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Review
Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), East and Southern Africa, P.O. Box 33581, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), 01 BP 2031, Cotonou, Benin
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 0153, Rome, Italy
d
Savanna Agricultural Research Institute (SARI), P.O. Box TL 52, Tamale, Ghana
b
c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 21 December 2012
Received in revised form 18 September 2013
Accepted 19 September 2013
Available online 29 October 2013
Keywords:
Lowlands
Wetlands
Integrated crop management
Water management
Biodiversity
Participatory approaches
a b s t r a c t
With an estimated surface area of 190 M ha, inland valleys are common landscapes in Africa. Due to their
general high agricultural production potential, based on relatively high and secure water availability and
high soil fertility levels compared to the surrounding uplands, these landscapes could play a pivotal role
in attaining the regional objectives of food security and poverty alleviation. Besides agricultural production, i.e. mainly rice-based systems including sh-, vegetable- fruit- and livestock production, inland valleys provide local communities with forest, forage, hunting and shing resources and they are important
as water buffer and biodiversity hot spots. Degradation of natural resources in these vulnerable ecosystems, caused by indiscriminate development for the sole purpose of agricultural production, should be
avoided. We estimate that, following improved water and weed management, production derived from
less than 10% of the total inland valley area could equal the total current demand for rice in Africa. A signicant part of the inland valley area in Africa could hence be safeguarded for other purposes.
The objective of this paper is to provide a methodology to facilitate fullment of the regional agricultural potential of inland valleys in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) such that local rural livelihoods are beneted
and regional objectives of reducing poverty and increasing food safety are met, while safeguarding other
inland-valley ecosystem services of local and regional importance. High-potential inland valleys should
be carefully selected and developed and highly productive and resource-efcient crop production methods should be applied. This paper describes a participatory, holistic and localized approach to seize the
regional potential of inland valleys to contribute to food security and poverty alleviation in sub-Saharan
Africa. We analyzed over a 100 papers, reference works and databases and synthesized this with insights
obtained from nearly two decades of research carried out by the Africa Rice Center and partners. We conclude that sustainable rice production in inland valleys requires a step-wise approach including: (1) the
selection of best-bet inland valleys, either new or already used ones, based on spatial modelling and a
detailed feasibility study, (2) a stakeholder-participatory land use planning within the inland valley based
on multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) methods and using multi-stakeholder platforms (MSP), (3)
participatory inland-valley development, and (4) identication of local production constraints combining
model simulations and farmer participatory priority exercises to select and adapt appropriate practices
and technologies following integrated management principles.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Current inland valley use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Drivers for inland valley use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Multi-functional character of inland valleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Constraints to development and use of inland valleys in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
3
3
3
4
4.
5.
3.1.
Development constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Production constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Towards sustainable inland valley development and exploitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Selecting suitable inland valleys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
Participatory land use planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.
Designing, implementing and evaluating best-fit water management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.
Optimizing productivity and profitability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions regional potentials, local approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
Inland valleys can be dened as seasonally ooded wetlands
comprising valley bottoms (uxial) and hydromorphic fringes
(phreatic) but excluding river ood plains (Fig. 1; Table 1). With
an estimated land area of 190 M ha (FAO, 2003) inland valleys
are abundantly available in Africa and serve a multitude of ecosystem functions. Inland valleys, in particular the valley bottoms
bas-fonds, fadamas, inland swamps in West Africa; mbuga in East
Africa and vleis, dambos, mapani, matoro, inuta or amaxhaphozi in
Southern Africa according to Acres et al. (1985) generally have
a high agricultural production potential due to their relative high
and secure water availability and soil fertility (Andriesse et al.,
1994). The hydromorphic slopes of the inland valleys are often
used for dryland rice and cash crops like cotton, while the upper
slopes, with lower groundwater levels (Fig. 1), are often grown
by high value fruit trees, like mangos and cashew nut, and fodder
crops (Balasubramanian et al., 2007), and the crests by maize or
sorghum (e.g. Lawrence et al., 1997). The ground cover provided
by these trees and crops on higher parts of the slope reduces soil
run-off towards the hydromorphic slopes and valley bottom (e.g.
de Ridder et al., 1997; Rodenburg et al., 2003). The only major food
crop that can be grown under the temporary ooded conditions of
these valley bottoms is rice (e.g. Andriesse and Fresco, 1991).
Depending on the species (Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima),
4
4
5
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
Table 1
Rice growing ecosystem characterization (water supply, agro-ecological zone and main biophysical production constraints); inland valleys may cover the whole range from
hydromorphic fringes to irrigated lowlands. Sources: Andriesse et al. (1994), Kiepe (2006), Thiombiano et al. (1996), Wopereis et al.(2007).
Ecosystem
Upland
Hydromorphic fringes
Rain-fed lowland
Intensied lowland
Irrigated lowlands
Rainfall
Regulated oods
Full irrigation
Guinea savannah
humid forest
Drought, Weeds, Pest &
Diseases, P and N
deciency, Soil erosion,
Soil acidity
Rainfall + water
table + unregulated
oods
Sudan savannah to
humid forest
Drought/ooding,
Weeds, Pest & Diseases,
P and N deciency, Iron
toxicity
Sudan savannah to
humid forest
Drought/ooding,
Weeds, Pest & Diseases,
P and N deciency, Iron
toxicity
Main biophysical
production
constraints
management should follow a participatory, integrated and systematic approach. We aim to provide a framework for such an approach based on a review of the literature and insights obtained
from recent research carried out by the Consortium for the Sustainable Use of Inland Valley Agro-Ecosystems in sub-Saharan Africa
(short: Inland Valley Consortium, IVC) and its convening organization, the Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice). The IVC, composed of
twelve West-African national agricultural research sytems and a
number of international (AfricaRice, IITA, ILRI, IWMI, FAO, Worldsh and CORAF) and advanced research institutes (CIRAD, Wageningen University), was founded in 1993 with the objective to
develop, in concerted and coordinated action, technologies and
operational support systems for the intensied but sustainable
use of inland valleys in sub-Saharan Africa.
2. Current inland valley use
2.1. Drivers for inland valley use
There are no reliable gures about the percentage of the total
inland valley area (190 M ha) currently under rice production in
sub-Saharan Africa. Andriesse et al. (1994) were only able to provide a rough estimate for this area in West Africa (1025%) and this
estimate includes inland valleys in peri-urban areas that are
mainly used for vegetable production due to proximity of markets
(e.g. Erenstein, 2006; Erenstein et al., 2006). The share of inland
valley area under rice or rice-based production systems in the
whole of Africa, hence including the central, eastern and southern
parts, is expected to be much lower. Inland valleys are, however,
increasingly used for agricultural production, partly driven by the
drought spells in the 1970s (e.g. Niasse et al., 2004), and following
declining soil fertility in the uplands due to unsustainable farming
practices (Windmeijer and Andriesse, 1993). Valley bottoms and
hydromorphic fringes generally have higher water availability
and higher soil fertility levels compared to upland soils (e.g.
Andriesse et al., 1994; van der Heyden and New, 2003), even
though soil fertility is still often suboptimal to sustain high crop
productivity. Rice yields in rain-fed upland rice systems in SSA
are currently around 1 t ha 1 (e.g. Rodenburg and Demont, 2009)
and production years should be followed by 37 years of fallow
to maintain soil fertility and control pests, diseases and weeds
(e.g. Becker and Johnson, 2001a). With good management, inland
valley rice can produce 56 t ha 1 without the need for such
unproductive fallow periods required in the uplands (Wakatsuki
and Masunaga, 2005).
Global changes have also given a new impetus to inland valley
development. While there are a number of conicting projections
with respect to the severity, timing and geographic distribution
of future wetting and drying (e.g. Cook and Vizy, 2006; Hoerling
et al., 2006; Biasutti et al., 2008), model forecasts suggest changing
and increasingly variable precipitation patterns in Africa resulting
in less rain in the Sahel (Giannini et al., 2008) and more in the
equatorial zones (Christensen et al., 2007). A secure harvest from
a wetland produced crop becomes of invaluable importance in
the increasingly dry and unreliable agricultural environments
(e.g. Scoones, 1991; Sakan et al., 2011). However, because of the
sensitivity of inland valley systems to changes in quantity, quality
and frequency of water supply, climate change also poses an
hydrological threat to these ecosystems, requiring adaptive management strategies (e.g. Erwin, 2009).
Besides the aforementioned biophysical assets, inland valley
development also has a clear economic driver. About 10 million
tonnes of milled rice, approximately 40% of the annual regional
consumption, is imported into Africa (mainly from Asian countries)
each year, worth about US $5 billion (Seck et al., 2010, 2012). Regional production has, however, increased steeply since the early
2000s due to a declining availability of global rice stocks for export,
and consequently an increase in regional farm-gate prices from an
estimated average US $285 per tonne in 1999 to US $564 per tonne
in 2009 (Based on available data from 20 rice-producing countries
in sub-Saharan Africa; FAO, 2010). These signicant price changes
have encouraged many small-scale farmers to take up rice production, as reected in an increased inland valley use (e.g. Sakurai,
2006).
2.2. Multi-functional character of inland valleys
Apart from their importance for agriculture, mainly rice and
maize production and horticulture (Sakan et al., 2011), inland valleys have essential ecosystem functions such as biodiversity conservation, water storage, local ood and erosion control, nutrient
retention and stabilization of the micro-climate (Adams, 1993;
Wood et al., 2013). These environments are also used for recreation
and tourism and for retrieving clay and sand for crafts and construction, and for collection and use of forest, wildlife, sheries
and forage resources and they contribute to local cultural heritage
(Dugan, 1990; Adams, 1993). Inland valleys are important locations for local communities to collect non-agricultural plant resources, and rural people generally recognize useful plant species
and dispose knowledge on their use, abundance and collection
places (Rodenburg et al., 2012).
Due to their multifunctional character, inland valleys are attractive for exploitation and therefore vulnerable to degradation. The
economic opportunities of inland valleys have been widely recognized and investments have indeed been made to make these areas
better accessible and protable. Indiscriminate development of
these vulnerable environments will however lead to degradation
of the natural resources they harbor, and thereby jeopardize their
unique and divers ecosystem functions (e.g. Dixon and Wood,
2003). The trade-off between conservation of natural resources
and agricultural land use is particularly critical in African wetlands
(e.g. McCartney and Houghton-Carr, 2009; Wood et al., 2013) and
in particular the ones with poor water control, is the parasitic weed
Rhamphicarpa stulosa (Rodenburg et al., 2010) causing crop yield
losses in infested farmers elds to exceed 60% (Rodenburg et al.,
2011). Other important biotic production constraints in inland valleys are diseases such as Rice Yellow Mottle Virus (RYMV), leaf blast,
bacterial leaf blight and brownspot. RYMV, endemic to Africa, is
transmitted by beetles (order Coleoptera, family Chrysomelidae)
and can lead to total yield losses ranging from 5% to 100% in
rain-fed lowland rice in Africa (Kouassi et al., 2005). Pests such
as insects (e.g. African rice gall midge, stem borers and rice bugs)
and rodents and birds can also cause signicant yield losses
(Balasubramanian et al., 2007). African rice gall midge, common
in both West and East Africa, damages rice tillers causing up to
65% yield loss (Nacro et al., 1996). It should be emphasized that
none of these pests and diseases is restricted to inland valleys
alone. If these ecosystems are to be put under production, however, one should nd effective ways to deal with them.
Low soil fertility is a general production constraint in inland valleys despite enrichment caused by soil deposition of silt and ne
clay factions through runoff from the surrounding uplands (Ogban
and Babalola, 2003) increasing the exchangeable bases (Kyuma,
1985), calcium and magnesium (Fagbami et al., 1985) and phosphorus contents (Ogban and Babalola, 2003). Soil fertility in these environments is often far from optimal for sustainable and protable
crop production. While soil fertility varies across agro-ecological
zones (Issaka et al., 1997), studies on soil fertility in inland valleys
across West Africa revealed low to very low levels of nitrogen, available phosphorus, pH, CEC and total carbon (Issaka et al., 1996), deciencies in micro-nutrients like sulfur and zinc (Buri et al., 2000)
and poor clay mineralogy (Abe et al., 2006). A commonly associated
problem with low soil fertility in inland valleys is iron toxicity
(Becker and Asch, 2005; Audebert and Fofana, 2009). This is a complex nutrient disorder caused by excessive iron in the soil solution
under the specic but typical water-logged conditions of rain-fed
and irrigated lowlands, in particular inland valleys (Narteh and
Sahrawat, 1999). Direct and indirect effects of iron toxicity can lead
to 4045% rice yield reductions in lowlands but this can be mitigated by effective water and soil fertility management and by
selecting tolerant cultivars (Audebert and Fofana, 2009).
Lack of inputs, credits, water control and labor, were the most
important institutional and socio-economic constraints mentioned
in the survey of Thiombiano et al. (1996). These constraints are all
inter-related and also closely related to the main biophysical constraints. Most farmers working in inland valleys in Africa are resource-poor subsistence farmers (Balasubramanian et al., 2007).
Such farmers generally have limited nancial means and monetary
surpluses (e.g. Ismaila et al., 2010) and they would need credits to
purchase inputs. Indeed, for resource-poor rice farmers, the nancial means or level of credits often determines the level of inputs,
such as fertilizer (Donovan et al., 1999), necessary to alleviate
Table 2
Estimated inland valley area (and percentage) needed to cover the total paddy demand of Africa, calculated as a sum of total rice import and production (based on 2010 gures),
assumed that mean productivity can be increased by at least 1 t ha 1 following improved water and weed management. Sources: Becker and Johnson (2001b), FAO (2003, 2012),
Rodenburg and Demont (2009), Seck et al. (2010).
Estimated gure
Milled rice import in Africa (2010)
Conversion rate paddy-milled rice
Equivalent paddy quantity of imported rice in Africa (2010)
10 M t
0.6
16.7 M t
24.7 M t
41.4 M t
1.4 t ha 1
2.4 t ha 1
17.25 M ha
190 M ha
9.1%
Calculation
1
10 0:6
16.7 + 24.7
41:4
2:4
100 17:25
190
Table 3
Essential steps and tools for selection, planning and implementation of sustainable inland valley development.
Step
Proposed tools
Purpose
Key references
3. Designing, implementing
and evaluating best-t
water management
4. Optimizing crop
management practices
Worou (2013)
Dembl et al. (2012)
relationships of, or interactions between, the variables and distribution of the data (Breiman, 2001). Random Forests procedures
were successfully applied to assess the potential for paddy rice cultivation in Laos using predictors on topography, climate, accessibility and demography and poverty (Laborte et al., 2012).
Remote sensing or remote-sensing derived products have been
used to map inland valleys. Simple image classication has been
used in Benin (Thenkabail and Nolte, 1996), Ghana (Gumma
et al., 2009) and Cote dIvoire (Thenkabail et al. 2000) to classify
images with good results. Thenkabail and Nolte (1996), Gumma
et al. (2009), and Chabi et al. (2010), identied inland valleys using
the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) determined
from satellite images, and a slope map generated by GIS software
using a digital elevation map. Cloudy conditions are, however, prevalent in most regions and this inhibits the implementation of such
methodologies on national or regional scales. Recently, AfricaRice
developed an automated mapping procedure based only on information from a digital elevation model, which is globally available
at a spatial resolution of 30 m. This standardized methodology is
currently being implemented and validated for the entire WestAfrican region (Zwart and Linsoussi, personal communication).
Such spatial modelling tools are helpful in the rst necessary
assessment of availability, suitability and locations of inland valleys and will save project developers or policymakers valuable
time and resources.
However, the application of spatial modelling, using GIS and remote sensing, can only provide an indication for the development
potential of inland valleys. Soil fertility and soil depth are of great
importance for this purpose as well, but information on such soil
characteristics are not widely available in maps with sufcient detail and cannot be derived with remote sensing techniques. Alongside biophysical and agronomic assessments, socio-economic
variables such as availability of markets, extension services or social customs are important to assess which valleys can be developed for agriculture (e.g. Narteh et al., 2007) and many of these
can simply not be mapped and must therefore be assessed using
terrain surveys and feasibility studies.
Acknowledgements
The insights herewith presented have resulted from work of the
Inland Valley Consortium (IVC) and the Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) and partners. We are indebted to all those who have contributed to this work over the past decades. This paper is dedicated to
our respected colleague Youssouf Dembl, who passed away so
untimely and unexpectedly. For many years he contributed invaluably to research and development of inland valleys in West Africa.
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