Preliminary Biology: Topic Summary

Australian Biota
Matt Elrick

1. Evidence for the rearrangement of crustal plates and continental drift indicates that

Australia was once part of an ancient super continent

1.1 Identify and describe evidence that supports the assertion that Australia was once part of a
landmass called Gondwana, including:
- matching continental margins
- position of mid-ocean ridges
- spreading zones between continental plates
- fossils in common on Gondwanan continents including Glossopteris and Gangamopteris
flora , and marsupials
- similarities between present-day organisms on Gondwanan continents
Matching continental margins:
- The continents fit together like a jig-saw puzzle. Rocks on the opposing edges are exactly
the same.
Mid-ocean ridges and spreading zones:
- Mid-ocean ridges form the boundaries of Earths crustal plates where plates move apart.
- The plates move because lava is added to these ridges.
- New rock is found in the ridge the further away from the ridge, the older the rock
Fossils in common on Gondwana continents:
- Fossils of Glossopteris and Gangamopteris plants have been found on all Gondwana
continents, nowhere else.
- Also, marsupials provide evidence for plate tectonics and the past existence of
Gondwana. When Australia became isolated from the rest of the world, the marsupials
evolved and diverse species flourished. Some species of quoll and marsupial mice have
several features in common with South American marsupials.
Similarities between organisms on Gondwana continents:
- Flora of southern continents South America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand
has many features in common.
- Flightless birds have been examined, these include the Rhea (S. America), Emu and
Cassowary (Australia), Ostrich (Africa) and Kiwi (New Zealand). The distribution of these
flightless birds on these different continents is due to the super continent, Gondwana.
- Various plant species which are closely related are found in Gondwana continents
- Southern beach tree is only found in temperate lands of southern hemisphere
- Snake fossils recovered from South America are similar to those discovered in Australia
- Tree fossils in Antarctica match those found in other Gondwana continents
1.2 Discuss current research into the evolutionary relationships between extinct species,
including megafauna and extant Australian species
Present day organisms have evolved from different organisms in the distant past. Megafauna are not
believed to bet the direct ancestors of the present marsupials or reptiles. They are related and have
evolved from a common ancestor in the distant past
There are two theories as to why megafauna became extinct; climate change and arrival of humans.

Climate Change: the drying out of the continent may have disrupted their breeding cycles, due to
the drying out there may not have been enough resources to cope with the demand of the
megafauna. Fire would have become more common destroyed food resources.
Human Arrival: Aboriginals were very successful hunters used fire to burn off bush in order to
attract animals to new growth after fire. Megafauna are believed to have been slow easier to hunt.

2. The changes in Australian flora and fauna over millions of years have happened through

evolution
2.1 Discuss examples of variations between members of a species
There may be variation between the two sexes of a particular species. Members of the same species
may show variation which is related to the environment in which they live:
-

Animals living in cooler climates are usually larger than members of the same species in
warmer climates
Many birds of the same species show variation between different geographical areas,
such as size, beak length and colour
Variation in colour occurs in some Kangaroo species; populations in forests are dark with
thick fur compared to populations in open habitats with lighter, thinner fur.
Some species of tree have gradual changes with elevation such as; height, leaf length,
bark colour.

2.2 Identify the relationship between variation within a species and the chances of survival of
species when environmental change occurs
According to the theory of natural selection, there will always be variations within species. When
environmental change occurs, the individuals that have a variation that better adapts them to their
new environment will survive, while those without the variation will die out. The greater the
variation within a species, the greater the chance that it will be able to survive in a situation of
environmental change.
2.3 Identify and describe evidence of changing environments in Australia over millions of years
-

65mya - Australia and Antarctica were joined, climate cool and wet, covered in
temperate rainforests
45mya Australia separate from Antarctica and began drifting north, wind patterns then
changed, warm air from tropics was block as air and ocean currents began circling
Antarctica
Antarctica became cooler, icecap formed and sea levels dropped
Australia was now cooler and drier, but began warming as it drifted northwards,
rainforest shrank, other vegetation grew, climate in northern Australia became tropical
There have been many climatic fluctuations since late Neocene period, reflecting global
cycles, overall Australia has become warmer and drier

2.4 Identify areas within Australia that experience significant variations in temperature and
water availability
Arid habitats are the most extensive habitats in Australia. In central Australia, water is scarce, rainfall
is unpredictable and temperatures are extreme. In the desert temperatures can be above 40
degrees during the day and quickly drop to near zero at night.
2.5 Identify changes in the distribution of Australian species, as rainforests contracted and
sclerophyll communities and grasslands spread, as indicated by fossil evidence
Fossils found in sedimentary rocks on the surface indicate vast changes in the distribution and
abundance of species. Some examples are:
-

Areas containing limestone were once covered by warm, shallow oceans containing
many molluscs, corals and fish.
Species once found in rainforests which covered the continent are now reduced to a
much smaller area.
Fossils of the Thylacine show it lived in Kimberley region 80 years ago, 3000 years ago in
southern mainland and 10000 years ago in New Guinea
As Australia became warmer and drier, rainforests declined and grasslands and
sclerophyll communities increased, organisms well suited to these conditions undertook
adaptive radiation, i.e. the change in a species from its original form to a different form
adapted to different environments or ways of life.

2.6 Discuss current theories that provide a model to account for these changes
-

The theory of continental drift provides one model to explain the changes in climate.
Climate change has changed the environment and therefore the distribution and
abundance of species.
The theory of natural selection explains how some species survive and adapt to changes
in the environment.
The theory of adaptive radiation helps explain how species can spread out and occupy
different habitats.

2.7 Discuss Darwins observations of Australian flora and fauna and relate these to his theory of
evolution
Darwin observed the similarities between flora and fauna in Australia with flora and fauna in other
parts of the world.
He observed the similarities between marsupials (isolated in Aust) with placentals that live in similar
environments elsewhere in the world, which have similar niches and resemble each other
structurally and physiologically.
Some examples are deer and kangaroo have similar niches and digestive systems. Flying squirrels
have adapted the same loose membrane for flying as the Australian sugar glider.

3. Continuation of species has resulted, in part, from the reproductive adaptations that have

evolved in Australian plants and animals

3.1 Distinguish between the processes of meiosis and mitosis in terms of the daughter cells
produced

Daughter
Cells
Where?
Why?

Mitosis
Produces two daughter cells identical to
parent cell, with same number of
chromosomes
Occurs in body cells
Cell division for growth, repair, replacement
of dead cells.

Meiosis
Produces four daughter cells with half
number of chromosomes as parent cell
Occurs in Gametes
Reproduction

3.2 Compare and contrast external and internal fertilisation

External Fertilisation
External fertilisation takes place outside the body,
characteristic of most aquatic organisms.
Many aquatic organisms release gametes
simultaneously into the surrounding water, in hope
that they can meet and be fertilised (spawning). In
External fertilisation millions of small gametes are
released and the chances of fertilisation are low.
High risk of gametes not surviving/being eaten in
water

Internal Fertilisation
Internal fertilisation occurs in most
multicellular land organisms
Gametes are directly transferred to the
female ovum to increase chance of
successful fertilisation

Occurs in most land mammals as external

fertilisation will result in gametes drying out
due to harsh environment

3.3 Discuss the relative success of these forms of fertilisation in relation to the colonisation of
terrestrial and aquatic environments
External fertilisation is successful in water, as the gametes can spread very far and wide in the water,
increasing the chances meeting other gametes from the opposite gender, encouraging fertilisation.
Also, zygotes are able to spread to large areas, enabling successful colonisation of large areas of
water.
External fertilisation would not succeed on land. Internal fertilisation enabled the colonisation of
land, as the watery environment needed for the gametes is provided by the females physiology.
Without the need for external water for fertilisation, even the driest environments could be
colonised

3.4 Describe some mechanisms found in Australian flora for:

- pollination
- seed dispersal
- asexual reproduction with references to local examples
Pollination:
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male part of the flower (anther) to the female part
(stigma). Some flowers can self-pollinate, however most have mechanisms to ensure crosspollination within the species. Cross-pollination requires an external vector to transfer the pollen,
such as insects and birds or wind.
Each flower is adapted to the particular pollinating vector which they rely on, for example some
flowers which rely on birds for pollination have the seeds situated so that when the bird pokes its
beak in to get nectar, the seeds rub onto the birds head and are then transferred to another plant.
Grasses which rely on the wind for pollination have the anthers and stigma in a very exposed place
to maximise the likely hood that the wind will carry the seeds away.
Seed Dispersal:
Seed dispersal increases the survival chances of seeds and help to reach an environment which they
can survive in. There are several ways in which seeds are dispersed:
-

some seeds have hooks or are sticky which enable them to hitch a ride on animals
some fruits are eaten by animals and the seed passes through the digestive tract and is
deposited with faeces
wind

Asexual Reproduction:
Since no gametes are produced and therefore no fertilisation takes place, clones of the parent plant
are produced.
An advantage is: A parent plant well suited to its environment can clone many copies of itself and
rapidly spread into a favourable area.
A disadvantage is: the lack of variation may mean that few will survive if there was a sudden change
in the environment.
Some plants produce extensions which are capable of taking root and starting a new plant.

3.5 Describe some mechanisms found in Australian fauna to ensure:

- fertilisation
- survival of the embryo and of the young after birth
Fertilisation:
Fertilisation will only occur if there are mechanisms to ensure that mature sperm reach ripe eggs,
most marsupials ensure this by having fixed breeding seasons where the females are sexually active.
Mating is timed so that the young emerge from the pouch in spring. Species with long gestation
periods breed in summer while species with quick gestation periods breed in winter. The red
kangaroo, which lives in areas where rainfall and food are unpredictable, breed at all times of the
year.
Survival of embryo and young:
To ensure survival of the embryo, many Australian marsupials have diapauses of the embryo. After
fertilisation, a viable embryo is held in the uterus for long periods, until the previous young leave the
pouch.
To ensure survival of the young after birth Australian marsupial have developed pouches. The young
marsupials are born prematurely and then climb into the pouch where they attach to a nipple and
complete development.
3.6 Explain how the evolution of these reproductive adaptations has increased the chances of
continuity of the species in the Australian environment
These adaptations are the result of natural selection and therefore the organisms most suited to the
environment have the best chances of survival and then pass on their characteristics to their
offspring.
Because marsupials do not expend much energy during birth, if the offspring dies there is not much
energy loss. It is highly adapted to manage its reproduction to cope with the unpredictable
environment of Australia.
3.7 Describe the conditions under which asexual reproduction is advantageous, with reference to
specific Australian examples
Asexual reproduction is advantageous because:
-

It allows large numbers of offspring to be produced rapidly.

Only one parent plant is needed, no fertilisation is required and therefore no mate is
needed.
It is an advantage in an unchanging environment. Clones of the parent plant are
produced, so if the parent has characteristics that help it survive in the particular
environment then the offspring will rapidly spread.
It is an advantage when rapid recovery is needed or when large numbers are required
(eg after bushfire)

Australian species where asexual reproduction is advantageous include:

-

Colony Wattles can send up shoots from outer roots, these grow into separate plants if
parent dies or is burnt, regrowth can occur quickly.
Corals reproduce asexually when conditions are good large coral reefs like Great
Barrier Reef are formed this way.

4. A study of palaeontology and past environments increases our understanding of the

possible future range of plants and animals

4.1 Explain the importance of the study of past environments in predicting the impact of human
activity in present environments
Many things that happen today have happened in the past. Continental drift and increasing aridity
has shaped much of Australias biota. Australia continues to move north and climatic changes
continue to occur.
Knowledge gained from the study of past environments can help us to predict and determine the
future for Australias biota.
4.2 Identify the ways in which palaeontology assists understanding of the factors that may
determine distribution of flora and fauna in present and future environments
Using what we know about past climates and the effect that the climates had on flora and fauna we
can predict what will happen in the future. Fossils show us what happened to Australias plants and
animals as the continent became hotter and drier.
As the greenhouse effect raises temperatures on Earth and as the ozone layer is depleted more and
more, the Earths climate and environments will change and therefore the distribution and
abundance of species will also change.
4.3 Explain the need to maintain biodiversity
Biodiversity is essential for maintaining the natural functions of the Earth, such as providing clean
water, air, productive soil, and recycling matter. The general health of the planet depends on
biodiversity. Many human activities rely on biodiversity: agriculture, forestry, fisheries etc. Variation
within a species is also important to maintain a healthy ecosystem.
The loss of biodiversity can make the ecosystem less stable and less able to survive natural cycles
which the flora and fauna have adapted to.