uniform, lots of scatter, etc.). He knows metals are consistent and predictable in
their response to heat treatment. He can recognize aberrant behavior when he sees it.
He doesnt need to be an Einstein to know all of this. It comes from study, following
procedures, observing, questioning, and lots of experience.

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The hardness test is finished. The set up was good, the surface preparation was done
correctly, the hardness test procedure was followed, the diameters of the indentations
were carefully measured, and the results are within the specified range. Great! No
problem here. A hardness report is written up and its on to the next part. But what if a
hardness result is outside the range? Should the part be immediately rejected and a
non-conformance report filled out? Obviously the answer is no. First validate the bad
hardness value by punching the part at least two more times in the same general area
to see if you get approximately the same hardness values. Indentations need to be at
least 2.5 times the diameter apart from each other and any edge. If the readings
confirm the original punch, then reject the part. If the readings are significantly different,
its time to do some trouble shooting: theres something wrong with the way the first test
was conducted and the reported hardness may not be valid.
When validating an out of range hardness reading, often a different type of hardness
tester can prove useful. The size or geometry of a part can make one hardness test
method more difficult to set up than another and introduce error. Use a shear pin to
validate a King Portable reading for example. Although the shear pin value may not
be acceptable to use for final acceptance, it can be used as an internal a cross check. If
there is any doubt about the set-up for hardness testing alignment of the part under
the test head, support of the part when the load is applied, etc. lay a calibration test
block on the surface of the part to be tested and hardness test it. If the set-up is proper,
you should get the right hardness on the test block.
Bars and tubes are very uniform products. You would not expect to see a huge
difference in the hardness readings taken along the length of a pipe or a small diameter
bar. All the locations are on the same bar, have the same composition, saw the same
heat treatment, etc. There may be some minor variation because of variation in surface
preparation (extent of grinding, etc.), measuring diameters, the precision of the test
machine, etc. Suppose you get the following values:
227HBW 221HBW 212HBW 172HBW 217HBW- 231HBW -212HBW
The 172HBW value looks suspicious all the other values are closely grouped
together. Metal doesnt behave this way unless theres something very unusual or very
wrong with the way it was processed. Theres a good chance that there was a problem
with the hardness test at the 172HBW location. Troubleshoot this area.
You receive some 12 diameter, quenched and tempered, 4130 low alloy steel bars that
were hardness tested by the heat treater on one end. All met the required 212-237HBW
range. Most of the bars have a mid-range hardness value reported. Because of a

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customer requirement for a hardness test at each end, you punch the other end of all
the bars with a King Portable tester and almost a third of the bars come in low at 195207HBW. What do you do? First thing is to see if you can locate the heat treaters
original hardness indentation. Reread it and confirm he reported the right hardness. If
its correct, then look at the depth of grinding and compare to the depth on the end you
tested. If your depth is much greater, try grinding another spot adjacent to the first, but
not so deep and retest. 4130 has poor hardenability in heavy cross sections when high
strength levels are required. Its not unusual to have a 5-10 point drop in Brinell
hardness from the surface to a point just an 1/8 below the surface. If you still get a bad
reading, try repunching adjacent to the heat treaters punch to see if you get the same
value. If you dont, theres something wrong with either his set up or yours. If the bar
was 4140, 4340, or 4145 steels with much higher alloy and carbon content than 4130
the rapid drop off in hardness from the surface would not have occurred.
A vendor sends in some 8 round 4140 bar that was batch heat treated, The material
spec requires 105ksi minimum yield strength and a hardness range of 277-321HBW.
The vendor reports actual hardnesses on the high side, but still within range. Due to a
customer requirement, you test the other end of each bar and almost a third drop out
because of high hardness (323-327 HBW). What do you do? Again the first thing to do
is locate the vendors original indentation, reread it, and confirm that the right hardness
was reported. If its correct, then look at the depth of grinding and compare to the depth
on the end you tested. If the vendors is shallower than yours, maybe he didnt get
completely below the decarb layer which would tend to lower the hardness. Try grinding
the vendors area a little deeper and retest. If the hardness goes up, decarb was the
problem. If the hardness remains the same, your test area preparation could be the
problem. If its ground significantly deeper than the vendors, maybe you work hardened
the surface by bearing down with the grinder too much. This could easily add 5 Brinell
points or more to the hardness. Try redressing the surface by lightly grinding and then
retesting.
You receive a 5 round, 4130 low alloy steel, quenched and tempered bar that was
batch heat treated. The material spec requires 75ksi minimum yield with a hardness
range of 197-237HB. The vendor cert shows a tempering temperature of 1240F and an
actual yield strength of 80ksi. The vendor reports a 211HBW hardness on the bar. You
test it and get 187HBW. What do you do? The 1240F tempering temperature is
appropriate for 75ksi minimum yield. The 211HBW corresponds to the 80ksi yield
strength reported on the cert. Everything the vendor reports on the cert matches what
would be expected for this material and the way it was processed. There shouldnt be
much variation in surface hardness on a 5 diameter bar. Your hardness reading
corresponds to a yield strength around 70ksi. It doesnt correspond to the tempering

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temperature or the reported yield. Compare your grinding depth to his. Did you grind too
deep? Unless there was a mix up and the wring bar was sent (which can happen!), the
vendors value is probably the correct one. Time to troubleshoot your hardness test!
Understanding how a particular metal behaves can help you evaluate discrepant
hardness readings. The expected scatter you get testing the surface a bar depends on
the size, the alloy, and the heat treatment (required strength). The smaller the diameter
and the lower the strength requirement, the less the hardness variation should be. The
better the hardenability of the alloy, the lower the hardness variation should be (in order
of increasing hardenability: 4130 4140 4145 4340). Testing a finished machine
part can result in a wide range of hardnesses depending on the amount of material
removed below the original heat treat surface and the hardenability of the alloy..
Its always a good idea to do some retests to validate a suspect reading. This does not
mean you keep hardness punching until you get the answer you like! If you have
identified the cause of the suspect value and you can show that it was the result of an
invalid test, the discrepant hardness need not be reported. The test should be repeated
with the necessary corrections to obtain the reportable hardness.
Fracture Mechanics
Oil Patch equipment very seldom fails due to simple tensile overload. The elastic
stress analysis performed by design engineers in accordance with API design codes is
very conservative, yet parts do fail. How come? There are of course some obvious
answers. Parts werent processed correctly. Environmentally assisted cracking can
cause cracking at stresses well below the materials yield strength. Parts were loaded
beyond what they were designed for. Some failures are not so obvious. Traditional
elastic stress analysis is often insufficient to prevent failure in high strength materials
because it does not address the initiation and propagation of cracks in the material. The
presence of cracks can change the ballgame! Local stresses at crack tips can greatly
exceed the gross stress that may be well under the materials yield strength. The crack
can grow under these local stresses. When it reaches a certain critical size, it will
propagate catastrophically. Fracture mechanics is the quantitative study of the fracture
behavior of materials as a function of the materials inherent resistance to crack growth
(toughness), crack length, and stress.
Every metal part contains flaws. The flaws may be macroscopic (quench cracks, tool
marks, etc.) and thus potentially detectable by nondestructive examination. They may
be microscopic and be virtually undetectable except under a microscope (hydrogen

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cracks, micro-hot tears, etc.). It is important that we be able to analyze these flaws and
be able to predict when and how they will grow and at what point they will reach a
critical size that will result in the fast, brittle fracture of the part. Fracture mechanics is
the tool that will allow us to do this analysis. Well start by looking at linear-elastic
fracture mechanics approach (or LEFM) that is suitable for materials that are normally
ductile, but become brittle in the presence of a flaw. These materials are often referred
to as ductile, crack sensitive. Ductile, crack sensitive materials include high strength
ferritic steels, titanium alloys, and high strength aluminum alloys. We will then move on
to materials that fail with a great deal of plasticity such as the lower strength, low alloy
steels commonly used in wellhead equipment. There are two basic approaches to
fracture mechanics: the energy balance approach and the stress intensity approach.
Energy Balance Approach to Fracture Mechanics

Well look briefly at the energy balance approach first as it was the first to be
developed. A.A. Griffith in WWI during his study of why glass rods failed at stresses far
below their theoretical strength postulated that the low fracture stress was due to
defects in the material. The stress concentration around an elliptical shaped hole in a
metal had been calculated by C.E. Inglis a few years earlier. Griffith at first tried to
incorporate Ingliss findings into a general theory why brittle materials fail, but was
unable to do so. According to Inglis, the stresses near a perfectly sharp crack would
approach infinity. In real life this is impossible because the crack tip would undergo
blunting as the result of plastic deformation (infinite stress would mean all the bonds
would break and the material would have zero strength!). Griffiths inspired solution to
this conundrum was to develop the energy balance approach.
A material under stress has a certain amount of strain energy associated with it. When
a crack propagates into a solid material to a depth , the material immediately adjacent
to the free surfaces of the crack become unloaded and releases its strain energy. Using
the Inglis solution, Griffith calculated the total strain energy U released as the strain
energy per unit volume times the volume of the unloaded regions on either side of the
crack or (assuming a unit thickness):
Eq. #1
Where U = Total strain energy released by crack growth

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= Applied stress
E = Youngs modulus
= Depth of crack
As the crack grows, bonds must be broken at the crack tip and the energy expended in
doing this is absorbed by the material. There is a surface energy associated with the
newly formed crack surfaces (again assuming a unit thickness):
Eq, #2
S = 2
Where S = the total surface energy associated with the crack
= surface energy per unit area (multiplied by 2 because

2 surfaces are created)
= Depth of crack
The total energy that is associated with the crack is thus the sum of the energy
absorbed to create new surfaces (positive) minus the strain energy (negative) that is
released. This is illustrated in Figure 29. Note in Figure 29 the total energy reaches a
peak when reaches a critical value c. Until it reaches c, the crack will grow only if
the stress is increased. Once the critical crack depth c is reached, the system can
lower its total energy by allowing the crack to spontaneously and catastrophically grow
deeper.

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Figure 29: Total Energy Associated With A Crack

The value of c can be calculated by differentiating the S+U curve with respect to
Figure 29 and setting it equal to 0 and then solving for c.
in
Eq. #3
Fast fracture will start when

reaches
calculated from the above equation,
c.
The stress level at fast fracture, f, can be
Eq. #4
Equation #4 developed by Griffith works well for very brittle material such as glass, but
not its so hot for more ductile fractures such as occur in steels. G.R. Irwin and E.
Orowan in the late 1940s independently deduced that there was a factor missing in
Griffiths equation. They postulated that in a ductile material most of the released strain
energy was absorbed not by the creation of new crack surfaces, but by energy
dissipation as the result of plastic deformation near the crack tip. They rewrote Griffiths
equation to reflect this new energy sink:
Eq. #5
Where c is the critical strain energy release rate (the strain energy release rate that
satisfies all the energy sinks the creation of new surfaces, energy dissipation due to
plastic deformation at the crack tip, etc.)

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Equation #5 is a powerful design analysis tool for preventing brittle fracture. It shows
the relationship between the critical strain energy release rate c (a material
parameter), the stress level f, and the flaw size . For example, a design engineer
may choose a flaw size based upon the smallest crack that can be routinely detected
using a given NDE method. Then knowing his design stresses, he can select a material
with the appropriate value of c. Alternatively, for a given material with a particular
value of c, a safe design stress maximum can be determined. Note that the critical flaw
size is independent of the size of the part containing it.
The Stress Intensity Approach to Fracture Mechanics

The energy balance approach to fracture mechanics helps to explain brittle fracture.
The stress intensity approach to fracture mechanics characterizes the state of stress at
a crack tip. It is more useful for evaluating parts from an engineering point of view than
the energy balance approach. The basis of stress intensity approach to fracture
mechanics is that the stress field ahead of a sharp crack can be characterized by a
single parameter K, the stress intensity factor. K has units of ksiin and is a function of
the stress level and the flaw size. Unstable, rapid crack growth will occur whenever K
reaches a certain critical value called Kc.
Plane strain describes a state of stress in thick or brittle parts in which the stress
adjacent to a flaw is tri-axial tension. A part in a plane strain condition that contains a
crack is subject to rapid, catastrophic fracture if the stress intensity adjacent to the flaw
exceeds a critical value. As the part is slowly loaded, the crack will grow because the
restraining effects of the bulk of the material and the Poisson effect of the metal prevent
significant local yielding from occurring. The strain energy will be absorbed by the
metal to a limited amount: any additional stress beyond this point will result in rapid,
brittle fracture. There are three possible displacement modes for crack propagation in a
solid (see Figure 30). Mode I (where the applied stress is perpendicular to the crack
surfaces) has been studied the most because it is typical of the loading in many
catastrophic failures.

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Figure 30: Displacement Modes

The opening mode stresses for Mode I are shown in Figure 31. Note that the
distribution of the stress field adjacent to the crack tip is invariant for all components
that are Mode I loaded. The magnitude of the stresses at a given location from the
crack tip may vary, but the distribution of these stresses will always take the shape of
the curve shown in Figure 31. Westergaard developed the following equations in 1939
to describe the Mode I opening stresses near the crack tip:
Eq. 6

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Figure 31: Stresses Ahead of a Crack Tip Mode I

For distances near the crack tip where r 0.1 , the higher terms of these equations
(after the dots) can be ignored. The parameter KI in Westergaards equations is called
the stress intensity factor for Mode I because it gives the overall stress distribution
intensity. The magnitude of KI is affected by the applied stress, the square root of the
crack size , and the geometry of the part. Stress intensity factors for different types of
cracks in differently configured parts are readily available in handbooks. When the
stress intensity at a crack tip exceeds a certain critical amount, or KIc, rapid fracture will
occur. KIc is the critical stress intensity factor for static, Mode I loading and plane strain
conditions. It is a measure of a materials toughness: it's resistance to crack
propagation in the presence of a notch. KIc is a material property just like tensile
strength or hardness.
A design engineer always selects a material that has a yield strength well above the
nominal stress that a given part will see in service. Similarly, the engineer must select a
material that has a KIc value well above the maximum stress intensity, KI that will be

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induced in the part as it is loaded in service. The engineer will assume that the part
being designed may contain a certain maximum size flaw. This size is typically based
upon the lower limit of detectability for the particular nondestructive inspection method
to be used on the part. For example, if a ultrasonic testing (UT) procedure is qualified to
detect internal cracks as small as 3/8 long, then the engineer will assume that any
production part passing UT may have a crack that is just shy of 3/8 long. As long as
the value of KI (which is dependent on the magnitude of the applied stress and the size
of flaw for a given part) is below the KIc value of the material used to make the part, the
flaw will not grow catastrophically under load (see Figure 32).
Referring to Figure 32, any combination of and (such as 1 and 1) resulting in a KI
value below and to the left of the blue KIc line is in the safe zone. At 2 and 2, KI has
reached a critical value and rapid, catastrophic failure would be imminent.
The stress intensity factor, KI, is the magnitude of the stress field of an ideal crack tip in
mode I loading in a linear-elastic material. A linear-elastic material is characterized by
the following:
Strains in the material are small.
Stress is proportional to strain
The material deforms when loaded, but returns to its original shape when
unloaded along the same load path
The rate of loading or straining has no effect
High strength materials that are not very ductile are linear elastic. Ductile materials that
are notch sensitive (become brittle in the presence of a notch) are linear-elastic. What
about the low alloy steels used by Argus? Most are ductile and will undergo a
substantial amount of yielding at a crack tip during loading. This can blunt the crack tip
and redistribute stresses so that these materials are not linear-elastic. We cannot
determine a valid KIc value for these materials directly through testing. Instead we
characterize their fracture toughness using Jc and CTOD values.

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Figure 32: Material Selection Based Upon KIc

A J-integral is a mathematical expression used to characterize the stress-strain field
around a crack tip in a metal that is either too ductile or lacks sufficient thickness to
undergo a valid test for KIc. JIc is the critical value of J at fracture instability just before
the onset of stable crack growth in mode I loading. In practical terms for elastic
materials such as the low alloy steels at the strength levels typically used by ARGUS,
the J-integral is equal to the crack extension force - the elastic energy per unit of new
separation area that is made available at the tip of an ideal crack during incremental
crack growth and is thus a measure of fracture toughness. JIc has units of inch-pounds
per square inch (kilojoules/square meter). It may vary with specimen thickness (i.e. the
length of the crack front).
Crack tip opening displacement, CTOD, Is the crack displacement (the separation
vector between two points on the surfaces of a deformed crack that were originally
coincident on the undeformed crack) due to elastic and plastic deformation at various
specified locations near the original crack tip. c represents the CTOD fracture
toughness of a material at fracture instability just before the onset of significant stable
crack growth. It may vary with specimen thickness (i.e. the length of the crack front).

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Fracture Toughness Testing

There are many standardized tests for determining the fracture toughness of materials.
In this section we will review some of the more common ones. Not all are appropriate
for all materials. ASTM E1820, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Fracture
Toughness, is a fairly recent spec that incorporates several different, older ASTM
standards for determining the fracture toughness values. It allows a single test
methodology to be used to evaluate the fracture toughness of a material regardless of
the materials fracture behavior. The results of the test are evaluated against several
criteria and a type of fracture toughness value is calculated that is appropriate for the
type of fracture behavior observed.
In an ASTM E1820 test a precracked specimen is placed in a load frame similar to a
tensile tester and loaded until one or both of the following occur:
1. Unstable crack growth, including pop-in (fracture instability), occurs
2. Stable crack growth occurs
Two alternative procedures for measuring the crack extension during the test are
allowed. The basic procedure consists of physically marking the crack advance on the
specimen. The initial and final crack extension is optically measured. Multiple
specimens are used to make a plot from which a single value initiation fracture
toughness can be determined. The resistance curve method is an elastic compliance
(compliance is the ratio of incremental displacement per incremental force) method in
which multiple points are determined from a single specimen and used to develop an Rcurve: a curve of crack resistance versus crack extension. Crack size is measured by
compliance and verified optically after the test.
The test utilizes pre-cracked specimens that are loaded either in tension or three point
bending. There are a number of possible test specimen configurations. The two most
common ones are the standard bend and compact tension specimens (see Figure 33).
The specimens are precracked in order to introduce a sharp crack of known size and
orientation. Precracking is done in load frame where the specimen is cyclically loaded in
order to produce a fatigue crack at the tip of the machined slot. Because the validity of
the test is dependent on the establishment of a sharp crack condition at the tip of the
fracture crack, the stress intensity level at which the fatigue pre-cracking is restricted.
The test specimen must see a large number of loading cycles (usually 104-106 cycles)
in order to achieve a fatigue crack of the desired size and orientation: both parameters

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must be tightly controlled to obtain a valid test. A minimum of three specimens is

recommended to characterize a given material. A displacement gage is clipped into the
machined notch of the specimen during the test and a load versus displacement curve
generated.
Note: for both specimens, B=W/2
Note: For both specimens,

B=W/2
A Bend Specimen & Fixture
B Compact Tension Specimen
Figure 33: Test Specimen Configurations (Taken from ASTM E1820)
In the basic procedure the specimen is loaded at a constant rate to a selected

displacement level and then the amount of crack extension determined. The loading
rate must be such that the time to reach the maximum load is between 0.3-3 minutes. If
the test ends by fracture instability, the initial crack size and any ductile extension are
measured. The results are then evaluated for fracture toughness in terms of K, J, or
CTOD as applicable. If stable crack growth occurs (tearing), additional specimens must
be tested to determine an initiation value of toughness. In order to determine the final
crack size, steel test specimens are removed from the load frame and heated to 570F
for 30 minutes. This leaves a heat tint on the crack surfaces. The specimen is then
cooled below 0F to insure brittle behavior and broken in half to expose the crack
extension that occurred during the test. The area from the end of the initial fatigue crack
to the end of the tinted area is the crack extension size of interest. The size is

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measured at 9 equally spaced points along the crack. All of the values must be within a
certain specified amount of each otherwise the test is invalid.
In the resistance curve method, the specimen is loaded under the displacement gage,
test machine crosshead, or actuator displacement control at a rate such that the
maximum load is reached within 0.3-3.0 minutes. The time for a given load/unload cycle
should be long enough to estimate crack size, but in no case longer than 10 minutes.
Each test specimen is then taken through the following steps:
1. Measure compliance to estimate the original crack size using unloading/loading
sequences using a force within the range of 0.5-1.0 times the maximum
precracking force. The initial crack size must be estimated from at least 3
unloading/loading sequences.
2. Proceed with testing the specimen using unloading/loading sequences that
produce crack extension measurements at prescribed intervals. At least 8 data
points are required before the specimen is loaded under maximum force.
The specimen is then removed from the load frame. Steel specimens are then heat
tinted as described for the standard method, broken apart, and the crack size optically
measured. The test specimen is subject to a preliminary analysis where the initial and
final crack sizes and the crack extension are evaluated at a minimum of the nine
locations. The values obtained must be within the prescribed limits or else the test is
not valid.
Evaluating the Results

Evaluating the results from a fracture toughness test is a complex business no matter
what method is utilized. It involves a great deal of number crunching as well as
interpretation of measurements taken from the force versus crack mouth displacement
curve that is developed during the test. Provisional values of fracture toughness are first
obtained which are then subjected to a series of validation tests for the type of fracture
toughness (K, J, or CTOD) involved. We are not going to try to cover all the possible
scenarios listed in ASTM E1820, but will go over a few examples to give you a taste of
whats involved. Well limit ourselves to the standard test method using a compact
tension specimen.
Lets assume we are testing a high strength steel with limited ductility in order to
determine a value of KIc. Typical forms that the force versus crack mouth displacement

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curve may take are shown in Figure 34. A secant line is drawn from the origin with a
slope equal to 0.95 x slope of the linear portion of the curve. This equates to a 2%
apparent increment of crack extension. The load P5 is where the line intersects the
curve. The force value we will use in our calculations, P Q, will equal P5 for a type I
curve. For type II or III curves where there is a value of P preceding P5 that is greater
than P5, then this value of P shall be used for PQ.
Figure 34: Typical Forms of Force-Displacement Curves

(Taken from ASTM E1820)
The PQ value obtained from the curve is then used to calculate a provisional value of K Ic
called KQ in accordance with the following formulas (derived from those from Annex A.2
of ASTM E1820).
Eq. 7
K(i) =
P(i) f(i/W)
(BW)1/2
With f(i/W) =
[(2 + i/W) {0.866 + 4.64 (i/W) 13.32 (i/W)2 + 14.72 (i/W)3 5.6 (i/W)4 }]
(1- i/W)3/2

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This rather intimidating formula is greatly simplified by the use of an ASTM E1820 table
of precalculated values of f(i/W) for common values of i/W. We plug in our value of
PQ obtained from the force displacement curve into Equation 7 and get a value of K Q.
We must now validate the provisional value of K Q to see if meets a KIc criteria. This is
done by verifying that the following conditions are met:
1.
Pmax/PQ 1.10
2.
2.5 (KQ/YS)2
(Pmax is the maximum force the specimen could

sustain see Figure 34)
< the length of the original uncracked ligament or bo
(The distance from the original crack front to the
back edge of the test specimen or bo = W - o .)
If both of these conditions are met, then our provisional value of fracture toughness K Q
is equal to the KIc value of the material. If one or both of these conditions are not met,
then KQ is not a valid KIc and its back to the drawing board. Many of our low alloy steels
cannot meet the second condition. The test can be repeated using a larger sample in
an effort to get plain strain conditions, but this is not always practical. For example, a
low alloy steel having a yield strength of 75 ksi will have a KQ of about 200 ERROR!
OBJECTS CANNOT BE CREATED FROM EDITING FIELD CODES.. We would need a
compact tension specimen with a minimum bo of about 18" in order to have a valid KIc
test. This would result in a gigantic specimen. There is no load frame in the world big
enough to break it! We will, instead, not try to get a valid K Ic, but go to an alternate
fracture toughness test method to characterize the material such as the J integral.
Assuming the KQ value we calculated failed to meet the criteria for a valid K Ic because
our material is too ductile, we will use the value to calculate a J-integral value. The Jintegral is equal to:
Eq. 8
ds)
Where:
W = Loading work per unit volume or strain energy density (for elastic bodies)
= Path of the integral that contains the crack tip
ds = increment of the contour path

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T = outward traction vector on ds

U = displacement vector at ds
x, y, z rectangular coordinates
T (du/dx) ds = rate of work input from the stress field into the area enclosed by
We can calculate J for a point v, P on the force versus load-line displacement curve as
follows:
Eq. 9
.Where K = our previously calculated value from Equation 7 with = o, and
Jpl = Apl / (BNbo)
Where Apl = Area under the Force, P versus Total load-Line Displacement,
shown in Figure 35.
BN = Net specimen thickness
Bo = uncracked ligament (W o)
= 2 + 0.522bo/W
v curve as

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Figure 35: Area Used in J-Integral Calculation Using the Basic Method (Taken
From ASTM E1820)
The value of the J integral at the onset of instability before stable tearing is calculated.
It is then corrected for crack growth as outlined in Annex A16 in ASTM E1820. The
corrected value of J is a provisional value of Jc called JQ. JQ will equal Jc provided it
satisfies both of the following criteria:
1.
2.
B, bo 100(JQ/y)
Crack extension p < 0.2mm + JQ/My
Where M=2 or an alternative value determined experimentally

There are formulas that allow the conversion of a Jc value into a Kc value
ASTM E1820 has provisions for determining CTOD values from the load
displacement curve, but the British Standard BS 7448, Methods for Crack Opening
Displacement (COD) Testing, is more frequently specified for CTOD (or COD as the
Brits call it) testing than ASTM E1820. Like the J-integral, CTOD testing is used when
the material is too ductile to obtain a valid K c test. The test specimen is a three-point
bend specimen that has been notched and fatigue pre-cracked. The preferred test
specimen is a rectangular block having a thickness B (where B is the cross section
thickness of the material under examination), a width equal to 2B, and a length equal to
4.6 W. This may result in very large test specimens for product forms other than plate
so BS 7448 allows smaller size specimens when agreed upon by the manufacturer and
purchaser.
The test consists of slowly bending the test specimen in three point bending. The load
is applied opposite the notch in the center of the bar. An extensometer records
displacement in the width of the notch as the load is applied. CTOD values are
calculated from critical points on the load versus displacement curve. A CTOD value is
the displacement of the crack surfaces normal to the original (unloaded) crack plane at
the tip of the fatigue pre-crack. It typically has units of millimeters. Depending on the

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shape of the load versus displacement curve, one or more different CTOD values ()
may be derived. They are as follows:
c -
CTOD value at either unstable fracture or the onset of arrested

brittle crack growth (pop-in) when no slow crack growth has
occurred.
i -
CTOD value at which slow crack growth commences.
m -
CTOD value at the first attainment of maximum load plateau.
u -
CTOD value at either unstable fracture or the onset of arrested

brittle crack growth (pop-in) when slow crack growth has
occurred.
CTOD testing is specified more often in Europe than in the U.S., although it is
sometimes required here for materials subject to fatigue.
Fracture Toughness of Materials

Fracture toughness is a material property just like tensile or yield strength. It is
temperature dependent, just like Charpy impacts, with lower values as temperature
decreases. This temperature effect is most pronounced for ferritic and other BCC
materials. These materials will undergo a distinct shift from ductile to brittle as the
mechanism for crystallographic separation changes. At high temperatures where ductile
behavior is evident, separation occurs by fibrous tearing (also called microvoid
coalescence or dimpled rupture). Small voids start to nucleate around particles of
second phases or impurities as the metal is stressed. These turn into tears as the voids
enlarge and elongate. Eventually these enlarged voids combine (coalesce) until fracture
is complete. At low temperatures where brittle fracture is exhibited, the crystallographic
separation occurs by cleavage. Metals having a non-BCC structure generally will have a
much smaller decrease in fracture toughness as temperature decreases than BCC
metals.
Strain rate affects fracture toughness. In steels and other BCC metals higher strain
rates result in lower fracture toughness. This shift is more pronounced at higher
temperatures. Increasing strain rate has the effect of shifting the K Ic versus temperature
curve to the right (with increasing temperature on the x-axis).

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The environment can have a profound effect on the fracture toughness of a metal.
Certain alloys are subject to environmentally assisted cracking in specific environments.
It is important to remember that the fracture toughness of certain metals may be much
less in certain environments than in air because of embrittling mechanisms and stress
corrosion cracking. Do not use published fracture toughness data unless it was
developed from tests in an environment similar to yours.
The strength of a material affects its fracture toughness. As yield strength of a given
metal in a particular heat treated condition increases, fracture toughness will decrease.
Alloying elements must be looked at individually for their effects on specific metals.
Increasing carbon in steel, for example, will increase strength, but decrease fracture
toughness. Increasing nickel in steel will increase fracture toughness. Grain size
influences fracture toughness - the smaller the grain size, the greater the fracture
toughness. Controlling microcleanliness is very important in order to maximize fracture
toughness. Foreign particles may act as stress risers. Impurities may form brittle
compounds or films at grain boundaries (e.g. phosphorous or sulfur in steel) that greatly
reduce fracture toughness..
Specific types of heat treatment can greatly alter the microstructure and hence the
fracture toughness of a metal. Annealing, spheroidizing, and tempering are all designed
to improve the toughness of steel by producing more rounded constituents in the
microstructure. Quenching, on the other hand, increases strength, but decreases
toughness. The temperatures selected for a specific heat treatment play a critical role in
determining a metals fracture toughness. For example, as the tempering temperature
for a steel is increased, strength decreases and fracture toughness increases. The
exception to this is when increasing the tempering temperature puts it into an
embrittling range as we discussed in the module on heat treating. Cooling rates during
heat treating can also affect fracture toughness. For example, duplex stainless steels
must be rapidly quenched after annealing to prevent the formation of the embrittling
sigma phase.
As with Charpy impact toughness, the fracture toughness of a metal can vary with the
direction of working in the metal (grain flow). Many metals exhibit higher toughness
when the specimen axis is taken in the longitudinal orientation such that the crack
propagates in a direction transverse to the grain flow. ASTM E1823 gives the
nomenclature for specimen and crack orientation. It consists of a two letter code (see
Figure 11 in this module for specimens in round bar). The first letter represents the
direction normal to the crack plane. The second designates the expected direction of
crack propagation. The letters and their meaning will vary by product form.

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Fracture Mechanics Summary

No doubt you found this very brief introduction difficult to follow and were somewhat
overwhelmed by the mathematics. Clearly fracture mechanics is not for the faint of
heart. Only a diehard number cruncher with a very limited social life can revel in its
intricacies. Yet it is a very powerful tool for those in the know. It permits you to analyze
defects to see how they will respond to different loading conditions in service. It can be
used to establish non-destructive testing acceptance criteria. It can be used to evaluate
defects to see if they can be left alone or require removal and repair. It can be used to
predict flaw growth under cyclic loading. Unlike impact testing, it considers
environmental factors other than just temperature.
With all these advantages, why isnt fracture toughness testing done more often on
production parts? The simple answer is that the analysis and testing are complex, time
consuming, and expensive. Fracture toughness is starting to be specified by many of
the majors for high pressure, deep water applications especially when designing to
ASME B&PV Code, Section VIII, Division 3. Many manufacturers will fracture
toughness test
their commonly used materials and, at the same time, run Charpy V-notch impact tests.
This allows a correlation between fracture toughness and impact values to be made.
Once this correlation has been established, a minimum impact toughness can then be
imposed on a production part that corresponds to the necessary level of fracture
toughness. This allows the use of the much cheaper Charpy V-notch impact test. There
are some published formulas for converting impact toughness into fracture toughness
for generic materials such as low alloy steels, but these formulas are only approximate.
This is especially true in a corrosive environment that may alter the normal fracture
toughness of a metal.
Fatigue

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Fatigue is the failure of a metal part under a cyclic load. The overall stresses the part
sees may be well below the static yield strength of the metal. Cyclic loading may be due
to vibrations, pressure pulses, thermal cycling, mechanical loading and unloading, etc.
Vortex induced vibrations are a major concern for piping subsea. Fatigue is a three
stage process. The first is the crack initiation stage. Localized strain in a metal is not
completely reversible when a load is reversed or removed. This is the result of stresses
around microscopic imperfections that may actually be higher than the bulk stress on
the part. A permanent strain may arise adjacent to the imperfection. As the part is
repeatedly loaded, this localized strain will increase due to work hardening and
eventually a crack will form. The second stage is crack propagation. Here the newly
formed cracks grow larger in a direction normal to the maximum tensile stress as the
cyclic loading causes the material adjacent to the crack tip to work harden. Fracture is
the last. It occurs when cracks have grown to the extent that the effective cross section
of the part can no longer support the load.
The number of cycles that a given part can withstand before fracture is dependent on
the amplitude of the applied stress (the difference between the maximum and minimum
stresses for each cycle) and the average stress. The higher the amplitude, the fewer
the cycles a part can withstand before failing. As the mean stress becomes increasingly
tensile, the smaller the amplitude has to be to maintain the same number of cycles to
failure.
The behavior of a metal under a cyclic load is typically shown in a S/N curve (see
Figure 36). Applied stress (S) is on the Y-axis with the number of cycles to failure (N) on
the X-axis. As the stress decreases, the number of cycles to failure increases. Note in
Figure 36 that the curve for steel in air has a stress value below which failure will not
occur regardless of the number of cycles. This stress is known as the endurance or
fatigue limit. Most nonferrous alloys have no fatigue limit and thus can only be
subjected to a finite number of cycles however small the applied stress. Note also in
Figure 36 that the there is no endurance limit for steel in seawater. The combination of
cyclic loading in a corrosive environment can result in failure much earlier than would
be expected by either fatigue or corrosion acting alone: in corrosion-fatigue there is no
endurance limit so all metals will eventually fail given enough cycles. Never use
published fatigue data to analyze a part unless the data was developed in a test
environment similar to your service environment.

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Figure 36: S/N Curve for Steel in Air & Seawater

The fatigue life (the number of cycles until failure) of a part is very dependent on the
surface condition and configuration of the part. Fatigue cracks typically initiate at the
surface of a part. Nicks, scratches, grooves, tool marks, sharp radii on internal corners,
etc., are all stress risers that can cause premature failure in fatigue. Internal defects
such as porosity, shrinkage, micro cracks, and inclusions in the microstructure of a
metal can also be stress risers and reduce fatigue life. Fatigue life can generally be
improved by polishing or grinding the surface of a part to remove nicks, tool marks, and
other stress risers. Fatigue life can also be improved by imparting a compressive
residual stress to the surface of a part through cold work or by shot peening.
Carburizing, nitriding, and boriding increase fatigue life both by strengthening the
surface of the metal and by imparting a compressive, residual stress in the surface.
Metals having a fine, rounded microstructure such as tempered martensite or tempered
bainite l generally have a better fatigue life than those with an angular microstructure
such as pearlite. The grain flow orientation also impacts fatigue life: generally the
longitudinal direction gives better fatigue properties than the transverse.
S/N curves are developed by counting the number of cycles that a metal specimen can
withstand until failure under known loading conditions. How the load is applied will
affect results. The minimum and maximum load during each cycle are important
parameters Typically 6 to 12 specimens may be run under different loads to completely
describe the curve. Fatigue tests are characterized by the mode of loading: direct axial
stress, plane bending, rotating beam, alternating torsion, or a combination of modes.

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Test specimens vary in size, shape, surface finish, and whether or not they are
notched.
Fracture Mechanics & Fatigue

During a routine inspection we find a defect in a used gate valve body. It cant be
removed and weld repaired because the body has borderline low hardness and a stress
relief is likely to make the body too soft. A replacement body will take four months to
obtain. The customer cant wait that long here needs his gate valve back now! Can
we safely use the old body for a few more months until a new body is obtained? We
can analyze the part to see if the defect induces a stress intensity KI well below the KIc
for the metal. If it does, then its safe to return the part to service. But if the part is
subject to cyclic loading in service, we have a different problem to consider. If we return
the part with the defect to service, how many additional load cycles can the part
withstand reaches a critical size where stress intensity KI becomes greater than KIc and
fractures occur?
Figure 37 is a logarithmic plot of crack growth per load cycle, d/dn, versus the stress
intensity factor range, K, for a pre-cracked metal specimen subject to a cyclic load.
The vertical dashed lines separate the three stages of crack growth. Note that the
stable crack growth stage is by far the longest and that the curve is linear in this
section.

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Figure 37: d/dn Versus K Curve

The linear portion of the curve in Figure 37 can be represented by the following
equation:
Eq. 10
Where C and m are material constants.

Separating n from , we can integrate Equation 10 as follows.
Eq. 11
Where,
no =initial number of cycles

nf =final number of cycles
o =initial flaw size
f =final flaw size
If we assume that the cyclic stress has a constant amplitude:

Eq. 12
where, = the change in stress
G = a correction factor based upon part geometry

Substituting this expression for K into Equation (11), we get the following:
Eq. 13

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Assuming G does not vary much over the range of crack lengths it can be considered a
constant. Equation 13 then becomes:
Eq. 14
n = nf - no
o
Equation 14 is an extremely important fatigue analysis tool. Using it we can determine
the number of cycles a part containing a known-size flaw (o) will last before the flaw
grows to a critical size (f) and fracture occurs. We can determine the maximum
allowable flaw size for nondestructive inspection on a part so that the critical flaw size is
not reached after a given number of cycles. And finally we can determine the maximum
level of stress that a component containing a flaw can tolerate without the flaw growing
to critical size for a given number of cycles.

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METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

The Tensile Test

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Figure 4: Example of a Contact Extensometer

Figure 5: Tensile Test Specimens (From Wikipedia,

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Figure 6: Engineering Stress-Strain Curve Typical For A Ductile Steel

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Figure 7: Necking In A Tensile Specimen

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Where %El = percent elongation

where %RA = percent reduction of area

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

The Impact Test

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Figure 8: Standard SizeASTM Charpy V-Notch Test Specimen Dimensions (mm)

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Figure 10: Orientation of Notch

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Note: If the disk shown is off a bar,

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Figure 12: Charpy Impact Transition Curve

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

expansion is another measure of the ductility of a fracture. It is generally reported for

Figure 13: Lateral Expansion Gage

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Introduction to Hardness Testing

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

decarb layer, as it is called, must be removed during surface preparation in order to

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Hardness Acceptance Criteria

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Hardness Test Surface Preparation

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Number, Location, & Frequency of Testing

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Hardness Tester Calibration

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Standards). This calibration program is the responsibility of the Quality Manager. He

Survey of Hardness Test Methods

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

P /(D/2) [ D (D2 d2 ) 1/2 ]

Where HBW = Brinell Hardness Number

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

2. Rockwell Hardness Testing

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

3. King Portable Hardness Testing

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Figure 18: King Portable Hardness Tester (Photo Courtesy of

METALLURGY TRAINING MODULE 9

Sunbelt Steel Texas, LLC)