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I. Definition of Signals
Handout #1
V. Operations on signals
Updated 7 September 2015
What is a Signal?
o A signal is a function of time representing a physical
variable, e.g. voltage, current, spring displacement, share
market prices, number of student asleep in the Lab, cash in
I. Definition of Signals
1.One-dimensional vs.
Multi-dimensional
Classification of Signals
Example 2:
time, x(t).
x(t)
xd [n] xc (nTs ), Ts
is
the sampling
period
Some real world and many digital signals are discrete time, as
x[n]
x(t )
x[2] ...
x[1]
x[1] x[0]
... x[3]
x[2]
10
... -3 -2 -1
0 1 2 3 4 ...
varies discretely.
x[n]
not defined.
n
EE312 Signals and Systems
11
12
Examples of Signals
Example 3:
Graphical Representation of a DT is shown below:
xa(t)
x[n]
x[n] = xa(nT )
: sampling period
13
Example 4:
14
Discrete-time Signals
f k f kT
d
15
Note that often we neglect to put in the sampling period and write the
signal simple as a function of the sample number k.
EE312 Signals and Systems
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Discrete-time Signals
Example 5:
Converting between a continuous and discrete signal.
xc t e t
xd [k ] e k *T e
EE312 Signals and Systems
17
0.1*k
18
xd k e
k *T
eT 0.9048k
k
xd k 1.0000,
Note that the values of this sequence depend on the sampling period.
xd k 1.0000, 0.8187,
0
y (t ) 2
t
19
,t 5
,t 5
20
digital signals.
21
22
Analog
Digital
-1
EE312 Signals and Systems
23
24
photocopiers
telephones
audio tapes
televisions (intensity and color info per scan line)
VCRs (same as TV)
Digital computers!
25
26
27
28
In other words,
Deterministic
Random
29
30
Examples of Signals
Deterministic
Signal
.
.
.
.
Random
Signal
31
32
Examples of Signals
Signal
with noise
t , T 0
Deterministic
Signal
Signal
with noise
33
1
T
Angular frequency,
2 f
34
Remark:
(radians/sec).
Periodic
a T 0
b T 0
T0
Aperiodic
35
36
Example 11:
Periodic
Periodic
2T
Periodic
The fundamental period T0 of x(t) is the smallest value of T for which holds.
37
2T
38
x ( t ) je
j5t
j cos 5 t sin 5 t
x (t ) x (t T )
j cos 5 ( t T ) sin 5 ( t T )
5T 2 k
k ..., 2 , 1 , 1 , 2 ,....
T 2 / 5
Periodic
39
40
Example 15:
x1(t) = cos(3.5t)
x2(t) = sin(2t)
x3(t) = 2cos(7t/6)
Example 14:
cos(t/3)+sin(t/4)
T1=(2)/(/3)=6; T2 =(2)/(/4)=8;
T1/T2=6/8 =
41
42
x1(t) = cos(3.5t)
f1 = 3.5/2
x2(t) = sin(2t)
f2 = 2/2
x3(t) = 2cos(t7/6) f3 = (7/6)/2
T1/T2 = 4/7 Ratio or two integers
T1/T3 = 1/3 Ratio or two integers
Summation is periodic
T1 = 2 /3.5
T2 = 2 /2
T3 = 2 /(7/6)
x(t) is aperiodic
T1=2/= 2;
T2 =2/ 2
T1/T2= 2
Note: T1/T2 =
43
is an irrational number
44
T1=2/= 2;
T2 = 1
There is no common factor between T1 and T2
x(t) is aperiodic
If x(t ) 2sin(
t ) cos( t )
24
24
45
Thus, To=24.
46
Definition:
x[n] x[n N ]
Period must be
integer!
x[n N ] x[n] n, N 0
for all n .
47
48
Example 18:
Consider the Sinusoid:
49
Example 19:
x[n] A cos 2 n
N
with k, N integers.
x[n] 5 cos 2
n 0.1
20
x[n N ] A cos 2 (n N )
N
A cos 2 n k 2 x[n]
N
since
for all n.
50
51
52
Example 20:
x[n] Ae
2
j k
N
x[n] (1 2 j )e j 0.1 n
We can write it as
x[n N ] Ae
Ae
x[n] (1 2 j )e
2
j k
( n N )
N
2
j k
N
j 2 n
20
e jk 2 x[n]
for all n.
53
54
j0 N
Periodicity condition : e j0(n N) e j0 n e
(*)
must be unity
x[n] x[n N]
cos7 (n N) j sin7 (n N)
7 N 2k
N 2k / 7
N 2
Or equivalent ly
k ...,2,1,1,2,....
k 7
We have the conditions from (*) and (**) that m and N must be integers.
So DT exp is periodic when
0 m
(* * *)
2 N
55
0 m
is a rational number, not periodic otherwise! !!
2 N
56
If x[n] cos(
2 0
N
m
2
The fundamental period is then N m
0
2 n
)
12
x[n] cos( 2 n
If x[n] cos(
0
as in (* * *)
2
12
) cos(0 n) 0
57
0 1
no factors in common,
2 12
4
12
2
1
,
12
6
58
12
then using (****) , N 1 6 is periodic with fundamental period 6.
2
x(t) cos (
2
12
4 n
)
12
x[n] cos( 4 n
) cos(0 n) 0
12
so by using (****) , N 1 12 periodic with fund period 12.
1
(* * **)
12
if
x(t ) cos
8 t
and
31
x[n] cos
8 n
31
x[n] cos (
2n
)
12
1
6
If x(t ) cos( t )
and
1
x[n] cos( n)
6
0
4
2
31
then N=31.
59
0
1
2 12
there is no way
60
In other words:
Causal signals are signals that are zero for all negative time,
Anticausal are signals that are zero for all positive time.
Noncausal signals are signals that have nonzero values in both
61
62
64
causal signal
0
Anti-causal signal
Non-causal signal
63
If
If
x(t)
x(t)
even
t
Example 25:
odd
x(t) = cos(t)
x(t) = c
65
66
x(t ) x(t )
even
Example 26:
x(t) = sin(t)
odd
x(t) = t
67
68
Even Functions
Odd Functions
gt gt
gt gt
even
odd
69
g n g n
g n g n
go n
70
Difference
Product
Quotient
Both even
Even
Even
Even
Even
Both odd
Odd
Odd
Even
Even
Neither
Odd
Odd
ge n
g n g n
2
71
72
x(t ) x1 (t ) x2 (t )
x(t ) x1 (t ) x2 (t )
x1 (t ) x2 (t ) x(t )
x(t ) x1 (t ) x2 (t )
x(t ) x1 (t ) x2 (t )
x1 (t ) x2 (t )
x(t ) x(t ) Even
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
Derivative
Integral
Even
Odd
Odd + constant
Odd
Even
Even
a
g t dt 2 g t dt
81
g t dt 0
82
x (t ) x e (t ) x o (t )
1
x o (t ) x (t ) x (t )
2
x e (t )
n N
g n g 0 2 g n
n 1
g n 0
n N
83
84
Example 36:
xe (t )
1
The even part of a signal is x e t x t x t
2
The odd part of a signal is x o t
1
( x(t ) x(t ))
2
xo (t )
1
( x(t ) x(t ))
2
1
x t x t
2
Even part
Odd part
85
86
Anti-symmetric
across the vertical axis
Given:
87
88
x(t)
x(t )
4___
4___
4e-0.5t
5
xo (t )
xe (t )
2___
-5
2___
2___
x (t )
o
2___
-5
-2e+0.5t
2e-0.5t
5
xe (t )
2___
2e+0.5t
2___
5 2e-0.5t
-2___
89
90
92
91
93
94
9. Energy of Signals
In other words,
real numbers:
E x x t dt
2
and, E x x n
95
If the signal unit is volt (V), the energy of that signal is expressed
in V2.s.
EE312 Signals and Systems
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
96
E x(t ) dt
2
t1
For CT signal
For DT signal
E n2 n x[n]
n
infinite.
97
98
x(t ) e 2t u (t )
E | x(t ) |2 dt (e 2t u (t )) 2 dt
e dt 1/ 4e 4t
0
4 t
E | x(t ) |2 dt t 2 dt 1/ 3t 3 1/ 3
1/ 4
99
100
101
102
n ((1/ 2) n u[n]) 2
n 0 (1/ 4) n
1/ (1 1/ 4)
4/3
103
104
Power of Signals
(over infinite time intervals)
P lim
t2
1
( t 2 t1 ) t
1
x(t ) dt
1
( n2 n1 1)
n n1
x[n]
x ( t ) dt lim
E
2T
For CT signal
For CT signal
P lim
n2
1
2T
N
1
E
2
x[ n ] lim
N
2 N 1 n N
2N 1
For DT signal
For DT signal
105
106
E | x (t ) |2 dt (e 2t u (t )) 2 dt
e
0
4t
dt 1/ 4e 4t
1/ 4
.
T
P limT
1
2T
limT
1
2T
* 14
| x (t ) |2 dt
0
EE312 Signals and Systems
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108
C2/2
110
x (t ) 5 10 cos(100t / 3)
g (t) = Dejt
109
1 2
1
2T
1
2T
P limT
1
2T
limT
limT
T
T
| x (t ) |2 dt
(5 10 cos(100t / 3)) 2 dt
1 1
2
25 100 cos (100t / 3) 100[ cos(200t 2 / 3)] dt
2
2
25 50 75
111
112
x[n] (1 / 2) n u[n]
x(t ) e jt cos(ot )
E n | x[n] |2
n ((1 / 2) n u[n]) 2
P lim
1
T 2T
lim
1
T 2T
lim
1
T 2T
limT
1
2T
T
T
T
T
| x(t ) | dt
e
j t
cos(ot )e
n 0 (1 / 4) n
j t
cos(ot )dt
1 /(1 1 / 4)
4/3
1 1
[ cos(2ot )]dt
2 2
P lim N
1
2 N 1
lim N
1
2 N 1
* 43
N
n N
| x[n] |2
0
EE312 Signals and Systems
113
E period
T T0
Pperiod
to t 2 T
2 t
1
P
A sin
dt
T / 2 T / 2 T/2
T
A2
2T
A2
4 t
1 cos
dt
2
T
T
T /2
T /2
j 0 t 2
dt
T
4 t
t 4 sin T
T /2
(T T0 ) T T0
Pperiod 1
2
1
P lim
e j0t dt 1
T 2T
T
A2
2T
T /2
1 dt
1
E period 1
(T T0 ) T
However, always
Thus,
T T0
to t 2 T / 2
114
2 t
Power in a Sine wave: y t A sin
from t 1 T / 2
115
116
power signal.
117
118
Remark: The terms energy and power are not used in their
conventional sense as electrical energy or power, but only as a
measure for the signal size.
energy signals.
EE312 Signals and Systems
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120
Example 58:
x(t ) e 2t u (t )
E 0.25 and P 0
Example 60:
x(t ) et u (t )
Example 59:
E limT
x[n] (1) n
E lim N n N x[n] lim N n N (1) n lim N 2 N 1
N
P lim
x (t ) dt e 2t dt 0.5e 2t
2
1
T 2T
P lim
1
2N 1
2
1
x[ n ] Nlim
2 N 1
2 N 1 n N
N
121
1
T 2T
x (t ) dt lim
2t
dt
122
123
124
Building-block Signals
1.
2.
1 , t 0
u t 1/ 2 , t 0
0 , t 0
Precise Graph
Commonly-Used Graph
125
126
Ramp Functions
g (t ) B(t t0 )
t , t 0 t
ramp t
u d t u t
0 , t 0
The unit ramp function is the integral of the unit step function.
It is called the unit ramp function because for positive t, its
slope is one amplitude unit per time.
EE312 Signals and Systems
127
0, t 0
r (t ) tu (t )
t , 0 t.
f(t)
r(t)=tu(t)
Time, t
128
sgn t 0 , t 0 2 u t 1
1 , t 0
Precise Graph
Commonly-Used Graph
if t 0
0
pt 2
t / 2 if t 0
t2
u (t )
2!
t
EE312 Signals and Systems
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130
Rectangular pulse,
1 , t 1/ 2
rect t 1/ 2 , t 1/ 2 u t 1/ 2 u t 1/ 2
0 , t 1/ 2
1/ a , t a / 2
, t a/2
0
a t
Commonly-used graph
Precise graph
131
132
The unit sinc function is related to the unit rectangle function through the
Fourier transform.
1 t , t 1
tri t
, t 1
0
sinc t
133
sin t
134
(t)
( t ) d t 1
(t)
Relationship
t
du t
dt
1/
u t t d
Normalization
(0)
t l im t
135
136
(t ) (t )dt (0)
(t): TestFunction
Functions that approach unit step and unit impulse
137
138
0 t 0
(t )dt 1
t 0
Note that it is discontinuous at t=0
The arrow is used to denote area (1), rather than
actual value ()
(t )
du
(t )
dt
u(t)
(t)
Derivative
u (t ) ( )d
du(t )
(t )
dt
0 if t 0
u (t )
1 if t 0
0 t 0
u (t )
1 t 0
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
u (t )
( )d
139
140
-u
0 if t 0
u(t )
1 if t 0
t
-1
d u
(t )
dt
Representation:
(-1)
or
t
(-1)
t
EE312 Signals and Systems
141
g (t )
f ( ) d
[ ( ) u( ) ]d u(t ) u( ) d
0 if t 0
u
(
)
d
t if t 0
g
1
143
u ( ) d
t u (t )
g (t ) u (t ) 1 t
142
dg
(t ) u (t )
dt
Due to
Standard derivative
jump
Dr. Mohamed Zribi away from t = 0.
144
Example 63:
1 if t
u ( t )
0 if t
f ( t ) u ( t ) u ( t 2)
u ( t ) u (2 t )
(t ) ( t )
df
(t ) t 2
dt
1 if t [a, b]
0 otherwise
t
145
t 0, f (t ) (t ) f 0 (t )
Similarly
f (t ) (t ) dt f ( )
f
(1)
b t
a f (t ) (t ) dt u(t a ) u(t b) f (t ) (t ) dt
df
( t ) u (2 t ) u ( t ) t 2 ( t ) u
(2 ) u
(2 ) t 2
dt
1
1
EE312 Signals and Systems
146
(t ) t 2
f ( )
(1)
f (t ) (t ) dt
t , f (t ) (t ) f (t )
If f(t) continuous at
df
dt
df
(t ) u(2 t ) u(t ) 2 t ( 1)
dt
(t ) u(2 t ) u(t ) t 2
Different answer?
A pulse function:
147
f ( ) if a b
f ( ) u( a ) u( b)
0 if a or b
EE312 Signals and Systems
148
a f (t ) (t ) dt
f ( ) if a b
0 if a or b
(1)
b t
a f (t ) (t a) dt
b
f (t ) (t b) dt f (b),
Write t ast+t0
f (t ) (t b) dt 0,
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
150
P3:
(t t0 ) (t )dt (t0 )
Proof:
a f (t ) (t a) dt 0.
b
f (a),
P1:
1
t t0
a
(at )
1
(t )
|a|
Proof:
1
1
(0)
(t )(t )dt
|a|
| a |
1
(t )(t )dt
| a |
151
152
P4:
P5:
(
)
(
)
( 0)
at
t
dt
|a|
or f (t ) (t t0 ) f (t0 ) (t t0 )
Proof:
Proof:
Write t ast/a
Considera>0
Considera<0
f (0)(0)
1
1
t
t
(t ) dt
(t ) dt
a
a
a
a
1
1
(0)
(0)
a
|a|
|
|
EE312 Signals and Systems
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
153
154
Example 64:
P6:
f (t ) (t ) f (0) (t )
1
(at )
(t )
|a|
' (t )
P7:
t (t ) 0
(t ) (t )
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
155
d(t )
,
dt
' (0)
d(t )
dt t 0
d n (t )
(t )
,
dt n
(n)
d n (t )
( 0)
dt n t 0
(n)
156
P8:
P9:
[ f (t ) (t )]' f ' (t ) (t ) f (t ) ' (t )
Proof:
Proof:
157
f
t
t
t
dt
t1
a)
b)
at b
1
a
b
a
c)
t 2 (t 10)dt
Scaling properties
xt t t0 xt0 t t0
158
Example 65:
otherwise
Sampling properties
d)
n
n
xt t t0 dt 1 x t , t1 t0 t2
n
t (t 10)dt
2
20
20
= 100
=0
t 2 (t 10)dt
= 100
t 2 ' (t 10)dt
1.
d
(t 2 )
dt
= - 20
t1
159
160
Remark:
integration
Unit ramp
Unit step
differentiation
integration
Unit parabolic
Unit ramp
2.
integration
Unit impulse
Unit step
differentiation
161
162
T t
differentiation
t nT , n an integer
These signals occur frequently and serve as building blocks to construct many
other signals
CT Complex Exponential: x (t ) Ce
where a and C are in general complex.
at
a>0
Real Exponential
(C and a are real)
x(t)
growing
Exponential
x(t)
x(t ) Ce
C
a<0
Decaying
Exponential
at
C
t
EE312 Signals and Systems
163
164
f (t ) Ce
f(t)
<0
Time, t
EE312 Signals and Systems
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166
Sinusoidal Signals
A sinusoidal function
2t
f (t ) A cos(2ft ) A cos(t ) A cos
T0
x(t) = A cos(t + )
g (t )
B j (t ) B j (t )
e
B cos(t )
e
2
2
167
168
Example 68:
B
B
f1 (t ) e t e j (t ) e t e j (t ) B cos(t )
2
2
Example 67:
f (t ) 3e 0.2t cos(t 1)
Turned on at t = +1
by multiplying shifted
unit step u(t-1)
169
x(t ) Ce
2.
3.
170
Case 1: real s
If s = is real and C is real then
st
x(t ) Ce t ,
And we get the family of real exponential functions.
for all t
Case 2: imaginary s
If s = j is imaginary and C is real then
171
172
Complex Exponentials
Complex Exponentials
For
Case 3: s complex
x(t ) Ce s t ,
plane.
x(t ) Ce
( j ) t
Ce (cos t j sin t ),
t
173
174
Complex Exponentials
1.
x(t ) Ce st
and s j
x(t ) Ce st
Re{x(t )}
Re{x(t )}
t, 0
t, 0
xr (t ) Ce t cos(t )
EE312 Signals and Systems
175
envelope
176
x (t ) e j 2t e j 3t
xr (t ) Ce t cos(t )
177
178
Example 70:
Superposition of sinusoidal signals ejt to
produce x(t)
179
180
(n 3)
[n]
1 n 0
[ n]
0 n 0
n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
181
2 3
m = n-3
182
1, n 0
u ( n)
0, n 0.
A n n x n A x n
0
1
step sequence
The unit step sequence is the discrete-time version of the unit step
in CT situations.
The discrete-time unit impulse (also known as the Kronecker delta function)
is a function in the ordinary sense (in contrast with the continuous-time unit
impulse).
It has a sampling property,
1 , n 0
n
0 , n 0
m=n
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B, n n0
A shifted step is: Bu[n n0 ]
0, n n0
183
2 3
184
u [ n ] [n - k]
[n-k]
- - -
k 0
- - 0
n<0
k
Interval of summation
[n-k]
- - -
- - -
n>0
k
x[n] [n n0 ] x[n0 ] [n n0 ]
185
Sampling property
186
Remark:
Interval of summation
N n
n mN
x[n] = x[k][n-k]
k=-
Then, the unit step sequence can be defined in term of Shifted Unit Impulse
as shown below :
u[n] =[n-k]
k= 0
187
188
Ramp Sequence
A shifted ramp sequence with slop of B is defined by:
The unit ramp sequence and shifted ramp sequences
n , n 0
ramp n
u m 1
0 , n 0 m
n
g (n) B(n n0 )
Example 71:
g[n]= 2(n-10)u[n].
MATLAB Code:
n=-10:1:20;
f=2*(n-10);
stem(n,f);
r[n]=nu[n]
EE312 Signals and Systems
189
190
Exponential function
x [n]
1 , n N w
rect N w n
, N w 0 , N w an integer
0 , n N w
x[n] = A n
n=0
191
0<<1
192
2n
f (n) A cos
N
Sinusoidal function
x [n]
Example 72:
x[n] = A cos(n + )
n=0
A = 5, N = 16
and
/ 4.
MATLAB Code:
n=-20:1:20;
f=5*[cos(n*pi/8+pi/4)];
stem(n,f);
EE312 Signals and Systems
193
194
Unit step
Exponential
Periodic
Sinusoidal
Random
1
EE312 Signals and Systems
195
0 1
1 0
1
196
x[ n ] C n
C is constant and lpha is a real number.
(a) 1
C 0
(b)0 1
C>0
(c) 1 0
(d) 1
197
198
f (n) C ( ) n
1
0.9
0.8
y(k)=0.7k
0.7
Composite sequence:
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
y(11)=0.0198
MATLAB Code:
n=-10:1:10;
f =10*(.9).^n;
stem(n,f);
axis([-10 10 0 30]);
0.1
0
10
12
199
200
e j0 n e j 0 2 n
0, 02, 04,
e j0 N 1 0 N 2m
201
then
n
Re{x[n]} or Im{x[n]}
Re{ x[ n ]} or
Im{ x[ n ]}
202
C C e j ; e jw0
Re{ x[ n ]} or
Im{ x[ n ]}
If C and are in polar form as
C C e j , e j 0
0 m
rational number
2 N
e j0 n N e j0 n
1
1
Re{x[n]} or Im{x[n]}
203
204
cos(k*pi/6)
0.5
Sinusoidal sequence
Re{x[n]}
Re{x[n]} C cos(n0 n )
-0.5
-1
10
12
14
16
18
1
1
x [n]
n
sin(k*pi/6)
0.5
Im{x[n]}
0
-0.5
-1
205
10
12
14
16
18
206
1
0 .8
0 .6
u (k ) = c o s (k * p i/ 6 ) * 0 .9
0 .4
0 .2
0
-0 .2
-0 .4
-0 .6
-0 .8
-1
10
14
16
18
Re(x[n])
Re(x[n])
12
Im(x[n])
207
208
g (n) A(a ) n cos
N
Example 81:
2
1.5
Example 80:
0.5
n=-20:1:20;
f=10*[0.9 .^n];
g=[cos(2*n*pi/16+pi/4)];
h=f .*g;
stem(n,h);
axis([-20 20 -30 70]);
EE312 Signals and Systems
k
k
) 0.8k cos( )
3
3
-0.5
-1
209
Example 82:
10
12
14
16
18
20
210
The dash line are the CT function. The CT function are obviously
different but the DT function are not.
EE312 Signals and Systems
211
212
Operation on Signals
V. Operation on Signals
Basic operations on signals
213
215
214
gt A gt
216
Operation on Signals
Time shift
[ Delay
217
Advance
Time reversal
x(t ) x(t )
Time scaling
x(t ) x(t / 2)
x(t+2) ]
218
220
x(t)
Time shift
t
x(t-t0)
t
t0
219
Replace t by t- to.
e.g. to = -2 :
Time shift
221
222
Time shift
...
...
x[n-n0]
........
...
n0
223
224
Time shift
xn 3
xn
n
xt
xt 4
t
EE312 Signals and Systems
t
225
226
Time Reversal
u(t+1)- u(t-2)
n n n0 , n0 an integer
x(t)
Time reversal
t
x(-t)
227
228
229
Replace t by to.
x n
Time reversal
xt
x t
t
EE312 Signals and Systems
230
231
t
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
232
Time Scaling
Time Scaling
Time scaling
x(t)
t
x(2t)
Example 99:
compressed!
t
x(t/2)
stretched!
t
233
234
Time Scaling
Time Scaling
Given y(t),
Time scaling
235
236
t t/a
t t/a
237
238
240
Original signal
10
T1
T2
(t) = x(2t)
Compressed signal
(a = 2)
T1 0
2
T2
2
(t) = x(t/2)
Expanded signal
(a = 0.5)
2T1
0
EE312 Signals and Systems
2T2
239
n Kn
Time expansion
n n / K, K 1
K an integer > 1
241
242
243
244
t t0
g t A g
a
Amplitude scaling, time scaling and time shifting can be applied
simultaneously.
t t0
a
a
a
t t t0
scaling, A
t t / a
g t
A g t
A g t t0
A g t0 A g
a
EE312 Signals and Systems
245
246
x(t)
1
x(t+1)
1
-1
x(1.5t+1)
1
-2/3
EE312 Signals and Systems
247
2/3
248
xt
x(t)
x(t+1)
1
-1
EE312 Signals and Systems
x2 t / 2
x(-t+1)
1
x t
3
249
t
250
x(2t)
251
252
253
254
u (at t0 ) u (t t0 / a ), a 0
t0
f (t ) u ( t0 )d d (t t0 )u (t t0 )
to
to+1
Non-zero only
for t>t0
u (t t0 ) [u (t t0 )]2 [u (t t0 )]k
Remark:
u (t ) 1 u (t )
EE312 Signals and Systems
255
(t )u (t )dt (t )dt
0
256
Example 115:
Example 116:
257
258
Example 118:
Describe analytically the signal shown in
Example 117:
f(t)
A
r(t) - 2r(t-1)+r(t-2)
u(t) - u(t-1)
t
0
1
1
f (t )
EE312 Signals and Systems
259
A
t[u (t ) u (t 2)].
2
260
Example 120:
Example 119:
Plot
f (t ) 3u (t ) tu (t ) [t 1]u (t 1) 5u (t 2)
rect(t/T)
Can be expressed as u(T/2-t)-u(-T/2-t)
Draw u(t+T/2) first; then reverse it!
262
T/t
1
-T/t
-T/t
T/t
1
Example 122:
-T/t
f(t)=0
f(t)=3[t+2]
f(t)=-3t
f(t)=-3
f(t)=0
261
Example 121:
t<-2
-2<t<-1
-1<t<1
1<t<3
3<t
T/t
-T/t
T/t
263
for t<-2
for -2<t<-1
for -1<t<1
for 1<t<3
for 3<t
264
x [n]
3 4 5 6 7
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
1 2
x[n]
8 9 10
x[k ] [n k ]
shifted impulse
weights
265
266
Example 124:
The Unit Impulse can be shifted or delayed. The shifted Unit Impulse is denoted as :[n-k] => The unit impulse is shifted to right by k
[n+k] => The unit impulse is shifted to left by k
Example 123:
x[n]
x[k ] [n k ]
a-3
x [n]
a1
2
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
7
3 4 5 6
a2
8 9 10
a7
x[n] a3 [n 3] a1 [n 1] a2 [n 3] a7 [n 7]
267
268
Example 125:
x[-2][n+2]
-2
Consider x[n]
x[1][n-1]
...
-4
-1
0 1
-3 -2
012
01
...
2 3
x[0][n]
x[-1][n+1]
-1
x[2][n-2]
269
270
Example 126:
Describe analytically the following sequence.
f[n]
1
A Pulse Sequence
-2
-1
271
272