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4.1. Beam Stiffness Matrix

z

We will derive the stiffness matrix for a simple beam element. A beam
is a long, slender structural member generally subjected to transverse
loading that produces significant bending effects as opposed to twisting
or axial effects.

The bending deformation is measured as a transverse displacement and

a rotation. Hence, the d.o.f considered per node are a transverse
displacement and a rotation (as opposed to only an axial displacement
for a bar element in Chapter 3).
Consider the beam element shown in Figure 4 - 1. The beam is of length L
with axial local coordinat x and transverse local coordinate y . The local
transverse displacements are given by d ' s and the rotation by ' s. The local
iy

nodal forces are given by fiy ' s and the bending moments by m i ' s as shown.
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Figure 4-1 Beam element with positive nodal displacements and nodal forces
(We initially neglect all axis effects)

At all nodes, the following sign conventions are used :

1. Moments and rotations are positive in CCW direction.
2. Forces and displacement are positive in positive y direction.
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Figure 4 - 2 indicates the sign conventions used in simple beam theory for
positive shear forces V and bending moments m .

Figure 4-2 Beam theory sign conventions for shear forces and bending moments

The differential equation governing elementary linear - elastic beam

behavior is derived as follows. Consider the beam shown in Figure 4 - 3
subjected to a distributed loading w( x ) (force/length). From force and
moment equilibrium of a differential element of the beam, we have
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Figure 4-3 Beam under distributed load

dV
dx
dM
V dx + dM = 0 or V =
dx

w( x ) dx dV = 0 or w =

(4.1.1a )
(4.1.1b)
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Also, the curvature of the beam is related to the moment by

1 M
( 4.1.1c)
= =
EI
where is the radius of the deflected curve shown in Figure 4 - 4b, v is the
transverse displaceme nt function in the y direction (see Figure 4 - 4b), E is
the modulus of elasticity , and I is the principal moment of inertia about the
z axis (where the z axis is perpendicu lar to the x and y axes).

Figure 4-4 Deflected curve beam

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The curvature for a small slope = dv dx is given by

d 2 v
(4.1.1d )
= 2
dx
Using Eq. (4.1.1c) in Eq. (4.1.1c), we obtain
d 2 v M
(4.1.1e)
=
dx 2 EI
Solving Eq. (4.1.1e) for M and substuting this result into Eq. (4.1.1b) and
Eq. (4.1.1a), we obtain
d 2 d 2 v
= w( x )
EI
(4.1.1f )
dx 2 dx 2
For constant EI and with only nodal forces and moments, Eq. (4.1.1f) becomes
d 4v
EI 4 = 0
(4.1.1g )
dx
Now, we will follow the steps in Chapter 1 to develop the beam stiffness matrix.
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Step 1 Select Element Type

Represent the beam by labeling nodes at each end and in general by
labeling the element number (see Figure 4-1).

Step 2 Select a Displacement Functions

Assume the transverse displacement variations through the element
length to be

v( x ) = a1 x 3 + a2 x 2 + a3 x + a4

(4.1.2)

The complete cubic displacement approximation function Eq. (4.1.2) is

appropriate because there are four d.o.f (a transverse displacement and
a small rotation at each node). The cubic function also satisfies the
basic beam differential equation further justifying its selection. In
addition, the cubic function also satisfies the condition of displacement
and slope continuity at nodes shared by two elements.
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Using the same procedure as described in Section 2.2, we express v as a

function of the nodal d.o.f d , d , , and as follows :
1y

2y

v(0) = d1 y = a4
dv(0)
= 1 = a3
dx
(4.1.3)
v( L) = d2 y = a1 L3 + a2 L2 + a3 L + a4
dv( L)
= 2 = 3a1 L2 + 2a2 L + a3
dx
Solving Eqs. (4.1.3) for a1 through a4 in terms of the nodal d.o.f and sub stituting into Eq. (4.1.2), we have
1
2

v( x ) = 3 d1 y d2 y + 2 1 + 2 x 3
L
L

3
1

(4.1.4)
+ 3 d1 y d2 y 21 + 2 x 2 + 1 x + d1 y
L

) (

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In matrix form, we express Eq. (4.1.4) as

v( x ) = [N ( x )] d

{}

where

and
with

d1 y


d = 1

d 2 y

2
[N ( x )] = [N1 ( x ) N 2 ( x ) N 3 ( x ) N 4 ( x )]

{}

1
2 x 3 3x 2 L + L3
3
L
1
N 3 ( x ) = 3 2 x 3 + 3 x 2 L
L

N1 ( x ) =

(4.1.5)

)
)

(
(

(4.1.6a )

(4.1.6b)

1 3
x L 2 x 2 L2 + xL3
3
L
1
N 4 ( x ) = 3 x 3 L x 2 L2
L
N 2 ( x ) =

)
(4.1.7)

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N1 , N 2 , N 3 , and N 4 , are called the shape function for a beam element.

For the beam element, N1 = 1 when evaluated at node 1 and N1 = 0 when
evaluated at node 2. Because N is associated wuth , we have, from the
2

second of Eqs. (4.1.7), (dN 2 dx) = 1 when evaluated at node 1. Shape

functions N 3 and N 4 have analogous results for node 2.
z

Step 3 Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain Relationships

Assume the following axial strain/displacement relationship to be valid:

du
(4.1.8)
dx
where u is the axial displacement function. From the deformed con figuration of the beam shown in Figure 4 - 5, we relate the axail dis placement to the transverse displacement by

x ( x , y ) =

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Figure 4-5 Beam segment (a) before deformation and (b) after deformation;
(c) angle of rotation of cross-section ABCD
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dv
(4.1.9)
dx
where we should recall from elementary beam theory the basic
assumption that cross sections of the beam (such as cross section
ABCD) that planar before bending deformation remain planar after
deformation and, in general, rotate through an angle (dv dx ).
Using Eq. (4.1.9) in Eq, (4.1.8), we obtain
d 2 v

x ( x, y ) = y 2
(4.1.10)
dx
From elementary beam theory, the bending moment and shear force
are related to the transverse displacement function. Since we will use
these relationships in the derivation of the beam element stiffness
matrix, we now present them as
u = y

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m ( x ) = EI
z

d 2 v
dx 2

d 3v
V = EI 3
dx

(4.1.11)

Step 4 Derive the Element Matrix and Equations

First, derive the element stiffness matrix and equations using a direct
equilibrium approach. We now use the nodal and beam theory sign
conventions for shear forces and bending moments, along with Eqs.
(4.1.4) and (4.1.11), to obtain

(
(
(
(

d 3v(0) EI
f1 y = V = EI
= 3 12d1 y + 6 L1 12d2 y + 6 L2
dx 3
L
d 2 v(0) EI
m 1 = m = EI
= 3 6 Ld1 y + 4 L21 6 Ld2 y + 2 L22
dx 2
L
3

(
)
d
v
L
EI
f2 y = V = EI
= 3 12d1 y 6 L1 + 12d2 y 6 L2
3
dx
L
d 2 v( L) EI
m 2 = m = EI
= 3 6 Ld1 y + 2 L21 6 Ld2 y + 4 L22
2
dx
L

)
)

(4.1.12)

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where the minus signs in the second and third of Eqs. (4.1.12) are the
result of opposite nodal and beam theory positive bending moment
conventions at node 2 as seen by comparing Figure 4-1 and 4-2.
Equations (4.1.12) relate the nodal forces to the nodal displacement. In
matrix form, Eqs. (4.1.12) become
f1 y
6 L 12 6 L d1 y
12

6 L 4 L2 6 L 2 L2
m 1 EI
1
= 3

f 2 y L 12 6 L 12 6 L d 2 y

2
m
6 L 2 L 6 L 12 2
2
where the stiffness matrix of the beam element is the
6 L 12 6 L
12
6 L 4 L2 6 L 2 L2
EI

k = 3
L 12 6 L 12 6 L

2
6 L 2 L 6 L 12

( 4.1.13)

(4.1.14)

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4.2. Example of Assemblage of Beam Stiffness Matrices

Consider the beam in Figure 4-6 as an example to illustrate the
procedure for assemblage of beam element stiffness matrices. Assume
EI to be constant throughout the beam. A force of 1000 lb and a moment
k
of 1000 lb-ft are applied to the beam at midlength. The left
end is a
fixed support and the right end is a pin support.
2

Figure 4-6 Fixed-hinged beam subjected to a force and a moment

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First, we discrretize the beam into two elements with nodes 1, 2, and 3 as
shown. We include a node at midlength because applied force and
moment exist at midlength and, at this time, loads are assumed to be
applied only at nodes. (Another procedure for handling loads applied on
elements will be discussed in Section 4.4).

Using Eq. (4.1.14), the global stiffness matrices for the two elements are
given by
1
2
d1 y
d2 y
k (1) = k (1)

6 L 12 6 L
12
6 L 4 L2 6 L 2 L2
EI

L3 12 6 L 12 6 L

2
2
6L 2L 6L 4L

(4.2.1)

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and
d2 y
k ( 2 ) = k ( 2 )

d3 y

6 L 12 6 L
12
6 L 4 L2 6 L 2 L2
EI

= 3
L 12 6 L 12 6 L

2
2
6L 2L 6L 4L

(4.2.2)

where the d.o.f. associated with each element are indicateed by the usual
labels above the columns in each element stiffness matrix. Here the local
coordinate axes for each element coincide with global x and y axes of the
whole beam. Consequently, the local and global element stiffness
matrices are identical.
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10

The total stiffness matrix can now be assembled for the beam by using
the direct stiffness method. When the toal stiffness matrix has been
assembled, the external global nodal forces are related to the global
nodal displacements. Using superposition and Eqs. (4.2.1) and (4.2.2),
the governing equations for the beam in Figure 4 - 6 are thus given by
12
6L
0
0 d 1 y
F1 y
12 6 L
2
2
M1
6L 4L
6L
2L
0
0 1
EI

12 6 L (12 + 12)
( 6 L + 6 L ) 12
6 L d 1 y
F2 y

=
M
(4.2.3)
2
2
2
2
3
6L 2L
( 6 L + 6 L ) ( 4 L + 4 L ) 6 L 2 L 2
L

2


0
6L
0
12
12 6 L d1 y
F3 y
2
0
M 3
6 L 4 L2 3
0
6L
2L

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Now considering the BC, or constraints, of the fixed support at node 1

and the hinge support at node 3, we have
(4.2.4)
1 = 0
d1 y = 0
d3 y = 0
On considering the third, fourth, and sixth equations of Eq. (4.2.3) co rresponding to the rows with unknown d.o.f and using Eqs. (4.2.4), we
obtain
1000
24 0 6 L d 2 y

EI

2
(4.2.5)
1000 = 3 0 8 L 2 L 2
0 L 6 L 2 L2 4 L2 3
where F2 y = 1000 lb, M 2= 1000 lb - ft, M 3 = 0 have been substituted
into the reduced set of equations. We could now solve Eq. (4.2.5) simul taneously for the unknown nodal displacement d 2 y and the unknown
nodal rotations 1 and 2 . The students are encourage to determine the
final solution.
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11

4.3. Example of Beam Analysis Using the

Direct Stiffness Method
We will now perform complete solutions for beams with various
boundary support and loads to further illustrate the use of the equations
developed in Section 4.1.

EXAMPLE 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3

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4.4. Distributed Loading

Beam members can support distributed loading as well as concentrated
nodal loading. Therefore, we must be able to account for distributed
loading. Consider the fixed-fixed beam subjected to a uniformly
distributed loading w shown in Figure 4-7. The reactions, determined
from structural analysis theory, are shown in Figure 4-8. These reactions
called fixed-end reactions.

Figure 4-8 Fixed-end reactions for the

beam in Figure 4-7

Figure 4-7 Fixed-fixed beam subjected to a

uniformly distributed load

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12

Guided by the results from structural analysis for the case of a uniformly
distributed load, we replace the load by concentrated nodal forces and
moments tending to have the same effect on the beam as the actual
ditributed load. Figure 4-9 illustrates this idea for a beam. We have
replaced the uniformly distributed load by an equivalent force system
consisting of a concentrated nodal force and moment at each end of the
member. This equivalent forces are always of opposite sign from the
fixed-end forces. To determine the maximum deflection and maximum
moment in the beam span, a node is needed at midspan of the beam 2-3.

Figure 4-9 (a) Beam with a distributed load and (b) the equivalent nodal force system.
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Work Equivalent Method

This method is based on the concept the work of the distributed load is
equal to that of the discrete load replacement for arbitrary nodal
displacements. To illustrate the method, we consider the sample shown in
Figure 4-10. The work due to the distributed load is given by
L

Wdistributed = w( x )v( x )dx

(4.4.1)

where v( x ) is the transverse displacement given by Eq. (4.1.4).

Figure 4-10 (a) Beam element subjected to a general and (b) the equivalent nodal force system.
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13

The work due to the discrete nodal forces is given by

Wdiscrete = m 11 + m 22 + f1 y d1 y + f2 y d2 y

(4.4.2)

We can then determine the nodal moments and forces m 1 , m 2 , f1 y , and f2 y used
to replace the distributed load by using the concept of work equivalence that
is, by setting, W
=W
for arbitrary displacement , , d , and d .
distributed

discrete

1y

2y

Example of Load Replacement

To illustrate more clearly the concept of work equivalence, we consider a
beam subjected to a specified (uniformly) distributed as shown in Figure
4-11. The support conditions are not shown because they are not relevant
to the replacement scheme.
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Figure 4-11 (a) Beam subjected to an uniformly distributed loading and (b) the equivalent nodal
forces to be determined.

Using Eqs. (4.4.1) and (4.4.2) for Wdistributed = Wdiscrete , we have

L

w( x )v( x )dx = m + m
1 1

2 2

+ f1 y d1 y + f2 y d2 y

(4.4.3)

Evaluating the left - hand side of Eq. (4.4.3) by substituting w( x ) = w and v( x )

from Eq. (4.1.4), we obtain the work due to the distribution load as
L

w( x )v( x )dx =
0

Lw
L2 w
d1 y d2 y
1 + 2 Lw d2 y d1 y
2
4

L2 w
L2 w
d1 y (Lw)
21 + 2 1
3
2

)
(4.4.4)
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14

Now using Eqs. (4.4.3) and (4.4.4) for arbitrary nodal displacements, we let
= 1, = 0, d = 0, and d = 0 and then we obtain
1

1y

2y

L2 w 2 L2 w L2 w
wL2
=

+
m 1 (1) =
3
2
12
4
Similarly, letting 1 = 0, 2 = 1, d1 y = 0, and d2 y = 0 yields

(4.4.5)

L2 w L2 w wL2
=
(4.4.6)
m 1= 2 (1) =

3 12
4
Finally, letting all nodal displacements equal to zero except first d1 y and the d2 y ,
we obtain
Lw
Lw
f1 y (1) =
+ Lw Lw =
2
2
Lw
Lw
f2 y (1) =
Lw =
2
2

(4.4.7)

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We can conclude that, in general, for any given load function w( x ), we can
multiply by v( x ) and then integrate according to Eq. (4.4.3) to obtain the
concentrated nodal forces (and/or moments) used to replace the distributed load.
Moreover, we can obtain the load replacement by using the concept of
fixed-end reactions from structural analysis theory. Table of equivalent
nodal forces has been generated for this text in the Table 4-1.

Hence, if a concentrated load is applied other than at the natural

intersection of two elements, we can use the concept of equivalent nodal
forces to replace the concentarted load by nodal concentrated values
acting at the beam ends, instead of creating a node on the beam at the
location where the load is applied.

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15

Tabel 4-1 Equivalent joint forces fo for different type of loads.

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Tabel 4-1 Equivalent joint forces fo for different type of loads (contd)

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16

General Formulation
In general, we can account for distributed loads or concentrated loads
acting on beam elements by starting with the following formulation
application for a general structure
F = Kd Fo
(4.4.8)
where Fo are called the equivalent nodal forces, now expressed in terms of
global - coordinate components, which are of such magnitude that they
yield the same displacements as would the distributed load. Using Table
4 - 1 of equivalent nodal forces f expressed in terms of local - coordinate
o

components, we can express Fo in terms of global - coordinate components.

Recall that F represents the global nodal concentrated forces, including
the reactions. Since we now assume concentrated nodal forces are initially
not present (F = 0), we can rewrite Eq. (4.4.8) as
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Fo = Kd

(4.4.9)

On solving for d in Eq. (4.4.9) and then substituting the global displace ments d and equivalent nodal forces Fo into Eq. (4.4.8), we obtain the
actual global nodal forces F. For example, using the definition of f and
o

Eqs. (4.4.5) - (4.4.7) (or using load case 4 in Table 4 - 1) for a uniformly
distributed load w acting over a one - element beam, we have
wL
2
wL2

(4.4.10)
Fo = 12
wL

2
wL2
12
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17

This concept can be applied on a local basis to obtain the local nodal
force f in individual elements of structures by applying Eq. (4.4.8) locally
o

as
f = k d fo

(4.4.10)

where fo are the equivalent local nodal forces.

4.5. Potential Energy Approach to Derive

Beam Element Equations
We will now derive the beam element equations using the POMPE. The
procedure is similar to that used in Section 3.8 in deriving the bar
element equations. We use the same notation here as in Section 3.8.
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The total PE for a beam is

p =U +

(4.5.1)

where the general one - dimensional expression for the strain energy U for
a beam is given by
U = 12 x x dV

(4.5.2)

and for a single beam element subjected to both distributed and concentrated
nodal loads, the PE of forces is given by
2

i =1

i =1

= Ty v dS Piy diy m ii
S1

(4.5.3)

where body forces are now neglected. The terms on the right - hand side of
Eq. (4.5.3) represent the PE of (1) transverse surface loading T (acting over
y

surface S1 ); (2) nodal concentrated forces Piy ; and (3) moments m i.

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18

Again, is the transvers e displaceme nt function for the beam element

of length L shown in Figure 4 - 12.
Consider t he beam element to have constant cross - section are A.
The differenti al volume for the beam element cn then be expressed as
dV = dA dx
( 4 .5 .4 )
and the differenti al area over which the surface loading acts is
dS = b dx
( 4.5.5)
where b is the constant w idth. Using Eqs. (4.5.4) and (4.5.5) in Eqs.
(4.5.1) - (4.5.3), the total PE becomes
L

i =1

p = 12 x x dA dx b Ty v dx Piy diy + m ii
x A

( 4 .5 .6 )

Substituti ng Eq. (4.1.5) for into the strain/dis placement relationsh ip

Eq. (4.1.10), repeated here for convenienc e as
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Figure 4-12 Beam element subjected to surface loading and concentrated nodal forces

d 2 v
(4.5.7)
dx 2
we express the strain in terms of nodal displacements and rotations as

x = y

{ x } = y [12 xL6 L
3

6 xL 4 L2
L3

12 x + 6 L
L3

6 xL 2 L2
L3

]{d}

(4.5.8)
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19

or

{ x } = y [B ]{d }

( 4 .5 .9 )

where we define

[B ] = [12 xL6 L

6 xL 4 L2
L3

12 x + 6 L
L3

6 x L 2 L2
L3

( 4.5.10)

The stress/str ain relationsh ip is given by

{ x } = [D ]{ x }
( 4.5.11)
[D ] = [E ]
where
( 4.5.12)
and E is the modulus of elasticity. Using Eq. (4.5.9) in Eq. (4.5.11), we
obtain
{ } = y [D ][B ] d
( 4.5.13)

{}

Next, the total potential energy Eq. (4.5.6) is expressed in matrix notation as

{ } {P }

p = 12 { x }T { x }dAdx bTy [v]T dx d

x A

( 4.5.14)

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Using Eqs. (4.5.9), (4.5.12), and Eq. (4.5.13), and defining w = bTy as the
line load (load per unit length) in the direction, we express the total PE,
Eq. (4.5.14), in matrix form as
L

{}

{}

{}

{ }{ }

T
T
EI T T
T
d [B ] [B ] d dx w d [N ] dx d P
p =
2
0
0
where we have used the definition of the moment of inertia

I = y 2 dA

(4.5.15)

(4.5.16)

to obtain the first term on the right - hand side of Eq. (4.5.15). In Eq. (4.5.15),
is now expressed as a function of {d}.
p

Differentiating in Eq. (4.5.15) with respect to d1 y , 1 , d2 y , and 2 , and

equating each term to zero to minimize p , we obtain four element equations,
which are written in matrix form as
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20

{}

{}

T
T
EI [B ] [B ]dx d [N ] w dx P = {0}
0

(4.5.17)

Representing the nodal force matrix as the sum of those nodal forces
resulting from distributed loading and concentrated loading, we have

{}

{}

T
f = [N ] w dx + P

(4.5.18)

Using Eq. (4.5.18) , the four element equations given by explicitly

evaluating Eq. (4.5.17) are then identical to Eq. (4.1.13). Since
{ f } = [k]{d}, we have from Eq. (4.5.17)
L

[k] = EI

[B ] [B] dx
T

(4.5.19)

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Using Eq. (4.5.10) in Eq. (4.5.19) and integrating, stiffness matrix [k] is
evaluated in explicit form as
6 L 12 6 L
12

2
2
EI 6 L 4 L 6 L 2 L
(4.5.20)
[k] = 3
L 12 6 L 12 6 L

2
2
6L 2L 6L 4L
Equation (4.5.20) represents the local stiffness matrix for a beam element.
As expected, Eq. (4.5.20) is identical to Eq. (4.1.14) developped previously.
Actually, we can also use the Galerkins method to derive the stiffness
matrix of a beam element. This method is not intended to be studied in
this course. Interested students are encouraged to read the reference [1-3]
to explore the method.
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21

4.6. Other Type of Line Element

Many structures, such as building and bridges, are composed of
frames and/or grids element. The stiffness matrix of this kind of element
is more complex then the beam stiffness matrix that has been explained
previously.
The most complex line element is a space frame , which has 2 nodes
at each element and has 6 d.o.f (3 translations and 3 rotations) per
nodes. So its stiffness matrix will be of size (12 x 12). The stiffness
matrix of this type of element is given in Eq. (4.6.1).
The students who are interested to explore more about the other line
element are encouraged to read the ref. [1-3] and/or other FE books.

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d1 x

AE
L

[k] =

symetry

d1 y

d1 z

12 EI z
L3

0
12 EI y
L3

1 x

1 y

1 z

0
0
GJ
L

0
6 EI y
L2

0
4 EI y
L

d 2 x

6 EI z
L2

AE
L

0
0

4 EI z
L

0
AE
L

d 2 y

d 2 z

2 x

2 y

12 EI z
L3

0
0
0
6 EI z
L2

0
12 EI z
L3

0
12 EI y
L3

0
0

0
6 EI y
L2

GJ
L

2 EI y
L

0
6 EI y
L2

12 EI y
L3

0
GJ
L

0
6 EI y
L2

0
4 EI y
L

2 z

d1x

d
L2 1 y
0 d1 z

0 1 x
0 1 y

2 EI z

L 1 z

0
d
2x
6 EI y
d 2 y
L2

0 d 2 z
0 2 x

0 2 y
4 EI z

L 2z
0

6 EI z

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22

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Reference:
1. Logan, D.L., 1992, A First Course in the Finite Element Method,
PWS-KENT Publishing Co., Boston.
2. Imbert, J.F.,1984, Analyse des Structures par Elements Finis,
2nd Ed., Cepadues.
3. Zienkiewics, O.C., 1977, The Finite Eelement Method, 3rd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, London.
4. Finlayson, B.A., 1972, The Method of Weighted Residuals and
Variational Principles, Academic Press, New York.

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