CASM

POSTHARVEST LOSS ASSESSMENT FOR
GUAVA & ONION

(by CASM)
WFLO
WORLD FOOD LOGISTIC ORGANIZATION
BRIJENDER KR. SINGH A8211008041

KAPIL KR. BANSAL A8211008018
SHYAM SHER SINGH A8211008045
NARENDRA SINGH A8211008010
MBA(AGRI-BUSINESS)
2nd SEMESTER, 2008-10
(SUMMER INTERNSHIP REPORT IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE AWARD OF FULL TIME MASTERS
IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, AGRI-BUSINESS (2008-10))
AMITY BUSINESS SCHOOL

Acknowledgment
I consider my proud privilege to express deep sense of gratitude to Prof.

R.P.Singh for his admirable and valuable guidance, keen interest, encouragement and
constructive suggestions during the course of the project.
I would also like to express my hearty gratitude to the project co-ordinator Dr.
Sharan and Dr. Roy and my faculty guides, Dr. Arun Bhadauria and Mr. Ashish
Chandra faculty of Amity Business School, Amity University, Lucknow for their
valuable guidance and sincere cooperation, which helped me in completing this
summer project.
I would also like to thanks farm workers, farm owners, dealers, sales persons,
for their valuable advice, guidance and their services received during completing this
work.
Last, but not the least, I sincerely thank all the members of my department for
their immense support and assistance extended during the course of this project and in
making it a valuable experience.
GROUP 3: ( Commodity GUAVA)

Brijender Kr. Singh
Kapil Kr. Bansal
Shyam Sher Singh
Narendra singh
MBA(Agribusiness), 2008 - 10
2nd Semester
Objective of the Post-harvest technology
The three main objectives of applying post-harvest technology to harvested fruits and
vegetables are:
1) to maintain quality (appearance, texture, flavor and nutritive value)
2) to protect food safety, and
3) to reduce losses between harvest and consumption.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Although its share in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has declined from over half at
Independence to less than one-fifth currently, agriculture remains the predominant sector in terms of
employment and livelihood with more than half of India’s workforce engaged in it as the principal
occupation. Agriculture still contributes significantly to export earnings and is an important source of
raw materials as well as of demand for many industries.
India’s agriculture sector has an impressive long-term record of taking the country out of
serious food shortages despite rapid population increase. This was achieved through a favourable
interplay of infrastructure, technology, extension, and policy support backed by strong political will.
The main source of long-run growth was technological augmentation of yields per unit of cropped area.
This resulted in tripling of foodgrain yields, and foodgrain production increased from 51 million tonnes
in 1950–51 to 217 million tonnes in 2006–07. Production of oilseeds, sugarcane, and cotton have also
increased more than four-fold over the period, reaching 24 million tonnes and 355 million tonnes and
23 million bales, respectively, in 2006–07.
But, although GDP from agriculture has more than quadrupled, from Rs 108374 crore in 1950–
51 to Rs 485937 crore in 2006–07 (both at 1999–2000 price), the increase per worker has been rather
modest. GDP per agricultural worker is currently around Rs 2000 per month, which is only about 75%
higher in real terms than in 1950 compared to a four-fold increase in overall real per capita GDP. While
slower growth of GDP in agriculture than non-agriculture is expected, the main failure has been the
inability to reduce the dependence of the workforce on agriculture significantly by creating enough
non-farm opportunities to absorb the labour surplus in rural areas and equipping those in agriculture to
access such opportunities. Half of those engaged in agriculture are still illiterate and just 5% have
completed Higher Secondary education. Incomes and education are of course least among agricultural
labourers. Even families operating farms now suffer from much smaller holdings (70% below 1 hectare
in 2003 compared to 56% in 1982), and farming members in such families are twice as likely to be
illiterate as non-farming members. Ensuring food security and farmer welfare thus require support
systems to extend technology and scale benefits in a sustainable manner to a huge existing workforce
in agriculture that lacks non-farm skills and is also ageing and getting feminized.
TABLE 1.1
Average GDP Growth Rates—Overall and in Agriculture
(% per Year at 1999–2000 Price)
Period Total Economy Agriculture and Allied Sectors Crops and Livestock
1. Pre-green revolution
1951–52 to 1967–68 3.69 2.54 2.65
2. Green revolution period
1968–69 to 1980–81 3.52 2.44 2.72
3. Wider technology dissemination
period 1981–82 to 1990–91 5.40 3.52 3.65
4. Early reforms period
1991–92 to 1996–97 5.69 3.66 3.68
5. Ninth Plan
1997–98 to 2001–02 5.52 2.50 2.49
6. Tenth Plan period
2002–03 to 2006–07 7.77 2.47 2.51
of which 2002–03 to 2004–05 6.60 0.89 0.89
2005–06 to 2006–07 9.51 4.84 4.96
Source: National Accounts Statistics 2008 (New Series), Central Statistical Organization, Ministry of
Statistics and Programme Implementation, New Delhi.
While the first few Five Year Plans assigned priority to achieving self-sufficiency in foodgrain
production, over the years, horticulture has emerged as an indispensable part of agriculture, offering a
wide range of choices to the farmers for crop diversification. It also provides ample opportunities for
sustaining large number of agro-industries which generate substantial employment opportunities. The
horticulture sector contributes around 28% of the GDP in agriculture from about 13.08% of the area. It
also provides 37% of the total exports of agricultural commodities. The sector encompasses a wide
range of crops namely fruit crops, vegetables crops, potato and tuber crops, ornamental crops,
medicinal and aromatic crops, spices, and plantation crops. New introductions such as mushroom,
bamboo, and bee keeping (for improving the crop productivity) has further expanded the scope of
horticulture.
India accounts for an area of 4.96 million hectares (MH) under fruit crops with a production of
49.29million metric tonnes (mt). During the period 1991– 92 to 2001–02 growth in area, production,
and productivity of fruits was observed at the rate of 3.4%, 4.2%, and 0.7%. Area growth accelerated
between 2001–02 and 2004–05 to 7.37% but with negligible acceleration in production growth. Among
various States, Maharashtra ranks first and contributes 27% in area and 21.5% in production. Andhra
Pradesh ranks second in area and production contributing 13% and 16% of fruits. The maximum
productivity was observed in Madhya Pradesh (22.6 mt/hectare). The growth in productivity was
maximum (5%) in Kerala from 1991–92 to 2001–02 while it was 10.2% in Uttar Pradesh from 2001–
02 to 2004–05.
Total vegetable production in India before independence was 15 million mt

and since
Independence for decades the growth rate was stabilized around 0.5%. The
impetus on vegetable
research and policy intervention to promote vegetable crops witnessed a sudden
spurt in growth rate of
2.5%, a hike of five times during the last decade. The potential technological
interventions with
improved gene pool and precise management can take growth rate to nearly 6%
per annum. The area
under vegetables increased from 5.59 MH in 1991–92 to 6.76 MH during 2004–05.
The production in
this period increased from 58.53 million mt to 101.43 million mt. During the
period, productivity of
vegetables increased from 10.5 mt/hectare to 15.0 mt/hectare. While West Bengal
continues to be the
leading State in area and production, the productivity is higher in Tamil Nadu
followed by Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar.
In the area of horticulture, a major beginning has been made with the NHM. Already the
government is implementing Technology Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture in North
Eastern States, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttaranchal. The most important
constraints to establish the required linkages are in the area of agricultural marketing and processing.
Since high-value agriculture is based on perishable commodities, large investments are required in
modern methods of grading, post-harvest management (PHM), and development of cold chains. Such
investment in turn requires that new players, including large corporate players, be able to enter existing
markets and set up new marketing channels. The NHM therefore incentivizes the ongoing marketing
reforms based on amending existing Agricultural Product Marketing Committee (APMC) Acts to allow
this. This process has started in earnest, with many business houses investing in the area and with most
States having already made APMC amendments.
Planting material is the single most important factor around which the entire gamut of
horticultural activities revolves. It is of special significance especially in perennial horticultural crops
which have a long juvenile/gestation phase and any mistake committed by the grower in the initial
stage will result in enormous loss in the later stages. Hence, genuineness, quality, and health of plant
material are the major requirements of multiplication, sale, and adoption of any plant material.
At present, farmers have to depend on private sources of which the majority of the units are not
regulated or monitored in most of the States. Hence, farmers do not have access to genuine and disease-
free elite to certified planting material in different crops and as a result suffer with respect to
production, productivity, and quality of the produce. Most of the old Agriculture 19 existing nurseries
lack modern infrastructure such as greenhouses, mist propagation units, cold storage, mist irrigation
systems, efficient nursery tools, implements, and machineries and even facilities for soil sterilization,
etc. Ignorance of the farmers, acute shortage of mother plants of improved varieties, and absence of
quality testing and monitoring mechanisms make the situation complex.
The situation is comparatively better in the case of vegetables with the private sector taking a
major share of the production and supply of seeds of hybrids/improved varieties, and enforcement of
the provision of Seed Act by the government agencies. However, the gap between the demand and
supply of genuine quality material is too large to be met out of the present efforts. Therefore, in the
Eleventh Plan it is envisaged that a massive programme on planting material be initiated so that a
sound basis for further growth and development of this sector can be taken up. The government would
also consider setting up a Central Certification Agency and a Planting Material Authority to take care of
good quality planting material
There are at present 10 Central institutes with 27 regional stations, 12 NRC, 9 multi-disciplinary
institutes, 15 AICRPs with 223 centres, 1 full-fledged SAU on horticulture and forestry, 25 SAUs with
horticulture discipline, 5 network projects, 330 ad hoc research projects, and 29 revolving fund
schemes which are dealing with research on different horticultural crops. Besides the above, a large
number of CSIR laboratories and centres aided by Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre (BARC), and Indian Space Research Organization are also undertaking
basic and strategic research on horticultural crops. In spite of several research leads, there are still gaps
that require focused attention. Development of improved varieties/hybrids of fruits, vegetables,
plantation crops, medicinal and aromatic crops, flowers and ornamental crops, spices, cashew, oil palm
with high production potential, biotic and abiotic stress resistance is the need of the hour. There is also
need to evolve appropriate horticultural-based cropping systems for different agro-climatic areas.
Although the private sector has emerged as a major supplier of new varieties, there is a need to evolve
appropriate horticulture-based cropping systems for different agroclimatic areas.
Protected cultivation/greenhouse/low poly tunnels production techniques are now available for
growing cut-flowers and vegetables. Crops, such as tomato, cucurbits, cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber,
lettuce,onion, spinach, brinjal, pepper, turnip, radish, can be successfully grown achieving high quality
under protected cultivation. It has enabled farmers to produce vegetables in places such as Leh and also
off-season production of vegetables in north India. Technology for protected cultivation of flowers such
as rose, chrysanthemum, gerbera, and carnation in polyhouse, shade net, etc., has been perfected. Low-
cost greenhouse technology has also been developed for high quality flower production in hilly States
of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, and North Eastern States. These structures are
now used commercially for export of quality flower production in plains of Maharashtra andKarnataka.
CHAPTER II
A Commodity System Assessment Methodology for

Step 1: Assessing Postharvest Losses in Our Operation --CSAM
A postharvest loss assessment method known as Commodity Systems Assessment

Methodology (CSAM) was originally developed by Jerry LaGra ( 1990), and modified during its
implementation over the course of many years. The commodity system is made up of 26 components
that together account for all the steps associated with the production, postharvest handling and
marketing of any given commodity. Ideally. teams of 4 or 5 people work together while investigating a
commodity system. For example. a horticultural producer and a trader might be teamed up with a
marketing specialist and an extension agent. If you would like to conduct a simplified survey of losses
for your operation using CSAM you can form a "team" made up of yourself and at least one other
person, preferably someone with skills in areas ofhol1iculture complementary to your own.
CSAM Sample Questions
The following is a list of system components and sample questions for investigating the
commodity system within our operation. Begin by considering these questions in relation to one
commodity of interest and feel free to add any other questions about information we feel is pertinent to
our own situation. Some of the questions can be answered directly by we, extension personnel or others
who are knowledgable about the commodity. Often information can be found in the printed literature in
agricultural libraries. journals or trade magazines. Many questions however. require the team to visit
observe and ask questions of those who harvest. handle and market the product.
C SAM can assist a loss assessment team to determine I) the sources of postharvest
losses (who within the marketing chain is responsible). 2) the causes of those losses (what handling or
marketing practices are responsible) and 3) the economic value of the losses compared to the costs of
(current and proposed postharvest practices. Many times weight loss via water loss (wilting. shriveling.
loss of volume) will be directly related to loss of income. and quality changes (over-ripeness.
browning. decay) will also be determined to reduce profits when produce must be culled during
handling. These losses must be assessed in terms of the costs associated with adopting new postharvest
practices. We fill up the worksheet after reviewing the chapters of the CASM manual related to the
postharyest losses and quality problems we have uncovered in your assessment. Once we have
collected this kind of information, the handlers responsible for losses can be targeted with appropriate
information on the most cost effective improved postharvest technologies.
Application of the commodity systems assessment methodology
Pre-production
Relative importance of crop
Public sector policies
Relevant institutions
Facilitating services
Farmer organizations
Environmental requirements and constraints
Availability of planting material
Production
Farmers' cultural practices
Pests and diseases
Pre-harvest treatments
Production costs
Post-harvest
Crop harvest
Selection, sizing, grading, and inspection
Post-harvest chemical and physical treatment
Packaging
Cooling
Storage
Transport
Delays or waiting
Other operations
Agro-processing
Marketing and distribution

Marketing intermediaries
Market information
Consumer demand
Exports
Post-harvest and marketing costs
Step 2: Review and Evaluate Recommended Practices

We notice that many of the questions posed during a commodity system assessment are
directly related to the common practices that lead to high produce losses. quality and food safety
problems and loss of value. Others relate to the market value of the produce. and may depend upon the
season of production, packaging materials or consumer demand. By comparing the facts you have
gathered using CSAM with the recommended practices and small-scale technologies for postharvest
handling and marketing of the commodity which are presented in this report, you can make beneficial
changes to reduce fresh produce losses, maintain quality and nutritional value and ensure food safety.
Pre-production


Guava (Psidium guajava) is one of the important commercial fruits in India. It is the
fourth most important fruit after mango, banana and citrus.
Economic Importance
The fruit is a good source of vitamin C, pectin, calcium and phosphorus. The fruit is
used for the preparation of processed products like jams, jellies and nectar. Guava jelly puree is very
popular for its attractive purplish-red colour, pleasant taste and aroma. The puree can be used in juice,
cakes, puddings, sauces, icecream, jam and jelly. Fruits can be preserved by canning as halves or
quarters, with or without seed core (shells). Good quality salad can be prepared from the shell of ripe
fruits. Leaves of guava are used for curing diarrhoea and also for dyeing and tanning.
Area & Production

The area under guava cultivation in India increased by 64% from 94 thousand ha. in
1991-92 to 155 thousand ha. in 2001-02 whereas the production increased by 55% from 11 lakh tones
to 17 lakh tonnes. Major guava producing states include Uttar Pradesh, Bihar WestBengal,
Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
Cultivated Area under guava during 1997-98 to 2001-02
PERIOD AREA('000 Ha)
1997-98 151
1998-99 151
1990-00 151
2000-01 148
2001-02 155
Production trend of guava during 1997-98 to 2001-02

PERIOD PRODUCTION
('000 MT)
1997-98 1614
1998-99 1801
1990-00 1711
2000-01 1632
2001-02 1716
State-wise Area, Production & Productivity of Guava during 2001-02

State Area ('000 Ha.) Production ('000 MT) Productivity (MT/Ha.)
Bihar 27.1 324.6 12
Maharashtra 15.8 190.1 12
Karnataka 8.6 149.5 17.7
Uttar Pradesh 17.3 136.1 7.9
Source: Database of National Horticulture Board, Ministry of Agriculture , Govt. of India.
Analysis and Future Strategy

Guava fruits have very short shelf life making it difficult for distant marketing. For long
distance transportation, use of refrigerated transport and also proper packaging and cushioning material
is required to enhance the shelf life of fruits. The processing industry for guava needs to be developed
in order to lower the marketing costs and reduce wastage and losses in the production chain. Guavas
can be dehydrated and powdered. Two types of wine, viz. Guava juice wine and guava pulp wine can
be manufactured from ripe fruits. Good quality ready-to- serve beverage can be made from guava. The
seeds contain 5-13% oil which is rich in essential fatty acid and can be used in salad dressing.
Following policy reforms have been suggested in the Tenth Five Year Plan which can benefit
both farmers and food consumers (Planning Commission, 2002-07):
I) Allow and encourage state food corporations and private sector to operate freely
throughout the country.
II) Abolish octroi and all taxes/levies on food article.
III) Remove all restrictions on exports of agricultural commodities and agro-product.
IV) Lift ban on institutional ban credit and finance on all marketing and processing
activities.
V) Amend State Agricultural Produce Marketing Acts to allow direct purchase of grains and
other products from farmers by agro-produce trading, storage and processing companies.
VI) Allow foreign direct investment in food retailing.
(i) Horticulture Department, Jawahar Lal Nehru Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Jabalpur, Madhya
Pradesh-482004.
(ii) Department of Horticulture, Birsa Agriculture University, Kanke [Tel : (0651) 2230691]
(iii) Horticulture & Agro-forestry Reseach Programme (ICAR), Plandu, Ranchi, [Tel : (0651)
2260141, 2260207]
(iv) Uttar Pradesh State Horticulture Co-operative Federation, 18-B, Ashok Marg, Lucknow.
(v) Uttar Pradesh Council of Agriculture Research, Mandi Bhawan, Vibhuti Khand, Gomti
Nagar, Lucknow.
(vi) Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad, Uttar
Pradesh – 224229
(vii) Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Hassaraghatta Lake Post, Bangalore, Karnataka
– 560089.
(viii) Progressive Farmers of Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Jhakhand & West Bengal.
The facilitating services were classified by many researchers under the broad
classification of Physical function, Exchange function, Facilitative function. Some models were
proposed as Thomsen, Khols and Uhl, Huegy and Mitchell.
I) Physical function Storage and Warehousing

Grading
Processing
Transportation
II) Exchange function Buying
Selling
III) Facilitative function Standardization of Grades
Financing
Risk management
Dissemination of Market Information

Agro-Climatic Requirements
Guava is grown in both tropical and sub-tropical regions upto 1,500 m. above m.s.l. It
tolerates high temperatures and drought conditions prevalent in north India in summers. However, it is
susceptible to severe frost as it can kill the young plants. An annual rainfall of about 100 cm. Is
sufficient during the rainy season (July-September). Rainfall during the harvesting period deteriorates
the quality of fruits. Heavy clay to very light sandy soils having pH between 4.5-8.2 are suitable for
cultivation of guava. Good quality guavas are produced in river basins. The crop is sensitive to water-
logging.
Growing and Potential Belts

The state-wise growing belts are given in the following:
State Growing belts
Andhra Pradesh East Godavari, West Godavari, Guntur, Krishna,
Ananthapur, Medak,
Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur, Ujjain, Hoshangabad, Khargone,
Badwani, Indore, Shivpuri
Maharashtra Satara, Beed, Pune, Ahmed nagar, Aurangabad,
Amravati
Gujarat Bhavnagar, Ahmedabad
Uttar Pradesh Allahabad, Farukhabad, Aligarh, Badaun
Important guava varieties cultivated in Uttar Pradesh are given below :

L-49, Allahabad Safeda, Lucknow Safeda, Apple Colour, Chittidar, Red Fleshed,
Allahabad Surkha, Sardar, Mirzapuri Seedless, CISH-G-1, CISH-G-2, CISH-G-3
Planting Material
Plants are vegetatively propagated by budding, inarching or air layering. The producers
can get the planting material from own sources and relevant institution on time.
Planting Season
Planting is done during the rainy season. June-July is the ideal time for planting the
layers and seedling.
Production

Pests and diseases
Production costs

Land Preparation
Land is prepared during the summer season by ploughing, harrowing, leveling and
removing weeds.
Spacing
The plants are usually planted at a distance of 5-8 m. The exact planting distance is
decided according to variety, soil fertility and availability of irrigation facilities. Standard spacing is 6
m. x 6 m. accommodating 112 plants/acre. By increasing the plant density, productivity can be
increased. In the model scheme, a spacing of 6 m. x 6 m. with a population of 110 plants per acre has
been considered which was commonly ovserved in areas covered during a field study.
Planting Method
Square system of planting is generally adopted. Pits of 1x1x1m. size are dug before the
monsoon and filled with a mixture of farmyard manure and soil.
Nutrition
Time of fertilizer application depends on the region and crop variety. In north India,
fertilizer is applied in the first week of May for rainy season crop and in first week of July for winter
season crop. The plants are manured twice a year, first during June-July and second by during October.
A fertilizer dose of 600 g. N, 400 g. K in Northern Region, is recommended.
Irrigation
Guava is mostly grown under rainfed condition. During winter season, irrigation is
provided at an interval of 20-25 days and in the summer months it is provided at an interval of 10-15
days by the ring method.
Drip Irrigation
Drip irrigation has proved to be very beneficial for guava. About 60% of the water used
for irrigation is saved. Besides substantial increase in size and number of fruits is
observed
Pests and diseases

Insect Pests
The insect pests mostly observed are fruit fly, stem borer, bark eating caterpillar, thrips,
nematodes, mealy bug and scale insect. Spraying with malathion (2ml.), phosphamidon (0.5ml. per ltr.
of water), monocrotophos, dimethoate etc. has been found to be effective in most cases. Apart from that
adoption of suitable cultural practices and destruction of infected plants needs to be done.
Diseases
The main diseases reported are wilt, fruit canker, fruit rot, anthrachose and grey leaf
spot. Application of Carbendazim / Thiophanate methyl (1g./l) or Kavach / Mancozeb (2g/l) depending
upon the type of infection has been found to be effective in controlling the diseases.
Disorders
Fruit drop is a serious disorder in guava resulting in about 45-65% loss due to different physiological
and environmental factors. Spraying of GA has been found to be effective in reducing the fruit drop in
guava.
Bronzing of guava has been observed in places having low soil fertility and low pH. Affected
plants show purple to red specks scattered all over the leaves. Under aggravated condition, total
defoliation and fruits characterized with brown coloured patterns on the skin, with reduced yield are
noticed.
Foliar application of 0.5% diammonium phosphate and zinc sulphate in combination at weekly
intervals for two months reduces the bronzing in guava. Pre-flowering sprays with 0.4% boric acid and
0.3% zinc sulphate increase the yield and fruit size. Spraying of copper sulphate at 0.2 to 0.4% also
increases the growth and yield of guava.
Pruning
Pruning of plants in young stage is essential in order to build a strong framework and to
avoid weak crotches. Fruiting trees are pruned to check overcrowding in the orchard. The plants are
trained as low headed trees to facilitate multiple hand pickings. Pruning is usually recommended after
harvesting or in spring. Summer pruning is generally avoided as the plants get damaged due to sun
burn.
Intercultural Operations
Weeds are usually removed by shallow cultivation. Green manuring is usually done
during rainy season. Pre-emergence use of diuron (1.6 kg./ha.), oryzalin (1.67 litres/ha.), simazine (1.6
kg./ha.) or atrazine (1.6 kg./ha.) has been found to be effective in control of weeds in guava orchards.
Mulching
Dry leaves or straw are used as mulching material. Mulching can also be done either
with black polycthylene sheet or with organic materials. Mulching the soil at least twice a year helps in
conserving moisture and improving the fruit quality.
Inter-cropping
Leguminous crops or vegetable can be grown as intercrops during the first three years of
planting provided irrigation facility is available.
Growth Regulators
The winter crop is much superior in quality compared to the monsoon crop. Farmers
often reduce monsoon crop by deblossoming to get a higher price. This is done by growth regulators
like maleic hydrazide on spring flush of flowers. Growth regulators like NAA, NAD and 2, 4D have
been found to be effective in thinning of flowers and also manipulating the cropping season.
Production Cost
Economics of a one acre model
High quality commercial cultivation of the crop by using improved planting material and
drip irrigation leads to multiple benefits viz.
Synchronized growth, flowering and harvesting;
Reduction in variation of off-type and non-fruit plants; Improved fruit quality;
Early maturity;
Increase in average productivity;
Economy in water application and high water use efficiency;
High fertilizer use efficiency;
Minimum incidence of pests and diseases.
Costs
A one acre plantation of the crop is a highly viable proposition. The cost components of
such a model along with the basis for costing are exhibited in a summary is given in the figure below.
The project cost works out to around Rs.1.25 lakhs / Acre.
Figure-I : COST OF PROJECT

Project Cost: (Amount in Rs.)
Sl. Component Proposed

No. Expenditure
1 Cultivation Expenses
(i) Cost of planting material 2200
(ii) Manures & fertilizers 5000
(iii) Insecticides & pesticides 2000
(iv) Cost of Labour 7700
(v) Others, if any, (Power) 3600
20500
2. Irrigation
(i) Tube-well/submersible pump 40000
(ii) Cost of Pipeline -
(iii) Others, if any, please specify -
40000
3 Cost of Drip/Sprinkler 20000
4 Infrastructure
(i) Pump house & Labour shed 10000
(ii) Labour room & godown -
(iii) Agriculture Equipments 1000
(iv) Others, if any (Drying platform) -
5 Land Development
(i) Soil Leveling 4000
(ii) Digging -
(iii) Fencing 29500
(iv) Others, if any, please specify -
33500
6 Land, if newly purchased (Please indicate the year) @

Grand Total 1,25,000
@ Cost of newly purchased land will be limited to 10% of the total project cost.
The major components of the model are:

Land Development: (Rs.4.0 thousand): This is the labour cost of shaping and dressing
the land site.
Fencing (Rs.29.50 thousand): It is necessary to guard the orchard by suitable fencing to
safeguard the valuable produce from poaching.
Irrigation Infra-structure (Rs.40 thousand): For effective working with drip irrigation
system, it is necessary to install a bore well with diesel/electric pumpset and motor. This is part cost of
tube-well.
Drip Irrigation & Fertigation System (Rs.20 thousand): This is average cost of one acre
drip system for guava inclusive of the cost of fertigation equipment. The actual cost will vary
depending on location, plant population and plot geometry.
Equipment/Implements (Rs.1.0 thousand): For investment on improved manually
operated essential implements a provision of another Rupees one thousand is included.
Building and Storage (Rs.10 thousand): A one acre orchard would require minimally a
labour shed and a grading/packing room cum pump house.
Cost of cultivation (Rs.20.50 thousand): This is to cover costs of land preparation and
sowing operations, planting material, inputs and power
Labour cost has been put at an average of Rs. 70 per man-day. The actual cost will vary
from location to location depending upon minimum wage levels or prevailing wage levels for skilled
and unskilled labour.
Recurring Production Cost:

Recurring costs consist of mainly planting material, land preparation, inputs .application
(FYM, fertilizers, liming material, plant growth regulators, plant protection chemicals etc.), labour cost
on application of inputs & inter-cultural and other farm operations, power, harvesting, packing and
transportation charges. Inter cropping upto 4th year would also be taken in the project.
The total development cost in the first two years and recurring production cost from year 3
onwards for a one acre orchard works out as below:
Years (Rs.Thousand)
Year 1 21.00
Year 2 25.50
Year 3 30.00
Year 4 32.10
Year 5 24.90
Year 6 24.90
Year 7 25.90
Year 8 onwards 27.00
Post-harvest
Harvesting
Packaging
Cooling
Storage
Transport
Delays or waiting
Other handlings
Agro-processing
Harvesting
The plants start bearing at an early age of 2-3 years but they attain full bearing capacity at the
age of 8-10 years. The yield of a plant depends on its age, cropping pattern and the cultural practices. A
10 year old plant yields about 100 to 150 kg. of fruits every year. If both rainy and winter season crops
are taken, more yields may be obtained in the rainy season.
Guavas are harvested throughout the year (except during May and June) in one or the other
region of the country. However, peak harvesting periods in north India are August for rainy season
crop, November- December for winter season crop and March-April for spring season crop. In the
mild climatic conditions of the other parts of the country, the peak harvesting periods are not so
distinct.
Guava fruits develop best flavour and aroma only when they ripen on tree. In most of the
commercial varieties, the stage of fruit ripeness is indicated by the colour development
which is usually yellow. For local markets, fully yellow but firm fruits are harvested,
whereas half yellow fruits are picked for distant markets. Fruits are harvested selectively
by hand along with the stalk and leaves.

Grading
Fruits are graded on the basis of their weight, size and colour.
Postharvest chemical and physical treatment

Freshly harvested guava fruit were treated with a fungicide and skin coating (mixed sucrose
esters of fatty acids) and stored at 4.5°C for different periods.
Harvested, mature-green guava fruit were coated with cellulose- or carnauba-based emulsions to
compare the effect on fruit ripening and quality of ripened fruit. Coatings containing 2% or 4%
hydroxypropylcellulose significantly slowed softening an average of 35% or 45%, respectively. A 5%
carnauba formulation slowed softening by 10% to 30% and was most effective at reducing weight loss.
Storage
The fresh fruit has a short shelf life and distant marketing can be done only if it is properly
stored. The shelf life can be extended upto 20 days by keeping them at low temperature of 50 C and 75-
85% relative humidity. It can be stored for about 10 days at room temperature (180-230 C) in polybags
providing a ventilation of 0.25%.
Packing
The fruits are packed in baskets made from locally available plant material. For distant markets,
wooden or corrugated fibre board boxes are used along with cushioning materials viz. paddy straw, dry
grass, guava leaves or rough paper. Good ventilation is necessary to check build up of heat. Guava is a
delicate fruit requiring careful handling during harvesting and transportation. Guavas being perishable
in nature are immediately sent after harvesting in the local market and only a small quantity is being
sent to the distant markets.
Transportation
Road transport by trucks / lorries is the most convenient mode of transport due to easy approach
from orchards to the market.
Market information
Consumer demand
Exports
Marketing Costs
Marketing channels for fruits vary from commodity to commodity and from producers to
producers. In rural areas and small towns, many producers performs the function of retail sellers. Large
producers directly sell their produce to the wholesalers or processing firms. Some of the common
marketing channels for fruits are:
I) Producers – Consumers
II) Producers – Primary wholesalers – Retailers/Hawkers – Consumers
III) Producers – Processors
IV) Producers – Primary wholesalers – Processors
V) Producers – Primary wholesalers – Secondary wholesalers – Retailers/Hawkers -
Consumers
VI) Producers – Local assemblers – Primary wholesalers – Retailers/Hawkers – Consumers
An important feature of marketing channels for fruits and vegetables is that these commodities
just move to some selected large cities/centers and subsequently are distributed to urban or semi-urban
markets. The wholesale market of these urban centers work as transit points and thus they play an
important role in the entire marketing channel for fruit.
Market information
Market information may be broadly defined as a communication or reception of knowledge or
intelligence. It includes all the facts, estimates, opinions and other information which affect the
marketing of goods and services.
Market information is useful for all sections of society which are concerned with marketing. Its
importance may be judged from the point of view of individual groups. These groups are:
I) Farmers – Producers
II) Market Middlemen
III) General Economy
IV) Government
Types of Market Information:

I) Market Intelligence: This includes information relating to such facts as the prices that
prevailed in the past and market arrivals over time.
II) Market News: This term refers to current information about prices, arrivals and changes
in market conditions.
The Market intelligence scheme at present covered 137 agricultural commodities and 1300
markets of the country. The market intelligence centers set up under the scheme work under the
supervision of Directorate of Agricultural Marketing or Directorate of Economics and Statistics of the
states.
The importance of flow of market information has considerably increased in recent years. This
is particularly so in the case of fruits and vegetables where fluctuations and inter-spatial price
differences are considerably more. It is in this connection that the Market Planning and Design Center
(MPDC) in the Directorate of Marketing and Inspection has developed a model of market information
service.
The National Horticulture Board set up under the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India
has also given emphasis on information service for fruits and vegetables. The Board has provided
computers in 21 important fruits and vegetables markets. These markets are interlinked through
computerized machines connected to a computer in Central Data Processing Unit at Delhi.
Consumer demand
The demand for the commodity will be maintained in the consumer by keeping their faith intact,
in this process the quality, standard, price, availability, etc should be maintained.
Food product have the distinction of meeting an essential need of all the consumers, irrespective
of their economic and social status. Protecting the consumer's interest relating to food products means
providing him wholesome, hygienically prepared and pre-tested quality products to enable him to lead
a healthy life.
Various acts were framed by the government from time to time to protect the consumers.
I) The Agricultural Produce (Grading & Marketing) Act. 1937
II) The Emblems and name ( prevention of improper use) Act. 1950
III) The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act. 1954
IV) The Food Product Order, 1955
V) The Packaged Commodities Order, 1975
VI) The Consumer's Protection act 1986, 1991, 1993, 2002
Exports
Guava fruits are consumed either fresh or processed. Only 0.05% of the produce is
being exported to foreign countries. U.S.A., U.A.E., Saudi Arabia, Netherlands, Kuwait, Jordan etc. are
the major countries importing guava from India. The trend in export of guava from India
Export of fresh guava during 1999-2000 to 2001-02

Periods Tonnes
1999-00 2102
2000-01 670
2001-02 890
Marketing Costs
In the marketing of agricultural commodities, the differences between the price paid by the
consumer and the price received by the producer for an equivalent quantity of farm produce is often
known as farm-retail spread or price spread. This is termed as marketing margin. The total margin
includes:
I) The cost involved in moving the product from the point of production to the point of
consumption.
II) Profits of various market functionaries involved in moving the produce from initial point
of production till it reaches the ultimate consumer.
Three methods are generally used in the computation of marketing margins and cost.
I) Lot Method
II) Sum of Average Gross Margins Method.
III) Comparison of Prices at Successive Levels of Marketing.
For this commodity GUAVA, Chasing of Lot or Consignment Method being used because here
the time lag between the commodity entering the marketing system and the time of final consumption
is very small.
IN LOT METHOD:
A specific lot or consignment is selected and chased through the marketing system until
it reaches the ultimate consumer. The cost and margin involved at each stage are assessed.
ONION
Preproduction


Inspite of being the second largest onion producing country, India has very low productivity of
11 t/ha. Maharashtra is the leading state accounting for more than 23% of total area (92600 ha) and
27.5% of the production with an average yield of 12.1 t/ha. The total area under onion is about
3,95,500 ha with 4.08 million t of production in the country. Onions are used either as salad or
condiment or for culinary preparation with other vegetables. It has good medicinal value. Onion
contains several anti-cancer agents which have shown to prevent cancer in animals. The beneficial
compound called Quercetin present in onion has shown to be a powerful antioxidant. The bulb is rich in
sulphur containing organic compounds which imparts the characteristic pungency and aroma. S-
alk(en)y1-L-cysteine sulphoxides formed major portion of total organic sulphur.
In India, only fresh market onions are grown and that too mostly red onions. White onions are
grown on commercial scale in few states – Maharashtra, Gujarat, that too restricted to few districts.
Due to lack of adequate infrastructure, non existence of pre and postharvesting technological inputs as
well as dearth of dedicated R & D efforts, the state has only remained as producer of red onions for
fresh market. Red onion is not suitable for dehydration and export primarily due to poor quality, low
productivity, low solids, low pungency level and high reducing sugars. Dehydrator onions are mostly
white, having high solids > 17%; even upto 22-26% total soluble solids (T.S.S) in some hybrids;
comparatively low moisture content < 84%, globe shaped, having small root base with a minimum 70
mm diameter . These onions, usually have longer shelf – life, free from diseases. Many white varieties
and hybrids suitable for dehydration are cultivated in Europe and North-America. But they are mostly
long-day ones suitable for temperate and sub-tropical long-day conditions.
Onion is most widely used vegetable in the world after potato. It is used in almost every food.
Especially the onion is widely used in the foods of South Asia. It can be said as cultural food item for
the south Asians. Due to this reason onion is being cultivated on the vest area of country as compared
to other vegetables.
Major producing area:

In India- maharashtra, Gujarath, Rajasthan ,M.P, Haryana
In U.P- Ujwa , Deoria, Varanasi

Following policy reforms have been suggested in the Tenth Five Year Plan which can benefit
both farmers and food consumers (Planning Commission, 2002-07):
I) Allow and encourage state food corporations and private sector to operate freely
throughout the country.
II) Abolish octroi and all taxes/levies on food article.
III) Remove all restrictions on exports of agricultural commodities and agro-product.
IV) Lift ban on institutional ban credit and finance on all marketing and processing
activities.
V) Amend State Agricultural Produce Marketing Acts to allow direct purchase of grains and
other products from farmers by agro-produce trading, storage and processing companies.
VI) Allow foreign direct investment in food retailing.
i) Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner, Rajasthan
ii) Central Institute for Post-harvest Engineering & Technology, Ludiana, Punjab
iii) Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Banglore, Karnatka
iv) Indian Institute of Vegetables Research, Varanasi, Uttar pradesh
v) NAFED is the main marketing board for Onion in India.
vi) NRC for Onion & Garlic, Rajgurunagar, Pune, Maharashtra
The facilitating services were classified by many researchers under the broad classification of
Physical function, Exchange function, Facilitative function. Some models were proposed as Thomsen,
Khols and Uhl, Huegy and Mitchell.
I) Physical function Storage and Warehousing

Grading
Processing
Transportation
II) Exchange function Buying
Selling
III) Facilitative function Standardization of Grades
Financing
Risk management
Dissemination of Market Information

Climate
Onion grows well in climate with extremes of high or low temperatures. Even though it
can be grown under wide range of climatic conditions, 20-25 C is optimal for onion seed germination.
For vegetative growth lower temperatures, (daily mean 13-21 C ) and short photo period are required
while relatively higher temperatures ( daily mean 15 – 25 C ) andlong photo period are required for
bulb development. Daily mean above 36 C affect bulb development. Rabi season is most suitable.
Season
Both Kharif ( rainy season July-Dec) and Rabi ( winter season Oct-Mar) crops have
been raised. While some of the local varieties have been tried in both the seasons, the exotic varieties
and hybrids are cultivated during Rabi only. While the vegetative growth was excellent, torpedo or
bottle shaped bulbs were formed which were not marketable. As indicated earlier, the exotic varieties
were rich in total soluble solids ranging between 15 and 18 %, on an average.
Varieties
Successful onion production depends on selecting varieties that will grow, bulb, and
mature satisfactorily at the given temperatures, day-lengths and other environmental factors. Onion
germplasm in the country has a narrow base. Each onion variety has a critical day length for
inducement of bulbing, regardless of temperature or plant size. Short day varieties require day lengths
of 12 – 13 hrs while long day varieties require 14-16 hrs. If a variety is exposed to less than the
necessary day length, there will be high percentage of non-bulbing plants. On the other hand, long day
and high temperature conditions induce premature bulbing in the nursery stage itself. The varieties
commonly grown in India are short-day ones.
Seed production
Onion is a biennial plant. Bulbs/plants are produced by sowing the seed and the
harvested bulbs after vernalization ( winter chilling) planted in the cool season to produce seeds. Seeds
crop is undertaken for the local varieties. While efforts are being made to produce seeds of introduced
open pollinated variety in cooler regions as the temperature is the most influential factor affecting
onion production.
Vernalization is required to initiate flower stalk development. Dry, warm weather from
flowering to seed set is necessary ( March-April).
The harvested bulbs are planted in the seed production field during late November-early
December at 30X30 cm, on 1 mtr wide, raised beds. The bulb to seed method requires the same cultural
practises as a commercial bulb crop. Medium size mother bulbs 5-6 cm in diameter used for planting.
Twins, splits, bolted bulbs, thick-necked etc. are avoided. Honey-bees are the agents of cross
pollination. The seed-crop harvested when about 5% of the fruits are open and showing black seed. The
plants dried and threshed, then milled to remove debris and impurities. Drying of seeds done below 35
C and sealed in moisture-proof containers.
Yield
Usually 450 kg seed yield per acre under good management.
Planting
Onion is cultivated as an intercrop in newly established mango plantation in between
two rows of Mangoes which were planted at 15 feet in rows 15 feet apart. Three methods of planting
onion was followed.
1.Transplanting Method
Transplanting by hand ensures more complete stands; weed control is more effective.
Seedlings were raised in the nursery on raised beds @ 2-2.5 kg seeds/acre and the seedlings 15-20 cms
height, transplanted after about 45 days. The seedling are planted at 10X10 cm on the beds. About 2.80
– 3.0 lakh plant population is maintained to get optimum yield. About 2-2.5 kg seeds will produce
seedlings raised from 1 acre nursery. Cost of raising 1 acre onion nursery for Kharif crop using local
varieties will be about Rs. 20000/- and that for Rabi crop using V12 or V11 varieties will be about Rs.
40000/-
2. Direct sowing in the field by planter

In each bed, 12 rows of onion seeds were sown at a distance of 10 cm by four planting
heads, using ' Gandy' precision planter drawn by tractor. A final stand of 50-60 % of the seed can be
expected with quality seeds. The shallow planting of onion seeds 1/2” deep requires precision
placement. Onion seedlings are not strong; In shallow soil, crusting can interfere with emergence and
cause poor stands.
3. Hand-dibbling
Seeds were dibbled on every third bed as the planter cannot work on these beds with
mangoes. Thinning of seeds carried out to maintain uniform stand and population of 2.80 lakhs/acre.
4. Planting of Setts
To harvest onions early in Dec-Jan, setts can be planted. Onion plants at the stage of
development of bulbs of 25 mm dia. were removed and the bulbs stored in cold store after removing
the leaves. These setts are planted in September to get early harvest of bulbs. The initial sprouting and
vegetative growth was good, and the bulbs were harvested after 3 months from setts planting to harvest,
of bulbs are required; however early harvest during the seasons compensates by the high price received
for the crop.
Amongst the three method of onion planting tried, the conventional transplanting method is
better although the labour involved is high. In the dibbling method, intially the labour involved is less,
but additional labour is needed for thinning. In machine sowing of onion, the germination percentage
will not be optimum if the soil is not uniformly levelled. Additional labour is also required for thinning.
In the later two methods, to maintain the uniformity in stand the thinned seedlings are to be
transplanted in separate plots, it is observed that the depth of planting should be half inch. If it is more,
the bulb formation is affected, if it is less the seedlings are exposed. The later two methods are suitable
for latesowing as the total duration of the crop is reduced by two weeks.
Production

Pests and diseases
Production costs

Site selection and soil requirements
The selected land should be nearly level, with uniform soil texture and structures; firm
and free from clods; with assured irrigation; should be free from weeds as onions do not compete
against weeds. Onions are grown on all types of soil such as sandy loam, silt loam and medium deep
friable soils with clay fraction not more than 30-35%. Soils should be rich in humus with good water-
holding capacity. Onion is sensitive to high acidity or alkalinity; prefers pH 6.5 – 7.0. Electrical
conductivity above, 2 mohms give poor stand, develop poor root system and stunted vegetative growth.
Land preparation
Deep ploughing in summer was followed by two harrowings. Green manuring with
Dhaincha was done in most of the lands. The dhaincha seeds were sown in late June and ploughed back
into the soil by mid-August. After harrowing, the soil was worked with a rotavator. Raised beds of 15
cm height and 1 mtr width and convenient length were prepared by a ridger. A gap of 0.5 m was
provided between two beds to facilitate manual transplanting, weeding operations etc.
Irrigation
Micro irrigation is described as regulated and slow application of irrigation water
through emitters or orifices at frequent intervals near the root zone of plant, over a longer period of
time. Water is applied at a low rate over a long period of time at frequent intervals through a low
pressure delivery system. Emitters or drippers are installed at predetermined spacing on LLDPE laterals
of various diameters. This method maintains optimum moisture level at the root zones for longer period
thus preventing moisture stress or shock associated with other methods of irrigation. This promotes
optimum plant performance resulting in higher yield and better quality produce. Crop Quality
improvement and early maturity is a result of even growth and ripening. Water saving is effected upto
55% as all percolation and evaporation losses are eliminated. Water is applied directly in the root zone,
wetting only a fraction of the soil; interspace between the row of plants is not allowed to go beyond the
root zone. Disease control is enhanced under micro irrigation system, because the soil moisture and
chemical additive levels cab be closely controlled.
Water is distributed more uniformly, permitting efficient water-use and distribution of

fertilizers. Studies showed that plant height, yield, fresh weight and the total soluble solid content of
the bulb, have a positive relation with the quantity of irrigation water. Irrigation at 60000 l/ha/day had a
marked effect on the growth and yield attributes, resulting in a significant increase in bulb weight.
Quality parameters such as TSS and size of the bulb, have been found to be related to irrigation
quantity. TSS content, increased with reduced quantity of irrigation water.
Fertigation
Application of water soluble fertilizers/liquid fertilizers through drip irrigation is called
Fertigation. It is advanced method of fertilizers application.
Liquid/Water soluble fertilizers
In traditional method, fertilizers are normally used as basal dose and
subsequently as top dressing. The full year requirement is split into 1, 2 or 3 doses and these are
applied in bulk. Majority of fertilizers go waste due to leaching, volataization and fixation in the soil.
The traditional fertilizers available in the market are not fully soluble in water and contain insoluble
impurities and therefore cannot be applied through the drip system.Liquid and Water Soluble Solid
(WSS) fertilizers can be applied through dripirrigation system. Ventury, Fertilizers tank, Fertigation
pump are some fertigation equipments.
Advantage of using Liquid/WSS fertilizers through MIS, at appropriate stages of growth

ensures a regular flow of both water and nutrients resulting in increased growth rates and higher yields.
Fertigation can be done at predetermined schedule according to the developmental and physiological
stage of the crop. It improves availability of nutrients and their uptake by roots. Since the fertilizers is
greatly diluted in irrigation water, it eliminates the danger of toxicity to the root system. Labour and
fertilizers saving of upto 20-30% and 30-50% respectively is achieved and the fertilizers use efficiency
is also enhanced.
Onions require higher levels of N, P and K fertilizers for maximum yields than most
other vegetable crop. The shallow roots and dense population of onion make them responsive to
fertilizers. Besides nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, application of zinc, manganese and iron gave
good response.
Green Manuring & Vermicompost

During rainy season late June – early July green manure crops like Dhaincha
(Sesbania aculiata) Sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea) were gown. Seed rate is 20-25 kg/acre. When the
plants are about 40-45 days old, the green manure are to be incorporated into the soil. Decomposition
of the biomass is quite rapid in about two weeks. Application of vermicompost @ 2t/acre as basal dose
before transplanting, improves the texture and water holding capacity of the soil besides being rich in
essential nutrient elements.
Pests and diseases

Bolting
Bolting is the initiation of flowering by the formation of seed stalk. It is highly
undesirable in bulb production, but in seed production, early uniform multiple bolting is desired. Each
variety has its own bolting characteristic. Low temperature during growth period induce bolting. Larger
plants are more likely to bolt than smaller plants of the same age. Bolting was observed during Rabi
1997 due to prolonged rain and cold weather. Bolting even upto 25-30% is common in most of the
local varieties. Due to bolting weight of the bulb which reduces the quality of the bulb and dehydrated
product. Bolting is not common during Kharif, buts its intensity is more
I) During Rabi season
ii) When irrigation is given after prolonged water stress
iii)When there is sudden drop in the temperature
iv)Due to imbalance in nutrition-higher and/or late application of nitrogen.
Thickneck
Occurrence of thickneck with soft bulb is common in local and exotic varieties as a
reaction to changed environment with different day-length, cold temperature, unusual rains etc.
Thickneck reduces the quality of the bulbs. Too much nitrogen late in the season can cause thickneck
and delay in maturity.
Twins/Doubles
The developing bulbs split due to irrigation after a long break, delayed application of
nitrogen or higher temperature during the development of bulbs. The marketable quality of the bulbs is
reduced due to splits. Such bulbs are also not preferred for dehydration/pocessing.
Premature Bulb Development

Once the critical day length is achieved bulbing is initiated. Onions bulbs develop more
quickly as temperature increases. When short day onions are grown under long-day conditions or vice-
versa, bulbing occurs early in the leaf formation stages. Very small bulbs are formed because of
insufficient foliage. Premature bubling was common in the nursery stage itself.
Greening Of Outer Scales

Green colour of the outer scales of bulb in local varieties are common when the
temperature increases during the later stages of bulb development. Formation of Chlorophyll in the
outer fleshy scale may occur when onions are allowed to cure too long or when shoulders of bulb are
exposed to sunlight in the field. Excess and late season application of nitrogen enhance greening of
onions.
Soil Borne Diseases

Damping off commonly caused by Pythium sp. under conditions of poor soil drainage,
excessive rain. Roots of infected onion seedlings initially exhibit a greyish, water soaked appearance.
Infected seedlings turn yellow, quickly collapse and die. Soil drenching with fungicides, Bordeaux
mixture 0.5%, Dithane M-45 at 0.25% are recommended. Onions should not be grown continuously in
the same seed beds and fields. Crop rotation will be beneficial in reducing root diseases. Soil
solarization for at least 1-1/2 months with intense solar radiation eliminates most of the soil-borne
pathogens.
Foliar Diseases
Purple blotch caused by Alternaria porri
Oval-shaped tan or deep brown water soaked lesions develop on the leaf blades. As
lesions enlarge, they zonate and turn purple. After a few large lesions form in a leaf, they coalace and
girdle the leaf; in advanced stages the leaves dry and die. Similar lesions may form on flower stalks of
seed onions. As a result seeds do not develop or are shriveled.
Control
Cultural practises include adoption long-rotations and reduced plant density. Regular
sprays of Dithane M-45 reduce disease severity. Purple blotch is difficult to control as bulbs approach
maturity.
Leaf blight and stalk rot caused by Stemphylium vesicarium

The individual lesions are small, light brown and water-soaked. These soon develop into
elongated spindle shaped diffusate spots often reaching the leaftips. Spots coalasce into extended
patches, blighting the leaves. Similar symptoms may also occur on the infloresence stalks.
Control
The same culture and fungicide practices recommended for the purple blotch. Twister,
also known as anthracnose: caused by Glomeralla cingulate. Curling, twisting and chlorosis of leaves
are the common symptoms, the neck may be elongated, roots stunted, bulbs are slender, do not develop
into optimum size. Control can be achieved by sprays of Dithane/Copper formulations. The crop
residue should be destroyed to reduce the initial inoculum.
Diseases Of Bulbs
Black mold caused by Aspergillus niger, sporadically occurs in the field, common after
the harvest if bulbs under storage. Appearance of black spore masses between the outer scales of the
bulb, tend to form along the veins in black streaks. Diseases development is favoured by high
temperature and humidity. Thorough curing, good ventilation and cool temperature below 15 C in
storage minimizes the loss due to mold.
Soft Rot Caused by Erwinia carotvara
Soft rot is common during storage or transit. It develops in the field too, after
heavy rains before harvest. The pathogens is wide-spread in soil and soil irrigation water. The affected
fleshy scale tissues are water-soaked, pale yellow to light brown and become soft. As the rot progress,
the whole interior of the bulb may break-down, and a watery, foul-smelling viscous liquid ooze from
the neck if squeezed.
Control
Onion tops should be matured before harvest. Only well-dried onions should be stored
preferably at 0.2 C and less than 65 % RH with good ventillation.
Insects
Onion thrips, Thrips tabaci
The most common and serious pest in onion production. During dry, warm weather,
thrips feed on leaf surfaces and leaves become white. Preventive measures include destruction of weeds
as they play alternate hosts. Dodder (Cuscuta sp.) a plant parasite causes menance in onion plantation.
As soon as the infestation is noticed, the parasite should be removed and burnt.
Weed Management
Small seed weight, an inherently low relative growth rate, a shallow root system of
comparatively slow density and a canopy of short upright leaves indicate that the onion plant is slow to
establish and very susceptible to weed competition. Onions are poor competitors against weeds. The
weeds are most serious problem in Kharif crop. The most troublesome weeds observed are Acalypha
sp. Achyranthes aspera, Amaranthus viridis, Anagallis arvensis, Boerhavia diffusa (Punarnava),
Chenopodium album, Euphorbia sp. (Dudhia) etc. Application of Oxyfluorten (Goal) with knapsack
sprayer using WFN 62 or WFN 40 nozzles 2 to 3 days immediately before or after planting (at 200-300
ml/acre) in 250 to 300 L of water found effective as a preemergence weedicide. In non-cropped areas
like outer bunds, glyphosate (Roundup) at 2L/acre was found to be highly effective as a postemergence
weedicide. Application of Goal only reduced the density of weed population. Manual weeding was
necessary. The growth rate of weeds being faster, any delay in weeding caused damage and shock to
onion roots. It was observed that minimum of three weedingswere necessary for the Kharif onions
while for Rabi, atleast two weedings were necessary.
Production Cost
Costs of growing onions have increased considerably over the past few years. Efforts are made
to improve efficiency of cost production and increase the yield per acre. The cost for culture are about
the same over the period of time. The market price of onions is greatly influenced by the supply.
Example: Input Cost for bulb-onion production ( 1 ha ) Rabi V12
Particulars Rs.
Seed/Seedlings 8796
Land preparation 2,149
Fertilization ( Liquid), Vermicompost etc. 12,041
Pesticides/Weedicides & spraying ( 3 + 1) 5,669
Labour – transplanting Weeding & harvesting 11,930
Irrigation water 4,718
Interest on drip system 2,816
Land rent 5,000
Total 53119
Returns 1,18,500
Post-harvest
Harvesting
Packaging
Cooling
Storage
Transport
Delays or waiting
Other handlings
Agro-processing
Harvesting
The duration of local varieties is usually about 5 ½ months i.e. about 45 days in the nursery and
4 months after transplanting in the field. If sown by planter directly in the field the crop is ready by
about 15 days early than the transplanted ones. When the bulbs mature, the green tops weaken just
above the bulb and fall over (neckfall). When neckfall begins, irrigation is stopped. When more than
50% of the tops are down, the bulbs are harvested along with leaves by hand-pulling from beds. The
harvested plants with bulbs are allowed to cure in the field for about 3-4 days. If harvested during
March-April, the plants are arranged in rows in such a way that the bulbs are covered with the leaves of
onion plants in the stake. After 3-4 days of curing, the roots and tops are clipped and filled in bags of
35-40 kg capacity.
Yield
The average yield of local varieties ( Jalgaon White, Safal ) ranged between 8 –13.5
t/acre. The yield per acre of exotic varieties ( V11, V12 etc ) were higher, ranged between 10-18 t/acre,
depending upon the soil conditions and date of planting. The hybrid BSS 214 recorded maximum yield
of 20 t/acre, but keeping the quality extremely poor.

Grading
Onions after curing are graded manually before they go in to storage or for marketing.
The thick neck, bolted, doubles, injured and decayed bulbs are picked out so also misshapen small
bulbs. Sorting and grading is done after storage also to fetch better price. The outer dry scales usually
rub off during the grading process, giving the onions a better appearance for market. It has been
experienced that if storage is arranged after proper sorting and grading losses in storage are reduced.
For local market the onions are graded based on their size.
Extra large onion (>6 cm dia.)
Medium (4-6 cm dia.)
Small (2-4 cm dia.)
Curing
The only post-harvest treatment required for the long storage of bulb onions is a thorough
curing of the bulbs. Curing is a drying process intended to dry off the necks and outer scale leaves of
the bulbs to prevent the loss of moisture and the attack by decay during storage. The essentials for
curing are heat and good ventilation, preferably with low humidity. This dries out the neck and the two
or three outer layers of the bulb. The outermost layer, which may be contaminated with soil, usually
falls away easily when the bulbs are cured, exposing the dry under-layer, which should have an
attractive appearance. Onions are considered cured when neck is tight and the outer scales are dried
until they rustle. This condition is reached when onions have lost 3 to 5% of their weight. If onions
cannot be dried in the field, they can be collected in trays, which are then stacked in a warm, covered
area with good ventilation. In cool, damp climates, onions in bulk ventilated stores are dried with
artificial heat blown through the bulk at a duct temperature of 30 degrees Celsius. Onions can also be
cured by tying the tops of the bulbs in bunches and hanging them on a horizontal pole in a well-
ventilated shades. Curing in shade improves bulb colour and reduces losses significantly during storage
Packaging
Packing should be small for easy handling during transit and may vary according to market
demand. Onions are packed in jute (hessian) bags for transporting to yard or brought as loose. For safe
handling, 40 kg open mesh jute bags having 200-300 g weight should be used in domestic market. For
export, common big onions are packed in 5-25 kg size open mesh jute bags. Bangalore Rose and
multiplier onions are packed for export in 14-15 kg wooden baskets. Nylon net bags, when used for
packing have resulted in less storage loss because of good ventilation
Storage
Proper storage of bulbs is necessary both for consumption and also for seed production. Onions
should not be stored unless adequately dried either in the field or by artificial means. It is necessary to
dry the neck tissue and outer scales until they rustle when handled otherwise the bulbs will rot in
storage. Sprouting in onion is controlled by temperature. The temperature between 10-25°C increases
sprouting. Rooting is influenced by relative humidity (RH). More the relative humidity, more is
rooting. Weight loss is more when temperature is above 35°C. Under ambient conditions the onions are
stored at a temperature of 30-35OC with RH of 65- 70%. In cold storage, temperature is maintained at
0-2°C while the RH is kept at 60-75%.
Sprouting is checked effectively if Maleic Hydrazide at 2500 ppm is sprayed at 75-90 days after
transplanting. Effect is, however, more pronounced in kharif season than in rabi season. The storage
rots could be checked if proper cleanliness is maintained in store and crop is sprayed with 0.1%
Carbendazim after 90 days of transplanting and just before harvest.
In India, the farmers practice different storage methods. The onions are bulk stored in special
houses with thatched roof and side walls are made up with bamboo sticks or wire mesh for good air
circulation. In North India, the sides are also covered with gunny cloth. Onions are stored in these
sheds by spreading them on dry and damp proof floor or racks. Periodical turning of bulbs or removal
of rotten, damaged and sprouted bulbs should be done. Wellventilated improved storage structures with
racks or tiers having two or three layers of bulbs would be desirable for proper storage.
The salient features of improved storage structures are as below-

1.Construction of storage godown on raised platform helps in reduction of moisture and
dampness
2. Use of Mangalore tiles roof or other suitable material prevents built up of high temperature
inside.
3. Increased centre height and more slope is better for air circulation and preventing humid
microclimate inside godown.
4. Bottom ventilation provides free and faster air circulation to avoid formation of hot and
humid pockets between the onion layers.
5. Avoid direct sunlight on onion bulbs to reduce sunscald, fading of colour and quality
deterioration.
6. Restriction on width of each stack to 60-70 cm for cool humid weather, 75-90 cm for mild
and humid weather and 90-120 cm for mild and dry weather conditions
7. Restriction of stacking height to 100 cm for small and multiplier onion and hot weather and
120 cm for mild weather and for big onion to avoid pressure bruising.
8. Cubicles should be made instead of continuous stack leaving sufficient space for ventilation
from allthe sides.
9. One cubic metre area of store accommodates about 750 kg onions.
Transport
Onion stocks are transported in bullock carts, tractor trolleys and trucks as also railway wagons
are used for longer distance movement within the country. Onions are transported in ventilated ships as
well as sailing vessels / motorboats for export to Gulf and South-East Asian countries. It is also shipped
in 3.5m containers or 7m containers by loading on ships.
Other Handling
Bulbs intended for storage must be free from cuts and handled with extreme care. Onions
should not be dropped on to non-resilient surface from more than 6 feet height. If onions are to be
stacked after packing in store or trucks, the better height is 2-2.5 metres. Losses due to rot is reported to
be more if onions are stored in gunny bags than in loose or wooden crates.
Agro-processing
Onion dehydration plants were running which mainly involved in the export of onion. White
onion varieties such as Jalgaon white, Safal and improved varieties with high solids more than 18%
TSS are processed into dehydrated products such as Onion powder, Granules, Flakes chops etc and
exported to European, South East Asian countries and USA.
.
Market information
Consumer demand
Exports
Marketing Costs
Marketing channels for vegetables vary from commodity to commodity and from producers to
producers. In rural areas and small towns, many producers performs the function of retail sellers. Large
producers directly sell their produce to the wholesalers or processing firms. Some of the common
marketing channels for vegetables are:
I) Producers – Consumers
II) Producers – Primary wholesalers – Retailers/Hawkers – Consumers
III) Producers – Processors
IV)Producers – Primary wholesalers – Processors
V) Producers – Primary wholesalers – Secondary wholesalers – Retailers/Hawkers - Consumers
VI)Producers – Local assemblers – Primary wholesalers – Retailers/Hawkers – Consumers
An important feature of marketing channels for fruits and vegetables is that these commodities
just move to some selected large cities/centers and subsequently are distributed to urban or semi-urban
markets. The wholesale market of these urban centers work as transit points and thus they play an
important role in the entire marketing channel for fruit.
Market information
Market information may be broadly defined as a communication or reception of knowledge or
intelligence. It includes all the facts, estimates, opinions and other information which affect the
marketing of goods and services.
Market information is useful for all sections of society which are concerned with marketing. Its
importance may be judged from the point of view of individual groups. These groups are:
I) Farmers – Producers
II) Market Middlemen
III)General Economy
IV)Government
Types of Market Information:

I) Market Intelligence: This includes information relating to such facts as the prices that
prevailed in the past and market arrivals over time.
II) Market News: This term refers to current information about prices, arrivals and
changes in market conditions.
The Market intelligence scheme at present covered 137 agricultural commodities and 1300
markets of the country. The market intelligence centers set up under the scheme work under the
supervision of Directorate of Agricultural Marketing or Directorate of Economics and Statistics of the
states. The importance of flow of market information has considerably increased in recent years. This is
particularly so in the case of fruits and vegetables where fluctuations and inter-spatial price differences
are considerably more. It is in this connection that the Market Planning and Design Center (MPDC) in
the Directorate of Marketing and Inspection has developed a model of market information service.
The National Horticulture Board set up under the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India
has also given emphasis on information service for fruits and vegetables. The Board has provided
computers in 21 important fruits and vegetables markets. These markets are interlinked through
computerized machines connected to a computer in Central Data Processing Unit at Delhi.
Consumer Demand
The consumer likely to have the commodities like onion, which have following characteristics
which is given below:
The bulbs shall:
1. be reasonably uniform in shape, size colour and pungency of the variety /type
2. be mature, solid in feel, reasonably firm with tough clinging skins.
3. be throughout cured and dried.
4. be free from dust and other foreign material.
5. be free from defective, diseased, decayed and damaged bulbs caused by seed stems, tops
6. roots, moisture, dry sun scald burn, sprouting, mechanical or other injuries and staining.
7. be free from moulds, soft rot and insect attack.
8. % of seed stem or bolted bulbs shall not exceed 20% in Nasik kharif onions.
Export
Guidelines
1. Tolerance for size in big onions: For accidental errors in sizing, not more than 5 % by
weight of the bulbs in any lot may be of next lower grade than the minimum diameter prescribed in
Nasik, Saurashtra, Bellary or Poona onions. In case of Podisu, this error in sizing not more than 10 %
by weight. In this case, smallest onion in bunch would be taken for measuring the diameter.
2. Defective, diseased and damaged shall mean malformed bulbs and the bulbs internally
or externally damaged, diseased or discoloured material affecting the quality. The decayed onions shall
not exceed 2% in any lot.
Marketing Costs
In the marketing of agricultural commodities, the differences between the price paid by the
consumer and the price received by the producer for an equivalent quantity of farm produce is often
known as farm-retail spread or price spread. This is termed as marketing margin. The total margin
includes:
I) The cost involved in moving the product from the point of production to the point of
consumption.
II) Profits of various market functionaries involved in moving the produce from initial
point of production till it reaches the ultimate consumer.
Three methods are generally used in the computation of marketing margins and cost.
I) Lot Method
II) Sum of Average Gross Margins Method.
III) Comparison of Prices at Successive Levels of Marketing.
For this commodity GUAVA, Chasing of Lot or Consignment Method being used because here
the time lag between the commodity entering the marketing system and the time of final consumption
is very small.
IN LOT METHOD:
A specific lot or consignment is selected and chased through the marketing system until it reaches the
ultimate consumer. The cost and margin involved at each stage are assessed.
FINDINGS & CONCLUSIONS

Vegetables and fruits are an important supplement to the human diet
as they provide the essential minerals, vitamins and fibre (roughage) required for
maintaining health.
India - 3rd in fruits, India with its current production of around 32

million MT of fruit, accounts for about 8% of the world's fruit production. The
diverse agro-climatic zones the country make it possible to grow almost all
varieties of fresh fruits and vegetables in India. The fruit production in India has
recorded a growth rate of 3.9%, whereas the fruit processing sector has grown at
about 20% per annum. However, the growth rates have been extensively higher
for frozen fruits & vegetables (121%) and dehydrated fruits & vegetables (24%).
India - 2nd in vegetables, India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the
world (ranks next to China) and accounts for about 15% of the world's production of vegetables. The
current production level is over 71 million MT and the total area under vegetable cultivation is around
6.2 million hectares which is about 3% of the total area under cultivation in the country. In case of
vegetables, potato, tomato, onion, cabbage and cauliflower account for around 60% of the total
vegetable production in the country.
However for various reasons, this abundance of production is not fully

utilized and wastage due to spoilage is about 20-30%. Most fruits and vegetables
are seasonal and perishable in nature.
In a good season there may be a glut but because of insufficient

transport facilities, lack of good roads and poor availability of packaging
materials, the surplus cannot be taken quickly enough to markets in urban areas.
Moreover the surplus often cannot be stored for sale in off-season because of
inadequate local storage facilities. Thus, the cultivators do not get a good price for
their produce.
Although, the R&D efforts on the development of post harvest

handling has helped in reducing the spoilage, considerable losses continue to
occur. Two approaches are possible:
I) One is the creation/expansion of cold storage facilities in the fruit and
vegetables producing regions, as also in the major urban consumption
centers, to ensure supply of fruit and vegetables throughout year.
II) Another approaches is to process the fruit and vegetables into various
products which could be preserved for a long time and add value to
the product.
India is one of the cheapest producers of horticultural produce. If the

Government addresses some of the gaps in the processing industry, the Indian
economy will get a boost up.
i) Most of the varieties grown in India are not suitable for processing.
ii) Seeds of processable varieties can be imported and multiplied using
tissue culture technique.
iii) Lowering sales tax on agriculture produce may help the industry.
iv) In New Exim policy of the Union Government, setting up of AEZ to identify each state's
competitive advantage and to promote the cultivation and processing of fruit and vegetable accordingly.
These are the various losses occurred at different stages from the point of production to
the point of consumption. Different types of losses can be classified into different groups among with
their causes. These are as follow
BIBLIOGRAPHY (GUAVA)
Web site list
www.google.com
www.scribd.com
www.gogetpapers.com
Magazines & Journals

Indian Union Budgets (Agriculture), article 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.45, 1.46, 1.48, 1.75
Effect of low temperature and plastic films on post-harvest life of guava,
J. Gaspar, F.&a.;v. Couto, L. C. C. Salomão, F. L. Finger, A. Cardoso
Effect of post-harvest treatment and packaging on the keeping quality of fresh
guava fruit, J.C. Combrink, Selma L. de Kock, Coreen J. van Eeden
Improved Irrigation of Onion, Jain Irrigation
Books
Agricultural Marketing, S.S Acharya
BIBLIOGRAPHY (ONION)
Web site list
www.google.com
www.scribd.com
www.jainirrigation.com
Magazines & Journals
Indian Union Budgets (Agriculture), article 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.45, 1.47, 1.48, 1.75
Improved Irrigation of Onion, Jain Irrigation
Paper on Onion-2008, Mayuresh Gaikwad, MIT College of Management, PGP in
Agricultural and Food Industry Management
Books
Agricultural Marketing, S.S Acharya

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POSTHARVEST LOSS ASSESSMENT FOR

GUAVA & ONION

BRIJENDER KR. SINGH A8211008041

AMITY BUSINESS SCHOOL

I consider my proud privilege to express deep sense of gratitude to Prof.

GROUP 3: ( Commodity GUAVA)

Total vegetable production in India before independence was 15 million mt

A Commodity System Assessment Methodology for

A postharvest loss assessment method known as Commodity Systems Assessment

CSAM Sample Questions

Application of the commodity systems assessment methodology

Marketing and distribution

Step 2: Review and Evaluate Recommended Practices

Relative importance of crop

Relative importance of crop

Area & Production

Production trend of guava during 1997-98 to 2001-02

State-wise Area, Production & Productivity of Guava during 2001-02

Analysis and Future Strategy

I) Physical function Storage and Warehousing

Environmental requirements and constraints

Growing and Potential Belts

Important guava varieties cultivated in Uttar Pradesh are given below :

Availability of planting material

Farmers' cultural practices

Farmers' cultural practices

Pests and diseases

Figure-I : COST OF PROJECT

Sl. Component Proposed

6 Land, if newly purchased (Please indicate the year) @

The major components of the model are:

Recurring Production Cost:

Selection, sizing, grading, and inspection

Postharvest chemical and physical treatment

Types of Market Information:

Export of fresh guava during 1999-2000 to 2001-02

Relative importance of crop

Relative importance of crop

Major producing area:

Public sector policies

I) Physical function Storage and Warehousing

Environmental requirements and constraints

2. Direct sowing in the field by planter

Farmers' cultural practices

Farmers' cultural practices

Water is distributed more uniformly, permitting efficient water-use and distribution of

Advantage of using Liquid/WSS fertilizers through MIS, at appropriate stages of growth

Green Manuring & Vermicompost

Pests and diseases

Premature Bulb Development

Greening Of Outer Scales

Soil Borne Diseases

Leaf blight and stalk rot caused by Stemphylium vesicarium

Example: Input Cost for bulb-onion production ( 1 ha ) Rabi V12

Selection, sizing, grading, and inspection

The salient features of improved storage structures are as below-

Types of Market Information:

FINDINGS & CONCLUSIONS

India - 3rd in fruits, India with its current production of around 32

However for various reasons, this abundance of production is not fully

In a good season there may be a glut but because of insufficient

Although, the R&D efforts on the development of post harvest

India is one of the cheapest producers of horticultural produce. If the

Magazines & Journals