DENSITY DEGREE OF INTERVALS AND CHORDS

BY ORLANDO LEGNAME
MARYLAND
1998

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
DENSITY DEGREE
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERVALS AND CHORDS
ANALYSIS
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
APPENDIX
BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION
Since Pythagoras has found the arithmetical relations of intervals, at least 26 centuries ago, many
theoretical works about Physics of Music have been written. Particularly during the seventeenth
century, this field of knowledge started to improve because of the study of vibrations and their
relations to musical sounds.
Between 1636 and 1637, Mersenne enunciated the Laws which carry his name and describe the
factors that the vibration frequency of a string depends upon. His ideas influenced Huygens who
also was interested in the problem of consonance and dissonance. This issue took the attention
even of Newton, one of the major geniuses the human kind ever produced. In his work, Principia,
the master states his mathematical analysis about sound propagation. Some years later, Euler
published his Dissertatio physica de sono, work that would become a classic of Acoustics Science.
In the nineteenth century, Hermann von Helmholtz realized one of the most important researches
ever done about harmonic series and beats. Based on it, he wondered about its application in music
and the consonance phenomenon. His Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen, which English
translation is On the Sensations of Tone, was published in 1885.

One may see in this report that the physicists seem to be always interested in musical phenomena,
but rather, the musicians became more interested in physical facts and their implications to
musical occurrences mostly in this century. One of the works, which consider those relations with a
practical view, and their utilization in musical composition, is Paul Hindemith's Unterweisung
im Tonsatz, published in 1937, which English translation is The Craft of Musical Composition. In
this work, the composer developed a system of intervals and chords based in physical laws,
according to their dissonance degree.
The dualistic concept of two polarities - consonance and dissonance - can be found particularly
during the tonal period of music history, and is related to the philosophic schools of Rationalism
and Positivism. By contrast, the scholars of medieval times seemed to take a more holistic
approach to intervallic differences, regarding them as various expressions of "colore". In a related
manner, thinking since the late 19th century (aided by the studies of Helmholtz) has again begun to
substitute the consonance / dissonance duality with other concepts more all-encompassing.
The theory proposed by Hindemith in The Craft of Musical Composition, is such one and it is
based on two physical phenomena, the overtone series and the combination tones. While his ideas
have been severely criticized, they can still be used as a departure point for a new approach.
Hindemiths harmonic theory has two basic principles, designated as Series 1 and Series 2. Series
1, based on the overtone series, is a sequence of the twelve chromatic notes in an order showing the
rankings of their relationships to a tonal center [EXAMPLE 1a]. Series 2 is a sequence of the twelve
intervals (within the space of an octave) in decreasing order of consonance [EXAMPLE 1b].

From these principles, the composer-theorist derives a complex system of chords in decreasing
order of consonance, which abstract is shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1

A. Chords without Tritone

B. Chords with Tritone

I. Without seconds and sevents

II. Without minor seconds or major

sevents

1. Root and bass tone are identical

The tritone subordinate
2. Root lies above the bass
a) With minor seventh only
(no major second)
Root and bass tone are identical
b)

Containing

major

seconds or minor sevenths

or both
1. Root and bass tone are identical
2. Root lies above the bass
3. Containing more than one tritone
III.Containing seconds or sevenths or
both

IV. Containing minor seconds or major

sevenths or both

1. Root and bass tone are identical

One or more tritones subordinate

2. Root lies above the bass

1. Root and bass tone are identical

2. Root lies above the bass

V. Indeterminate

VI. Indeterminate

Thus, Hindemith proposes a method of analysis using two concepts:

1.Two-voice framework. Study of the relationship between the bass line and the most prominent of
the upper parts (according to series 2).
2. Harmonic fluctuation. Study of tension changing in a chord progression (according to chord
table).
Hindemith proposes an ordering of the intervals, but does not define a fixed point of transition
between the consonance and dissonance. He also begins with the overtone series - a problematic
choice, because our even-tempered system does not match up with the natural-acoustic ratios of
partials, and also because the harmonic series is different for each sound source.
We propose instead to begin with sine waves, and to substitute the consonance / dissonance
polarity with a smooth-curve notion of Density Degree.
The term density is utilized for two reasons. First, because dissonant intervals have a great number
of combinations tones and beats than consonant intervals. Second, because dissonant intervals
when graphed (as we shall see), are correspondingly visually denser than consonant intervals.

DENSITY DEGREE
Sound is vibration, a periodical occurrence which may be represented graphically from an
oscilloscope) as a waveform. The simplest waveform in nature is the sine wave, the timbre of which
resembles a tuning fork.

Two different-pitched tuning forks, sounding together, produce an interval. The resultant interval
waveform may also be graphically represented, as a superimposition of the two original sine waves.
Each interval has a particular and unique waveform as seen in EXAMPLE 2.

The above interval waveforms occur when two sound sources are close in proximity. The same
waveforms do not occur when the sound sources are instead separated, projecting their sounds at a
90-degree angle to one another. Under these conditions, the resultant waveforms are Lissajous
curves, as in EXAMPLE 3.

Analyzing the results from both sets of waveforms, we see that: the level of graphic
complexity coincides with the interval density degree. Comparing the perfect fifth graphs
with those of the minor second, for instance, we note that the latter graphs are more complex; their
aspects are denser.
As some of the Lissajous-curve interval graphs are very complex (becoming difficult to analyze
visually), we note that a mathematical procedure exists to permit comparison. As the mathematics
are beyond the scope of this article, we will limit ourselves to the practical results with respect to
density degree and let the mathematical procedure to the appendix.

For the 84 intervals in a seven-octave even-tempered chromatic scale, we can develop a densitydegree ranking from 0 to about 40. For intervals up to an octave, the density-degree order is shown
in EXAMPLE 4.

The significant difference between our order and Hindemiths Series 2, is the tritone position,
which is located between the minor third and the minor sixth in the former at the end of the latter.

Our calculations demonstrate that the tritone has and intermediary characteristic between the lessdense intervals (fifth and fourth) and the denser (second and seventh). One suspects that the
reason Hindemith placed the tritone at the end of Series 2 was because of the harmonic meaning
that the tritone has held in the western music.
We propose that the tritone resolution does not have physical explanation, as Hindemith
supposed, but rather a psychological one. If this is true, one of tonality's foundations - the tritone
resolution - is a subjective, and not a physical, phenomenon.
Our calculations also reveal that the configurations shown in EXAMPLE 4 do not repeat
themselves when the upper note of the interval is transposed up one or more octaves. Denser
intervals within one octave, can become less denser under these conditions, as the following
instances:
- major second less dense than minor third [EXAMPLE 5a];
- major third less dense than perfect fourth [EXAMPLE 5b];
- major seventh less dense than minor seventh [EXAMPLE 5c].
When we surpass three octaves, the results are surprising, as for instance:
- major seventh becomes less dense than next octave [EXAMPLE 5d].

To visualize the density degree modification at the corresponding octaves, we developed a threedimensional graphic showed in EXAMPLE 6.

By the graphic analysis, we verify that the density of major seventh is almost the same in the four
octaves. On the other hand, the octave is the less dense in the first but then its density starts to
increase becoming bigger than the sevenths in the fourth octave.
This analysis may suggest that the concept of the octave, as a repetition of the same note in another
region, is an approximation and does not correspond to reality. Each note is an individual and
physical entity.
The notion of the octave is useful not only in the comprehension of music theory, but also in the
reading and performing scores. To propose a system of 84 different notes, in substitution of 7
octaves, would be so complex that would not have utility. What we propose instead is to study
particular density differences, in order to make conscious what is often intuitive.
To begin, let us analyze the first seven intervals in density-degree rank [EXAMPLE 7]. The least
dense intervals are: two kinds of octaves, two kinds of fifths and the perfect fourth -- as we would
expect. Following these are two kinds of thirds: the "major-third-two-octaves-up" and the major
tenth. In density-degree ranking, these last two intervals mark the first appearance what traditional
theorists would classify as "imperfect consonances".

Density-degree ranking explains why the interval of tenth is so often utilized in musical
composition. After the major-third-two-octaves-up, the tenth is the least dense interval which has
harmonic function. It is often utilized as the borders of a chord, as in the first measure of the
Bachs The Well-tempered Clavier: Prelude I [EXAMPLE 8] and measures 4, 19 and 20.

A similar procedure to that outlined above for intervals may be used to determine the density
degrees of chords, the net result being density-degree chord ratings from about 16 to 60. Examples
9a and 9b show two less-dense chords containing only perfect intervals. Examples 9c to 9f depict
four higher-density chords: three representations of the major triad and one of a superimposedfifth chord [EXAMPLE 9e].

Hindemiths theory does not recognize differences among chord positions. According to our
proposal, however, we see that the first two open-formation major chords [EXAMPLE 9c and 9d]
are less dense than last close-formation major chord [EXAMPLE 9f]. Furthermore, among these
low-density chords is the superimposed-fifths chord [EXAMPLE 9e], which Hindemith
considered very tense.
The tensest chords in Hindemiths theory are: the superimposed fourths (C-F-Bb), superimposed
major thirds (C-E-G#) and all kinds of diminished chords. All of these, however, according to our
theory, belong to the less-dense group of chords, although they certainly are denser than the chords
of EXAMPLE 9. The density of superimposed fourths, superimposed major thirds, and two types of
diminished chords (root and 6-4 position) are shown in EXAMPLE 10.

These four comparatively less-dense chords are classified among the most dissonant in
Hindemith's theory because of their relation to tonality. Superimposed-major-thirds and
superimposed-fourths chords have little function in tonality and are considered Indeterminate.
Diminished chords, which have dominant function, are also Indeterminate and have the lowest
tonal value because, rather than defining a tonality, they allow several possibilities for resolution.
In our proposal, the chords which have the greatest density are several formations of clusters, the
densest in open positions [EXAMPLE 11].

Density-degree attributed to intervals and chords are not absolute physical measurements. Some
re-interpretation may be necessary in light of further investigations. But many density-degree
notions correspond to traditional harmonic analyses, and can contribute to a more profound
comprehension of musical works.

CLASSIFICATION OF INTERVALS AND CHORDS

The way this theory turned out, it is necessary a computer to chord density calculation, which turns
it to something useless to musicians. The complexity of it, is part of the scientific investigation
process, but in that way, there was a need to a more simple approach, which would make the
system useful to everybody.
In order to do this we divided the chords in five groups I through V , which are subdivided in
smaller groups A and B. This results in a table that shows the ranking in crescent order of density
of every possible combination of notes. This means that the chords belonging to group IA are the
least dense ones and the chords belonging to the group VB are the most dense ones, being of
intermediary density the others in the middle groups. This classification can be seen in Table 2, and
musical instances in EXAMPLE 12.
All chords within a roman number group (for example II) are similar in density; the subgroups (IIA
and IIB for example) have slight difference between each other.
The first subgroup (IA) contains chords with only perfect intervals in the first octave (P4, P5, and
octave) plus two kinds of thirds (M10 and M3 + 2). There are very few chords that fulfill these
conditions and some of them are not even called chords by traditional harmony [EXAMPLE 12 IA].
To the second subgroup, belong chords with all other imperfect consonances (thirds and sixths)
and two other perfect intervals (P11 and P5 + 2). With these intervals, one can build all kinds of
triads and their inversions [EXAMPLE 12 - IB].
Subgroup IIA includes intervals like augmented fourth, minor seventh, and major thirteenth, plus
three kinds of major seconds (M9, M2 + 2, and M2 + 3) excluding only the major second which is
placed in the next subgroup IIB. The inclusion of these intervals extends the possibilities, and
among the chords belonging to this category are: minor seventh chords; some kinds of diminished
chords and undefined ones like the superimposed fourth and the superimposed fifth, [EXAMPLE
12 - IIA].
Subgroup IIB includes major second, minor tenth and augmented eleventh and three kinds of
major seventh (M14, M7 + 2, and M7 + 3) with the exception of the major seventh in the first
octave. In this group one can find denser chords like superimposed two seconds (C-D-E), some
formations of triads and seventh chords [EXAMPLE 12 - IIB].
Subgroup IIIA includes the major seventh, minor thirteenth and the first two kinds of minor
seconds (m2 + 3 and m2 + 4). The real minor second, the densest interval in the first octave,
appears only in Subgroup IIIB, which includes also the minor fourteenth. With these inclusions, we
have from the major seventh chord to more dense ones that in many cases cannot be organized in
superimposed thirds [EXAMPLE 12 - III A - B].
Subgroup IVA contains the minor sixth plus 2 octaves and several intervals around the five octaves
(m7 + 4, M7 +4, 5 octaves, m2 + 5, M2 + 5) widening the range of the chords. Subgroup IVB
includes a very dense interval, the minor ninth, which the last one in the first two octaves range.

Subgroup V contains the last minor second (m2 + 2), and all other intervals up to six octaves with
the exception of two ones (A4 + 4m6 + 4), which are included in the last Subgroup (VB) with all
possible others. This concludes the table covering all possibilities of intervals and chords.
For the purpose of analysis, one may use the same Table 2 to classify the intervals of a two-voice
framework. In this case the intervals would carry the same group classification (like IIA) and may
be compared to the respective chord. Two density-degree analyses below utilize Hindemith's
concepts of two-voice framework and harmonic fluctuation to reveal new perspectives.
Table 2

P4, P5, octave, P12, 2 octaves

M3, M3, m6, M6

M10

P11

M3 + 2

P5 +2

3 octaves
A4, m7

M2

M9, M13

m10, A11

M2 + 2, M2 + 3

M14, M7 + 2, M7 +3 (no M7)

M3 + 3

P5 + 3

M7

m2

m13

m14

P4 + 2

m3 + 2, A 4 + 2, M6 + 2

4 octaves

M3 + 4

m2 + 3, m2 + 4

P5 + 4

II

III

M2 + 4
m6 + 2

m9

P4 + 3

m7 + 2

m7 + 4, M7 +4

m3 +3, M6 + 3

5 octaves

M3 +5, A4 + 5

m2 + 5

P5 + 5

IV

M2 + 5

m2 + 2

A4 + 4, and m6 + 4

A 4 + 3, m6 + 3, m7 + 3

All other intervals

V
P4+4
All + 5
6 octaves
The interval in bold is the biggest in the subgroup

ANALYSIS
The first Prelude of Bachs Well-tempered Clavier is a sequence of broken chords, with an implicit
melody within its structure. It is formed by several cadences that develop, articulating four clear
parts as we can see in Table 3.
Table 3

Measures

1st part

2nd part

3rd part

4th part

1 to 4

5 to 11

12 to 19

20 to 35

Modulation - G

Return to C

G pedal point

Harmony

C pedal point

Cadence
T-T

Obs:

Diminished
chords

More
inversio
ns

More
chords

dim

For a better visualization of the composition process in this excerpt, a graph is provided in
EXAMPLE 13 showing the density degree of harmonic fluctuation. The line shows the cadences
represented by ascendant and descendant movements and demarcate the stress points, relax points
and the four parts of the form.

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One can notice also that the composer repeats the exact shape of harmonic fluctuation at the end of
both part two and part three, as seen in the shaded areas of Example 11. In seven whole measures,
the composer changes the chords maintaining the same related densities. This happens in two
different cadences that end in the tonic of modulation. The first ends in the dominant G and the
second returns to the tonic C in a chord that is exact the same of the beginning but one octave
lower, making this a very important articulation point in the form.
The fourth part is the longest one. It starts with a shape similar to the beginning, which prepares
the G pedal. During the pedal the harmonic fluctuation increases and decreases two times, having
the peak points on the repetition of the G chord with a suspended fourth. Then he finishes the
music with one more chord in the very low density of the subgroup IB.
At the beginning of 20th century, Igor Stravinsky introduced, in The Rite of Spring,
superimpositions of tonal chords that often sounds like sonorous block.
The utilization of chords with timbral function is also a characteristic of the Gyrgy Ligeti String
Quartet No. 2. The second movement starts with only one note modulated with timbral
fluctuations. In the seven first measures of fourth movement [EXAMPLE 14], the composer utilizes
groups of notes, which moves from one instrument to the other without altering the density,
instead only modifying the timbre.

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For a better visualization of the composition process in this excerpt, a graph is provided showing
the density degree of harmonic fluctuation and the intervallic density of two-voice framework
[EXAMPLE 15].

An analysis shows that there is timbral fluctuation in the first measure, but no density-degree
changes. After a small fluctuation in the second measure, a preparation for the climax starts.
A big difference is opened between two-voice framework and harmonic fluctuation in the beginning
of third measure, and then both lines almost together reach a higher point in the beginning of fifth
measure.

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Then both lines make a quick drop and then reach the real climax, again both together at the
maximum value in this excerpt, and quickly both densities start to decrease. The two-voice
framework decreases faster reaching its minimum, and in doing so, opens the biggest difference
between them in the turn of seventh measure. After this quick release, the two-voice framework
increases a little to follow the harmonic fluctuation in a low-density final chord.
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
Density-degree, as a mathematical procedure, considers rational proportions to all intervals to
solve the problem that with an irrational rate the Lissajous curve would never stop. This, in a strict
sense, would put all the even-tempered system in a dissonant category. Small tuning differences,
like the tempered fifth compared with natural rate, are mathematically enough to give us a wrong
interpretation of the results.
We need to interpret the numerical solutions with a aesthetical view, for instance when we analyze
the different tunings of an augmented fourth in a dominant chord, or the different kinds of thirds
in a blues context.
The analyses above show the applicability of the density-degree procedure to a greater
understanding of a musical work. With this study, characteristics of a work's structure are revealed
that are not transparent in formal harmonic analysis.
Density-degree analysis is useful in a variety of works ranging from a Bach prelude to Ligeti
quartet; functions independently of musical language, tonal or atonal; and may serve as a beneficial
tool for both theorists and composers.
APPENDIX
Mathematical procedure to density degree calculation

The mathematical procedure suggested permits the calculation of the graphic line length, which is
proportional to its complexity. To do this, a sequence of equations was utilized.
It must be clear that the value calculated does not represent a physical entity, only a number, which
gives one, a way of comparison between the studied intervals.
The sine sounds (of tuning-forks for example) are graphically represented by a sine function:

The superposition of two of these sounds is equivalent to the algebraic sum of their equations.
Considering two sounds with the same amplitude and phase, and utilizing the mathematical trick
that transforms the sum of two cosines in product, the result is:

This means that the resultant is a wave with double amplitude and frequency equal to the sum of
the originals divided per two, modulated by a wave which frequency is the difference of the
originals divided per two.

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In the case of Lissajous curve, the wave lines of propagation form a 90 degree angle. Therefore,
parametric form is the best way to represent their equations, one of them oscillating in the x axis
and the other in the y axis, resulting:

In this case, one has to consider all intervals with a rational proportion, because only in this way
there is a complete Lissajous figure. Using irrational numbers, as in the case of well-tempered
system, this graphics never end and, of course, it turns useless to our procedure.
To calculate the curve length, the process involves integral of magnitude of the parametric
equations differentiation, or,

resolving the differentiation, we have,

as the magnitude is calculated by the square root of the square coordinates,

doing the substitutions, we have:

This integral does not have a direct solution, only numeric. Its limits depend on the frequency
value. To solve this problem was necessary the utilization of a computer program in C that verifies
in what moment the x and y values be equal to 1, at this moment we have the point when the
Lissajous curve completed the way two times, then the limit of the integral is the half of this value.
To simplify we chose 1 = 1, resulting in the case of the fifth interval ( 2 = 1.5) for example, the
following expression:

that results,

The value of the integral is numerically calculated, by adding the area of a limit number of
rectangles.

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As the brain perceptions usually occur logarithmically, one may find better to calculate the final
density value in the same way of dB intensity, by calculating the logarithm of the relation between
the interval and the least dense, which is the unison. So, the formula would be:

The net result being density-degree interval ratings from about 0 to about 40.
A similar procedure to that outlined above for intervals may be used to determine density degrees
of chords. For groups of more than two notes, the classical procedure is to sum the rates before the
logarithm calculation. All internal intervals of the chord must be included. So the formula is:

The net result being density-degree chord ratings from about 16 to 60.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Backus, John . The Acustical Foundation of Music . New York,

Norton, 1969.
Bent, Ian D. Analysis in: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and
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Cazden, Norman. Hindemith and Nature in: Music Review . XV,
no. 4, p. 288-306, 1954.
Helmholtz, Hermann. On the Sensations of Tone . New York, Dover,
1954.
Hindemith, Paul. The Craft of Musical Composition . London,
Scoth, 1945.
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Jeans, Sir James. Science and Music . New York, Dover. 1968.
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Lamb, Horace. The Dynamical Theory of Sound . New York, Dover,
1960.
Landau, Victor. The Harmonic Theories of Paul Hindemith in
Relation to his Paractice as a Composer of Chamber Music . Ph.D
disserttion, New York University, 1957.

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______. Paul Hindemith: a Case Study in Theory and Pratice

in: Music Review . XXI, p. 38-54, 1960.
Legname, Orlando . Density Degree of Intervals and Chords
in: 20th Century Music, vol. 4, no. 11, p. 8-14, November 1997.
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Olson, Harry F. Music Physics and Engeneering . New York, Dover,
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Palisca, C. V. & Spender, N. Consonance in: The New Grove
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Spender, N. & Shuter-Dyson, R. Psychology of Music in: The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians . Washington, MacMillan,
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