TEXTS

ELECTRICALENGINEERING

ENaiNEERING

ELECTRICAL

VOLUME

DIRECT

IN

COURSE

CURRENTS

ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING
TEXTS

of

series

of

which

Professor

electrical
Clifford.

E.

Harry

Harvard

of

is

by a committee
engineers

Gordon

Electrical

University,

Kay
Mc-

Engineering.
Chairman

ana

Editor.

Consulting
Laws

outlined

textbooks

well-known

of

"

ELECTRICAL
Lawrence

MEASUREMENTS
"

PRINCIPLES

OF

RENT
ALTERNATING-CUR-

MACHINERY

Lawrence

"

PRINCIPLES

Langadorf

OF

ALTERNATING

RENTS
CUR-

"

PRINCIPLES

OF

DIRECT-CURRENT

MACHINES
Dawes

"

COURSE

ELECTRICAL

IN

Vol.
Vol.

I.
II.

"

"

Direct

ING
ENGINEER-

Currents

Alternating

Currents

ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING

TEXTS

COURSE

ELECTRICAI

IN

ENGmEEROG

VOLUME

DIRECT

CURRENTS

BY

ASSISTANT

PB0FB880B

school;

OF

EMGIMESBINO,

BLKCTBICAL

iNSTrrxmB

American

mxmbeb,

370

YORK:
LONDON

HARVABD

BNQIKBlSBINa

BuscTBicAii

Imfbession

COMPANY,

BOOK

McGRAW-HILL

of

Edition

First
Fifth

THB

XTC.

BNOINEBBB,

NEW

S. B.

L. DAWES,

CHESTER

SEVENTH

6 4 8 BOU

VERIE

1920

AVENUE
ST., E. C. 4

Inc-

TV.

HARVARD

UNtvVRSlTY

EHUlNEERlNQ

6cH00L

"ilVl^li

IIMMV

C"LL""l

Copyright, 1920, by
McGraw-Hill

TUB

MAPXiK

Book

PRBSS

the

Company, Inc.

TOKK

Z*A

Digitized
by

f
CjOOgle

PREFACE

For

time

some

Engineering

past the editors

have

Texts
in

covering

text

experienced

simple

Engineering

Accordingly,

their

after

request,

title

the

As

been

had

volumes

to

direct

the

less

or

alternating

and

etc., which

in

met

are

Electrical

Engineering

advanced

Electrical

the

of

in

begin with

and

the

at

of the

two

discussion

These

practice.
students

as

books

stepping

the

to

stone

which

Texts

devices,

intended

are

already

are

of

types

many

transmission

two

vance
ad-

gradually

of the

machinery,

current

elementary

most

and

current-flow

thorough

should

Electrical

Such

training.

be

straightforward
brevity

the

of

number

in

courses

find

discussions

of their

references.
Electrical

but

reference

instructors

work.

except
In

students

liberal

use

same

time

for
more

part

have
of

been

this

work

which

as

of
is

short
the

time
needs

illustrative

late
assimi-

consulting

rule

industrial
carried

are

sive,
sufficientlycomprehen-

student

usually

to

and
a

text

one

time

foremen's

much
does

out

mathematical
have

not

ready
with

of contact

his

available

for class-room

of the

foregoing types

carefully kept in mind

figures and

general
detailed

any

by

only

ing
tak-

are

of their

give them

ning
plan-

not

field,who

part

involving

not

during the

preparing

books

text

and

students

subject in

not

Engineering,

libraries

the

taking

Ordinarily, this type

analysis.
to

the

at

as

obtainable

Men

to

difiiculty in obtaining
of

information

also

engineering

does

course

only in the evening, require

access

useful

Engineering

often

men

fragmentary

of

written

were

general character

and

specialize in the electrical

courses

on

volumes

two

Engineering

volumes

two

to

and

sive
comprehen-

series.

These

and

for

carefully considered.

magnetism

more

Electrical

general field of Electrical

the

these

scope

McGraw-Hill

demand

manner

implies, the books

of

conceptions

of the

problems

and

has

as

been

result, a
made.

vi

PREFACE

frequentdiscussions of the methods of making measurements

and laboratorytests are included.
in Electrical Engineering,even
In any course
though it be
intended for non-electrical engineers,the author feels that the
student gains littlefrom a hurried and superficial
of
treatment
the subject,
tends only to developthe memorizing
as such treatment
of certain formulae which are soon
forgotten. Accordingly
the attempt has been made in this text to develop and explain
each phenomenon from a few fundamental
and well-understood
statements
ment
laws rather than to give mere
of facts. Such treatwill develop the student's reasoningpowers and give him
involved
trainingthat will be useful in the solution of the more
engineeringproblems that may arise later in his career.
in the treatment
of the more
Throughout the text,especially
abstract portions,attempt has been made
to show the ultimate
bearing upon generalengineering
practice. The student takes
interest in the theory when he sees that it can be appUed
more
to the solvingof practical
problems. Because this work is not
intended for advanced
students in Electrical Engineering,little
is limited to simple
calculus is used and the mathematics
or
no
equations.
The
author is indebted
to several of the manufacturing
tographs
companies who have cooperatedin the matter of supplyingphoto Procuts and material for the text; and particularly
fessor
H. E. CUfiford of The Harvard
EngineeringSchool,for his
suggestionsand for the care and pains which he has taken
many
of editingthe manuscripts.
in the matter
Also

C. L. D.
Harvard

University, Gambridqe,
January 1920.
f

Mass.

CONTENTS

Paqh

Preface

CHAPTER

Magnetism

Magnets

and

and

1.

Magnets

2.

Magnetic

3.

Natural

4.

Artificial

Magnetism

Materials

Magnets
Magnets
Field

5.

Magnetic

6.

Effect- of Breaking

2
a

Bar

Magnet.

7. Weber's

8.

Theory
Consequent Poles

9.

Magnetic

10.

Pole

11.

Lines

12.

Field

Force

Strength

of Force

6
...

13.
14.
15.
16.

17.

Intensity,Electromagnetic
Flux Density
Compass Needle
Magnetic Figures
Magnetic Induction
Law
of the Magnetic Field

18.

Other

19.

Laminated

20.

Magnet

Forms

7
8
10
11
12

of Magnets

13
14

Magnets

14

Screens

21.

Magnetizing

15

22.

Earth's

15

Magnetism
CHAPTER

II
17

Electromagnetism
Field

23.

Magnetic

24.

Relation

25.

Magnetic

Field

of Two

26.

Magnetic

Field

of

27.

The

Solenoid

28.

The

Commercial

29.

The

Horseshoe

of

Surrounding
Field

Magnetic

to

Conductor

17

Current

18

Parallel

Smgle

Turn

Conductors

19
20
21

Solenoid

22
24

Solenoid

vii

viii

CONTENTS
Pagx

30. The
31.

LiftingMagnet

26

Magnetic Separator
Magnetic Circuits

32. The

27
of

Dynamos

CHAPTER

27

III

Resistance

31

33. Electrical Resistance

31

34. Unit of Resistance

32

35. Resistance

32

and Direction of Current

Resistance
36. Specific
37. Volume

Resistivity

or

34

Resistivity

35

38. Conductance
39. Per Cent.

36

Conductivity

40. Resistances
41. The

Circular Mil

42. The

Circular-mil-foot

43. Table
44

46.
47.
48.

1
"

36

in Series and

in Parallel

37
38
39

of Resistivities

40

Temperature Coefficient

of Resistance

Alloys
Temperature Coefficients of Resistance
Temperature Coefficients of Copper at Different

41
43
43
Initial Temperatures
43

49. The
60.

51.

American

Wire

(A. W.

Gage
G.)
can
Working Table,Standard Annealed Copper Wire, Solid;AmeriWire Gage (B. " S.). English Units
Annealed
Bare Concentric Lay Cables of Standard
Copper.
Units
English
.

CHAPTER

53.

Law

and

the

Electric

Circuit

of the Flow

of

Measurement

57. Ohm's

Electricity

49
51

of Voltage and

Current

52
53

Law

58. The

Series Circuit

59. The

Parallel Circuit

60. Division of Current

61. The

48
48

55. Difference of Potential

56.

46

IV

ElectromagneticUnits

54. Nature

45

46

52. Conductors

Ohm's

44

'

54

55
in

Parallel Circuit

Circuit
Series-parallel

56
58

62. Electrical Power

58

63. Electrical

Energy

60

and Energy
Units
65. Thermal

61

64. Heat

62

ix

CONTENTS

Paqb

66.
67.

Potential

Drop
Drop

Potential

in Feeder
in Feeder

SupplyingOne
Supplying Two

Concentrated
Concentrated

at Different Points
68.

Estimation

69.

Power

in

67

CHAPTER
Forces

Electromotive

Battery

Loads
65

Feeder

63
.

64

of Feeders

Loss

Load

Kirchhoff's

"

Battery Electromotive Force and

71. Battery Resistance and Current
70.

Laws

Resistance

68
68
70

72. Batteries

71

73.

73

75.

ReceivingEnergy
Battery Cells in Series
Equal Batteries in Parallel
Series-parallel
Grouping of Cells

76.

Grouping of

77.

Kirchhoff's Laws

78.

Applicationsof Kirchhoff's

79.

Assumed

80.

Further

74.

76
77
Laws

79

Direction of Current
of
Application

Secondary

and

75

Cells

81

Kirchhoff's Laws

CHAPTER
Primary

73

82

VI

Batteries

84

81.

Principleof Electric Batteries

84

82.

Definitions

85

83.

Primary Cells

86

84.

Internal Resistance

87

85. Polarization

88

86A.

Daniell Cell

86B.

Gravity Cell

87. Edison-Lalande
88. Le

Clanch^

89
90
Cell

Cell

89.

Weston

90.

Dry Cells
Storage Batteries

91.

92. The

94.

Standard

Lead

93. Faure

or

91
91

Cell

92
94
96

Cell
Pasted

97
Plate.

101

StationaryBatteries

103

95. Tanks

103

96.

Separators

104

97.

Electrolyte
Gravity
Specific
Installingand Removing

105

98.
99.

100. Vehicle Batteries

101.

Rating of Batteries

106
from

Service

107
108
110

CONTENTS

Paob

102.

Charging

Ill

103.

Battery Installations

114

104.

Temperature

114

and Weights of Lead Cells.

Capacities
106. The Nickel-iron-alkaline Battery

105.

107.

Charging and

108.

Applications

109.

Efficiencyof

110.

Electroplating

117
118

Storage Batteries

Instruments

118
120

and

Principleof Direct-current

112.

The

D'Arsonval

Galvanometer

114.

Ammeters

115.

Voltmeters

VII

Electrical

111.

113.

115

Discharging

CHAPTER
Electrical

114

Measurements

122

Instruments

122

Galvanometer

123

Shunts

126
128
134

Extension

Coils

116.

Multipliersor

117.

Hot-wire

118.

Voltmeter-ammeter

119.

The

Voltmeter

Method

139

120.

The

Wheatstone

The

Slide Wire

Bridge
Bridge

141

121.

135

Instruments

136

Method

137

144

122. The

147

The

148

124.

Murray Loop
Varley Loop
Insulation Testing

125.

The

123.

150

Potentiometer.

153

Potentiometer
" Northrup Low Resistance
127. Voltage Measurements
with the Potentiometer
of
Current
Measurement
with Potentiometer
The
128.
126. The

Leeds

129.

Measurement

130.

The

Wattmeter

131.

The

Watthour

of Power

133.
134.
135.
136.
137.

of Trial and

Method

140.

158

of

165

VIII

Magnetic Circuit
Ampere-turns
Reluctance of the Magnetic Circuit
Permeabilityof Iron and Steel
Law of the Magnetic Circuit
Determination

157

169

The

138.

.155

162
Meter

Circuit

139.

161
Meter

CHAPTER
Magnetic

160

132. Adjustment of the Watthour

The

Error

Ampere-turns
Use of the Magnetization Curves

169
170
171
173
174
175
176
178

3d

CONTENTS

Paob

141.

Magnetic Calculations in Dynamos

170

142.
143.

Hysteresis
Loss
HysteresiB

182

144.

Linkages

145.

Induced

146.

Electromotive

147.

191

148.

Energy of the Magnetic Field

Inductance
Mutual

149.

Magnetic Pull

197

181

183

Electromotive
Force

Force

184

of Self-induction

CHAPTER

186

193

IX

CAPACITANCE

EliECTROSTATICS:

198

150.

Electrostatic

Charges

198

151.

Electrostatic Induction

199

152.

Electrostatic lines

200

153.

Capacitance
Inductive Capacity or Dielectric Constant
Specific
EquivalentCapacitanceof Condensers in Parallel
Equivalent Capacitanceof Condensers in Series

202

154.
155.
156.
157.

Energy Stored

158.

Calculation

159.

Measurement

160.

Cable

in Condensers

The

Capacitance
Capacitance
of a Total
Location
Testing"
of

211

Disconnection

213

X
215

161.

Definition

162.

Generated

163.

Direction

215
Force

Electromotive
of Induced

Electromotive

167.

Lap Winding

168.

Lap Winding

169.

Paths

170.
171.
172.

Force.

Fleming'sRight
218

166.

166.

215

Rule

by the Revolution
Gramme-ring Winding
Drum
Winding

164.

206

209

Generator

Hand

205

208

of

CHAPTER

204

Voltage Generated

of

"

Several Coil Sides per Slot

Through an
MultiplexWindings
EqualizingConnections
Wave
Winding

173.

Number

174.

Paths

........

219
222
223

175.

Uses of the Two

176.

Frame

233
in

Lap Windings

Winding
Types of Windings
Wave

Cores
and Shoes

229
230

of Brushes

Through

177. Field Cores

Coil.

224

Armature

and

236
238
243
244
246

249
250

xii

CONTsENTS
Page

178.

The

Armature

251

Commutator

253

179.

The

180.

Field Coils

254

181.

The

255

Brushes

CHAPTER
Generator
182.

XI

Characteristics

Electromotive

Force in

Saturation

183.

The

184.

Hysteresis

257
Armature

an

257

Curve

258
260

of the Saturation

185.

Determination

186.

Field Resistance

Curve

187.

Types of Generators

188.

The

262
263

Generator

Shunt

264

189.

Critical Field Resistance

190.

Generator

Fails to Build

191.

Armature

Reaction

192.

Armature

Reaction

193.

Compensating

194.

Commutation

195.

The

196.
197.

Sparking at the Commutator

Commutating Poles (orInterpoles).

265

Up

266
267

Multi-polarMachines

in

272

Reaction

Armature

274
!

Electromotive

Shunt

198.

The

Generator

Generator

200.

Total Characteristic

201.

The

276

of Self-induction

Force

199.

280
281
285

^Characteristics

"

288
292

Regulation

293

Generator

202.

Compound
Effect of Speed.

203.

Determination

204.

The

205.

Effect of Variable

206.

The

Unipolaror Homopolar

207.

The

TirrillRegulator

295
299

of Series

Turns;

Characteristic

Armature

Series Generator

300
301

Speed Upon

Characteristics.

305

Generator

305
306

CHAPTER
The

261

Line

XII

Motor

309

208.

Definition

309

209.

309

210.

Principle
Force Developed with

211.

Fleming'sLeft-hand

212.

Torque

Conductor

Carrying

Current

Rule

310
.

311
312

213.

Torque Developed by

214.

Counter

215.

Armature

216.

The

Electromotive

Shunt

Reaction
Motor

and

Motor

313
316

Force

Brush

Position

in

Motor

319

321

xiii

CONTENTS

Page

217. The

324

Series Motor

The

219.

Motor

328

Motor

Compound

218.

329

Starters

338

220.

Magnetic Blow-outs

221.

Resistance

222.

Speed Control
Railway Motor Control
Dynamic Braking
Motor
Testing" Prony
Measurement
of Speed

223.
224.
225.
226.

338

Units

339
345
347
.348

Brake

353

XIII

CHAPTER

355

Losses; Eppicibncy; Operation

Losses
228. Dynamo
229. Efficiency

355
359

and Generators

230.

Efficiencies of Motors

231.

Measurement

232.

Stray-power Curves

233.

236.

Opposition Test" Kapp's Method

Ratings and Heating
Parallel Running of Shunt Generators
Parallel Running of Compound Generators

237.

Circuit Breakers

234.
235.

of

361

Stray Power

363

DISTRIBUTION

AND

365
368
372
374
377

CHAPTER
rBANSMISSION

360

OF

XIV
PoWER

Distribution Systems

380
380

238.

Power

239.

381

240.

Voltage and Weight of Conductor

Size of Conductors

241.

Distribution

383

242.

Distributed

Voltage

248.
249.

Balancer

250.

Three-wire

244.
245.
246.
247.

383

Loads

Systems of Feeding
Series-Parallel System
Edison 3-wire System
Voltage Unbalancing
Two-generator Method
Storage Battery

243.

384
385
"

Advantages

395

253.

Electrolysis
Station Batteries

Resistance

390

Mains.

Feeders

Electric Railway Distribution

255.

390

394

252.

Central

388

Generator

251.

254.

385

391

Set

and

382

Control

396
.'397
399
401

xiv

CONTENTS
Page

Electromotive

256.

Counter

267.

End

258.

FloatingBattery

403

269.

Series Distribution

405

CeU

Cells

Force

Control

402

APPENDIX
Relations

op

407
B

Gbayities

408

APPENDIX
Table

OP

TtiBNs

Sq. In.; Solid

PER

Layer

APPENDIX
Current-Carrying

Questions
Problems

Questions
Problems

Questions
Problems

Questions
Problems

Questions
Problems

Questions
PROBLEBfS

Questions
Problems

Questions
Problems

Questions
Problems

Questions
Problems

Questions
Problems

Questions
Problems

Questions
Problems

Questions
Problems
Index

Units
APPENDIX

Specific

401

on

on
on
on
on
on
on
on
on
on
on
ON
on
on
on
on
on

on
on
on
on
on
on
on
on
on
on
on

Capacity

Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
CHAPTER
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

409

D
of

Wires

and

Cables

410
.

412

II
II

Amperes

Winding

411

III

413
.

414
416

III

417

IV

420

Chapter
Chapter

in

IV

421

425

V
VI
VI

VII.
VII

427
430
434
438
442

VIII

447

VIII

449

IX

455

IX

456

458

X
XI
XI

XII
XII
XIII

460
461
465
467
470
474

XIII

476

XIV

477

XIV

480
485

COURSE

IN

ENaiNEERING

ELECTRICAL

VOLUME

DIRECT

CURRENTS

CHAPTER

AND

MAGNETISM
1.

and

Magnets

magnetism

MAGNETS
involved

are

in

operation

the

Therefore
ing
understandpracticallyall electrical apparatus.
an
of their imderlying principlesis essential to a clear conception

of

operation of

of the
2.

Materials.

Magnetic
metals

other

and

practicallythe
nickel

and
which

by

the

Minor,

Magnets.

ancients.

iron, hence

the

fact that

The

gave

such

have

to

name

the

magnets

was

had

the

stones

having

the

with

of

an

chemical

4. Artificial

Liquid

is also

oxygen

iron

property

or

of

until the

in

in

stone

as

tenth

and
or

navigation

Natural

metallurgy

of

stones.

pointing north

leading stone.

known

ore

magic

these

to

Asia

attracting bits

discovered
of such

Magnesia,

at

magnets

magnetite,

composition FesO*.

Magnets.
of

given

first noted

were

of

property

not

"

If

lodestone, it will be found

amount

magnetic properties,

phenomena

practicaluse

of Lodestone

name

composed

are

The

century.
it the

is

Cobalt

purposes.

stones, notably

south, if suspended freely,was

tweKth

of iron.

Magnetic

"

Certain

found

were

magnetic

alloys)possess

those

material, and

magnetic

poles of magnets.

the

3. Natural

for

used

to

as

of their

some

(or steel)is far superior to all

Iron

"

substances

far inferior
to

apparatus.

only metal

(and

are

attracted

all such

magnetism,

piece of hardened
to

have

which

acquired

it will

steel be rubbed
a

retain

very

able
appreci-

indefinitely.

DIRECT

CURRENTS

steel magnet is called an

Artificial
artificial
magnet.
magnets commonly derive their initialexcitation from- an electric
will be shown
current
later. If a piece of soft steel or soft
as
Such

iron be

similarly
treated,it retains but a very small portionof the
magnetism initially
imparted to it.
make it desirable to use hardened steel when a
These properties
permanent

is desired and

magnet

it is essential that the

or

loses

some

of permanency

or

steel when

even

hardened
Where

1.
"

Magnetic Field.

are

high degree
even

in

aged artificially.

Magnetic

"

of

steel ages

is desired,
in electricalinstruments,or
as

Fig.

itseK

that

of its magnetism with time.

magnetos, the magnets

6.

soft iron

use

magnetism respond closelyto changes

It is found

magnetizing force.

to

field about

It is found

bar magnet.

that

magnetism manifests
of magnetism or lines of

called lines
lines,
The region in space
induction.
through which these lines pass
is called the magneticfield. Further, if the lines of induction
of such a field be determined
experimentally,it is found that
from one
to emanate
region of the magnet and enter
they seem
in Fig. 1. These regionsare called
other region as shown
some
the poles of the magnet.
The two
poles are distinguishedby
which
the positionwhich they seek if suspended freely. The one
pole or north pole for
points north is called the north-seeking
pole,or south pole. In
short,and the other the south-seeking
practiceit is assumed that the lines of induction leave the magnet
it at the south pole. Within the
at the north pole and re-enter
as

if it existed in

CURRENTS

DIRECT

occurring in the magnetizationof iron,is offered by Weber's

Theory which has been expanded by Ewing. The molecules
of a magnet are assimied to be an indefinitely
great nimiber
in Fig.3 (a). Under ordinary
of very small magnets as shown
conditions these small magnets are
arranged in a haphazard
shown at (a),so that the various north and south poles
as
way,
all neutralize one
another,and no external effect is produced.
Upon the applicationof a magnetizingforce,however, the small
magnets tend to so arrange themselves that their axes are parallel

(")

f
If

TT-Sl

IZs\rE

Z3]
s if

sWaW

SN

stf

s"

m
D

a\y

ss

'rM

4" s

P^

SiV

OF!

8if_a

if"S

H
C)

FiQ.

and

their north

3.

"

Weber's

polesare

molecular

theory of magnets.

all pointingin the

tion
generaldirecthe magnetizing force. This is shown
in Fig. 3 (b). It
as
is evident that if the magnet be cut alongthe line XX
Fig.3 (c),
south pole will result,
north and a new
a new
which,before the
fracture took place,neutralized each other.
This theory is further substantiated by grindinga permanent
magnet into very small particles.Each of the small particles
of the bar magnet, each having its own
possesses the properties
and its own
north
south pole. Further, the theory offers a
rational explanation of saturation,hysteresis,
etc.,occurring
in iron subjectedto a magnetizingforce. This will be considered
same

later.

MAGNETISM

Poles.

AND

MAGNETS

Consequent poles are

occasionally
found in bar magnets where different portionshave been rubbed
by a north pole,or a south pole, or when excitingcoils,
acting
in opposition,have
been placed upon
the bar.
Consequent
in
due
fact
to the
that the bar consists of two
reality
poles are
Consequent

8.

"

Fig.

4,

"

Consequent

poles.

magnets arranged so that two north or two south poles

This is illustrated in
exist in the same
portion of the magnet.
Fig. 4. The magnetic field shown in Fig.11, page 11, is in a way
illustrative of the field resultingfrom consequent poles. In

or

more

this case, however, two bar magnets are used and

exists between the adjacent north poles.

small

air-gap

When
a
freelysuspended north pole is
Magnetic Force.
brought in the vicinity of another
m
north pole, it is repulsed, whereas,
if a south pole is brought in the presence
of a north pole,it is immediately
(cm.)
(a)
Repulsion
attracted
toward
the
north
pole.
South
poles are also found to repel
9.

"

m'
one

this it may
be
that like polesrepelone another

another.

stated

From

^h^f
(cm.)

and unlike

polesattract one another.

10. Pole Strength." The
force of
FiQ.
attraction
(or repulsion) between
versely
two
given poles is found to be in-

(5) Attraction
6.

"

with

the distance

between

them.

of such strengththat if placedat

Repulsion and
magnetic

between

the square of the distance between

of the poles are
that the dimensions
as

tion
attrac-

poles.

poles,provided
compared
A unit magnetic pole is one
distance of one
centimeter in
the

small

CURRENTS

DIRECT

tvillrepelit with a
freespace from a similar poleof equalstrength
force of one dyne,
Pole strengthis measured
by the number of unit poleswhich,
would be equivalentto the polein question.
ifplaced side by side,
be formulated
The
force /, existingbetween
poles in air may
follows:

as

/
where

m'

and

dynes
^TT-

(1)

the

respectivepolestrengths(interms of a
unit pole) of two magnetic poles,placed a distance r cm.
apart,
This force may
shown
in Fig. 5.
be attraction or repulsion
as
according as the poles are unlike or like.
m

are

Example. Two north poles,one having a strength of 600 units and the
other a strengthof 150 units,are placed a distance of 4 inches apart. What
is the force in grams
actingbetween these poles,and in what direction does
"

it act?
4 in.

4 X

500X150

^-

2.54

10.16

cm.

75,000

_^
,^^
--103^-^2^^^^^'
_

(10.16)"

728

0.741 gram.

Poles repeleach other.

Ans,

magnetic field has been

studied only with respect to the Unes of magnetism or induction.
If a singlenorth pole be placed in such a field two effects will be
11. Lines

of Force.

"

^Thus far the

observed.

pole will be urged along the lines of induction.

2. The force urging this pole will be greatestwhere the lines of
induction are the most dense,and, moreover,
the force will be
proportionalto the number of lines per unit area taken perpendicular
to the lines in the fieldin which the pole finds itself.
that lines offorce,
similar
From these statements
it can be seen
to lines of induction,
be drawn, to represent the forces at the
can
various pointsin the magnetic field. In much
of the literature
1. This

on

the

subjectlines of induction
The

fallacyof

so

and lines of force

are

criminately
used indis-

doing is immediately apparent

The lines of induction

consideringa solid bar magnet.
pass completelythrough the solid metal of the magnet, whereas
the lines of force terminate at the poles. To be sure, a magnetic
upon

force does exist within the magnet, but this force can
only by making a cavity in the magnet, and

be determined
the force

MAGNETISM

MAGNETS

AND

dicated
acting under these conditions is quite distinct from that inby the number of lines of induction passingthrough the
In air,however, the lines of force and the lines of induction
bar.
coincide.

Intensity. It has been stated that the force acting

a magnetic pole placed in a magnetic field is proportional
upon
of lines of induction at that point. Unit field
to the number
is defined
the fisld
as
strengthwhich will act upon a unit
intensity
pole with a forceof one dyne. One line offorceperpendicularto
centimeter represents unit field
and passing through a square
intensity. Field intensityis usuallyrepresentedby the symbol
H,
It is evident that if a pole of m units be placed in a field of
intensityH, the force acting on this pole is
12. Field

"

f
pole placed in such

that it will have

no

mX

dynes
be of such small

field must

(2)
magnitude

disturbingeffect upon
appreciable

the magnetic

field.

Density. ^Flux density is the number

13. Flux
induction

"

per

unit

taken

area,

be

The

confused.

should

two

The

density (one line

not

'^ ^"^Mm

of

Radius
^

unit of flux

per sq.

^^^

perpendicularto the induction.

In free space, flux density and
field intensity are
the same,
but within magnetic
numerically,
material the two
are
entirely
different.

of lines of

^^ait n-po1c

sput

"^"-

cm.) is

often called the gauss, but the

expression '* lines per square
centimeter"
inch"

square

used

in

'*

and
are

lines

more

practical work

per

often
when

^"-

6-"

Lines
from

of
a

unit

force

emanating
N-pole.

speaking of flux density.

By definition the force exerted by a unit pole upon another

unit pole at centimeter distance in air is always one dyne. The
field intensity
on
a
sphericalsurface of one centimeter radius
must
then be unity and can be representedby one line per square
centimeter over
the entire sphericalsurface as shown
in Fig. 6.

DIRECT

the surface of
47r square centimeters upon
have radiatingfrom it 4x
unit sphere,each unit pole must
Since

CURRENTS

there

are

Fig. 6 represents a portion of a spherical

surface of one centimeter radius and shows roughly the passage
of one
Une of force through each square centimeter of surface,
in the unit north pole. This also explains
each line originating
the appearance
of the 47r term so often encountered in magnetic
formulas.
A pole having a strengthof m units will radiate irm
12.6 lines of force.

lines of force.
Example, A total flux of 200,000 lines passes in air between two parallel
The
With
field is uniformly distributed.
pole faces,each 8 cm. square.
what force (grams) will a pole,having a strength of 100 units, be acted
if placed in this field?
upon
"

200
'

Flux density

000

3,120 lines per

or

sq. cm.

3,120 gausses.

Being

in air tl^s value of flux density also equals the field intensity,
H.

100

312,000

^^:j

"

"

3,120

312,000 dynes

","
319
grams.

Ans.

Example, A pole having a strength of 400 units is placed at the center

What
is the flux density at the surof a sphere having a radius of 3 cm.
face
will
be
what
units
of the sphere and
exerted on a poleof 10
force
placed
at the surface of the sphere?
400 X 4ir
Total lines emanating from pole
5,020 lines.
Area of surface of sphere
4irr*
4ir9
113 sq. cm.
"

Flux

density

Force upon
As

-jj^

pole of

10 units

44.4

10

400

mm'

f^l^^
Compass Needle.

10

3X3
"

The

dynes.

444

also be determined

check, the force may

(seePar. 10).

steel needle

44.4 gausses.

14. The

by
...

Ans,

the law of inverse squares

=444dynes.
compass

consists of

ened
hard-

bar, permanently magnetized and

accurately balanced upon a sharp pivot. The north-seeking
end or north pole pointsnorth,and the south-seekingend points
south.
The north pole of the needle is usually colored blue or
With the exception of a few
mark.
given some
distinguishing
used for lecture purposes, the needle is enclosed in an air-tight
for mechanical
case
are
protection. Mariners'
compasses
mounted
carefullyupon gimbals, so that they always hang
level. Upon steel ships,heavy iron balls placednear the compass
or

small

MAGNETISM

are

necessary

to

AND

MAGNETS

compensate for the magnetic effect of the ship

itself.
the polarity of a magnet
of the compass
is
By means
The south poleof the compass
readily determined.
points to

Fia. 7.
"

the north

pole of

Compass

the magnet

needle and

shown

bar

magnet.

the
Fig.7. Likewise,
north pole of the compass
points to the south poleof the magnet.
needle follows immediately from the
This action of the compass
law that like polesrepeland unlike poles attract each other.

Fig. 8.

"

This

as

Elxploringthe field about

in

bar magnet

with

compass.

mine
is very useful in practical
work for it enables one to deterand generators
the polarityof the various polesof motors

excitingcoils are correctlyconnected.

needle always tends to set itselfin the
Fiuiiher,the compass
the north
direction of the magnetic field in which it finds itself,
end of the needle pointingin the direction of the lines of force or
naagnetic lines. This is illustrated in Fig. 8. By placing a
and

to show

if the

10

DIRECT

points in the region of a magnet,

at each point,the arrow
arrow
an
pointingin the
direction as the needle,the field around the magnet maybe
mapped out as shown in Fig. 8. In mapping out a field in

small compass
and drawing
same

CURRENTS

at the various

this way it must

be remembered
that the earth's field may
exert
considerable influence on the compass
needle in addition to the
eflfectof the field being studied.

Magnetic Figures. If a card be placed over a magnet and

the card, a magnetic figureis obiron filings
be sprinkledover
tained.
at each point set themselves in the direction
The filings
15.

"

Fig.

9.

"

Magnetic

of the lines of force at that

figure,unlike poles adjacent.

point,and

close detail the character

the resultant

of the

figureshows

magnetic field. Fig. 9

shows the magnetic field due to two bar magnets placed side by
side and having unlike polesadjacent. On the other hand, Fig.
bar magnets when like poles
10 shows the fielddue to these same
are
adjacent. It will be noted in Fig. 9 that the lines of force
like elastic bands stretched from one
seem
pole to the other,
acting to pull the unlike poles together. In Fig. 10 the lines of
ing
to repelone
force from the two like polesappear
another, indicatthe
the poles. Fig. 11 shows
of repulsionbetween
a state
fieldobtained by placingthe bar magnets end to end, having the
two north polesadjacent.
in very

12

DIRECT

magnet is broughtnear

the

CURRENTS

u*on

induced.
poleis similarly
the foregoing,
the ability

north

This is illustratedin

Fig. 12 (a). From

of magnets to attract soft iron is readilyunderstood.
An opposite
of
to
that
the
is
induced in the iron,and these
pole
magnet
two
poles being of unlike polarityare then attracted toward
each other.
It is sometimes

polebe

noticed that if

comparativelyweak

north

brought into the

of a strong north pole,attraction

vicinity
between the two results,
rather than the repulsionwhich might
be expected. This is no violation of the laws governing the at-

Soft Iron

Soft Iron

FiQ.

12 (a).
"

Poles

produced

Fig.

by magnetic

(6). Proper method

bar magnets.
keeping

12
"

induction.

"

of

"

from the fact

repulsionof magnetic poles,but comes
that the strong north poleinduces a south pole which overpowers
the existingweak north pole and results in attraction.
In this
it is easy to reverse
the polarityof a compass
needle by holding
way
end too close to a strong magnetic pole of the same
one
polarity.
traction and

similar reason, when two bar magnets are put away in

shown
as
box, the adjacent ends should be of oppositepolarity,
For

in

Fig. 12 (b). They will retain their magnetism better under

these

conditions.

"keeper"

When

of soft iron should

horseshoe
be

magnet

placed across

is not
the

in

use

poles.
of the Magnetic Field.
The magneticfield
17. Law
always
that the mcmmum
am^mnt
tends to so conform itself
of flux is
attained. This offers further explanation of the attraction of
iron to polesof magnets.
The iron is drawn toward the magnet
utiUze it as a part of their return
so that the magnetic lines may
"

MAGNETISM

AND

path; since iron conducts

This

these lines much

is illustrated in the

armature

is drawn

toward

13

MAGNETS

better than

the air.

horseshoe

magnet of Fig. 14. The

the polesof the magnet, and the return

(b)

(a)
Fig. 13.

"

Ring magnets.

path through the air is materiallyshortened,so that the number

of magnetic lines is materiallyincreased.
The maximum
flux
is against the poles.
exists when
the armature
of Magnets.
18. Other Forms
The simple bar magnet frequently
is not suitable for practical
For the same
amount
work.
of material,
other forms are more
powerful and more
closed
a
Fig. 13 (a) shows
compact.
ring magnet. All the magnetic flux is
contained in the ring and littleexternal
"

effect is noted.

This

type is not

very

useful.

However, if the ring be cut as

in Fig. 13 ("),a north and a
shown
south
pole are obtained. A piece of
soft iron,if brought near
this gap, will
be strongly attracted and will tend to
be drawn

the gap and thus shorten

the length of the flux path.
The

across

horseshoe

magnet, shown

in

Fig.

14.

"

Horse-shoe

magnet
attracting
iron armature.

soft-

Fig.

The two poles being near

14, is very useful,for two reasons.
each other, a comparatively strong field exists. Fiu'ther,if
the function
each
shows

of the magnet

is to exert

pullupon

an

armature,

pole is equally effective. Fig. 118, Chap. VII,

a

horseshoe magnet such

instruments.

as

isused in Weston

page

130

direct-current

Digitized
by

(^OOgle

14

DIRECT

CURRENTS

Magnets. It is found that thin steel magnets

are
stronger in proportion to their weight than thick ones.
of material a magnet made
For a given amount
up of several
in Figs.
laminations,as shown
15 and
powerful
16, is more
than one
made of a singlepiece
of metal.
Fig. 16 shows the
19. Laminated

form

of

"

horse-shoe

magnet

for
telephone
generally used
and ignitionmagnetos.
There
20. Magnet
Screens.
"

is

no

insulator for magnetic

known

appreciable
change in the flux or in the pull
is noticed if glass,
of a magnet
wood, copper, or other
paper,
flux.

No

Soft iron
pole pieces

Fig.

16.

"

Compound

or

laminated

bar

Fio.

16.

used

horse-shoe

in magnetos.

placed in the magnetic field. However, it isoften

electrical measuring
shield galvanometers and

material be

desirable
instruments

to

from

the

earth's field and

InBtrament

Fig.

generators, conductors

surrounding the
17.

Compound

magnet

magnet.

such

"

This

shell

17.

"

from

Magnetic

with

to

to be MreeneS.

screen.

carryingcurrents, etc.

instrument

stray fields due

an

This is done

shown
iron sTiell
as

by
in Fig.

by-passes practicallythe entire flux and

thus

MAGNETISM

15

MAGNETS

AND

the sensitive portionsof the instrument.

prevents itfrom affecting
The

smaller the
becomes.

found

be

to

the more
effectivethe screening
openingsin the shell,
with air spaces between, are
Three or four shells,

effective than

more

one

shell of the

total

same

thickness.

Such, however, are used only in connection with

sensitive galvanometers.
the screeningof the most
21. Magnetizing. A magnet may
be magnetized by merely
The
resultingpolarity at
rubbing it with another magnet.
in contact
any point is oppositeto that of the last pole which came
with this point. Therefore,it is well to rub one end with the
north pole of the inducing magnet and the other end with the
be done simultaneously
south pole. This may
by the "divided touch"
in Fig. 18.
It is admethod
visable
shown
"

to

rub

both

Stronger magnets

may

18.

Divided

"

be

between

by placing them

Fig.

sides of the bar.

touch

obtained

poles

the

method

of

magnetizing.

Fig. 19.

"

magnet

Magnetizing
with

an

shoe
horseelectromagnet.

powerful electromagnet. Fig. 19 shows this method

of magnetizing a horseshoe
An armature
or "keeper"
magnet.
should
the poles of the horseshoe magnet
be placed across
before
the
tion
removing it from
electromagnet. Magnetizain a
also be produced by inserting the magnet
may
suitable excitingcoil and allowing a heavy current
to flow in
of

the

very

coil.

around

few

turns

the magnet

and

be wound
resistance wire may
connected in series with a fuse to the

of low

current
supply mains.
Upon closingthe switch,an enormous
but the fuse blows immediately and prevents
passes temporarily,
damage to the electric circuit. The heavy rush of current is
usually sufficient to leave the steel in a strongly magnetized

condition.
22. The

The earth behaves as a huge

Magnetism.
bar magnet, the polesof which are not far from the geographical
Earth's

"

16

DIRECT

CURRENTS

poles. The north magnetic pole (correspondingto the south

pole of a magnet) is situated in Boothia Felix,about 1000 miles
from the geographicalnorth pole. The south magnetic pole
been located but experiment pointsto the existence of
has never
two south poles. Due to the non-coincidence of the geographical
and magnetic poles and to the presence of magnetic materials
in the earth,the compass
pointsto the true north in only a few
placeson the earth's surface. The deviation from the true north
and magnetic maps are provided showis called the declination,
ing
the declination at various parts of the earth.
it is about 9" west.
The declination undergoes a
from

year

to year, called the variation

At New

York

tion
gradual varia-

change.

careful

record is

ments,
kept of this secular variation and scientificmeasuresuch as are used in astronomy, surveying,and navigation,
corrected
be
needle
must
correspondingly. The
undergoes
due possibly
very small dailyvariation and an annual variation,

to the influence of the

sun

and

the

moon.

freelysuspended and balanced needle does not take up a

when
under the influence
to the earth's surface,
positionparallel
of the earth's magnetism alone,but assumes
a position
making
some
angle with the horizontal. This angle is called the dip
York it is about 70* North.
At New
of the needle.
The dip
undergoes changes similar to those in the variation. The field
of the earth's field at New
not horizontal)
York
intensity(total,
is about 0.61 C.G.S. units,although this value changes slightly
A

from

time to time.

II

CHAPTER

ELECTR0MA6NETISM

23.
been
and

Magnetic

Field

suspected

that

this relation

Fio.

If

be

brought

carrying

observed
the

Fig.

that

the

21.

needle

conductor

it

to

it is held

Fig.

current

of

22.

field.

the

Lines

"

needle

single

deflects,

It is further

set itself at

cylindrical

relation.

conductor.

the

above

that

show

to

neighborhood

magnetic

long

electricity

definite

straight

had

It

between

was

current,

inwards.

needle

the

surrounding
"

always tends

When

Klines of force

"

cylindrical

that

into

of

presence

conductor.

but

"

in 1819

for Oersted

electric

an

existed

field about

Magnetic

"

indicating the

thus

20.

compass

conductor

to

only existed

not

Conductor.

relation

some

it remained

but

magnetism,

Surrounding

right angles

conductor,

of force

conductor

the

surrounding
current

"

outwards.

points in

when

held

that

the

(if there
2

beneath

the

magnetic
are

no

direction

conductor.

flux

other

opposite

exists

to

that

Further
in

conductors
17

circles
in the

which

it

assumes

investigation
about

the

vicinity)

as

shows

conductor
shown

in

18

CURRENTS

DIRECT

Figs. 20,

21

and

conductor

of the

center

and

If the

conductor.

the

These

22.

the direction in which

circles have

their centers

at

the

planes are

their

perpendicularto
in the conductor
be reversed,

current

needle is deflected will be

the compass

seen

also,showing that the direction of this magnetic field

the direction of the current.
is dependent upon
The relation
of the two
is shown
in Fig. 20.
The fact that the magnetic
to the conductor
field exists in circles perpendicidar
explainsthe
from a point above
needle when
moved
reversal of the compass
the conductor to a point beneath it,for the direction of the field
to

reverse

above

the conductor

be

must

oppositeto

beneath

that

the

ductor.
con-

Figs.21 and 22.

in Fig. 23 is illustrative of this concentric
The experiment shown
A conductor carrying
relation of the flux to the conductor.
is brought vertically
current
a
This is illustrated in

down
of

through

horizontal sheet

cardboard.

Iron

filings

sprinkledon the cardboard form

circles. (A current
concentric
of about

100

obtain

to

If four

or

is

amperes

distinct

more

sary
neces-

figures.)
are

compasses

arranged as shown in Fig. 23,

dithey will indicate,by the rection
in

their needles

which

point, that the magnetic lines

circles having the axis of the

are

wire

as

center.

of

24. Relation

Field to Current."

Magnetic
A definite

tion
the direc-

exists between
Investigation of the magnetic
field surrounding a conductor.

Fig. 23.

lation
re-

"

of the current

in a conductor

magnetic
simple rules by

and the direction of the

field

surrounding the conductor.

this relation may

which
1

circle

into the

having

having
and

the paper,

paper,
dot at the
and

cross

are

two

be remembered.
inside (0) indicates that the current

represents
center

There

the

feathered

(O) indicates

represents the

that

end
the

approachingtipof

an

of

an

current
arrow.

arrow.

is

is
A

flowing
circle

flowingout

of

20

DIRECT

CURRENTS

The pullingtogether
magnetic lines is a maximum.
of the conductors reduces the length of path ahcd through which
the lines must pass.
The fielddue to each conductor separately
is stillcircular in form but the resultant magnetic lines are no
is shown in Fig.25.
as
longercircidar,
the conditions which exist when
In Fig. 26 are shown
two
parallelconductors carry current in opposite directions. The
but these circles are not concentric
magnetic lines are circles,
number

of

either with
crowded

between

conductors
the

another

one

or

the conductors

farther apart.

area

with

through which

the conductor.
and

The

lines

are

therefore tend to push the

Again, when

the -conductors

the flux passes

rate,
sepa-

is increased,
that
so

magnetic circuit in this case also tends to so conform itself

that the magnetic flux is a maximum.
From
be formulated.
the foregoing,the followingrules may
Conductors carryingcurrent in the same
direction tend to be drawn
conductors carryingcurrent in oppositedirections tend to
together;
he repelled
from each other.
All electriccircuits tend to take such a positionas vdll make
their currents parallel
direction.
and flowing in the same
This effect is especially
pronounced in modern largecapacity
the

power

systems.

Bus-bars

been

wrenched

from

have

their

clamps; transformer coils have

been
pulled out of plaiceand
transformers
wrecked
by the
forces produced by the enormous
currents
arising under shortcircuit conditions.
gle
Magnetic Field of a SinIf a wire carryinga
Turn.
current
be bent into a loop a

26.

"

field similar to

that

Fig. 27 is obtained.
FiQ.

27.- -Magnetic
a

field produced

by

field has

single turn.

south

north

pole which

shown

in

This magnetic

poleand

possess

all the

A compass
propertiesof similar poles of a short bar magnet.
the direction shown, the
needle placed in this field assumes
north pole pointingin the direction of the magnetic lines.

(^oogle

21

ELECTROMAGNETISM

Solendid.

27. The

wound

electric conductor

An

"

in the form

carrying current is called a solenoid, A simple

solenoid and the magnetic field produced within it when
current
in Fig. 28.
The solenoid
flows through the conductor is shown
be considered as consistingof a largenumber
of the turns
may
of

helix and

Fig. 28.

"

field produced

Magnetic

by

helix

or

solenoid.

in

Fig. 27 placed together. The solenoid winding

consist of several layersas shown
in Fig. 30.

shown

The
to

relation of the direction of the

the direction in which

determined

Fig. 29.

Another

by the hand

at the ends of the

in the coil.
the current

For

pole

and

to

direction of exciting current.

in

the "aS''show

example, when

the

Fig. 29, where

when

lookingdown

lookingdown

current
exciting

upon

will be clockwise

arrows

the direction of current

upon

direction in the coil will be counter-clockwise

by the "iV;"
of the

solenoid

be
flows in the helix may
the corkscrew rule of Par. 24.

rule,or by

simple method, is shown

'

the

the ciu-rent

of magnetic

Relation

"

flux within

may

as

pole

shown

pole the direction

shown
by the "S."

south
as

north

22

DIRECT

28. The

Commercial

CURRENTS

Solenoid.

"

The

solenoid

is used

in

practicefor trippingcircuit breakers

(Par. 237), for operating

in automatic motor
contactors
starters (Par.219), for operating
voltageregulatingdevices (Par.207), for arc lamp feeds (Chap.
other
XIII, Vol. II), for operating valves,and for niunerous
In practically
allinstances a soft iron (orsteel)
plungpurposes.

Fig.

30.

"

Simple solenoid and plunger.

to obtain the tractive

pullrequiredof
The operationof a solenoid and plungerisindicated
the solenoid.
The flux due to the solenoid produces magnetic poles
in Fig. 30.
the plunger will be of such sign
the plunger. The pole nearer
on
that it will be urged along the Unes of force,(seePar. 11) and in
er

or

such

is necessary

armature

direction

Fig.

31.

to be drawn

as

**
"

within the solenoid.

Iron-clad "solenoid

and

plunger with stop.

positionof equilibriumis reached when the center of the

plunger reaches the center of the solenoid (Fig.30). Fig. 31
iron-clad*' solenoid commonly
used for tractive
shows
an
A

'*

work.

The

iron-clad feature

pulland produces a

very

increases

decided

the

increase of

range

of

uniform

pullas the plunger

23

ELECTROMAGNETISM

approaches the end

solenoid

the

of the

becomes

Distance
"

Pull

the characteristics of the

now

when

occurs

shows

32

the

stop "a"

is

used,
plunger electromagnet.This changes

Fig. 32.

When

stroke.

10

12

Z"- Inches

of solenoid

solenoid

on

plunger.

in that

the

plunger is near

the end of the

maximum
the stop.

pull
Fig.

results of solenoid tests

by C. R. Underbill.' Curve (a)

is the pull upon
the plunger of a simple
solenoid like that of Fig. 30; curve
(")
this solenoid is
shows
the pull when
iron-clad as in Fig. 31 but without
a
(c) shows the effect of the
stop; curve
"stop'' on the pull. It will be noted
made

that the iron-clad feature and

have

but littleeffect except

near

the

stop

the end

of the stroke.
of
important practical
application
in the braking of
the solenoid occurs

An

elevators and
is removed

cranes.

When

the power

or
liftingmotor
magnet
Fig. 33.
is interrupteddue to
Plunger electrothe power
when
operating a crane
broken
wire or other accident, the
a
brake.
brake
be applied immediately.
must
One method
of accomplishing this is shown
ii^Fig. 33. When

from

the

"

"

Standard

Handbook,

Section 5."

24

DIRECT

CURRENTS

interrupted,the plunger P of the

solenoid A drops,due partlyto gravityand partlyto the action
of the springs S,
The springsS immediately force the levers
L againstthe brake bands B, pressingthese against the brake
drum
the power
Z",thus effectingthe braking action. When
is appliedto the lifting
motor, the plunger P is pulledup, thus
releasingthe brake. A plunger electromagnetis most suitable
the pull must
for this piu-pose because the stroke is short and
be positive.
the power,

connection

etc.

To

reason,

is

Solenoid.

Horseshoe

29. The

sounder

for any

"

The

use

of

an

armature

with solenoids is well illustrated by the relay or the

used in

telegraphy,and also by electric bells,buzzers,

increase the efifectivenessof such devices two

[lard

solenoids

llubbtr-

Fia. 34.

"

Telegraph relay.

used, each being placed on one of the legs of a horseshoe

When
the coilsC (Fig.34) become excited,
or U-shaped magnet.
A is attracted because of the tendency of the
the iron armature
magnetic lines to make their path of minimum
length. As a rule,
A is not allowed to close the magnetic circuit comthe armatiu-e
pletely,
for under these conditions the magnetic lines stillexist
after the excitation is removed, preventingrapid release of the
The stop S' prevents the armature
armatiu-e.
making contact
FF
and thus completely closingthe magnetic
with the cores
D close any
circuit. The contacts
secondary circuit that the
be operating. The spring T draws
the armature
relay may
back againsta stop S when the excitation is removed.
are

(^oogle

ELECTROMAONETISM

25

L"*di. mil EbelT

Terminal

On*

Oritj-

Luff for S-Folnt 8i"pmiai"m

Ooil

HaiTDAt Case
R"niDv"ble Top PUto
of Coil Spool

High Permeability
Spool for Coil
Coil of Strap

Copper
"^

Non-magnetie
aianganese Steel

*nd iDiBer
Pole ShoM

Outer

Fig. 35."

Fig. 36.

"

Cutler-Hammer

Gross-section

36-inch

Coil Shield of

of

magnet,

liftingmagnet.

handling heavy

castings.

26

DIRECT

30. The

LiftingMagnet.

to handle

iron and

CURRENTS

^Lifting
magnets

"

used

are

steel in various forms.

cially
commer-

very

preciable
ap-

savingof time and labor iseffected by their use, because

chains and slingsfor holding the load are not necessary.
They
useful for handling steel billets in rolling
are
mills, but
very
the billets cannot be picked up when red hot as they lose their
at this temperature.
magnetic properties
Magnets are especially
for an entire layermay
usefid in loadingand unloadingsteel rails,
be picked up and laid down
again without being disarranged.
Liftingmagnets effect a very great saving of labor when small
pieces of iron, such as scrap iron, are handled, for they will
pick up largequantitiesat every lift. Without a magnet each
individual piece would
have
to be moved
by hand. Fig. 35
shows in cross-section a typicalCutler-Hammer
lifting
magnet.
Fig.36 shows a lifting
magnet in actual operation.
Formulae for the holdingforce of electromagnets
are
given in
Par. 149.

PvHtt^
Ma^nd-ic

^.*-^^

Non-Ma^tffhc

Fig.

37.

"

Magnetic

separator.

It should be understood
no

work

device.
which

in

The

the

that the magnet itselfdoes littleor

as
a
holding
lifting,but merely serves

actual work

is

operates the steel ropes

performed by
or

the

engine

chains attached

to the

or

motor

magnet.

CURRENTS

DIRECT

28

of flux passingthrough the

the amount
duces,therefore,
Moreover, the flux in taking the shortest path tends

through the

upper

half of the armature.

armature.
to

This tends to

crowd

produce

commutation.
unsatisfactory
The magnetic circuit of a bi-polargenerator of modern
design
of the symmetry
of the magnetic
Because
is shown
in Fig. 39.
circuit the flux divides evenly through the two
sides of the
armature.
the pole shoes
The long air path existingbetween

Field WiEidfAf

Toka

Fio.

39.

"

Magnetic

reduces the
that the

circuit and

magnetic leakage to

flux in the

Ordinarilythe yoke
field

cores.

field windings

cores

need

of

modern

minimimi.

bi-polar generator.

It is to be noted

it passes into the yoke.

only be one-half the cross-section of the

Direct-current

divides

as

machines

of the

bi-polartype

are

usuallyin small units.

polar
complex magnetic circuitsof a multiFig. 40 shows the more
generator having eightpoles. It is to be noted that the
Again the flux passing
poles are alternatelynorth and south.
divides,both upon reaching the yoke
through the field cores
and upon reachingthe armature
path and the cross-section of the

made

29

ELECTROMAGNETISM

In both Fig. 39
yoke need only be one-half that of the cores.
and Fig. 40 the magnetic leakq^geis very materiallyreduced

Fia.

Fig. 41.

"

40.

Magnetic

"

Magnetic

circuits of

leakage produced by

multi-polargenerator.

incorrect

by placingthe excitingampere-turns

possible.This

result is not

secured

as

position of exciting coils.

near

in the

the armature

Edisonin

as

bi-polar
bi-poL

gle

30

DIRECT

CURRENTS

Fig. 41 shows the same

generator of Pig. 38. To illustrate,
generator as that in Fig. 40 but with the excitingcoils placed
the magnetic circuits,
the yoke. They stillact upon
but
upon
of their remoteness

from

largemagnetic
leakage exists around the outside of the yoke and through the
interpolarspace, resultingin a smaller percentage of the total
flux passingthrough the armature.
It is to be understood that of itselfmagnetic leakage does not
lower the efficiency
of a machine, since to maintain a constant
ever,
Howmagnetic fielddoes not requirean expenditureof energy.
number
of magnetic lines may
in order that the necessary
both the yokes and the cores
reach the armature
ciently
must have suffilarge cross-sections to carry the leakageflux in addition
because

to the useful armature

flux.

the

Thi"in

armature,

turn

increases the amount

of

Therefore a large magnetic leakage results in a

field copper.
much heavier and more
expensivemachine than would otherwise
be necessary.

CHAPTER

III

RESISTANCE

electric

depends

circuit

impressed
battery

be

contact

poor

point in

electromotive

same

dissipated

be

tending

to

causing

heat

point of

friction

in mechanics.

uniform

speed

the

moving

prevent

the

moving

loss

is

of

when

is

to

produce

"270"

C.

removed.

in

of

time

same

after

the

of

of
has

was

Ley den,

the
in

force

practicallyzero

of the

some

this friction.
This

energy

careful

in its iemperature.
loss

energy
a

which

resistance,is

resistance
recent

and

the

temperature

at

sub-

some

able

was

diminution

no

been

in

removed.

coil of

inducing
known,

This experiment

of

experiment,

showed
had

short-circuited

lowest

273"

in

of resistance.

liquid helium

"

to

tends

therefore

through

passes

in

flume,

and

electric current

the

Friction

overcoming

water

amount

an

helium

zero

running

is used

loss of head.

electromotive

presence

of absolute

is

which

chapter, the

next

magnetically

of the lead

in

resistance,but

the

in

or

slight increase

current

the

to

in its effect

street-car

power

pipe

the

circuit in which

Liquid

neighborhood
resistance

in

show

have

induced

The

car.

by

electric

an

hours

was

will

property

the

by friction into heat.

Kamerlingh-Onnes
a

strength
current

the

in the

shown

substahces

Professor

the

heat

likened

example, if a

represented by

directly proportional
AU^

at

be

may

being expended

would

will be

occurs

with

even

other

some

This

and

If

straight, level track, friction tends

largely absorbed

measurements

As

For

on

water

loss of energy

The

circuit

of water

flow

of the

energy

of current

electric

is converted

car

the

impede

to

at

or

contact.

poor

of

this wire.

considerable

Also

as

dissipation.is called resistance.

in the

at

flow

the

prevent

Resistance
to

acting.

force

properties

drop in value,

wiU

current

an

the terminals

across

battery terminal

force
the

at

circuit

the

upon

obviously flow through

at

circuit the

the

electromotive

the

upon

wh-e be connected

made

flowing through

current

only

not

will

current

The

"

circuit,but

the

across

If,for example,

well.
a

Resistance.

Electrical

S3.

lead
source

The
wire

then

being in

indicates

at

the

that the

this extremely low temperature.

32

DIRECT

CURRENTS

times greater than that of others.

is many
This
into either conductors
to the classification of substances
stances

leads
or

sulator
in-

Even

of the best conductors,

has appreciable
one
silver,
the best insulators known,
and glassor porcelain,
resistance,
among

will allow

certain amount

of current

to pass and therefore are

perfectinsulators. The best conductors

Carbon
coming first and copper second.
also may

classed

be

conductors.

as

not

metals, silver
ordinary water

the

are

and

Distilled

or

pure

water,

however, is a good insulator. Oils,glass,silk,paper, cotton,

be considered as nonconductors
fiber,ebonite,paraflSn,
rubber, etc., may
or
good insulators. Wood, either dry or impregnated
with oil,
is a good insulator,
but wood containingmoisture
is a partialconductor.
is the practicalunit of
ohm
34, Unit of Resistance.
The
"

resistance and
one

also has such

ohm

that

as

resistance

which

volt is impressed across

flow if one

to

ampere

An

is defined

value that

one

will allow

its terminals.

flowingthrough

ampere

heat one joule of energy.

as
dissipates
The resistance of insulatingsubstances is ordinarilyof the
to express
magnitude of millions of ohms, so that it is awkward

it for

second

one

this resistance in terms

of

unit

as

small

as

the ohm.

The

used
megohm, equal to 1,000,000 (10^)ohms, isthe unit ordinarily
under these conditions.
(The prefix''mega" means
million.)
On the other hand, the resistance of bus-bars and short pieces
be so low that the ohm is too largea unit for conof metals may
veniently
expressing it. Under these conditions the microhm
is used

the

as

unit,and is equal to

(The prefix''micro"
35. Resistance

body

of

but upon
it.

and

means

Direction

of

nnn

of Current.

given material depends

an

ohm

(10""")
.

not

only

"

on

The

resistance of

its size and

the electric current

shape,
flows through

by the reservoirs and pipes shown in

Fig.42. Twp equal reservoirs A and B are to be emptied through
pipes P and P' respectively.The pipe P is twice as long as
the pipe P' but of one-half the cross-section. Therefore
both
It is evident that reservoir B
volume.
pipes have the same
will be emptied much
quickerthan A, because pipe P' has twice
This may

be illustrated

qqa

millionth.)

one

the direction in which

33

RESISTANCE

therefore oflFersless resistance

cross-section of pipe P, and

the

length. Further, the length of P' is only half that

of P, and this again makes the total friction of P' half that of -P
if the cross-sections were
equal.
even
consider the two conductors A and B (Fig.43) each of
Now
A has twice the length of conmaterial.
Conductor
ductor
the same
B but only one-half the cross-section. Therefore each
per

unit of

Fia.

42.

dischargethrough different-sized pipes.

Water

"

contains the

conductor

of material.

amount

same

however, that the resistance

unit

per

It is evident,

length of conductor

is

unit

Then if conductors A and B

length of B.
of the same
were
length conductor A would have twice the
5.
resistance of conductor
However, conductor A is twice the
have 2 X 2 or 4 times the resistance
length of Bj and therefore must
twice

that

per

of 5.

Fig.

43.

"

When

Two

"

conductors
volume.

of

equal

Fia.

"

Rectangular

prism

as

conductor.

specifyingthe resistance

direction in which

44.

of

body

or

substance

the

specified.Consider
the rectangularprism of Fig. 44, composed of two cubes,each
centimeter on
flows in the
that the current
a
edge. Assume
the current

direction of Ii from
It encounters
If it encounters
of each
3

cube

the
a

then

the

end

flows must

through the solid

resistance of each

of two

total resistance of 4
must

be

be

4/2

or

cubes

microhms,

2 microhms.

to

the end B.

successively.
the resistance

If, however,

'

Digitized
by

CjOOQIC

CURRENTS

DIRECT

34

It,between the two oblong

it finds two paths in parallel,
each
surfaces C and D of the solid,
and each having a length of 1 cm.
in cross-section,
1 sq. cm.
In virtue of the two paths the resistance per cm.
lengthof the
But, the
path CD is but one-half the resistance per cm. of AB.
path AS is 2 cm. in length,therefore the path CD must have a
1 microhm.
sequently
Conor
resistance of one-fourth that of path AB
in specifyingthe resistance of a solid,the direction of
unless this direction is obvious.
the current flow should be specified
the deductions
Resistance or Resistivity.From
36. Specific
be stated:
of Par. 35 the followingrule for resistance may
The resistance of a homogeneous body of uniform cross-section
varies directlyas its length,and inverselyas its cross-section.
That is,
the current

flows in the direction of

"

"=a|
R is the resistance in

(3)

L is the

lengthin the direction

at rightangles to the current
of the current flow, A is the area
flow,and A; is a constant of the material known as its resistivity
resistance.
or
specific
and A is 1 cm. square, the substance in question
If L is 1 cm.
must
have the form of a cube, 1 cm. on an edge and
where

ohms,

R=k.
1X1
or

B
k is called the

resistance
specific

Jfc
the

of the substance;
resistivity
cube,
in this case
k may
be expressedin terms of an
per cm.
in. cube or in other units as will be shown
later. The resistivity
of copper is 1.724 microhms, or 1/580,000ohm, per cm.
cube.
It is evident that the cube is a perfectly
definite unit of resistivity
for the resistance between
two oppositefaces is the same.
any
The resistivities of various substances are
given in Par. 43.
resistance in terms of the cm.
Knowing the specific
cube, the
resistance of a wire, bar, etc.,may
be readilycomputed from
formula (3),
or

36

DIRECT

38. Conductance.
and

CURRENTS

Conductance

"

be defined

is the

of
reciprocal

being that property

material which tends to permit the flow of
ohm
is the reciprocal
The unit of conductance
is usuallyexpressedby g.
may

as

of

resistance

circuit

of

or

electric current.

an
or

ance
Conduct-

mho.

9-^

(5)

also
?

k' is the

where

cond'uciance
specific

A the uniform

Example.

the

length.

is 580,000 mhos

copper

of

conductance

an

stance,
sub-

per.

aluminum

cm.

bus-bar

cube.
0.5 in.

in.

k'
The

conductivityof

the

or

wide, and 20 ft. long.

The conductivityof aluminum
is 61 per cent,
mhos
cube.
of
conductivity 580,000
per cm.
The conductivityof aluminum
is:

thick,4
a

Determine

"

(6)

cross-section and L the

conductivityof

The

*'^

0.61

680,000

that of copper

and copper

has

354,000 mhos/cm, cube

cross-section of the bus-bar:

A

0.6 X

The

length L

The

conductance:

20

354,000

39. Per Cent.

4 X

2.54

12 X

2.54

2.54

12.9 sq.

610

cm.

cm.

Ans.

7,490 mhos.

Conductivity. Until
"

recentlythe

very

per cent,

conductivityof copper has been based upon results obtained

made
in 1862 by Matthiesen, who
careful measurements
of the
He found the resistivity
resistance of supposedly pure copper.
to

be

1.594

microhms

per

cube

cm.

at 0" C.

In view

uncertaintyof the qualityof his copper, the Bureau

of measurements
has recentlymade
a large number
copper.

be

Its recommendation

1.724

microhms

per

adopted internationally.The
refined copper
per cent,

may

per

exceed

cm.

that

the

cube

at

cent,

100.

conductivityshould be made

of the

of Standards
upon

standard

mercial
com-

of

sistivity
re-

20^ C. has been

fully
conductivityfor careComparison to obtain

at 20" C.

RESISTANCE

Example.

"

rod 4 ft. long and

copper

resistance of 0.0016

Cross-section

Length

4 X

12

per

2.54

"

T"
X
Resistance

at 20" C.

ohm

^ (0.162 X

37

u
cube

cm.

0.133

diameter

is its per cent,

What

2.64)"
122

having

sq.

of 162 mils has

conductivity?

cm.

cm.

0.0016X0.133
=

r.ru^nf^r^^^Ai^
0.000001740

^^^^

u
ohm

122

1.740 microhms.

1.724
Per cent,

conductivity
=

ri, r2, Tzy

Ans.

in ParalleL- -If a number

in Series and

40. Resistances

end

99%.

or

1.740

connected

etc., Fig.45, are

in

end, the total resistance of the combination

to

"

ri

r2

r,

of

sistances
re-

that is,
series,
is:

(7)

is:

That
In

series circuit the totalresistarhceis the

sum

of the individual

resistances.

hWV\A/WV

-"h

K-

Fig.

If

45.

"

Resistances

in

series.

FiG. 46.

of conductances

number

"

Conductances

gfi, gr2, fifa,etc., are

in

parallel.

connected

in

of this portion of the

parallel,Fig. 46, the total conductance
circuit must
be equal to the sum
of the individual conductances,
that is,
G

gi +

g2 +

gz+

(8)

Since,
G

equation (8) may

R'
R

That

(9)
ri

r2

rz

is:

the reciprocal
parcdlel
circuit,
of the totalresistance is equal
the sum
of the reciprocals
of the individual resistances.

In
to

be written

38

DIRECT

Fbr

CURRENTS

circuit liavingtwo

resistances in

parallel,
ri and

rs, the

jointresistance
R
for three resistances in

-^;
ri + rj

the jointresistance is
parallel

v^^V

rir2

Example,

Determine

"

(10)

(11)

r2r3

Tzn

the total resistance of

the individual resistances of which

^=^+^+^ |+

circuit

are

3, 4, 6 and

0.333

+ 0.250

having 4 branches,

ohms, respectively.

0.167

0.125

0,875 mho.
R

Ans,

1.142 ohms.

0.875

41. The

Circular

Mil.

In

"

the

mil

term

Ho

volt.

00

one-thousandth; for example,

means

mil

mil is a square, each

in Fig.47 (o). The
shown

square
as
=

is

thousandth

one

is

side of which
area

of

wire

unit of wire cross-section.

tables the circular mil is the standard

The

American

English and

of

inch.

an

mil

one

(0.001in.),

mil is 0.001

square

volt
milli-

0.001

sq. in.

0.000001

A circular mil is the

area

of

diameter is

circle whose

and is usuallywritten CM.

Fig.47(6),
(0.001in.).

will be

seen

square

mil.

Fig.47(c),a cir. mil is

from

mil

dr. mil.

or

smaller

one

area

As

than

71*

The

area

in sq. in. of

cir. mil

^
(0.001)

sq. in.

0.0000007854

i"0.001-"i pH).OoA

peO-OW-*-

"

0
(a) The
square

mU

(b) The
circnlar mil

Fig.

(c) Comparison
of the square
mU
and the circular mU

47.

Fio. 48.

"

Cross-section

expressed

in cir. mils.

The
and

cir. mil is the unit with

cables is

which

the cross-section of wires

measured, just as the square foot is the unit by

which largerareas
such as floors,
The
land,etc.,are measured.
advantage of the circular mil as a unit is that circular areas

measured

39

RESISTANCE

in terms

of this unit bear

simple relation

very

to the

diameters.

Ay in Fig. 48, represents the cross-section of a wire having

diameter of 1 in. Required: to determine its area
in cir.mils.
The

area, A

The

area,

The

ratio of

a, of

cir.mil

(1)2gq, in^

(0.001)^ sq. in.

A
"

obviouslygives the

of cir.mils in A

number

Therefore

1,000,000cir.mils.

0.000001

The

generalrelation
Cir. mils

be written:

may

j^^, 1,000,000(D^y

D^

(12)

where

The
To

Di is the diameter

of the wire in inches.

of the wire in mils.

is the diameter

matter. may

be summed

obtain the number

in two

up

rules:

of circular mils in

solid wire

diameter express the diameter in mils and then square

To obtain the diameter of a solid wire having a
circular

mils,take the

will be the diameter

Example."
cir. milage?

QQ

wire

root

square

of the

(A.W.G.)

has

in.

^A certain wire

givennumber

of

of the circular mils and the resuU

has

diameter

(364.8)"
"

it.

wire in mils.

0.3648

Example.

of given

364.8

of 0.3648

in.

is its

What

mils

133,100 cir.rails. Ana.

cross-section of 62,640 cir. mils.

What

is its diameter?

V62,640
42. The

mils

229.4

Circular-mil-foot.

"

0.2294

Another

in the English system,

especially

in.

Am.

convenient

tivity,
unit of resis-

is the resistance of

cir.-

40

CURRENTS

DIRECT

This unit is the resistance of

mil-foot.

of 1 cir.mil and
resistance of

lengthof

wire

havinga

shown
as
ft.,

cir.-mil-foot of copper

at

in

tion
cross-sec-

Fig.49.

20** C. is 10.37

The
ohms.

work this resistance may

(In practical
-ift9M^'i
frequently be taken as 10 ohms.)
SlfE
3
the resistance
Knowing this resistivity,
The circular-mil-foot.
Fig. 49.
of any length and size of wire
be determined by formula (3).
may
"

Example,
"

is the resistance of

What

760,000 CM.

copper

cable,2500

ft. long?
If the cable had

cross-section of 1 cir.mil it would

25,900 ohms.
750,000 cir. mils,therefore,

2500

10.37

25,900

R
or

formula

(3)may

be
R

When

However,

10.37

2,500
750,000

must

48. Table

Aluminum
Bismuth

Copper (drawn)
German

silver

la la
Iron:

Electrolytic
Cast
Lead

Manganin
Mercury
Nichrorae
Nickel

Phosphor-bronze
Platinum
Silver
Steel:
Soft
Glass hard
Silicon (4 per cent.)
Transformer

cross-section

resistance of
is actually

ohm

750,000
used directly

applying formula (3),L

Metals

0.0346

the

have

0.0346

ohm.

be expressedin feetand A in circular

mds.

of Resistivities
Cm.

cube

(microhms)

Cir.-mU-foot

(ohms)

RESISTANCE

41

The resistance
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance.
of the non-alloyedmetals increases very appreciablywith the
temperature. As the temperature of the windings of electric
much higher than that of the surrounding
machinery is necessarily
airjit is important to know the relation between temperature
and resistance. The relation may
be expressed as follows:
44.

"

Rt

Rt is the resistance

where

0" C. and

at

For

Bo (1 +

"

aO

(13)

at the

temperature t,Ro the resistance

is the temperature coefficient
of resistance at 0".

is 0.00427

and

for most

of the

unalloyed metals
is sensiblyof this value.
The above is equivalentto saying
that the resistance increases 0.427 of 1 per cent, for each degree
Centigrade increase of temperatiu'e above 0". For example,
a

copper

that

assume

every

coil has

resistance of 100 ohms

at 0" C.

For

degree increase of temperature the resistance will increase

100

ohm

0.00427

0.427

or

ohm.

At 40" C. the increase of resistance will be 40 X

ohms, and

resistance at 40" will be 100 +

the

0.427

17.08

17.08
117.08

ohms.
If the
0" C. is
found

For

resistance at

known,

definite temperature other than

ordinarilythe resistance at 0" C. must first be
some

before the resistance at other

this purpose

formula

(13) may

^"

Example,

"

resistance of

The

20" C. is 30 ohms.
The

What

temperatures

be determined.

be put in the form

iht

^''^

electromagnetwinding

an

can

of copper

wire at

is its resistance at 80** C?

resistance at 0" C.
30

^"

1 +

Ru

30

27.66

0.00427

20

(1 +0.00427

^^'^^ ^^""^

LOSS
X

80)

37.11 ohms.

Ans.

This process of working back to 0" is a littleinconvenient,although it is

and easy to remember.
Table 48 gives the temperature coef-

fimdamental

42

DIRECT

ficientsof copper

at the various

temperatures other than 0**C. With this

problem involves but one computation.

table available the above

Example,

The

"

CURRENTS

temperature coefficient of copper at 20** initialtemperature

The risein temperature
80**
20**
60**.

from Table 48 is 0.00393.

Then

the resistance at 80** C.

fiw

30(1 + 0.00393

60)

37.07

"

ohms.

Ans.

45. If the resistance of copper

at ordinary temperatures be
plotted against the temperature the result is a practically

straightline,Fig. 50.
the

If this line be

resistance line at

zero

extended,it will intersect

234.5" C. (an easy number
to

"

Fia.

remember),

"

Variation

in

shown

as

of resistance with temperature.

resistance at "234.5"

zero

This is

Fig. 50.

ordinarylimits of temperature,

that between
it had

50.

tt

"{

o"

-234.5"

C.

equivalentto saying
copper

the
(Actually

behaves
curve

as

if

bends

extremely low temperatures, as shown by the dotted

ing
line,Fig. 50.) This gives a convenient method for determinrelations.
temperature-resistance
Fig.50,
By the law of similar triangles.
at

these

Ro

Rn

234.5"

234.5" +

(15)

(i

Rt2

Rn
234.5" +

tx

234.6" +

(16)

Applying this equationto the previousexample,

Rm

"

30

30

Rio

234.50 +

234.5" +

234.5" +

80"

314.5"
=

"o^

"o

234.5" +

"

o/^o

20"

80"

on
30

j^FT-^

254.5"

o^
,
,.
37.1
ohms.

Ans.

44

CURRENTS

DIRECT

Gage (A.W.G.)." TheA.W.G.(formerly

Wire

49. The American

ratio of cross" Sharpe Gage) is based upon a constant

Brown
ing
section between wires of successive gage numbers.
The followto

approximate relations make

determine
the weight or

without

it a

comparativelysimple matter

resistance of any
number
gage
reference to the table: (1) No. 10 wire has a diameter

of 0.1 in. and

(2)The resistance
(3)
gage numbers.

resistance of 1 ohm

per 1 ,000ft.

of the wire doubles

with every increase of 3

1-26
the resistance increases v^

Therefore

(134)times

for

and (1.26)^ 1.6 times for every

each successive gage number
numbers.
two
(4) The resistance is multipliedor divided by 10
=

(5)The weight of 1,000

difference of 10 gage numbers.

ft. of No. 2 wire is 200 lb.
for every

Example,
The

Gage

"

What

is the resistance

resistances will decrease

No

Resistance
Resistance

10
1

as

and

weight

of

1,000 ft. of

0000

wire?

follows:

0.5

0.25

000

0. 125

0.0625

ohm

(rules1

and

of 0000
(rule3).
0.0625/1.25 0.050
200 lb.
Weight of 1,000 ft.No. 2
00
400 lb.
Weight of 1,000 ft.
640 lb. (rule5, 2 and 3).
400 X 1.6
Weight of 1,000 ft. 0000
The example might have been worked
more
quickly by rule 4.
Resistance of 1,000 ft. of No. 10
1 ohm.
Resistance of 1,000 ft.of
0
0.1 ohm
(rule4)
Resistance of 1,000 ft. of
0000
0.050 ohm
(rule3).
=

2)

RESISTANCE
50.

Note
Annealed

1.
"

Working Table, Standard Annealed Copper Wire,

Wire Gage (B. " S.). EnglishUnits
American

The

fundamental

Copper

resistivityused

Solid^

calculatingthe tables is the International

in

Standard

via.,0.16328 ohm
coefficientfor this particular resistivityis 020
is 8.89 grams
NoTK
2.

45

(meter, gram)
0.00393, or

at 20*
ao

C.
The temperature
The
0.(X)427.
density

cubic centimeter.
of the standard
values given in the table are
only for annealed copper
correction for copper
of any other
of the table must apply the proper
user
be taken as about 2.7 per cent, higher resistivitythan
resistivity.Hard-drawn
copper
may
per

The
resistivity.The
"

annealed

copper.

NoTB
3.
6.28.

"

br

'

From

Pounds

Circular

per

miXe

may

of the Bureau

be obtained
of Standards,

i^

by multiplying the respectivevalues abofC

No.

31.

46

DIRECT

61.

Bare

Concentric

CURRENTS

Lay Cables

of Standard

Annealed

Copper

EnglishUnits

62. Conductors.
"

copper,

its use

as

Although silver is
conductor

is very

better conductor

limited because

of its cost.

ing
highlyconductmaterial is necessary,
such as in the brushes and occasionally
in the commutator
of watt-hour
meters.
Copper, because of
its high conductivityaii3""iQ^rate
extensively
cost,is used more
In

few instances it is used where

delicate but

than

47

RESISTANCE

conductor

than

material.

other

It has

good
qualitiessuch as ductility,high tensile strength, not easily
abraided,not corroded by the atmosphere, and it can be readily
as

any

many

soldered.
Aluminum
but for the

has
same

only 61 per cent, of the conductivityof copper,

ductance
length and weight,it has about twice the con-

of copper.
It is softer than copper, its tensile strength
less,and it cannot be readilysoldered. It is not affected

is much

atmosphere. The largediameter for a given

conductance
prohibitsits use where an insulatingcovering is
is used extensivelyas a conductor
for
required. Aluminmn
high voltage transmission Hnes, where its lightnessand large
diameter are an advantage. It is used to some
extent for low
voltage bus-bars as it offers much greater radiatingsurface than
of the same
conductance.
is
The price of aliuninum
copper
by

exposure

held

about

to the

10

per

cent, less than

that

of copper

of the

same

conductance.
Iron and steel have

about

9 times the resistance of copper

for

cross-section and

length. The largecrossnsection for a

covering
given conductance prohibitstheir use where an insulating
and the increased weight prevents their use in
is necessary
be placed on poles. In
most
where the conductors must
cases
view of their low cost per pound, they are cheaper than copper
sistors
They are most
commonly used as resimple conductors.
as
the

same

in connection

with rheostats

and for third rails of electric

must
railways. Iron and steel ordinarily

be

protectedfrom oxidaother protectivecovering. Copper-clad

or
tioA by galvanizing
steel consists of a steel wire coated or covered with a layer of
copper, fused or welded to the steel. The advantages claimed
for it are that it possesses the high tensile strength of steel,
combined
with the high conductivityof copper.
Further,the copper
protects the steel from
line

conductor, where

necessary.

lines.

corrosion.

long

It is also used

as

make

high tensile strength

overhead ground wire on such

spans
an

Its field is the transmission

CHAPTER

LAW

OHM^S

The

exact

AND

of

nature

indicate

electrons.

called
the

electric

an

Electromagnetic
is the

current

It
as

cubic
The

feet per

shall

one-tenth

of the

be

by

unit

of

electromagnetic imits and

which

when

thousand

one

is the

of

the

and

The

unit of

of

flow

the

of

later.

"The

of nitrate

the

is

system

of

unvarying

of silver
at

unit

which

ampere,

centimeter-gram-second

solution

electric

of

follows:

as

international

eighteen millionths

hundred

flow

etc.

specifications,deposits silver

standard

The

water, expressed

practical equivalent of

passed through

with

accordance

of

current

minute,

the

as

in

offlow of electricity.

rate

Congress, 1894,

of

act

an

is known

what

travel

unit

of flow

to the rate

second, gallons per

is defined

ampere

of current

to

ways

The

"

represents the

corresponds in hydraulics

charges

incompressible fluid would

an

Current.

Units.

and

ampere

as

in many

drop, etc., as will be shown

act, undergoes pressure

63.

acts

results.

current

circuit resembles

forced

are

vestigat
in-

recent

infinitesimal

of

electrons

these

CIRCUIT

known, but

not

it consists

pipes, for it

through

water

electricityis

When

electricitythrough

ELECTRIC

THE

that

direction

same

IV

the

of

rate

of

(0.001118)

rent,
cur-

in water

in
one

gram

per

second."

Qiuintity.
"

quantity of electricityconveyed

the

to

second.
in

coulomb

The

hydraulics, such
From

as

this definition

is

analagous
cubic

the

Difference of
of
flow

of

electricity. The

is thi voltyand

impressed
cause
now

normal

is defined

across

current
more

Weston

the
of

one

an

as

is

equal

in

ampere

quantity

one

of water

of

that

terminals
ampere

electric current

rather

electromotive
unit

one

unit

Electromotive

specificallydefined
cell.

that

second

and

potential and

This

foot, the gallon, etc.

per

Potential

by

the

to

it is evident

expressed in coulombs

be

is

quantity is the coidomb.

in

than

Force

force

to
as

resistance

tend

flow.

H.

(See Par. 89.)

01830

The

of

to

cause

which
one

of emf.

or

ohm

international
oi the

ference
Dif-

"

potential difference
a

amperes.

(emf.).

potential difference

of

may

when
will
volt

voltage of

OHM'S

LAW

mechanical

The
in

AND

THE

cause

the dam

tends to

the flow of water.

water

cause

The

pipe causes

of water

pressure

flow

to

ence
differ-

The

pressure.

the ends of

between

49

CIRCUIT

analogy of potentialis

hydraulicpressure

tends to

ELECTRIC

or

behind

through the penstock

or

steam
through any leaks. The pressure in a boiler tends to cause
to flow through the pipes,valves,etc.
Likewise difference of

potentialtends

to

Resistance.

The

defined in

"

international ohm
column

of mercury

14.4521

grams

length of

as

has alreadybeen
resistance,

that resistance which

will allow

one

pere
am-

The
its terminals.
impressed across
is specifically
defined as the resistance of a
at the temperature of melting ice (0" C),

106.300

of

constant

cross-sectional

area

and of

cm.

of the Flow

of

circuit resembles

of

volt is

in mass,

64. Nature

through
through

ohm, the unit

Chap. Ill

flow if one

to

to flow.

current

cause

closed system

Electricity.The flow of electricity

"

in many

ways

the

flow

of water

of

pipes. For example, in Fig.51 water

enters
P at a pressure
the mechanically-driven
centrifugal
pump
of mercury) above
hi (representedby the length of a column
the point of zero pressure shown
by the line ho. In virtue of the
action

of the

increased

blades,its

pump

from

pressure

is

through the pump

A2,representinga net increase of pressure

Hi.
The water
then flows out along pipe Fi to the hydraulic
motor
W.
Because of the friction loss in the pipe Fij the pressure
at the motor
less than A2. In other
terminals hz is slightly
the frictional
A3 is requiredto overcome
words, a pressure of A2
resistance of the pipe Fi. The line ab shows the pressure
drop
along the pipe,this pressure drop being uniform.
In Fig. 52 the mechanicallydriven electrical generator G
raises the potentialof the ciu-rent enteringits negativeterminal,
hi

to

"

from

V2 where

vi to

vi

and

V2 are

potentialis ordinarilyassumed
are

measured
the
a

the earth

whose

(The various voltages

zero.

as

from

ing
v\jv'2)
etc.) The generator, in raisthis portionof the circuit from vi to V2} produces

with voltmeters

potentialof

increase in pressure vg
vi
line
to
the
Li
the
+
through

net

flows out

measured

""

Vi.

The

terminal

current

now

of the motor.

the potentialdrops from

resistance,
Vi at
in practically
the generator to vz at the motor
the same
manner
that the water pressure dropped in pipeFi (Fig.51). A voltage
Because

of the

line

50

DIRECT

vzia necessary

CURRENTS

to force the current

through the line Li. The

hne a'b' shows the actual voltageat each point alongthe wire,
the distance of a*b' from the ground line being proportionalto
the voltageat each point. This voltagedrop is uniform.
V2

"

Fig.

Fig.

61.

62.

Flow

"

"

Flow

of water

of

electric current
through an
feeder system.

an

through

hydraulic motor

and

electric motor

pipe system.

and

the connecting

W
Referringto Fig. 51, the water enters the hydraulicmotor
and in overcoming the back pressure of the revolvingblades its
a net drop in pressure
pressure drops from A3 to A4,representing
be greater than hi in order that
H2. Pressure hi must necessarily
flow back through the pipe F2. The pressure
the water
may
the friction loss in the pipe F2.
to overcome
hi hi is necessary
"

DIRECT

52

The

pipeP.

level in the tank and in the reservoir is the

water

that is,there

same,

CURRENTS

is pressure in each but there is no difference

When
the valve V is opened,no water
them.

in pressure between
flows from the reservoir to the tank.
is

opened,allowingthe

water

However, if the valve 7'

ence
level in the tank to fall,
a differ-

the two tanks will result and water

of pressure between
flow from the reservoir to the tank.
will now
Fig. 55 shows two batteries Ai and A 2 each having an emf.

positiveterminal of ^1 has a potentialof +2

volts above its negativeterminal;likewise the + terminal of A 2
The
its negative terminal.
has a potentialof +2 volts above
potential
negative terminals of both batteries are at the same
of 2 volts.

Fig.

55.

The

batteries

Two

"

equal electromotive

they

because
no

current

are

having

forces.

batteries
Two
having
forces.
electromotive
unequal

Fig.

56.

connected

flows,and

by a copper
consequently there

"

wire
can

difference between
a

and

b must

through which
be no potential
Therefore points

the ends of the copper wire.

each be at the same
potentialof +2

switch

S be

volts.

If

closed,no current will flow from a to 6,

of potential
because there is no difference
between a and 6.
In Fig. 56 the emf. of battery Bi is 3 volts and therefore the
potentialof its positiveterminal is 3 volts above that of its negative
terminal.
The emf. of battery B2 is 2 volts and therefore
the potentialof its positiveterminal is 2 volts above that of its
negative terminal. The negative terminals are at the same
as
potential. If this potentialbe assumed
zero, the point c
is at a potential
of d is +2 volts.
of +3 volts whereas the potential
2 or 1 volt higherthan
of 3
Therefore the point c is at a potential
When
d.
switch /S'is closed,a current will flow from c to d, in
virtue of c being at a higherpotential
than d.
of Voltage and Current.
66. Measurement
^Voltageor potential
measured
It is only
difference is ordinarily
with a voltmeter.
occasionallythat absolute potentialis of interest. Ordinarily
is the quantity desired.
The voltmeter
of potential
difference
now

the

"

OHM'S

LAW

AND

THE

therefore should be connected

ELECTRIC

or

across

53

CIRCUIT

between the wires whose

potentialis to be measured, as shown in Fig.57.

measured
with an ammeter.
As ciu-rent
Current is ordinarily
is the quantityof electricity
per second passingin the wire,the
must
ammeter
be connected so that only the current to be measured
of
passes through it. This is accompUshed by opening one
the ammeter, justas a water
the wires of the circuit and inserting
is inserted in a pipe when it is desired to measure
the flow
meter
in the pipe. When
of water
the ammeter
is so connected,the
current
passingthrough to the load is measured by the ammeter.
the line.
across
(SeeFig.57.) Never connect an ammeter
of

difference

Ivoltmlter
^^Load

Generator

"

Fig.

57.

"

Proper method

Law.

67. Ohm's

of

connecting

Ohm's

Law

voltmeter

that for

and

an

ammeter.

steady current
circuit is directlyproportionalto the electromotive
a
acting on the circuit and is inverselyproportional
"

states

in

the current
force

to the resistance of the circuit.

The
current

law

be

may

expressedby

/ is in amperes,

the emf

the

E is in

followingequation if

the

voUSyand the resistance R

is in ohms.

(17)

in amperes
in a circuit is equal to the emf.
of the circuit in volts divided by the resistance of the circuit in
That

ohms.

is,the

ciurent

Potential

difference

be

representedby either the

letter"F"
or
"-B," V usually meaning terminal voltageand E
electromotive force or induced voltage.
may

CURRENTS

DIRECT

54

Example,
What

resistance of the fieldwinding of a shunt motor is 30 ohms.

will flow through the winding when it is connected across

The

"

current

116-volt mains?
/

I ^

"

3.83

Am

amp.

By transformation,equation(17)becomes
JS?

"e^q

/R

^1-8.2x22

(18)

-70.4 V.

is, the voltageacross

any
circuit
^^
is
the
to
^
equal
prodP*^
That

fj^Sx
48-163.6

uct

the resistance in

Voltage drops

"

across

current
SOUrceS

r
of
emf.

"

generator field and its rheostat.

and

ohms, provided the

is steady and there are
no

'^~~

FiQ. 58.

in amperes

of the current

8.2 A.

"

Wlthm
j.

j.i

"

i?

thlS part of
^

the circuit.
The

Example.

"

resistance

of

the

field

winding of a shunt generator is 48 ohms and the resistance of its rheostat is 22

(See Fig. 58.) If the field current is 3.2 amp., what is the voltage
the rheostat,and the
the field winding terminals,the voltage across
across
voltageacross the generator terminals?

ohms.

j^i

/i2i

3.2

48

153.6

volts

across

field windmg

Ei

IR2

"

3.2

22

70.4

volts

across

rheostat

Total

volts at terminals.

224.0

Also
E

I{Ri +R2)

(22 + 48)

3.2

volts (check). An".

224.0

Again,if equation(17)be solved for the resistance the result

"

is

(19)

is,the resistance of a circuit is equal to the voltage

divided by the current, provided the current is steady and there
That

are

no

Example,

"

The

terminals of

the

voltage across

What

is 4 amperes.

the fieldcurrent

is very

(See Par. 118.)

making resistance measurements.

useful in

volts and

within the circuit. This formula

of emf.

sources

generator field is 220

is the resistance of the field

circuit?
E
-,
ic

=s

220
=

-^

"

68. The
resistances
sum

Series Circuit.

"

are

r-

_.

connected

Ans.

stated in Par. 39, if several

in series,
the total resistance is the
As

was

of the individual resistances.

R

55 ohms.

ri +

r2

That
+

u,

i%igitizedbyCjOOQlc
etc.

(20)

OHM'S

and

LAW

AND

ELECTRIC

THE

55

CIRCUIT

the current

R
Example,

"

ri

r"

relay is connected

^A 50-ohm

(21)
rs

in series with

resistance tube

The
small pilotlamp having a resistance of 5 ohms.
operatingvoltage is 115 volts. What current flows in this relay circuit?

and with

of 30 ohms

115

116

".

69. The

Parallel Circuit"

In Par.

39, the relation of total resistance

the

circuit
parallel

proved by

was

conductances
This

equation

Ohm's

Law

as

to

in

resistances

component

Arts.

,
=^-^^^"^P-

^=50+30+5^-85

forming
trans-

into resistances.

proved by

be

may

follows: Consider

Fio. 59.

A parallel circuit.

"

the

Fig. 59, consistingof resistances ri, r2, and rz in

Let I\
the current in resistance
parallel
the voltageE.
across

circuit of

^1, /a

current

in r2, and Iz

the current

in

r%.

Then

(equation17)

r2

/3

rz\

Adding these together:

/. + 7, + /3

^+
^1

Let the total current

Let the

r^

be /

rz

/i +

^(i
+
\ri

l
r2

i)

rj

/a + /s.

equivalentresistance be R
7

^
=

R
I for 7i + 72 + 78
Substituting
E

^-h"^7A)
or

l=i
R

+
Ti

l
Ti

i
n

(22)

56

DIRECT

CURRENTS

resistance of a parallel
of the equivalent
is,the reciprocal
circuit is the sum
of the reciprocals
of the individual resistances.

That

If but two

resistances

involved,

are

Ti

If three resistances

are

(23)

ra

involved.

(24)

nrz+rirz+rzri
Example, Determine
of 4, 6, 8, and

the total current

"

10-volt

10 ohms

in

circuit consistingof 4 resistances

connected
respectively,

in

parallelacross

source.

0.25

4^6^8^10

0.167

0.125

0.10

0.642 mho

1
R

1.56 ohms

0.642

j^=

Ans.

6.42 amp.

60. Diyision
Parallel

of

Circuit"

Current

in

In

Fig. 60, two

Ri and i?2,are
nected
conresistances,
in parallel across
the
in
Division
of current
60.
two-branch
parallelcircuit.

Fio.

"

or

(25)
circuit of two branches,the currents are
is,in a parallel
as the resistances.
inversely
(Thisdoes not apply to the division
That

through the field and

of current
when

the motor

armature

of

shunt

motor

is running.)

divides between
of 12 amp.
two paths in parallel,
Example, A current
part passing through a branch having a resistance of 8 ohms, the other
How
much
branch having a resistance of 12 ohms.
current passes through
"

each

branch?

OHM'S

Ji be the

Let

the 12-ohm

LAW

AND

THE

in the S-ohm

current

branch

57

CIRCUIT

ELECTRIC
and

I2 be

the

in

current

branch.

^-^

(1)

(eq.25)

Also

/,

7,

J,

(2)

12

/,+/,=

(1)

from

in (2)
substituting

h\^h

12

f-i.
h

"

4.8

7.2 amp

If the circuit consists of three

(Fig.61)

branches

Ri, R%, and fia,

the

respectivecurrents

found

as

follows

can

be shown
J

that

l^

:=:

A current

in each

branch

is given by

^26)

RiR% -f-RiRz -\-RzRil

RzRi

^27)
R\R% -\-R^Rz "h RJtil
^1^2

R1R2

(Note the cycUc order

"

/a.

^2^8

(
\

in
of current
ei." Division
three-branch
parallel circuit.

/2 +

current

I I
\

J^

the

/i +

/
\

Example,

f,g.

Let / be the total current

It

be

may

H" R2RZ

of the

of 25 amperes

\
RzR\l

/28)

subscripts.)
passes

circuitof three
througha parallel

resistances of 2.6,4 and 6 ohms, respectively. How

Current in 2.6 ohms.
4.0 X

6.0

does the current

divide?

68

DIRECT

CURRENTS

61. The

Circuit. ^A circuit may

consist of
Series-parallel
of parallel
resistances in series with other resistances or
of resistances as shown
in Fig.62.
groups
In tUa case, each group
of parallelre^"^
into itsequivalent
Ex sistances is firstcombined
""""f" singleresistance by equation (22) and the

groups

"

"

ioii|
|wA

u"v.

E.

is then treated

whole

Example,

Determine

"

circuit.

Ri
Likewise

-^+ 4
10

lii

first the

Combine
into

the

10

and

12

resistances

ohm

0.0833

0.1833

mho

1^

5.45 ohms

"

combining the

of three resistances into Rt

group

110

110
5.45

6-^""^P-

r6784

6.39

aKA

'

5 +

mho

0.1567

^T

voltage

resistance R\

0.10

the

in the

in each resistance.

Series-parallelcurrent

"

total current

each portion of the circuit; determine

across

62.

the

series circuit.

in Fig. 62; determine

circuit shown

Fio.

as

32.7 volts

El

6.54

5.0

E2

6.54

5.45

35.6 volts

Et

6.54

6.39

--

41.7 volts

Total

volts (check).

110.0
35 6

Current

in 10

Current

in 12

-r^
or

3.56

"

amp.

""

-j~-

2.97 amp.

Total

(check).

6.53 amp.

41 7
in 15

Current

-7^

2.78 amp.

2.09 amp.

lo

41 7

Current

20

-^

Current

in 25

-"V

41 7
1-^7 amp.

Zo

Total

62. Electrical Power.

watt

and

is defined

fallingthrough

as

"

the

The

6.54

unit

power

(check).
of

electrical power

developed by

potentialdifference

of

one

one

volt.

is the

ampere

Watts

in
are

60

DIRECT

CURRENTS

is the rate of doing worky

Energy. Power
is the rate of expenditureof energy.
electrical
Therefore
or
is equal to the product of electrical power
and time.
energy
is the wait-second or joule.
The unit of electrical energy
63. Electrical

"

1 1 watt-seconds

seconds," is in volts,and / is in amperes.

is ordinarily
The watt-second
too small a unit for commercial
the largerunit,the kilowatt-hour (kw-hr.)is comso
monly
purposes,

if " is in

used.

joulesor

kilowatt-hour

1,000

60 X

60

3,600,000

watt-seconds.

difference between

(orwork) should be
Power
doing work, just as
clearlyborne in mind.
On the other hand, energy
is the
velocityis rate of motion.
total work done and is equal to the power
multipliedby the
time during which it acts justas distance covered is the velocity
rate of motion
or
multipliedby the time. To speak of a train
travelingat a rate of 40 miles per hour gives no information
the train travels. Likewise,to
to the total distance which
as
of energy that
speak of 50 kilowatts does not state the amount
The
statement
is sold for so many
is involved.
"electricity
kilowatt"
is incorrect. The
correct
cents
expression is
per
The

'^electrical
energy

and energy
is rate of

power

is sold for

so

many

cents

per

kilowatt-/wmr."

illustrate:

To

Example,

"

If energy
is sold for 10c per kilowatt-hour
be purchased for 20c?
This question as

kilowatts may
answered, since the time is not given.

how
(kw-hr.),

many

it stands cannot

If,however, it is assumed

be

that the

is to be used for 1 hour:

power

2 kw.-hr. available
20c/10c
hr.
Ans.
2 kw.
2 kw.-hr./l
If used in 0.5 hr.,2kw.-hr. /0.5 hr.
4
If used in 0.001 hr.,2 kw.-hr./O.OOlhr.
=

that the 20c could purchase any number

time during which the power is supplied.

so

of

kw.
=

Ans,

2,000 kw.

Ana.

depending oil the

kilowattSy

similar way, horsepower is rate of doing work and is equivalent to

33,000 ft.-lb.per mirivie and not to 33,000 ft.-lb. A motor developingJ^hp.
in which to do it.
could do 33,000 ft.-lb. of work if allowed 8 minutes
In

When
hour

speaking

of work

in connection

is the unit ordinarilyused.

with

horsepower, the korsepower-

OHM'S

Example. ^How
hp. for 5 hours?
"

AND

LAW

watt-seconds

many

2 X
10

7,460
64" Heat

and

2.68

Energy.
"

10

developing

motor

hp.-hr.

7,460wat1"-hours

Ans,

10^ watt-seconds.

It is well known

that heat may

and electricalenergy,

mechanical

61

CIRCUIT

suppliedby

are

746

hp.-hr.X
3,600

into mechanical
electrical and

ELECTRIC

THE

energy

be

may

be

verted
con-

that
and,conversely,

converted

into heat.

complete cycle of energy transformation is well illustrated

by a steam power plant. The energy is brought to the plant in
of the coal combine
The ingredients
the coal,as chemical energy.
of the air,thus convertingthe chemical energy
with the oxygen
The

ferred
certain percentage of this heat is transThe expansion of the
to the boiler and produces steam.

into

heat energy.

and blades
or through the buckets
enginecylinders,
chanical
turbine,converts the heat energy of the steam into me-

in the

steam

of the

This

mechanical

drives the generator,

into electrical
which converts a large percentage of this energy
A portion of this electrical energy
is transformed
into
energy,
is
heat in the wires,bus-bars, etc.
Finally, the remainder
energy.

used

energy

supply lamps, propel electric cars, operate motors, and

be used for chemical processes.
Ultimately all the
may
again as heat or else is converted into chemical
appears

to

some

energy

other forms

or

of energy.
followingtable shows

The
100

units

heat

modern

power

approximatelywhat becomes of each

in the coal in the most
efficient
existinginitially
plants,using superheaters,condensers,and large

units.
EfELciencyof Energy Conversion
Form

of

energy

Coal

Chemical

Boiler

Heat

Efficiency
(per cent.)

Heat units
converted

100.0
80

80.0

Turbine

Mechanical

25

20.0

Generator

Electrical

95

19.0

Electrical

85

16.2

Mechanical

65

Distribution system

utilization)
Small

Lamps

motors

(to point

of

Light

(av.)

10.5
0.32

62

DIRECT

CURRENTS

Fig.63^ (by R. A. Philip)shows graphicallythe flow of power

It is apparent that
from the boiler to the point of utihzation.
is
in the most
modern
plantsthe over-all efficiency
even
power
low.

very

8S4

Unltt

UaltslllO
Mm

Fio.

63.

Energy

"

66. Thennal

flow

IM

Its

IW

108

T800

moo

190
1"K"

B.T.U. pw

MIb.

thermal, mechanical

"

and

electrical transmission.

unit of heat in the

English system
is the B.t.u. (Britishthermal unit) and is equal to the amount
of heat requiredto raise one
pound of water 1" F. It is equal
to 778 ft.-lb. (called
the Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat).
In the C.G.S. system the heat unit is the gram-calorieand
is equal to the amount
of heat requiredto raise one
of
gram
1 C. ^
water
is equalto 4.2 watt-seconds or joules.
A gram-calorie
By Joule's Law the heat developed in a circuitis:
Units.

The

"

"

TF

PRt

0.24 PRt

calories

(36)

4.2

where

t is in

Example,

seconds,/ in

amperes

and

R in ohms.

400 gallons
horsepower is delivered by a pump
circulating
How
certain
a
cooling
through
degrees
system.
many
F. is the temperature of the water raised by the action of the pump?

of water

"

10

per minute

hp.
330,000/778
400 gal.
424/3,336
10

A. I. E. E. Trans.

*See

Appendix A,

330,000 ft.-lb.per min.

10 X

424

B.t.u. per min.

400

0.13" F.

33,000
8.34

Vol. XXXIV
page

3,336 lb.

Ans,

(1915),page

407.
.

779.
Digitized
by

GoOglc

OHM'S

Example,

LAW

incandescent

An

"

is immersed

AND

in

small

63

CIRCUIT

from
110-volt mains
lamp taking 0.5 amp.
of water, containing 2,000 c.c. of water.
degrees per minute is the temperature
many

tank

Neglecting radiation,by how

of the water

ELECTRIC

THE

raised?
0.24

0.5 X

110

792/2,000
66. Potential

Drop in

calories per minute.

0.396** C.
Ana.

60

X
=

792

Feeder

Suppl]ringOne Concentrated
feeder (consisting
of a positiveand
a

Fig. 64 shows a
a
motor
load.
The feeder is connected
negativewire)supplyinga
to bus-bars having a constant
potentialdifference of 230 volts.
The
feeder is 1,000 ft. long and consists of two 250,000 CM.
Load.

"

The

conductors.

maximum

load

on

the feeder is 250

requiredto determine the voltage at the

of transmission.
the effi-ciency

It is
and

amperes.

terminals

motor

"^woo^

10J8 Volts arop In

+ Feeder

_|^_iiqjVollsdroplB
"Feeder

Fig.

As
than

64.

"

Voltage drop in

due

feeder

to

single load.

be less
must
stated in Par. 54, the voltage at the motor
that at the bus-bars because of the voltagelost in supplying
was

the resistance
From

Table

drop in

the feeder.

51, the resistance of 1,000 ft. of 250,000 CM.

54, the net voltage

the voltageat the
at the receivingend of the line is less than
sending end by the voltage loss in both the (mtgoingand the
be
the drop in 2,000 ft. of cable must
wire.
Therefore
return
taken, the total resistance being 0.0862 ohm.
cable is 0.0431

The

By

ohm.

As

was

in Par.

shown

is 250 amperes.
equation(18)the voltagedrop in the line:
current

E'

250

0.0862

21.55 volts.

64

DIRECT

Therefore

CURRENTS

voltageat the

the

230

21.6

terminals is

motor

208.4 volts.

Am.

In

Fig.64 the voltagedrop along the line is shown graphically.

The voltageat the sending end of the line is 230 volts,and there
is a uniform drop in each wire, this drop increasinguniformly
to 10.8 volts,
The pomaking a total voltageloss of 21.6 volts
tential
difference between the two wires 500 ft. from the sending
end will be 230

10.8

volts

219.2

The

power

delivered to the motor

The

power

deUvered

The

208.4

to the line

230

^v.

-"

90.8

or

With

one

concentrated

given by the voltage at

sending end of the line.

250

-^^n

230

mput

250

208.4

output

^
ofc the 1Ime
efficiency

^^

shown.

as

watts.
watts.

208.4

250

ocn
250

v"

~7^^?r

230

cent.

per

of transmission is
efficiency
load divided by the voltage at the

load the
the

-w""

Bob

300,000CM.

FiQ.

65.

"

67. Potential

Voltage drops in

Drop

supplies200

amperes

150 amperes

to

is maintained
each

in

to

Feeder

at Diflferent Points."

Loads

900,000CM.

SOOA.

Bars

feeder

load, the total line

at

supplying

two

SupplyingTwo

loads.

Concentrated

feeder
300,000 CM.
load 800 ft. from the bus-bars, and
In

Fig. 65

load 400 ft. farther

constant

300,000CM.

on.

If the bus-bar

voltage
the voltageat

volts,determine
and the efficiency
of transmission.

240

loss

cable
Table 51, the resistance of 1,000 ft. of 300,000 CM.
is 0.0360 ohm.
The resistance of 800 ft.
800/1,000X 0.0360
From

0.0288

ohm.

OHM'S

LAW

Voltage drop

AND

(2 X 0.0288)

350

ELECTRIC

65

CIRCUIT

200-amp. load

to the

E'

THE

20.16 volts.

Voltage at 200-amp. load

i^i
Resistance

of

240

20.2

219.8 volts.

cable from

one

200-amp. load

the

400/1,000 X 0.0360
Voltage drop from 200-amp. load
load

amp.

0.0144

E"

the 150-

to

ohm.

150-amp. load

to

(2 X 0.0144)

150

Arts,

4.32 volts.

Voltage at 150-amp. load

Ei

4.3

215.5 volts.

Arts.

voltage distribution along this line is shown

The
in

219.8

graphically

Fig. 65.
determine

To

Line

loss to

Pi
Line

the

200-amp. load

(350)2(2 X 0.0288)

loss from

Pi

efficiency:

Total

200-amp. load

(150)2 (2

150-amp. load

to

0.0144)

(equation30).

7,060 watts

649

watts

(equation30).

line loss

P1+P2

649

7,060 +

Efficiency
losses
input
input

7,709 watts

or

7.709 kw.

(240 X 350)

"

"

240

68. Estimation

has

itissufficiently
exact

the current

densityin

It

"

^^

^'^

resistance of 10.37 ohms.

to

assume

^^"^ ''^''^'

1,000 cir. mils per

Call this the normal

ampere
per cir. mil.
(Bus-bars and large feeders operate at a

In many
Assume

value of 10 ohms.

0.001

or

stated in Par. 42 that

was

feeder to be

76,290
84,000

350

of Feeders.

cir .-mil-foot of copper

cases

7,709

ampere,

current

sity.
den-

density very

nearlyequal to this.)
The voltagedrop through a cir.-mil-foot carrying0.001

ampere

is:
"

Another

drop of

//?

0.01 volt between

of

0.001

10

carrying0.001
cir.-mil-foot,

side, the drop

number

across

its ends.

the two

wires,each

0.01 volt.

ampere,

If these be

will also have

placed side by

will stillbe 0.01 volt.

having

one

circular mil

With

any

a
cross-section,

66

DIRECT

ft. and

length of

one

the ends

of each

CURRENTS

of 0.001

current

wire

will be

ampere,

volt.

0.01

The

the

drop

across

wires may

be

separatedor they may be made into a cable.

In Fig. 66 (a) are shown
four separate conductors,each of 1
The voltageacross
cir.-mil-foot and each carrying0.001 amp.
four conductors
ea^h must be 0.01 volt. In Fig.66 (b)these same
are
grouped togetherand as each carries 0.001 ampere, the total
be 0.004 ampere.
must
The voltage drop across
current
the

1 Oir. HiL

^/.\\

Pig. 66.

group

Voltage drop in

"

is still0.01 volt.

If any

cir.-mil foot.

number

of cir.-mil-ft.
conductors

each

added in parallel
to the group
of
are
carrying0.001 ampere
Fig.66 (b)jthe drop remains 0.01 volt.
From the foregoingthe followingrule may
be deduced:
condicdor is always 0.01
The voltagedrop per foot of copper
volt providedthat the current densityis 0.001 ampere
per circular
mil.
Further if the density
is other than 0.001 ampere
per circular
miljthe voltage
drop will be in direct proportionto the current density.
This last follows from equation (18),page 54.
J

Example.
from

"

motor

230-volt bus-bars.

voltagedrop

shall not

the power
house is to take 500 amperes
size cable is necessary
in order that the

800 ft. from

What

exceed

20 volts?

500
The

total

voltagedrop
0.01

The

1,000

500,000 CM.

becomes

then
X

have

densitymust

A cable to operate at the normal

800

allowable drop is 20 volts,so

16 volts.
smaller

cable may

16

500,000 X

100,000 CM.

Ans,

be used.

CHAPTER
ELECTROMOTIVE

BATTERY

V
FORCES"

KIRCHHOFF'S

LAWS
70.

Battery Electromotive
be connected

the switch S

the

across

beingopen,

Force

and

Resistance.
of

terminals

the instrument

If

certain vol tage

now

the

instrument

The

delivers
kvvwvvvO

Fig.

67.- -Connections

for measuring

battery

resistance.

will

voltageV which
E.

ured
voltage E, measthe batterywhen

Tm.
Battery

switch

the

is less than

di

the

be

record

'"^

meter
volt-

closed, allowing
current
I to flow,

Ne".

battery (Fig.67),

willrecord
E,

If

"

no

current, is

internai

voUage or
the
electromotive force
of
the
battery; the
voltage Vy measured
when
I flows,
current
a

the

is known

as

the

terminal,

value.
particularcurrent
age
The difference between the open-circuit
voltageE and the voltVy measured when current is being taken from the battery,
of current
is the voltagedrop in the battery due to the passage
ance,
through the battery resistance. Every cell has a certain resistbut partlyin the
lyingfor the most part in the electrolyte,
the external circuit is
When
battery plates and terminals.
closed so that current
can
flow, a certain voltage is required
tage
to send this current
justas volthrough the battery resistance,
is required to send current
through an external resistance.
If the voltage-B,measured
the
at the battery terminals when
circuit is open, drops to V when
the circuit is closed,
the voltage

voltageof

the

battery

for

that

68

ELECTROMOTIVE

BATTERY

(E

V) is

"

of the

passage

by Ohm's

voltage drop through

the

/.

current

Let

69

FORCES

the

cell due

cell resistance be

the

to the

r.

Then,

Law,
E

"

Ir

(by equation 18)

or

(by equation 19)

"

/
E

Ir

V +

==

(37)
(38)

is,the internal resistance of the battery is equal to the

open-circuitvoltage minus the closed-circuit terminal voltage
the circuit is closed.
divided by the current flowingwhen
That

Example. The open-circuitvoltage of

when
a current
voltage measured
What

1.98 volts.
The

is the internal

voltage drop through

JS;

"

Then

In

of 12 amp.
flows is found
resistance of the cell.

The
to

be

the cell

storage cell is 2.20 volts.

"

terminal

2.20

1.98

"

ohm.

0.0183

0.22 volt

Ans.

making

bered

character,it must be remem

that under open-circuit
conditions even
the ordinary volt

meter

takes

some

is small

current.

(as in the

voltmeter

of this

measurement

current

case

of

If the cell

Weston

alone

may

capacity
cell)the

reduce

terminal

less,of

voltageto a vajue one-half,or

the open-circuit
voltage. Under

conditions

voltmeter

the

the electromotive

measure

cannot

the
even

these

be used to

force of the

cell.

rectly
diMoreover, it is impossibleto measure
the internal voltageof the batterywhen
the battery dehvers current, for the voltage
Fig. 68.
The internal
vnthin
the cell itself. Fig. 68
"drop occurs
resistance of a cell.
"

represents these
effect

on

enclosed

from
but
as

The

within

so

far

as

their

external circuit is concerned.

the

in

conditions

sealed box.
the

Its resistance

cell itself and

the sealed box.

The

A
r

connected
cell then

battery cell B is

is considered

as

external to the
may

moved
re-

cell,

be considered

itsresistance having been replacedby r.

resistance,
connections are brought through bushings in the box to

having

no

70

DIRECT

terminals

and

6.

CURRENTS

When

being delivered

is

current

no

by

the two terminals a

cell,if a voltmeter be connected across
and 6, the instrimient will measure
the emf.,E.
If,however, a
current
/ flows,the terminal voltagewill drop from E to V, due
to the voltagedrop in the resistance r.
Under these conditions
it is impossibleto measure
E when
since
is flowing,
the current
the voltmeter
outside the resistance,
can
only be connected
through which the voltagedrop occurs.
The voltage E and the resistance r are seldom constants but
less dependent upon
are
or
the current.
more
They are also
affected by temperature, change in specific
lyte,
gravityof the electroetc.
polarization,
in Par.
71. Battery Resistance and Current.
As was
shown
70, the resistance within the battery tends to reduce the flow of
current.
the cellelectromotive
If,in Fig.67, the switch be closed,
force E will be acting upon
of the internal
a circuit consisting
the

"

resistance of the cell r and the resistance of the external circuit jB.
resistances

The

and

the circuit is their

the total resistance in

being in series,

The

sum.

'
The

is

current

^^^^

TTH

lost in the battery is

power

7V

E
R becomes
If the cell is short-circuited,

and 7

zero

Under

"

these

all the electrical energy

developed
into heat within the cell itself.

conditions

is converted

Example

"

^A

battery-cell
having

an

of 0.10 ohm.

What

electromotive

an

ohm

of 0.03

internal resistance

is connected

flows and

current

what

is the

to

by

the

cell

force of 2.2 volts and

an

external resistance

of the battery
efficiency

used?

as

'
Power

o^j|^^-^*'^Po:o3"aIo
=

(16.9)2X

0.03

(16.9)2X

0.10

8.67 watts.

useful power
P

is equal to
battery loss.
P

^"''-

lost in the battery

P'

The

the

total

power

2.2 X
P
=

Oft

16.9
37.2
ft

28.6 watts.

developed by the battery minus

=

37.2 watts
8.6
28.6
=

the

ELECTROMOTIVE

BATTERY

71

FORCES

The
be deduced:
above, the followingrule may
in a circuit is eqibdl
current
to the total electromotive forceacting
in the circuit divided by the total resistance of the circuit,
72. Batteries Receiving Energy. If a resistance load be
will immediately flow from
connected
across
a battery,current
the positive
terminal of the battery and will return to the battery
though itsnegativeterminal. As has alreadybeen pointedout, the
battery terminal voltage will be less than its open-circuit
value,
of the
due to the current
the
internal
resistance
flowingthrough
of
battery. Under these conditions, the battery is a source
and is acting as a generator, that is,it delivers energy.
energy

From

the

"

FiQ.

69.

Generator

"

charging

battery.

is forced to erder at the

tery,
positiveterminal of the batthe battery will no
longer be supplying energy but will
be suppUed from some
be receivingenergy.
This energy
must
other source, as from another battery,or, as is more
common,
from a generator. The cell shown in Fig.69 has an electromotive
and a voltmeter F, connected across
force of 2 volts,
itsterminals,
If current

indicates 2 volts when

electrical energy,

flows.

current

no

If another

of

source

direct-current generator, supply a potential

difference of just2 volts and its + terminal be connected to

the +
"

such

as

terminal of the battery and its

terminal connected

"

terminal of the battery, as

in the

shown

V will stillread 2 volts and the ammeter

the

battery neither delivers

is noted

other

circuited.

than

Under

those

these

nor

noted

the voltmeter
figure,
That is,
willread zero

receives energy
when

conditions

to the

the

and

no

battery stood
battery is said

the

effect
opento

be

"floating." If,however, the voltageof the generator be raised

A will indicate a current flowing from the
the ammeter
slightly,

72

DIRECT

+ terminal

of the

CURRENTS

generator into the + terminal of the battery,

direction

justoppositeto that which the current had when the

The voltmeter will no longer read 2
batterysuppliedenergy.
in excess
volts,but will indicate a potentialdifference somewhat
a

of 2 volts.
What

actuallyhappens
analogy. Fig. 70 shows a

be illustratedby

may

mechanical

standing on the track. A force

of 400 lb. is necessary
to overcome
the standing friction of the
end of the car a force F is applied.
the track. At one
on
car
Before the force F can move
the car its value must
at least equal
F is exactly400 lb. the car will not move,
400 lb. When
just
car

as

"

Force

necessary

to start

flowed

into

battery when the generator

voltage was
just
of
the battery.
equalto that

^^^^^^
70.

cm-rent

the

400 Lb.

Fig.

no

car.

When

the force F

exceeds

the force effective in

lb., however, the car will move,
by which F exceeds
producing this motion being the amount
450 lb.,400 lb. of this is utilized in over400 lb. Thus, if F
coming
the 400 lb. opposing force due to friction and 50 lb. is
effective in moving the car.
In the case of the batteryno current will flow until voltagein
of the 2 volts is produced by the generator. Thus, if the
excess
2.0 volts of this is utihzed
generator voltagebe raised to 2.4 volts,

400

2.0 volts of the

to

"buck"

in

sending current

the

into the

assumes

its

volt is effective

Thus, if the cell resistance

Q"

4.0 amp.

that the resistance of the leads is

Therefore,if
resistance and

cell.

0.4

will be

be 0.1 ohm, the current

This

cell and

JB? is the electromotive

the terminal

force of

voltagewhen

negligible.
a battery,r its

current

flows in at

positiveterminal,
E

V
^^-Z^
"

(40)

and
That

Ir

(41)

nal
is,the electromotive force of the cellis less than the termi-

of the resistance drop in the cellitself.

voltageby the amount
These
equations should be compared with equations (37) and
Digitized
by (^OOglC
(38),respectively.

ELECTROMOTIVE

BATTERY

73

FORCES

the cell is receiving

electric energy, as
conditions,
is the case when a storage batteryis being charged.
73. Battery Cells in Series.
Strictlyspeaking, a battery
consists of more
unit or cell. However, the term
than
one
also to mean
a
singlecell,when this cell is
battery has come
not actingin conjunctionwith others.
their electromotive forces are
cells are connected in series,
When
added together
to obtain the total electromotive forceof the battery
and their resistances are added together
to obtain the totalresistance
of the baMery.
Thus, if several cells,
having electromotive forces,Ei, E2, Ez,
E^j etc.,and resistances ri, r2, rs, r^, etc.,are connected in series,

Under

these

"

the total electromotive

E

force of the combination

Ei + E2 + E3 + ^4, etc.

(42)

the total resistance is

and

Equation (42) assumes

"

is

so

an

that

forces

preceded by

El +

across

If any

force opposes

is connected

then by equation (39)the

series,

all connected

additive.

are

be

equation (42) must

external resistance R

cells are

the

(43)

r^y etc.

rz

its electromotive

that

so

its voltagein
If

their electromotive

that

connected

be

r2

the

Four

ri

is

current

E2 + Ez +

r2

rz

sign.

cells in

Ea, etc.

.^v
^^

=:

cell

others,

minus

these

to

r,,

etc., + R

cells

having electromotive forces of 1.30,1.30,1.35,

and 1.40 volts and resistances of 0.3,0.4,0.2,and 0.1 ohm, respectively,
are
What
connected in series to operate a relayhaving a resistance of 10 ohms.
flows in the relay?
current
Example,

"

dry

1.30 +

1.30 +

1.35 +

1.40

5^
^

0.3 +

0.4 +

0.2 +

0.1 +

10

11.0

0.486 amp.

Ana.

of n equalcells in series has an emf. n times

batteryconsisting
but has the current capacityof one cell only.
thai of one cell,
in
74. Equal Batteries in Parallel. To operate satisfactorily
electromotive
parallelall the batteries should have the same
force.
The behavior of batteries having unequal electromotive
forces can
be treated as specialproblems (seePar. 78).
"

74

DIRECT

Fig.71

shows

CURRENTS

each having an
batteryof six cells,

tive force of 2.0 volts and

that the emf

resistance of 0.2 ohm.

electrons oIt is clear

of the entire

batteryis no greater than the emf of

cell. The current, however, has 6 paths through which
one
any
to flow.
Therefore,for a fixed external current, the voltagedrop
in each cell is one-sixth that occurringif all the current
passed
through one cell. If the internal resistance of one cellis 0.2 ohm,
the resistance of the battery as a whole must
be 0.2/6
0.033
.

ohm.

";-2v.

Jff"2V, + E'Vf,

JE7-2V.

4.^"2V. +

"7-2V.

''ie-o.s

"Jt0.20. "K0.2fi

r"o.2Q

Fig.

71.

"r-t).2Q "rs-o.2n

Parallel arrangement

"

of equal cells.

across
Example. If the external resistance connected
the battery in Fig. 71 is 0.3 ohm, what
flows?
current
Resistance of battery
0.033 ohm.
0.2/6
"

ri, r2,

resistances

2.0
^

0:033To:3

^ ^"^P-

0333

^
om
^'^'
^^^'
^^'^'
/

equal but the resistances of the cellsare not all equal,but

by consideringthese
rs, r4, etc., the battery resistance r is found
(equation (9),Chap. Ill,page 37).
as being in parallel

If the emfs.
are

of

2.0
^7

the terminals

are

1^1,1,1,,
1

fi

r^

(45)

f-etc.
Ti

Ti

each having
battery consists of 4 cells connected in parallel,
electromotive force of 2.0 volts,but resistances of 0.30,0.25,0.22,and
an
the
0.20 ohm
respectively. If a resistance of 0.5 ohm is connected across
terminals
current
does
of the battery,what
current
flows,and how much
the battery terminals?
What
is the voltage across
each cell supply?

Example.

"

^A

-^^^ofe+ois+o^+oi^^^-^^^^^^1
0.0593

ohm.

16.87
2.0

2.0
/

0.0593
The

0.5593

0.50

3.58 amp.

terminal voltage

El

IR

=^

3.58

0.5

1.79 volts.

Ans.

Ans.

76

DIRECT

The

resistance of each

CURRENTS

ri

r' is the resistance of

where

Since there
combination

Example,
an

cell.

the resistance of
parallel,

of the cells of Fig. 72 have

current

the whole

an

emf. of 0.9 volt and

If the external resistance R is 0.5

internal resistance of 0.08 ohm.

what

(by equation43)

be

must

Let each

"

mr'

one

in

rows

are

be

must

row

ohm,

flows?
4 X

/=j
I 0.08

3.6

0.9
"_-

6.4amp.

Ans.

"-^^

0.5

(a) To obtain the best economy, group

the cells so that the battery resistanceis as low as possible.
This usually means
a
large nimxber of parallel connections.
Under these conditions the life of the battery will be prolonged
76.

but

Grouping

of Cells.
"

the initialcost is excessive.

(6) To

obtain the maximum

current

with

fixed external

resistance make

the

internal

resistance

("r') of

the

battery

equal to the external resistance. This is not economical,since

only half of the energy developed by the battery is avfiilable
in the external circuit;
the other half islost in the cells themselves.
Under these conditions the batterydelivers the maximum
power.
action
for
To
the
intermittent
obtain
(c)
operation of
quick
relays,beUs,etc.,group the cellsin series if possible
In the example of Par. 75, how
obtain the maximum
current?

Example,

The

"

total battery resistance

"

0.08 must

should the cellsbe arranged to

be equal to the external resistance.

ELECTROMOTIVE

BATTERY

-^0.08

Solving

0.5

best

Ana,

11 +

77

FORCES

in parallel.
series,and two rows
if connected
in
(Eleven cells in series would not operate satisfactorily
with
the
parallel
remaining nine cells in series.)
The

is ten

arrangement

77. Kirchhoff's

Laws.

possibleto solve

cells in

By

"

circuit networks

many

it is

of Kirchhofif's Laws

means

would

that

otherwise

be diflScultof solution.
sum
of the
of wires,the algebraic
currents
at a pointis zero.
(2) The sum ofall the electromotiveforcesactingaround a complete
circuit is equal to the sum
of the resistances of its separate parts
each into the strength
multiplied
of the current that flowsthroughit,
the total change ofpotential
around any closed circuit is zero.
or

(1) In

any branchingnetwork
in all the wires that meet

first law

The

leavinga junctionis equal to the total

If this

not

were

that

It states

is obvious.

current

total current

the

tion.
enteringthe junc-

so
^^^

would
accumulate
electricity
at the junction.
The
law is illustrated by
Fig. 73. Four currents, Ii,

I2, I3, and

junction

J4

The

0.

flow

currents

meet

at

Xfs

^^+4a

the

first three
Umard

^^

1^^

the
j,^^

^3

j^^^^^^^.^^ j,.^^j^j^^^.^ g",

have

junctionso
plussignsas
add
to the quantity at the point 0.
they
flows away
from the junction,so has a minus
from the quantityat the point 0. Then
I1 +
Assume

that Ji

Then
and

/2 +

5 amp.;
5 +

8 +

/3

72

/a-

/4

8 amp.
17

last current

The

sign as

it subtracts

(48)

and J4

17 amp.

plus sign indicatingthat the

flows toward the junction.
The second law is but another application
of Ohm's Law
Iz

18).

+4

The

amp.,

J4

the

basis of the law is obvious; if one

current

starts at

tion
(equaa

cer-

CURRENTS

DIRECT

78

and follows continuouslyaround the paths

circuit,
of the circuit until the startingpoint is again reached,he must
with which he started. Therefore
pjotential
again have the same

pointin

tain

the

in this passage
be equal to the voltagedrops in the resistances,
necessarily

must

force encoimtered

of electromotive

sources

voltagebeing given its proper sign.

This second law is illustrated by the followingexample.

every

SialO v.

^,a6

Ui=lA

B2p2A

v,
Blie

aoe

to

E\

^0.5

Volt

drop in (1)

10
B

(2)

(1)

RmHU

""-1

0.6 Amp.

(a)
Voltage relations

Fig. 74.

"

batteries

Two

and

6 volts and

are

connected

Determine

Since

internal resistances of 1 and 2 ohms

force of the two

The

current

and

the

voltage at
in

^=1

electromotive

"

net

motive
electro-

4 volts*

the

+ 2 + 5

point A

^.

8=^'^ ^^P-

being

reference

potential. In
there is a 10- volt rise in potentialdue to the
of battery No. 1, but around
the circuit

to 5

force

as

in the direction of the current

0.5- volt

cuit.
part of the cir-

is,
10-6

passingfrom A

each

opposition,the

batteries is 10

Consider

respectively,

external resistance of 5 ohms.

an

batteries act

two

forces of 10

opposing (their+ terminals connected

in series with

the current

the

electric circuit.

an

(Fig. 74), having electromotive

in series

together) and

in

drop of potentialdue

at

flow there

to the current

occurs

simultaneous

flowingthrough the 1ohm

resistance of cell No. 1. Therefore the net potentialat B
is but 9.5 volts greater than that at A, as is shown
in Fig.74 (6).
In passingfrom B to C there is a drop of 6 volts due to passing
from the -|-to the
terminal of battery No. 2, and there is
"

BATTERY

ELECTROMOTIVE

79

FORCES

drop of 1 volt due to the current of 0.5 ampere

flowing through the 2-ohm resistance of battery No. 2. This
also

further

the

makes

net

potentialat

passingfrom C

In

to A

9.5

"

"

+2.5

volts.

there is a

drop in potentialof 2.5 volts due

to the current
of 0.5 ampere
flowingthrough the 5-ohm resistance.
When
point A is reached the potentialhas dropped to zero.
of all the electromotive forces in the circuit,
Therefore the sum
taken
with their proper
of the Ir
signs,is equal to the sum
drops. This is illustrated as follows:
Electromotive

Cell No.
''

No.

1
2

Total

forces

+
-

Ir

10 volts
6 volts
4 volts

Cell No.
''

No. 2

5-ohm

res.

drops

0.5 X

0.5 X

0.5 X

Total
+

4 +

4)

0.5 volt

1.0 volt

"

2.5 volt

--

4.0 volt

In the applicationof
Applicationsof Kirchhoff's Laws.
Kirchhofif's second law to specific
problems the questionof algebraic
of error.
signsmay be troublesome and is a frequentsource
If,however, the followingrules are kept in mind no difficulties
78.

"

should

occur.

should be precededby a + sign.

voltage
A drop in voltageshould be precededby a
sign.

rise in

"

to the
example, in passingthrougha baiteryfrom the
+ terminal,the potentialrises so that this voltage should be
preceded by a + sign. On the other hand, when passing from
the + terminal to the
terminal,the potentialdrops so that
strated
a
sign should precede this voltage. These points are illuby Fig. 74.
direction as the
When
going through a resistance in the same
current,the voltagedrops,so that this voltageshould be preceded
by a
sign. A voltagedue to passage through a resistance in
the direction oppositeto the current flow should be preceded by
+ sign.
a
in
This is further illustrated by the electric circuit shown
Fig. 75. Three batteries having emf .'s ^i, E2, and Ez are con-

For

"

"

"

"

80

DIRECT

nected

shown

as

in differentparts of the network

Rij R2j Rz, Ra'

are

to

CURRENTS

The

of

resistances,

directions for the various currents

assumed

indicated

The battery resistances are asby the arrows.

sumed
negUgibleas compared with the other circuit resistances.
Startingat the point a, and applying Kirchhoff's second law
the path cibcda,
an
equation may be written

El-

Startmg

at

I,R,

E2-

I2R2 +

LRi

/ and passingalong the path febcdf:

Ez + IzRz

"

"

I2R2 "f"E2

"r,-4V.

Ri

R.

Fig.

75.

Application of Kirchhoff's

"

Fig.

76.

"

Application

laws.

This

may

be

two

currents.

obtained

junctionas

b,

I1-

+
since Ii is assumed

to

I2-

toward

flow

the

junction and I2 and Iz

the

junction.
to determine
With these three equationsit is possible

away

Kirchhoff's

equations for the determination of three

Three
The third
equations are necessary.
by applying Kirchhoff's first law to some

gives but

unknown

of

laws.

from

the three

currents.

Example,

"

Fig.76

except that numerical

to be

small

shows
values

network
are

used.

identical with that shown

The

battery resistances

and
compared with the circuit resistances,

are

Consideringpath ahcday
+ 4

(/1O.6)
-

(/gS)+

(/il) =0

in Fig. 75,
are

assumed

neglected.

BATTERY

ELECTROMOTIVE

1.57i +37,

FORCES

81

U)

at /,
Similarly,
path febcdfystarting

-3

(7,1)

37,
and

at the

37, +

7,

(fi)

junction 6,
7i

7,

7,

or

7i

7, + 7,

(C)

Substitutingh (C) in (A)

1.5(7,+ 7,) + 37,
4.67, +

1.57,

6
6

combining with (B)

and

Current.

In the

"

solution of this

j-

_i

type of problem, the question of

assuming the

often arises.

current

be assumed

may

direction.

be

to

the

have

the

such

"

current

have

:i-r^

0.6-^

is not

the

current

will

minus

sign

-V\AAA
7,

\^

"8V.

1-r^

ing
assum-

Fig.

77.

of Par. 78

Amplication

"

chhoff's

direction that they all meet

in Fig. 77. This condition

point (" as is shown

is of

Considering circuit abcda,startingat a,

4 +

"

3-^

solved.

currents

V.

^j-2

tion
direc-

^Thisis illustrated by

the three

Ix

current

assumed

equationsare

Example,
that

The

to flow in either

this
direction,

foimd

when

at

the

of
actual

direction of

proper

0.57i
1.57,
-

37, + 2 + 7,
0
37, + 6
=

course

of

Kir-

laws

impossible

82

CURRENTS

DIRECT

at /,
Similarlycircuit fehcdf,starting

/a

3 +

/a
The

three currents

3/2

3/2 + 2

/i,/z,/s all flow

/i +

junction d, therefore

toward

/2 + /.

0.

Substitutingand solving
/i

I2
/s

"

3 amp.

0.5 amp.
2.5 amp.

"

Ans,
Ans,
Ans.

direction to

flows in the opposite

that this current
signprecedingI\ signifies
The
the
+
indicated by
and
that assumed
arrow, Fig. 77.

signs before

1 2 and

The

minus

currents

were

Iz indicate that the assumed

directions for these

two

the actual directions of flow.

Kirchhoff's
Applicationsof Kirchhoff's Laws.
laws might be appliedto problems involvingdistribution systems,
is fed to the loads through
electric railways,etc., where power
In practice,
different feeders and from different sub-stations.
however, Kirchhoff's laws are rarelyapplieddirectlyto electric
railway systems, since the widely fluctuatingloads which are
their location make
it impossibleto formulate
constantlyshifting
to apply
definite problem. Only occasionally
is it necessary
a
these laws to power
and lightingsystems, since the feeder layout
in such systems is usually determined
by various operating
80. Further

"

considerations.

followingproblem illustrates the possibleapplicationof

The

these laws.

Fig.

78.

"

Ring-feeder system.

Fig.78,a 240- volt sub-station at A suppliestwo distributing

A and By a distance
C, by a ring system of feeders. Between
b
feeders
of 800 ft.,two
CM.
are
paralleled;etween A and C, a
1,000,000
feeders are paralleled;
between
distance of 1,200 ft.,three 1,000,000 CM.
Exam-pie.
"

centers

and

In

VI

CHAPTER
PRIMARY

Principle of Electric

81.

immersed

plates be
79

in

that

Batteries.

of the

strips. If,however,

copper

will be

voltmeter

appreciable difference

no

one

of

of

strips or

copper

sulphuric acid

dilute

If two

"

to the terminals

(a),and be connected
deflection

BATTERIES

SECONDARY

AND

solution, Fig.

voltmeter, no

ciable
appre-

This

observed.

shows

potential exists between

of the

the

strips,Fig. 79 (6),

copper

Voltmeter

i "fER^^^S-5^

Copper-

Copper

Dilute
_.

._-_

sz.::irz.^.

^ -Sulphuric

"AU"A'/^^MMMM'Ai^MVA^/y}A

(a)

(5)
FiQ.

be

replaced by

will indicate
difference
to

the

shows

is

zinc

in order
so

far

the

that

the

the

positive to

the

The

experiment

above

needle

volt, showing

one

It will be necessary

of

as

cell.

primary

strip,the voltmeter

exists.

terminal

that

Simple

"

approximately

now

terminal

79.

voltmeter
voltmeter

and
may

circuit is

external

to

will deflect and

that

the

connect

the

read

zinc
up

potential

to

copper

the

scale.

concerned,

the

"

This
copper

zinc.
may

be
84

repeated with

various

metals.

PRIMARY

SECONDARY

AND

85

BATTERIES

example, carbon or lead may be substituted for the copper

and a potentialdifference will be. found to exist between
each
of these and the zinc,although it will not be of the same
value
combination.
Likewise other metals
it was for the copper-zinc
as
be substituted for the zinc,and potentialdifferences will
may
For

be

foimd

to exist.

Furthermore, it is not

sulphuricacid be used for

the solution.
Other acids such as hydrochloric,
chromic, etc.,
salt solutions
be substituted for the sulphiuic;or even
may
salt (sodium chloride),ammonium
such
chloride
common
as
be
sulphate,zinc sulphate,etc., may
(sal ammoniac), copper
necessary

that

used.
In order to obtain

difference of

potentialbetween

the

two

plates,but two conditions are necessary.

(1) The platesmust be of different metals.
such
electrolytic
solution,
(2) They must be immersed in some
or salt.
as
an
acid,alkali,
Again, if current be taken from the cell shown in Fig. 79 (6)
its terminals (Fig.SO),current
by connecting a resistance across
and into
will flow from the copper through the resistance AB
Inside the cell,
the cell through the zinc.
however, the current
will flow /row the zinc through the solution to the copper as shown
that current flows from zinc to copper
For the reason
in Fig. 80.
vrithin the cell,zinc is said to be electrochemically
positiveto
Therefore, when consideringsuch an electrolytic
cell,
copper.
to
the
the
zinc
when
external
circuit
is
the copper is positive
when
to the copper
considered,but the zinc is electro-positive
the platesand the solution alone are considered.
The metal stripsor platesof a cell are called
82. Definitions.
metal

"

electrodes.

The

electrode at which

The

the solution

anode, and the electrode at which

leaves the solution (as the copper, Fig.80) is the cathode.
solution used in a cell is called the electrolyte.

If current
for

enters

is the

(as the zinc. Fig. 80)

current

current

be taken

considerable

from

the cell under

proper

conditions and

time, the zinc platewill diminish

in

weight.

but in praccell,
particular
tically
is
current
loss
in
all cells the flow of
accompanied by a
weight of at least one of the plates. Energy is stored in the cell
of
and the electricalenergy is delivered at the expense
chemically,
This is true not

only in

the

case

of this

86

CURRENTS

DIRECT

the

platewhich

of

the

goes into solution.

That

is,one plateis either

oxidized or converted
into another chemical
compound, this
change being accompanied by a decrease of chemical energy
Therefore

system.

is converted

energy

the cell delivers

when

electricalenergy,

chemical

into

current.

Hence:
An

electricceU

or

batteryis

device for

transformingchemical

into electricalenergy.

energy

Such
cellsand

cells or

batteries

are

divided

into two

classes:

primary

secondarycells.

^pP^-o

Ottthode

Anode

3^

LAAAAr-"
'//////^////^//////X/.

Fig.

In

80.

"

Current-flow

in

single cell.

from time to time to renew

primary cell it is necessary
and the electrod^
the electrolyte
which goes into solution by
fresh solution and new
plates,respectively.
and the electrodes which
In a secondary cell the electrolyte
undergo change during the process of supplying current are
restored electrochemically
by sending a current through the
a

cellin the
83.
there

reverse

direction.

Primary Cells.

"

are

Although it

of metals

combinations

many

was

stated in Par. 81 that

and

generating an electromotive force and

of such combinations
only a limited number
practicable.The general requirements of
of

capable
forming a cell,

solutions
so

are
a

commercially

good cell

are

as

follows:

(a) There
the cell is not

must

be littleor

no

current.
delivering

wastage of the materials when

PRIMARY

(6) The
to enable

force must

the cell to deliver

be of such

reasonable

amount

magnitude
of energy

as

with

flowing.
(c) Frequent replacement of materials must not be necessary
and such materials must
not be expensive.
(d) The internal resistance and the polarizationeffects must
be excessive,otherwise the battery cannot
not
supply even
values of current, at least for any appreciabletime.
moderate
the cell shown in Fig. 79(6) would not be
As an illustration,
practicable,because both the copper and the zinc would waste
the batterydelivering
Polarization
current.
even
were
no
away
(see Par. 85) would be excessive,and therefore the battery
would
be capable of deliveringonly a comparatively small

"

moderate

electromotive

87

BATTERIES

SECONDARY

AND

current

current.

84. Internal

Resistance.

As

pointed out in Chap. V,

cell or batteryhas an internal resistance,
which reduces the
every
the terminal voltageto drop
magnitude of the current and causes
when

current

is taken

from

"

was

the cell. Such

resistance lies in the

in the contact surface between the electrodes and the

electrodes,
and in the electrolyte
itself. This resistance may
electrolyte,
of the cell in the same
be reduced by changing the dimensions
way

as

would

section of the

be done

path

cell should be made

for any electric conductor.

The crossthrough which the current flows inside the

largeas is practicable.This means

large
of electrodes in contact with the electrolyte.Also the crossarea
section of the platesmust
be largeenough to carry the current
to the cell terminals without excessive drop in voltage. Little
is experiencedin making this voltagedrop negligible.
diflSculty
It will be appreciatedthat largerelectrodes mean
a largercell,
with a greater current capacity. In addition to increasingthe
of the electrodes,
the resistance of the cell may
be diminished
area
by decreasing the distance between the plates. This reduces
the length of the path through which the current flows within
the cell and correspondingly
reduces the cell resistance.
tive
Increasingthe size of the cell does not increase its electromothe
force. This electromotive force depends only upon
material of the two electrodes,
and the electrolyte.Thus, Fig.
but
made
81 shows two gravityieells,
materials,
up of the same
differingmateriallyin size. The cells are bucking each other,
as

88

CURRENTS

DIRECT

terminals
is, their + terminals are joined and their
are
joined. A galvanometer G connected in one of the leads
that no current flows from the largerto the
reads zero, indicating
that

"

smaller cell.

Fig.

81.

Equality

"

85. Polarization.
of terminal

of

electromotive

If

"

voltageas

voltmeter,ammeter,

test

current

and

an

the results will be somewhat

When

the cell is

on

forces

be

in

made

is taken from

cells of

to

unequal

determine

sizes.

the

fall

by connectinga
cell,
external resistance as in Fig. 80,

as

follows:

open-circuitthe voltmeter

will indicate

Time

Fig.

82.

"

Drop

the cell electromotive

of voltage in

cell due

to

polarization.

E, representedby the distance OA,

Fig. 82. When the switch S is closed,current will flow and the
The distance
voltage will drop immediately from OA to OB.
AB
represents the voltage drop due to the internal resistance
force

PRIMARY

of the cell and

SECONDARY

AND

this has

been

89

BATTERIES

considered

in
earlier,

some

detail.

elapsesthe terminal voltagewill be observed to drop still

This
further,even
though the current be maintained constant.
further drop of voltageis due to polarization.
When
the cell delivers current, small bubbles of hydrogen
the positiveplate or cathode, practically
covering
appear
upon
As

time

it.

These

They
contact

bubbles

cause

have

effects:

two

substantial

surface between

increase in the

the cathode

and

the

Hydrogen actingin conjunction with the

plate sets up an electromotive force which

resistance at

the

electrolyte.
cathode or positive
opposes

that of the

cell.
These

effects

two

explainthe

of many
types of cells after
time.
some

reduction

they

have

in the current

delivered

capacity

ciurent

for

be
for Polarization, These hydrogen bubbles may
removed
mechanically by brushing them off or by agitating
the
commercial
is impracticable under
electrolyte.This
conditions.
If the platebe roughened, the bubbles form at the
and come
to the surface
projections
more
readily.
Zinc Stilplmte
Solution
The
bubbles
be
hydrogen
may
removed
chemically by bringing
oxidizingagents, such as chromic
acid or manganese
peroxide,into
Remedies

intimate

"

contact

with the cathode.

hydrogen readily combines

with the oxygen
of these compounds
to form water
(H2O) This method
is used in the bichromate cell,
in the
Le Clanch6
cell and in dry cells.
Cell." This
86A. Daniell
cell.
Fig. 83, is a two-fluid cell having
The

copper

zinc

and

as

electrodes.

Fig.

83.

"

Daniell

cell.

It

glassjar,inside of which is a porous cup containing

zinc sulphatesolution or a solution of zinc sulphateand sulphiu'ic
in this
The
anode
acid.
or
negative electrode is immersed
electrolyse.The porous cup is placed in a solution of copper
sulphate with copper sulphatecrystalsin the bottom of the jar.
consists of

90

DIRECT

plate,which

CURRENTS

cathode, surrounds the porous cup.

The porous
keeps the two solutions separated. As the
cup
there is no polarization.
copper is in a copper sulphatesolution,
This cellis designed for use in a circuit which is kept continually
The

copper

If left idle the electrodes waste

closed.
taken

is

out

of service for

some

away.

When

the cell is

moved
time, the electrodes should be reshould be thoroughly washed.
The

and the porous

cup
electromotive force of this cell is about

1.1 volts.

Gravity Cell. ^The gravity cell is similar to the Daniell

cell,except that gravity,rather than a porous cup, is depended
to keep the electrolytes
separated.
upon
The cathode,
This cell is shown in Fig.84.
which is of copper, is made of stripsriveted
together and placed in the bottom of the
cell togetherwith copper
sulphatecrystals.
A
solution of copper
sulphate is then
poured to within a few inches of the top
of the jar. The
connection to the copper
is usuallyan insulated copper wire fastened
to the copper
and carried out through the
solution to the top of the jar. There should
ravi
ce
y
j^^ copper sulphatecrystalsat the
g^j^g^yg
86B.

"

."

bottom
The

anode

of the cell.

is zinc, is

usually rather massive and is cast in

the form of a crow's foot and hung on the top of the jar. This
is surrounded
by a zinc sulphate solution. The solutions are
kept separatedby gravity. The copper sulphate is the heavier
of the two
The

solutions and therefore tends to remain

solutions should

be

in

at the bottom.

carefullyfor if the copper

in contact
with the zinc,copper will be
sulphate solution comes
it
should be removed
if by chance
deposited. This copper
becomes
In the operation of the cell
deposited in any way.
the zinc goes into solution as zinc sulphate,and metallic copper
out of the copper
comes
sulphatesolution and is depositedupon
the copper
electrode. The cathode will therefore gain in weight
whereas
the anode will lose in weight. This is the reason
for
having the zinc electrode massive, and the copper electrode of
when
thin sheet copper,
the cell is set up initially.
very
Due to capillaryaction the electrolytetends to creep
up
poured

DIRECT

92

tion.

The

cathode

CURRENTS

is molded

Carbon

and

the anode

is amalgamated

ammonium
or
electrolyteis sal ammoniac
circuit work
chloride. This type of cell is suited only for open
motive
because of the rapiditywith which it polarizes. The electroternal
force is 1.4 volts,but because of the drop due to its in1 volt
not over
resistance and that due to polarization,
cell should be allowed in planning an installation. The
per
is to bring mangamost
method
of reducingpolarization
common
nese
zinc.

dioxide

The

into

intimate

Terminal

"

Terminml

with

the

carbon.

This

readilywhich unites
the hydrogen bubbles to form

givesup
+

with

contact

oxygen

water.
In

Clanch^

type of Le

one

pencilzinc

cell

is suspended in the center

cylinderof carbon and

dioxide.
An
improved
manganese
type, the porous cup cell,is shown
in Fig. 86.
In this form a hollow
carbon cyUnder is filled with manganese
dioxide,arid the zinc, bent
into cyUndricalform, surrounds the
carbon
cylinder, being separated
therefrom by rubber rings.
of

The
Fig. 86.- -Porous

cup

hollow

solution should

consist of 3

Le Clanch6

cell.

ounces

water.

pint of

concentrated

tion
solu-

of sal ammoniac
A

more

to

To
produces zinc chloride crystalson the zinc and carbon.
the top of the cell is dipped in
prevent the solution "creeping,''
paraffinand the top of the carbon is covered with a black wax.
to the small amount
This cellowes
itswide use to its simplicity,
of attention that it requires,
and to the fact that it contains no
injuriousacids or alkalis. Its uses are for intermittent work,
such as ringing door-bells,telephone work, and open-circuit
telegraphwork.
89. Weston

Standard

Cell.
"

It is essential in

work
practical

to

reproduceaccuratelystandards of current, voltage,and

are known,
resistance^Obviously if two of the above quantities
It is a matter
IbRe^third is readilyobtainable by Ohm's Law.
and reproduceresistance standards.
to make
of no great difficulty
be able to

PRIMARY

SECONDARY

AND

93

BATTERIES

than metals in stripsand in

nothing more
and calibrated.
Such standards
mounted
other forms, carefully
definite
are
permanent and their resistance remains constant invery
standards

such

as

standard

are

of either current

than

maintain

reproduce and

to

or

voltageis much

more

is the standard

of resistance.

the two, it has been found more

maintain
a
voltage standard rather
Of

isobtained in

voltagestandard

This

the

practicableto produce and

than

currenJ^..ataadanL_

standard cell.fThe
its materials

cell depends upon

concentration
of the

force of

diflScult

and

motive
electro-

purities,
their im-

the temperature,
electrolyte,

the

polarizationeffects,etc.
It is difficult;
therefore, to
select
cell

materials

such

will enable

as

high degree of
cell

the

first of

cells to

prove

successful.

commercially
had

This

The

accuracy.

was

standard

the

be

it to

placeswith

at various

Clark

at different times

reproduced
and

for

cathode

of

cury,
merMrM^i]

anode

an

of

zinc, and

rouii

Sollphiila

electrolyteof mercurous
sulphate and zinc sulphate.
The
objections to this cell
an

51K^rtTir}"

Fig.

87.

"

standard

Weston

cell.

changed very appreciablywith

the temperature and that this change lagged behind the change
that the electromotive

were

in

force

temperature.
cell. A

Clark

is shown

of

paste.

in
one

cross-section of the

Fig.87.
leg of an

These

tube extends

gases

H-tube

that

are

The

Above

at

to the

formed.

are

the

held in
bottom

cell

located at the bottom

this is mercurous

sulphate
of

a porcepositionby means
lain
and packed with asbestos.

top of the celland

In the bottom

is the anode, of cadmium

of Weston

portableform
is mercury

cathode

H-tube.

materials

tube, expanded
This

is substituted for the zinc of the

cadmium
cell,

In the Weston

as

vent

of the other

amalgam.

by another porcelaintube packed with

acts

for any

leg of the

This is held in place

asbestos.

The

electrolyte

94

DIRECT

CURRENTS

sulphate. The leads from the cathode

is cadmium

sealed into the tubes at the bottom.

are

sealed with
in

wood

and
cork,paraffin,
and metal

wax.

The

The

the anode

and

top of the cell is

entire cellis mounted

with

binding posts at the top.

The cell is made in two forms, the normal celland the unsaturated
or secondary cell. In the normal
cell,cadmium
sulphate
crystalsare left in the bottom of the solution so that it is always
saturated.
Its electromotive force is affected slightly
perature,
by tembut corrections can be accuratelymade.
It is possible
to reproducesuch cellswith electromotive forces differing
by only
a

case

few parts in 100,000.

In

and

the unsaturated

cell,the solution is saturated at 4*^ C.

left in the solution,its concentration

crystalsare
is substantiallyconstant
cells
at other temperatures. Such
have practicallyno temperature coefficient. They are not as
accurately reproducibleas is the normal cell. A certificate
should
each
one
giving its electromotive force,
accompany
which usuallyis about 1.0186 volts. The unsaturated
type of
cell rather than the normal cellis used almost entirely
ib practical
as

no

work.

voltageof any cell differs from its electromotive

force by the IR drop due to the cellresistance.
As the resistance
of a Weston
cell is about 200 ohms, it is evident that if any appreciable
current
be taken from the cell its terminal voltage will
The

terminal

be quite different from its electromotive

force.

The

cell must

be

in such a manner
that it delivers no appreciable
used, therefore,
current.
of the so-called Poggendorf method
described
By means
in par. 125, the cell is used without deliveringcurrent.
Not
,

more

time.

than

If

0.0001

amp.

cell at any
is taken, the electromotive force

should

appreciablecurrent

be taken

from

the

drops, but when the circuit is again opened the electromotive

force slowlyrecovers
its initialvalue.
90. Dry Cells.
Dry cellsare a modification of the Le Clanch^
cell and as they are very light,portable,and convenient, they
are
rapidlyreplacingother types of cells. The word ''drycell"
cell that is dry will deliver any
is reallya misnomer, for no
of dry cellsbecoming
In fact the chief cause
current.
appreciable
exhausted is their actuallybecoming dry.
"

PRIMARY

AND

A cross-section of

95

BATTERIES

SECONDARY

typicaldry cell is shown in Fig. 88. The

anode is sheet zinc,made in the form of a cylinderwith an open
top, and acts as the container of the cell. The binding post is
to the

soldered

top of the zinc.

non-conductingmaterial such
The

anode

consists of

zinc is lined with

The

some

of paris.
blottingpaper or plaster
carbon rod, and the mixture of coke,

as

carbon, etc.,which surrounds

this

rod.

varies in

The

rod

itself
various

shape among

Sealing
Compound

It is located

manufacturers.

axiallyin the zinc container

and
the binding post is secured
to the

top of it. The

depolarizingagent, powdered
dioxide,is mixed
manganese
with finelycrushed coke and
tainer
pressed solidlyinto the conbetween
and

the

the

Blotting Paper

carbon

terial
non-conducting ma-

which

lines the

zinc.

It fillsthe cellto within about

an

inch

zinc

of the top. Sal ammoniac,

with perhaps a little

sulphate,is added

and

the cell then sealed with

or

Fig. 88.

"

Sectional view

dry cell.

"

The

compound.

tar

some

wax

frequentlylacquered,and the cells are

cardboard containers.
always set in close-fitting
The electromotive force of a dry cell is about 1.5 volts when
but this drops to about 1.4 volts with time,even
new
though the
outside

of the

cell remains
18

months,

zinc is

idle.
even

cell is

if not

the cell is about 0.1 ohm

this value with time.
with

used at all. The

when

The

so

method

short-circuit it

year

to

internal resistance of

and increases to several times

that

important except as

of the cell. A

instantaneous

new

after

effect is largeas compared

polarization

the internal resistance

is not

useless
practically

an

low value of internal

indication of the condition

for testing the condition

through an ammeter,
value of 1.5/0.1or 15

sistance
re-

when
amp.,

of

it should
if in

cell is to
deliver

an

good condition.

96

DIRECT

When

the current

new,

CURRENTS

under

these

conditions may

reach

even

When

25

amp.

up

of the zinc

deliveringappreciable current the terminal

voltage is very nearly 1 volt.
One of the chief causes
of a cell'sbecoming useless is the using
as

result of electrochemical

This allows the solution to leak out and

then

becomes

worthless.

The

life of

to

actions in the cell.

dry

up

and

the

cell

cell may
be prolonged
introducingfresh solution,but the results are
a

temporarily by
usuallyfar from satisfactory.
As is well known, dry cells have many
Their
applications..
field is limited to supplying moderate
currents intermittently,
but they are
capable of supplying very small currents of the
sively
magnitude of 0.1 amp.
continuously. They are used extenfor door bells,
electric bells,
buzzers,telephones,telegraph
other
flash lamps, and for many
instruments,gas engineignition,
purposes.
STORAGE

91.

BATTERIES

StorageBatteries. A storageor secondarycell (sometimes

called an accumulator)involves the same
principles
as a primary
in which
cell,but the two differ from each other in the manner
The materials of a primary cell which are
they are renewed.
used up in the process of delivering
current
are
replacedby new
stored
materials,whereas, in the storage cell,the cell materials are reto their initialcondition by sending a current through the
cell in

"

reverse

direction.

For

this

reason

productsresultingfrom the dischargeof such

within

the cell. Therefore

if

the electrochemical
a

cell must

remain

cell in its

operation gives oflf

that it cannot be brought

usuallyin the form of gases, so

material,
back to its originalcondition with a reverse
current, it is not
suitable for a storage cell. For example, the Le Clanch^
cell
be used as a
gives off free ammonia
gas and therefore cannot
storage cell. The Daniell and gravity cells are both reversible
and hence are theoretically
capableof being used as storage cells ;
but

the active materials go into solution and do not all return

during the reverse
cycle,the Ufe of such a cellwould be limited.
as

There

are

but

two

forms

of storage cells in

common

use,

lead-lead-acid type and the nickel-iron-alkali type. In both

these cells the active materials do not leave the electrodes.

the
of

PRIMARY

92. The

Lead

AND

Cell.

SECONDARY

97

BATTERIES

^The

principleunderlying the lead cell

by the followingsimple experiment. Two
may
plain lead strips(Fig.89) are immersed in a glassof dilute sulphuric
"

be illustrated

acid.

These

are

connected

in series with

an

incandescent

lamp suppliedfrom 115-volt direct current mains, or from a

current
flows through this cell bubbles of gas
battery. When

Negative
Plate

Fig.

89.

"

Forming

Positive
Plate
the plates of

an

elementary lead storage

cell.

given off from each plate,but it will be found that a much

from one
come
plate than the other. After a
greater number
short time one platewill be observed to have changed to a dark
chocolate color,and the other apparently will not have changed
its appearance.
A careful examination,however, will show that
the metalUc
lead at the surface of the latter platehas started
lead.
to change from solid metallic lead to spongy
will be

98

DIRECT

CURRENTS

the current is flowingas shown

When
connected

in

Fig. 89

the cell*will indicate about

across

the voltmeter

2.5 volts.

If the

interruptedby pullingthe switch the voltmeter

be
reading will fall to about 2.1 volts,and the cell w^Ul now
This current
found to be capable of delivering
a small current.
is of sufiicient magnitude to operate a small buzzer for a veryof energy that such a cellcan deliver
short period,but the amount
the small current
taken by the voltmeter
is very limited;even
ciurent

be

is sufficientto exhaust the cell in

very

short time.

As

the cell

dischargesthe voltagedrops off slowlyto about 1.75 volts,after

which it drops more
rapidlyuntil it becomes zero and the cell is
The color of the dark brown
platewill
apparentlyexhausted.
have become
now
lighterand will more
nearly resemble its
initial lead color. After a short rest the cellwill recover
slightly
and will again deliver current for a very brief period.
The platewhich is a dark chocolate color in the above experiment
is the positiveplateor cathode and the one which is partially
converted to spongy
lead is the negativeplateor anode.
The bubbles which were
noted come
mostly from the negative
the current is passed
plate and are free hydrogen gas. When
through such a cellthe metallic lead of the positiveplatebecomes
converted into lead peroxide,whereas the negativeplateis not
changed chemically,but is converted from solid lead into the
form which is softer and more
than ordinary
porous
spongy
the cell is dischargedthe lead peroxideof
metallic lead. When
the positiveplateis changed to lead sulphate and the spongy
lead of the negative platebecomes a sulphateso that they both
tend to become
electrochemically
equivalent.
The principleof the cell is the same
that of the primary
as
cell. When
the two lead platesare the same
electrochemically,
that is,when both are lead sulphate,
current
the
flows. When
no
positiveis converted to the peroxideand the negativeto spongy
lead by the action of an electric current, the two platesbecome
dissimilar and

an

electromotive

force is about

observed
internal

electromotive force exists between

volts,the excess
in charging the cell being necessary to

resistance and

them.

of 0.4 volt

2.1

effects.
polarization

This

overcome

This

the

periment
simple ex-

illustratesthe principleunderlying the operation of

lead storage cells.

100

DIRECT

material.

adding

This

certain

The

process.

CURRENTS

is slow

but

be

accelerated

byacids to the sulphuricacid during the forming

Gould
plate shown in Fig. 90 is made by this
The plate is first
process.
passed under revolvingsteel
process

may

wheels

which

surface into

its

convert

rows,
ridgesand fur-

increasing the surface

of the

area

plate.

weakens

process

As

the

mechanically, certain
of it

are

not

this

plate
tions
por-

acted

by the wheels. These

portions act as ribs which
givesupport and mechanical
strength to the plate and
tend
to prevent buckling.
upon

Fig.

Gould

90."

ploughed

plate, Plants

process.

Plants

the

active

material is then

formed

negative plate is
peroxide to spongy

The

process.

reducing

by

The

electrically
by the
made
from the positive
lead by an
electric

current.

plate, the
in Fig,91.

type of Plants
type^ is shown

Another
Manchester

of lead and antiniony is

grid made
active material consists
perforated. The
of a. corrugated lead ribbon, which

spiralsand pressed into

the perforations
of the grid. The
oxide
per-

is coiled

has

into

greater vol n

Fig.

from

91.

"

Plants

tlmn

mo

(Manchester) positive group

which it is derived.

spirals
expand and become

griditselfis not acted

the lead

Therefore when
more

upon

button.

the cellis charged,these

firmlyembedded

to any

and

in the

great extent, but

plate. The
serves

as

PRIMARY

mechanical

AND

SECONDARY

101

BATTERIES

The

advantage of this type of plateis its

rigidityand mechanical strength. It has less overload capacity
than other types and possibly the life is slightlyless. The
if properly cared for,should be good
ordinary Plants positive,
for from
charge.
1,800 to 2,400 complete cycles of charge and disThe
negative should have about 25 per cent, greater
life than

support.

this.

93. Faure

Pasted

or

Plate.

lead-antimonylattice work

Fig.

applied in

the

The

on

paste
the

92.

form
the

"

Pasted

of

or

"

This type of plateconsists of a

skeleton into which lead oxide is

positive and

paste.

The

negative plates.

battery is

positivegrid is converted

then

charged.
peroxide and
types of pasted

into

negativegridinto spongy lead. Two

plates are shown in Fig.92.
The chief advantage of the pasted plate is its highoverload
capacity,especiallyfor short periods,together with its lesser
size,cost,and weight for a given dischargerate. It is therefore
useful where lightness
and compactness are necessary,
such
very
in electrical vehicle batteries,
as
ignitionand startingbatteries
for gasolinecars, etc.
The pasted type of positivehas a much
shorter life than the Plants type, due to a more
rapid shedding
This lifeis approximatelyone-fourth that
of the active material.

that

on

102

DIRECT

CURRENTS

of the Plants

plates. Cells having a pastedplatefor the negative

and a Plants positiveare common.
In all batteries there is one more
negativethan positiveplate.
to be worked
This allows all the positives
both sides. Were
on
side only,the expansion
to be worked
one
on
any of the positives
when it is converted to the
of the active material,which occurs
peroxideon charge,would be unequal on the two sides of the plate
and buckling would result.

n"irlitf" plAli

Wood

vpficcr

t"p4rator

^4"g*t"vfplaTc

Fig.

93.

Cut-away

"

'^Iron-dad Exide.^^

"

of

an

In order to

Iron-clad Exide
overcome

cell.

the erosion of active

positiveplate the iron-clad exide has been

developed. Its positiveconsists of a lead-antimonyframe which
lar
supportsa number of perforatedhard rubber tubes. An irregulead-antimonycore passes through the center of each tube and
device for the current.
The peroxide is
a
collecting
as
serves
pressedinto the tubes, filUngthe space between the core and the
small that the
The perforations
are
inner wall of the tube.
so
peroxide does not drop out readily. An ordinary pasted plate
j" use(l for the negativeplateof this cell. Although expensive,
material

from

the

this

type of cellhas
It isused

usage.

of

an

SECONDARY

AND

PRIMARY

long lifeand

BATTERIES

can

stand considerable

to operate electricvehicles.
principally

iron-clad exide,cut away

to show

the

103

rough
A view

assembly,is given in

Fig. 93.
stationary
Storage batteries are divided into two generalclasses,
batteries and portable
batteries.
The platesof this tjrpeof battery
94. StationaryBatteries.
be either of the Plants type or of the pasted type, depending
may
ing
the nature of the service. For merely regulating
on
duty, involvonly moderate, though continual,charging and discharging,
the Plants plate is preferable.Where
a batteryis installed for
overload for a very short
to carry an enormous
service,
emergency
periodduringa temporary shut-down of the generatingapparatus,
the Faure or pasted plateis preferable.For a given floor area
the pasted plate can
dischargeat the one-hour rate, twice the
and at less than the one-hour
current
that the Plants plate can
rate this ratio becomes
greater. This is a very important factor
cated
in congested city districts where such batteries are usuallylo"

and

where

96. Tanks.

floor area

is very

valuable.

The

containingtanks are of three generaltypes :

tanks.
Glass jars
glass,earthenware, and lead-lined wooden
used only for cellsof small capacity,
are
as they are
expensiveand
have not the requisitemechanical
strength in the largersizes.
Earthenware
tanks have been used more
as an
experimentand will
The wooden
tanks must
into general use.
probably not come
be strong,and well made.
They are lined with sheet lead. The
of the lead liningmust be sealed by burning the lead with
seams
be used.
Solder should never
The wood
flame.
a non-oxidizing
should be painted with an acid-resisting
paint,such as asphaltum.
An occasional application
of linseed oilwill prevent decomposition
due

"

to the acid.

When

glassjars are used, the plates are suspended by projecting

lugs which rest on the edges of the jar. (See Fig.100.)
In the lead-lined tanks, the platesare similarly
suspended upon
two
glassslabs,% in. thick,which rest on the bottom of the tank.
(See Fig.94.) The platesof like polarityare burned to a heavy
lead stripor bus-bar to which the current-carrying
lead is either
burned
tween
bolted.
There should always be a liberal space beor
the platesand the bottom of the tank to allow the red lead

104

CURRENTS

DIRECT

the plates. All

short-circuiting
to reduce
types of stationarybatteries should have a glasscover
evaporation and to interceptthe fine acid spray which occurs
during the chargingperiod.
96. Separators. To prevent the positiveand negative plates
from coming in contact with one
another,several types of separators
have been tried. Very thin perforatedhard rubber is still
but this is unsuitable for largercells as the
in use for small cells,
offers too much
resistance to the
of the perforations
limited area
without

peroxideto accumulate

"

passage

of the current

to the active material.

Glass rods have

.L-UL

t
I'.'^ Orftiflfor

jcnigi^i

"""'"J Hupponirnf

Separ^tui^

Fig.

94.

"

^Lead-lined

storage

been

wooden

cell.

tank

Fig.

95.

"

Assembly

of

wooden

separator.

suspended between the plates,but these are unsatisfactory

there is stillopportunity for bits of peroxidedropping
because
from the positiveplate to lodge between
the platesand cause
a
tween
short-circuit. Moreover, the rods are not a complete barrier beplatesso that the expansionof the active material on either
The
the positive
or the negativeplatemay
cause
a short circuit.
most
These are very
satisfactory
separators are made of wood.
thin and are grooved vertically
to permit the circulation of the
electrolyte.They are speciallytreated to remove
ingredients
that would be detrimental to the electrolyte.The wood, after
being treated, is not attacked by the acid. These separators
be allowed to become
should never
dry, as they then decompose
readily. After being received,they should be kept wet
very

PRIMARY

until installed.

SECONDARY

AND

105

BATTERIES

In

largersizes of batteries the separators are

held in placeby dowel pins. (See Fig.95.)
97. Electrolyte. The
should be chemically pure
electrolyte
sulphuricacid. When fullycharged the specific
gravityshould
be 1.210 for Plants platesand not higherthan 1.300 for pasted
be made
from
acid
concentrated
plates. This solution may
lowing
(oilof vitriol sp. gr. 1.84) by pouring the add into water in the fol"

ratios:
Parts

One

Specificgravity
1.200
1.210

4.0

1.240

3.4

1.280

2.75

96.

"

scatter

of specificgravity in

of heat is evolved

This results in

if the water

is added

the

Part

Acid

4.3

Measurement

largeamount

mixed.

may

to

Volume

Fig.

Water

when

largeamount

to the acid.

acid,break

the

This

stationarybattery.

acid and

of steam

water

being generated

should be avoided

container and

are

even

cause

as

it

sonal
per-

injury.
The specific
gravityof a solution may be determined directly
by the use of a hydrometer. This consists of a weighted bulb
in Fig.
and a graduated tube which floats in the liquidas shown
The bulb floats in the liquidwhose specific
96.
gravityis to be

106

DIRECT

CURRENTS

measured, and the specific

gravityis read at the point where the
surface of the liquidintercepts
the tube.
Such a tube may
be
left floating
permanently in stationarybatteries in a representative
cell called a pilotcell (Fig.96).
The small amount
of Uquid and the inaccessibility
of vehicle
and startingbatteries make
the use of such a hydrometer impossible.
To determine the specific
gravitywith such batteries,

Fig.

97.

"

Syringe hydrometer.

the

syringehydrometer shown in Fig. 97 is used. The syringe

contains a small hydrometer and when sufficientliquidis drawn
be
into the syringetube, the small hydrometer floats and may
read directly.
Fig. 98 shows the change in specific
gravityduring charge
and discharge. This relation is very important,as the specific

FiQ.

12

98.

"

of specificgravity in

Variation

4"^^^^6
a

stationary battery.

is an accurate
indication of the condition
gravity of the electrolyte
the
of charge of
battery.
98. SpecificGravity. When
the batteryis charged,hydrogen
is given off at the negative plateand oxygen
is given to the positive
plate to convert it into the peroxide. The electrolyte
that the solution becomes
and
more
givesup water, which means
concentrated.
The
more
specificgravity will rise from the
complete dischargevalue of 1.160 to 1.210 when fullycharged as
"

108

DIRECT

CURRENTS

before the battery is ready for service.

electrically
Therefore
the battery should be given an initial charge at the
normal charging rate for about 40 hours or more.
If the battery stands over
a long period without
being used,
be reduced

the active material becomes

more

less converted

or

into inactive

lead

sulphate,which is a non-conductor,and so is difficult to

reduce electrically.
Therefore a batteryif idle should be charged
occasionally.If the battery is to remain idle over a long period

Fig.

99

"

into

and

Lowering
position.

plates

Fig.

100.

"

Stationary battery

in

position.

it is impracticable
to

the followingprocharge it periodically

cedure
is necessary
Give
to prevent sulphation.
the battery a
full charge,then siphon off the electrolyte,
which may
be saved
Fill the cells with water
and again used.
and allow them to
stand 12 to 15 hours.
Siphon off the water and the cells T'vdll
stand indefinitely
without injury to the plates. To put back in
service,fillthe battery with the electrolytehaving a specific
at the normal
gravityof 1.210 and charge for 35 hours or more
rate or its equivalent.

100. Vehicle

Batteries.

vehicles and

"

In

the

for automobile

design of batteries for

starting it is necessary

pelling
proto

PRIMARY

SECONDARY

AND

109

BATTERIES

high discharge rate with minimum

weight and
used for both positivesand
size. Therefore pasted platesare
negatives. These are made extremely thin and are insulated
another by very thin wooden
from one
separators. They are
then packed tightlyinto a hard rubber jar as shown in Fig. 101.
This jar is sealed in with an asphaltum compound to prevent the
liquidsplashingout. There is a hole in the top of the jar
obtain

very

"Tilhr
When

used

sliJi) connectors'*

or

cells

connect

"oell connectors"
When

side

placed
called

to

by side is
"side connector""

used

to

cells

connect

placed end to end is called

'end conn"-ctor'"
an

Soft lubbet

r"f""

Sliap used

to

Hold-down

connect

used

pLiies of
keeji wood

in

groui)

separators

fioro tloaiing

Pobiiive plate of
Perforated
to

wiH)d

sniouth

side

placed

setiarator

neJtt

robber

placed with
negative plate

separator
next

Negative plate of

The

colur

posiiive plate

(wcKivi-d

Hard

brown

dark

lubher

to

a tiray

oi

slate color

jar

when
burned to the
positive i"late",
called the tive
as shown,
"posiare

strap,

eroup"
The

negative plates, when

Ihc strap,
shown, are
as

"negative group
Both

Rib

or

which is closed with

and
electrolyte

Because

"

vent

Assembly
cap.

of

an

This

in the

cap

ate

Exide

seitarators,

called the

btidee

Sediment

Fig. 101.

and

eroups

shown,

for

burned
called

lo

(he

'

assembled

at"

"element"

s'uppottingthe element

"pjce

veliicle cell.

of
permits the replenishing
allows

the

gases

to

the

escape.

where this type

high dischargerates which occur
of batterystarts a gasolineengine, and because of the necessity
for a high ampere
gravity
capacityfor the weight, the specific
of the electrolyte
is as high as 1.280 and 1.300.
Further,the
of electrolyte
amount
is very small and therefore it is necessary
to work it between
wide limits,the lower limit being 1.185 and
the upper

of the

1.280

and

1.300.

110

DIRECT

individual cells are

The

and

CURRENTS

mounted

beside

one

another

in boxes

connected

togetheron top by lead connectors

of cells
be burned or held by lead nuts.
The number
which may
the voltagewhich is desired.
in such a unit depends upon
Vehicle batteries are usuallyshipped assembled,charged and
so that they are
complete with the electrolyte
ready for use when
received.
However, a preliminarycharge is advisable.
Because of its ruggedness,the ''Iron-clad Exide"
(seepar. 93)
is used to a largeextent in electric vehicles.
for the electrolyte
As the space
is very limited in vehicle
falls quiterapidly,so that
the level of the electrolyte
batteries,
frequentadditions of water are necessary.
101. Rating of Batteries.
Practicallyall batteries have a
nominal ratingbased on the 8-hour rate of discharge. Thus, if
a Plants
battery can deliver a current of 40 amp. continuously
for 8 hom-s, the battery will have a rating of 40 X 8
320
ampere-hours. The normal chargingrate of such a batterywould
be 40 amp.
Although the above battery is just capable of
delivering40 amp. for 8 hours, it would not be able to deliver
64 amp.
for 5 hours (
320 ampere
hours) but only 88 per cent,
or

crates

are

"

of this

56.4 amp.

or

for 5 hours.

56.4 amp.

is called the 5-hour

rate.

Below

is

given a table showing the percentage capacitywith

various dischargerates.
Discharge rate, hours
Percentage of capacity at

8
8-hour

rate :

Plants

type

100

88

75

50

Pasted

type

100

93

83

60

fallingoff in capacity with higher rates of dischargeis

due to the inability
of the free solution to penetrate the pores
of the active material.
Consequently it is not possibleto reduce
all the active material during the short periods of discharge.
After such a battery has stood a short time it will be found to
have recovered to some
ing
extent and is therefore capableof deliverexhausted.
more
current, after apparently having become
This is due to the free solution finally
penetratingthe pores of
This

the active material.

Batteries
intervals.

are

For

rates for very short

dischargeat enormous
instance, a startingbattery having an 8-hour

able to

SECONDARY

AND

PRIMARY

111

BATTERIES

rating of 10 amp. is often called upon to supply450 amp. when

doing startingduty.
of charging
102. Charging. ^There are two general methods
and the constant potencurrent method
tial
a battery,the constant
"

method.

In

the constant

current

method

the

current

is

kept at itsnominal 5-hour or 8-hour value until the gassing period

begins. (See Fig. 98.) If the platesare of the pasted type
about one-half when
should be reduced
gassing
the current
siderable
beginS;for gassing representsa waste of energy because a conportionof the chargingenergy is used in merelybreak-

Pio.

102.

"

Charging

starting battery from

110-volt mains.

In addition,
hydrogen and oxygen.
gassing
the battery to become
causes
heated, the acid is carried out in
a fine spray
by the bubbles and active material may be carried
from the platesby the mechanical agitationof the bubbles.
The chargingrate with Plants platesis much
of the
in excess
above.
The charge may
be started at the 3-hour rate and ended

ing

up

the water

at not less than

into

the 8-hour rate.

example of the constant current rate is the charging

of low voltagebatteries from 110-volt mains.
trated
This is illusby Fig. 102, which shows the chargingof a 6-volt starting
determined that the mains supbattery. It should be definitely
ply
common

and it is also necessary

to know
positive. If doubt exists as to the polarityand
direct current

not

available,
dip the

mains

to the

salt water.

two

ends

main

is

voltmeter

is

which
a

of the wires which

connect

the

acidulated water or in
glassof slightly
wire. When
Bubbles form about the negative
using

batteryinto

112
the

CURRENTS

DIRECT

constant

charging

rate

chargingone must reduce the

the battery approaches the fully charged
method

current
as

of

condition.
method of chargingis to be preferredas
potential
the charging current automaticallytapers off due to the rise in
the cell electromotive force as the cell approaches the charged
The source
of potentialshould be about 2.3 volts
condition.
The constant

per

cell when

there is

no

series resistance in the circuit.

batteryfloatson constant potential

bus-bars,ready to
take load as occasion demands, it is necessary to have a series
booster for raisingthe chargingpotential
to a value sufficiently
When

Fig. 103.

high to force

"

Booster

method

of

chaiging a storage battery.

battery. The booster ordinarily

consists of a low voltage,separatelyexcited shunt generator,
driven by a shunt motor.
Fig. 103 shows the connections of
the set when the battery is being charged. The booster raises
the voltage just enough to send the necessary current into the
battery.
As an example, consider a 110-volt installation with a floating
battery. As the average cell voltageis about 2 volts,55 cellsare
that the battery has a 320-ampere-hour
Assume
necessary.
rating. The charging current will be 320/8 or 40 amp.
(the
8-hour
nominal
rating). The voltage of each cell should be
boosted to 2.3 volts on charge. Therefore the total voltage
will be 2.3 X 55
126.5 volts. Of this 126.5 volts,
necessary
the bus-bars can
supply 110 volts. The booster suppliesthe
remaining 16.5 volts and its ratingwill be
current

into the

16^X40
=

1,000

0.66 kw.

AND

PRIMARY

The

total power

SECONDARY

utilized in
126.5 X

113

BATTERIES

charging the battery is,however,

40
=

5.06 kw.

1,000

voltage of a cell rises on being charged,as

The terminal voltage is about 2 volts
is shown
in Fig. 104.
at the beginning of charge and rises slowly to about 2.4 volts,
afterwhich it rises very rapidlyto 2.6 volts. This last rise occurs
in the gassingperiod. This final rise of voltage also indicates
The

terminal

10

012S466789
Hours

Fig.

104.

"

Voltage

curves

on

charge and dischargefor lead cell.

completion of charge. It is this rise

of voltage
which automaticallycuts down the chargingrate when
the constant potential
The voltagedoes not rise
method is used.
so rapidly
when the charging rate is reduced toward the end of
because of the lesser IR drop in the cell itself. The
charge,
dropof voltageat various rates of dischargeis shown in Fig. 104.
It will be noted that the battery voltage curve
at the "-hour
which is a very distinct advantage
rate is fairlyflat,
discharge
ifthe batteryis used to supply incandescent lamps.
that the cell is nearing the

114

DIRECT

CURRENTS

103. Battery Installations. Batteries should

Small glassjarsmay
dry, well-ventilated rooms.
"

be

installed in

be mounted

on

painted with asphaltum paint. (See Fig. 100.)

The jarsare set in glasstrays containingsand, which are in turn
set on glassinsulators. The. largerbattery jars should be set
on
porcelainpedestals6 in. or so above the floor. The floor
tile or vitrified brick. All wooden
should be of acid-resisting
surfaces should be covered with asphaltum paint. The room
should be well ventilated,as the spray which is carried out
of the jarson charge settles on horizontal surfaces and attracts
racks

wooden

other moisture.
air

Therefore

sweeping along the

it is desirable to have

floor.

flame should be allowed

in the

installed in the

In

room.

As

hydrogen

room

addition

and
to

no

the

gas

is

of

stream

given off,no

switches should

danger due

to

be

the

arcing at the switch contacts, the acid in the air will corrode
the copper.

Temperature. Below is given the relation between the

and its specific
freezingpoint of the electrolyte
gravity. It will
be noted that the freezingpoint is very considerablyreduced
values of the specific
with increasing
gravity,so that if a battery
is well charged there is no danger of freezingin the temperate
104.

"

zone.

Specificgravity

Freezing temp.

1.180

1.200

1.240

1.280

F.

6**
16"
5r
90**

the

higher temperatures the rate of diffusion of the acid

throughout the pores of the active material is increased so that
the ratingof a batteryincreases very appreciablywith increasing
At

temperature.

Above

70" this increase is of the order of from

degree Fahrenheit.
106. Capacitiesand Weights of Lead Cells.
Below are given
the relations of weightsto kilowatt capacityfor the various types
of cells which have just been described.

0.5 to 1.0 per cent, per

"

116

DIRECT

CURRENTS

stampings,containing iron in a very finelydivided form. These

steel frame for supflat pockets are mounted
on
a nickel-plated
port.
in
Both the positiveand the negative platesare shown
Fig. 105.
The chemical reaction in the cell is complex, but its nature
is indicated by the followingchemical equation:
NegativePlate

Positive Plate
8K0H

The

above

from

rightto

Fig.

105.

"

plates of

GNiOa

3Fe

Fe304 +

2Ni304 +

8K0H

and read
rightindicates discharge,
leftindicates charge. It is to be noted in the above
read from

Positive
an

Edison

reaction that the

and

left to

negative

storage cell.

Fig.

106.

"

Assembly,

plates removed

from

Edison

battery

container.

quantity of potassium hydrate solution

both sides of the equation. This indicates

same

(KOH) appears on
between
the electrodes
that ultimatelyall the reaction occurs
Therefore the
themselves,and also that no water is formed.
gravity of the solution does not change during charge
specific
or discharge.
The platesallhave a perforatedlug by which they are fastened
togetherwith a steel bolt and to a binding post. The bolt is
threaded and steel nuts clamp the platestogether. Steel washers
The
between
the platesact as spacers.
positiveand negative
plates are insulated from one another by hard rubber grids.
in Fig. 106.
The positive
cell assembly is shown
An Edison
and negativeassembly is placed in a corrugated, nickel-plated.

PRIMARY

welded

SECONDARY

AND

steel tank.

117

BATTERIES

top is then welded to the rest of the

container.
The binding posts are insulated from the cover
by
hard rubber bushings. In the top is a valve which allows the
to escape

gases

Fig.

added
to

to

the

become

so

The

during chargingand through which

107.

Five

"

Edison

storage cells mounted

in

water

may

be

tray.

be allowed
electrolyte.This valve should never
encrusted
with a potash deposit that it sticks,

the internal pressure may

sides of the container to bulge.
because

become

suflScient to

cause

th^

in wooden
usually mounted
racks,
shown
in Fig. 107, the cells being connected
together by
as
steel connectors.
nickel-plated
The

individual

cells

are

12

Fig.

108.

"

Charge

or

Discharge

3
Hours

at Normal

Voltage changes during the charge and

Rate

discharge of

an

Edison

cell.

Discharging. The Edison cell is rated on

the basis of a 5-hour
charging rate. Fig. 108 shows typical
for the Edison battery. It will be
charge and dischargecurves
107.

Charging

and

"

118

DIRECT

CURRENTS

that the average voltage on dischargeis about 1.2 volts

cell. The specific
changes but
gravity of the electrolyte

noted
per

slightlyso that it cannot be used to indicate the condition of

charge^as with the lead cell. Moreover, there is no sharp voltage
the completion of charge. If doubt exists as to the
rise near
condition of charge,it is advisable to give an overchargein order
to be on the safe side. The overchargedoes not injurethe cell
reduce the efficiencyalthough it may slightly
The
electrolytein an Edison cell evaporates rapidly and
As the electrolyte
frequent additions of water are necessary.
is changed to potassium carbonate
very readily,only freshly
distilled water should be used in replacingthe electrolyte,
as
tap water usually contains carbonates in solution. In spiteof
the usual precautions,the electrolyte
is slowly converted into
potassium carbonate by contact with the air,and it should be
replacedby fresh electrolyte
every 250 complete cyclesof charge
and discharge.
The Edison
cell has many
advantages. It is light,rugged,
stand for a long time in a dischargedcondition without
and can
chemical deterioration. The platesdo not buckle and the active
material does not ''flake" or drop from the plates.
108^ Applications. Edison cells are used for vehicle lighting
and
boats.
also much
used
in motor
are
ignition, and
They are also used in various types of electric trucks and for
In automobiles
they are not generally
battery street cars.
used for starting,
as their comparativelylargeinternal resistance
does not permit a sufficiently
high dischargerate.
Below is given the relation between
the battery weight and
capacity.
based upon
The figures
the capacityobtainable on normal
are
charge:
"

The
efficiencyof a
Efficiencyof Storage Batteries.
storage batteryis the ratio of the watt-hour output to the watthour input.
For example, a normally dischargedcell is charged at a uni109.

"

PRIMARY

SECONDARY

AND

form

rate of 40 amp.

The

cell Is then

for 6 horn's at

voltageof 2.3 volts.

average

an

completelydischargedat

Watt-hours

output
input

uniform

rate of 38

voltagebeing 1.95 volts.

for 6 hours, the average

the efficiency
of this cell?

amp.

Watt-hours

119

BATTERIES

38 X

1.95 X

=445

40

2.3

What

is

552

445

Efficiency

One

often

hears

^^

of the

or

80.7 per cent.

ampere-nour

of
efficiency

storage

Dattery. As amperes

the ampere-hour
do not represent energy,
to store energy.
of a battery'sability
is not a measure
efficiency
be found
In the above example the ampere-hour efficiency
may
follows:

as

Ampere-hours output
Ampere-hours input

"=

38

228

"=

40

240

Ampere-hour efficiency ^^
=

The

much

lower

difference between

95 per. cent.

watt-hour

efficiencyis due to the great

the voltage of charge and that of discharge,

Figs.104 and 108.

The efficiency
of a storage battery varies with the rate,both
with the temperature.
of charge and discharge,and somewhat
As high charge and dischargerates produce relatively
high PR
and
is lowered under these
polarizationlosses,the efficiency
be charged at the 8-hour rate
conditions. Further, a cell may
and dischargedat the 3-hour rate and have an apparent efficiency
as

shown

or

in

of 60 per cent.
This does not represent the true efficiencyas
the cell actuallywill not be completelydischarged,even
though

Owing to the inabilityof the free acid to

permeate the active material,much of the active material has not
been reduced,and after a short time the cellwill be found to have
recuperated to a considerable extent and to be able to deUver

it appears

more

to

be.

energy.

The

of a storage batteryis of the order

ampere-hour efficiency
of magnitude of 95 per cent.
For a complete cycle the wattsize is about
hour efficiency
of a stationary battery of moderate
The watt80 per cent, at the 8-hour charge and dischargerates.

120

DIRECT

CURRENTS

largestationarybatteryis about 86 per cent,

conditions.
under the same
Where
a
battery merely ''floats''
and the cycle of charge and dischargeis a matter of minutes
be as
or
perhaps of seconds even, the watt-hour efficiency
may
high as 95 or 96 per cent.
for the Edison
The ampere-hour and the watt-hour efficiency
cell are less than for the lead cell. This is due partlyto the fact
hour

of
efficiency

that the Edison

cellhas

lower electromotive

force and

the

IR

drop is proportionately
greater. For the Edison cellthe amperehour efficiency
is about 82 per cent, and the watt-hour efficiency
about
In

60 per

cent.

is but
the efficiency
a battery,
selecting

be considered.

The

one

of the factors to

first costs and the maintenance

high so that these factors,as well

given due consideration.
are

as

the

of batteries

should be
efficiency,

of storage batteries in the generationand

considered in Chap. XIV.
distribution of power
are
Note,

"

^The

uses

-aaM^

.Copper
Plated

Fig.

110.

109.

"

Copper

plating bath.

1
Electroplating.
Electroplating is a very
important
electricalindustryand is closely
related to the subjectof batteries.
is very simple. Assume
The principle
that it is desired to copper
platea carbon dynamo brush. The portionsof the brush to
be platedare immersed
in a solution of copper sulphateas shown
in Fig. 109.
A copper stripis also immersed
in the solution and
is connected
of a dynamo or some
other
to the + terminal
of direct current
source
supply. The article to be plated is

iSee

206, for

"

"Standard
a

more

Handbook,"

Fourth

Edition, Section 19, Pars.

186

complete discussion.

Googk

to

PRIMARY

connected

to

AND

the

SECONDARY

121

BATTERIES

negative terminal

of

this

supply. Under

these conditions the current

and
the

will carry copper from the solution

depositit on the carbon brush. This copper which leaves
which is carried from the
solution is replaced by copper

copper

strip(the anode) into the solution

so

that there is

no

change in the solution itself. The current should be such that

the density is about 0.02 amp.
per sq. in. of the surface to be
plated.
It is not necessary
that the anode be of the metal which it is
desired to deposit. Other metals may
be used.
Under these

conditions,however, the solution in time becomes contaminated

If an inert substance
by the going into solution of the anode.
such as carbon is used, as anode, acid is formed in the solution.
The only opposing electromotive force in the bath just described
is the IR drop in the solution. This may
be reduced by
but if the electrodes are too
bringingthe electrodes close together,
close togetherthe depositwill not be uniform.
The amount
of
metal depositedper second isproportional
to the current.
Because
of the nature
of electroplating
baths, they are naturallylow
voltage devices. When
practicable,several are connected in
series. A low voltage and high current generator is generally
In practicethere are many
used for platingpurposes.
ments
refineto be observed.

Acid

is added

to the solution to

positing.
prevent impuritiesfrom de-

cyanide solution of copper is found to give better

results than the sulphate. Nickel, tin, zinc,silver,
gold, etc.,
be depositedby the use of suitable baths and electrodes.
may
in which the source
A gravitycellis an example of electroplating
A

of current

is derived

from

the bath

itself. The

current

flows

the zinc to the copper

within the solution,zinc is carried
is depositedor plated
into the solution as sulphate and copper

from

from

its sulphateon

the

positiveelectrode.
Electrotypingis another common
example of electroplating.
in wax
with the type or objectto be reAn impression is made
produced.
The surface of the wax
is made
conducting by applying
of
is
then
thin
this
coat
a
graphite. Copper
platedon
surface.
It is later backed by type metal to give it the necessary
mechanical strength.

CHAPTER

VII

INSTRUMENTS

ELECTRICAL

AND

ELECTRICAL

MEASUREMENTS
If a coil like
Principleof Direct-current Instruments.
that shown in Fig. 110 carries a current,a magnetic field results
(Chap. II) with a north and a south poleat oppositeends of the
coil. If the coil carryingcurrent
be placedin a magentic field,

111.

"

the coil will tend to turn in such

direction that:

The

resulting
magnetic fielddue to both the main fieldand that
of the coil will be a maximum
(seePar. 17, Chap. I),and the north

Pig.

110.

"

Magnetic

field produced by

an

instrument

coil.

poleof the coil will be attracted toward the south poleof the magnetic
field and the south pole of the coil will be attracted to the
north pole of the magnetic field.
This tendency of the coil to turn is shown in Fig. Ill (a)where
the coil attempts to turn in the direction indicated by the arrows.
If the coil is pivoted and free to turn it will reach the position
shown
in Fig. Ill (6). Under
these conditions the coil has
placed itselfin such a positionthat its flux is actingin the same
122

124

CURRENTS

with or without
coil may
be wound
is usuallyof fiber,
The
of aluminum.
or

phosphor-bronze. The

of
a

DIRECT

bobbin.

The

advantage of
Between

(Fig.112

an

bobbin

aluminum

bobbin

will be considered later.

the

polesof a magnet a soft iron core is usuallyplaced

and Fig. 113). The addition of this core results in two
distinct
advantages. The
duced
length of the air path is reso

that the amount

of

creased,
linking the coil is inthus
making the
galvanometer more
sensitive;
flux

the flux tends

to

enter

the

radially.This last effect

core

makes

the deflections of the

galvanometer almost directly

proportionalto the current
flowing in the galvanometer
coil.
coil

pended
usually susby a phosphor-bronze
filament. Any turningof the

The

coil

is

in the

produces torsion

filament

which

opposes

the

turning of the coil and is

called the restoring force.
When

the moment
force and
due

moment

to

of the

storing
re-

the

turning

the

current

equal, the galvanometer

assumes
a
steady deflection.
are

For
FiQ.

112.-

-Principle of the D*Arsonval

galvanometer.

all

practicalpurposes

galvanometer deflection
to the current,
is proportional
This
of the
as
one
phosphor-bronze filament usually serves
leadingin wires carrjdngcurrent to the coil The other leading
in wire consists of a very flexible spiralfilament fastened to the
bottom
of the coil,as shown
in Fig. 112.
methods
of reading the deflection
There
two
common
are
the coil system
of a galvanometer. A plane mirror is mounted
on
the

ELECTRICAL

and
the
can

scale

INSTRUMENTS

and

AND

telescope are

125

MEASUREMENTS

mounted

3^

about

from

m.

galvanometer. The reflection of the scale in the mirror

be seen
with the telescope(Fig. 114). When
the mirror

turns, the reflection of the scale in the mirror

deflects.

The

Coil

Core

Fig.

113.

of

Effect

"

core

the magnetic

upon

value

of this deflection is determined

in the

telescope.
method

Another

is to

moving system.
the

from

FiQ.

which

mirror

114.

"

and

use

lamp

its

Telescope and

concave

field of

by

filament is

scale method

of

means

mirror

image focused

on

the

cross

hair

eter
galvanom-

distance
placed some
on
a ground glassto

of reading

scale graduated in centimeters

galvanometer.

galvanometer.

is fastened.

As

the

the scale.
the beam of lighttravels across
deflects,
Damping, If a galvanometer coil,which is hung freely,
time unless it
starts to swing, it will continue swingingfor some
of damping
retarded or damped.
One method
is in some
way
mirror

"

is to attach

an

air

vane

to the coil.

This air

vane

is enclosed

so

126
that it

restricted space and damps any

method
of the coil. The most
satisfactory

swings in

movement

damping.
the motion
currents

put

CURRENTS

DIRECT

an

If the coil be wound

of the bobbin

aluminum

an

on

swinging
trical
is elec-

bobbin,

through the magnetic field will induce

and these will be in such a direction as to

itself,
electricload on the moving coil as in an electricgenerator.
within

This opposes
obtained by

the motion

of the coil. The

same

result may
the main

be

coil,
bindingshort-circuited copper coils on
by shunting the galvanometer externallywith a resistance (see
it.
Ayrton Shunt), or even by short-circuiting
113. Galvanometer
Shunts.
When
galvanometers are used
to detect small currents as in null methods
(see Wheatstone
"

"2"
^^[JJvvvWWVWAAA/VNA^

(a) GAlvanometer

(") Ayrton

shunt

FiQ.

115.

"

Types

of galvanometer

shunt

shunt.

Bridge),the apparatus may be so far out of adjustmentthat a

flows through the galvanometer.
comparatively large current
This causes
violent deflection of the coil,and may
result in
a
injury to the galvanometer. In certain other measurements
the current that it is desired to measure
with the galvanometer
be so large that the deflection is considerablybeyond the
may
scale.
In

either

of

case

two

common

galvanometer

may

be

protectedby

the

by-passesa certain known

current
from the galvanometer. There are
One type is shown in Fig.115 (a).
types of shunt.

shunt, or
proportion of the

use

the
a

resistance which

ELECTRICAL

INSTRUMENTS

It consists of three

or

AND

127

MEASUREMENTS

four separate resistances which

are

plugged
adjusted

a
galvanometer one
are
so
in value that with a given current to be measured
the successive
stance,
-galvanometer currents are in the ratio of 10 to 1. For inif the galvanometer is to measure
rent,
Jfo the external curthe top resistance,
Fig. 115 (a),is of such a value that it
shunts ^f 0 of the current away
from the galvanometer when it
is pluggedacross
the galvanometer,etc.
To determine the values of these resistances proceed as follows:
across

the

Let

Rg

To
which

reduce

galvanometer resistance.
galvanometer current for fullscale deflection.

Ig

circuit current.

==

shunt

current.

shunt

resistance.

/,
Rt
the

it would

galvanometer deflection
have

galvanometer,Ig must

if all of the current

be one-tenth

T
The

shunt

the shunt
as

their

current

the value

passed through the

That is,

ro

(1)

and

7-7.

(2)

the

galvanometer

respectiveresistances.
^g

as

of /.

to one-tenth

current

7.
But

These

time.

at

la

J-

current

are

versely
in-

Hence:

J-0

/o\

128

DIRECT

Example,

^A

"

should
10 to 1 and

CURRENTS

galvanometer has

it in order

shunt

What

ohms.

resistance of 600

sistances
re-

its deflections in the ratio of

to reduce

100 to 1 ?

Ayrton Shunt

Ri

R2

-^
-QQ-

The

"

66.7

ohms.

Ans.

6.06 ohms.

Ans.

Ayrton shunt

Fig. 115 (6).

the galvanometer

is shown

in

A permanent resistance A Bis connected across

terminals.
One line terminal is permanently connected

to

one

terminal,C, is movable
With a fixed
various pointsalong AB.

end of this resistance,

and the other line
and*

can

be connected

line current

to

the maximum

deflection is obtained

when

C is at B.

Hooo *^" total

resistance AB, the galvanometer deflection will be Hooo of i^s
maximum
value.
to 6, where
If C be moved
A6 is Koo of the
resistance AB, the galvanometer deflection will be Jfoo of its
maximum
value,etc.
The advantages of the Ayrton shunt are :
(1) A shunt is applicableto any galvanometer, regardlessof
the galvanometer resistance.
the galvanometer,
(2) A fixed resistance is shunted across
which givesa constant
value of damping in open circuit ballistic
measurements.
the shimt is adjustedto
(See par. 159.) When
this deflection for
give the maximum
galvanometer deflection,
If

point C

the

same

the shunt

be moved

to a, where

resistance Aa

value of external current

not

used.

That

is less than

is,the maximum

is

it would

be

were

of the
sensitivity

by the addition of the shunt. If the

shimt has a resistance of only 5 times that of the galvanometer
the sensitivity
will be reduced only in the ratio of 6 to 5, which
is not usuallyobjectionable.
galvanometer is reduced

114. Ammeters.

"

the current

^An ammeter

is an

electricalinstrument which

flowingin an electric circuit.

There
were
early types of ammeters, most of which
many
depended for their operationupon the pullexerted by a solenoid
of pullis dependent
some
on
type of iron plunger. The amount
the current strengthin the solenoid,
the
so
by restraining
upon
of the plunger by gravity or by means
motion
of a spring,
the deflection of a pointer attached to the plunger might be
made to read amperes.
Fig. 116 shows a typicalinstrument of
measures

ELECTRICAL

INSTRUMENTS

this class.

Such

instrument

is not

AND

instrument

129

MEASUREMENTS

is

due: (1) To maginaccurate,

netic
which
for
current
or
results
in
hysteresis lag,
a given
a higher
for
values
of current than for increasing
values.
reading
decreasing
(2) The weight of the plunger makes it impossibleto mount
the
tion
moving system so that the fricis negligible.(3) The
error
fluctuates

an

damped, and
violentlyon sUghtly

fluctuatingloads.
For

direct current
the Weston

developed by
has

come

The

use.

ments,
measure-

instrument,
Weston,

Edward

into almost

universal

instrument

is based

of theD' Arson val Fio.

principle
structed
galvanometer, but it is so conthat it is easily
portable
and it is provided with a pointer and
deflections of the moving coil.
the

on

116.

"

Early

of

type

plunger

ammeter.

scale for

indicatingthe

essential parts of the instrument are shown in Fig. 117.

As in the D'Arsonval
essary,
galvanometer,a permanent magnet is necThe

beingmade
form.

Two

pole pieces
the

in horseshoe

soft-iron
fitted to

are

poles

magnet

and

is held between

core
cylindrical
these pole piecesby
of brass. This gives
a strip

air gap
and a
radial field. The lengthof
a

^i
"

'

air gap is very much

i shorter than is usual with

/
Fig.

uniform

the

D'Arsonval

galvanometers.

The moving
117.-Mov^entof a Westoninstru^nt.
very

wire wound

copper

on

an

aluminum

fine

bobbin.

Coil ismade

of

silk-covered
The

aluminum

bobbin, besides supporting the coil mechanically,also makes

the instrument
highly damped. This damping is due to the
because of its cutting the
set up in the aluminum
currents

magnetic field.
9

Digitized
by

(^OOgle

130

DIRECT

Instead

CURRENTS

of

suspending the coil by a filament,it is supported

at the top and bottom
by hardened steel pivotsturning in cupshaped jewels,usually sapphire. This method
of supporting
the moving coil is almost frictionless and

makes

the

ment
instru-

the
portable, whereas
D'Arsonval
galvanometer is not
The

so.

is led in and

current

out of the coil by two

springs,one

the

at

flat spiral

top of the

coiland the other at the bottom.

These

the
as
springsalso serve
controllingdevice for the coil.
To Upper Spring
Sprius
To Lower
That is,any tendency of the coil
directA typical Weston
Fig, 118.
to turn is opposed by these two
milli-voltmeter.
current
the
springs. The
top and
bottom
springs are coiled in opposite directions so that the
effect of change of temperature, which causes
a spiral
spring
needle
the
leave
to
its zero
to coil or uncoil,will not cause
light and delicate
position. A very
aluminum
pointer is attached to the
moving element to indicate the deflection
balanced
of the coil. This is carefully
by very small counter-weightsso that
the whole moving element holds its zero
if the instrument
even
positionvery closely,
is not level. The pointer moves
over
a
graduated scale,which may be
"

in volts

marked
case

may

be.

in amperes
Because
of the
or

as

the

radial

the deflection of the moving coil

field,
in this type of instrument
is practically
ing
proportionalto the current in the movment
so that the scale of the instrucoil,
uniform graduhas substantially
ations, Fig.
which
connections

is desirable.
of

Weston

Weston
portable
galvanometer.

119.

"

The internal
instrument

shown

in

Fig. 118.
Instruments of this construction having very weak springsare
often used for portablegalvanometers. Although lacking the
a

are

132

where

DIRECT

Ith and

R^h

CURRENTS

the shunt

are

current

and

the shunt

ance
resist-

respectively.If Rsh is constant, the voltagedrop across

the shunt is proportional
in the shunt,so that the
to the current
in the shunt.
to the current
instrument readingsare proportional
For this reason
the ammeter
itself (Pig.118) is often marked
"Milli voltmeter."
For full scale deflection the drop across
a
shunt is about 50 millivolts. The current taken, by the instrument
itselfis usuallyabout 0.01 amp. so that it is almost always

Fig. 121,
No.

1 from

25

No.

9 from

4500

as
negligible

most

An

cases

to 200
to

amperes.

compared
and

shunts.

amperes.

6000

with

the line current

ammeter

Ammeter

"

the main

equalsthe

its shunt

may

Therefore,in
current, practically.

current.

shunt

also be considered

circuit. In

as

divided

Fig. 122 let Rsh and 7,a be the shunt resistance and
the shunt current respectively,
and let.i^^and Im be the instrument
resistance and the instrument
current respectively.By
the law of divided circuits:

Ish

Rm

Im

R"ah

is,the current divides between

shunt inverselyas their resistances.

the instrument

That

Example.

"

that

Assume

instrument

an

resistance of 0.0005

What

is the value of the instrument

the current

As

the two

amount,

be assumed
90

the

current?

in the line differs from

may

and

resistance of 4 ohms, the

the line current is 90 amp.

has

that

ohm, and

shunt

133

MEASUREMENTS

AND

INSTRUMENTS

ELECTRICAL

the shunt

current

by

small

very

equal. Then,
4

'

/"

0.0005

In.

For

0.0113

and

the shunt

resistance

of

must

in

the

shunt

and the resistance of the

all

at

or

the

As

not

that

both

the

fixed ratio.

must

ratio.

same

AAAAAAA-

shunt

Rih
Fig.

instrument,it should be made

a

does

metal
not

whose

either

means

Rm

l!2="i

operates at a
higher temperature than the
of

This

the

change

must

in

change

always divide between

the

that

instrument

amp.

the current

accuracy,

instrument

"'

122.
an

of current

Division

"

between
its shunt.

and

ammeter

resistance

change appreciably with the temperature, such

as

main
manganin. The resistance of the instrument circuit should also reconstant.
The resistance of the leads connectingthe shunt

to the instrument

should remain

and the leads with which

constant

always be used to connect the

Ihe lugs and binding post contacts
shunt to the instrument.
should be kept clean from oxide and dirt. A low adjustableresistance
Fig.118) is connected inside the instrument.
(thespiral,
By varying this resistance the instrument is adjustedto itsshunt.
the instrument

An

ammeter

is calibrated should

with

an

external shunt

of scales or
Ikrge number
given that the instrument
instrument

current

terminals

are

Assume

ranges.

be made
in the

to have

amp.

The

volts

0.050

volt

across
or

50

the

ment
the instrumillivolts.

the shunt
Dividing this voltageby the shunt resistance,
is

example just

gives full scale deflection when

is 0.0125
0.0125

may

current

134

DIRECT

The

CURRENTS

then deflects full scale with

instrument

100

in the

amp.

line.

having a resistance of 0.005 ohm be substituted,

the shunt may be obtained with 10
the 50 millivolts drop across
0.050). Therefore a 10 scale ammeter
(10 X 0.005
amp.
instrument
results. By the choice of suitable shunts the same
be made
to give full scale deflection with 1 amp., and with
may
in Fig. 121
For instance,all the shunts shown
5,000 amp.
If

shunt

could be used
scales

the

with

same

instrument

scale is

one

different

many

internal

or

between

ranges

50

and

100

is usual to have the shunt

the

amp.

external shunt is optional. Above

an

and

to 50 amp.

up

where

desired,the shunt is usuallyplaced within the

For

instrument.
an

as

thereby obtained.

In the smaller sizes of instruments

only

and

of

use

it

100 amp.

external to the instrument

account

on

of its size and its heatingloss.

usually be distinguishedfrom a voltmeter

by the fact that its bindingposts are heavy and are of bare metal,
except in the case of an instrument having an external shunt.
The posts of millivoltmeters and voltmeters are of much
lighter
construction and the metal posts are covered with hard rubber,
mostly for insulation purposes.
Any instrument when connected in a circuit should disturb the
circuit conditons as Uttle as possible. An ammeter
shunt, as it
should have as low a resistance as is
goes in series with the line,
that when it is connected, very Uttle additional
so
practicable,
An

ammeter

can

resistance is introduced

To protect anuneters
be made
for shortfrom heavy currents, etc., provisionmay
them when readingsare not being taken.
circuiting
116. Voltmeters.

^The construction

"

differ materiallyfrom
and

magnet

are

coil of the voltmeter

finer wire than
The

into the circuit.

that of

an

voltmeter
so

does

far as the

not

ment
move-

(SeeFig.117.) The moving

usuallywound

that of the ammeter

in

anameter

concerned.
is

of

with
and

so

turns

more

has

and

of

ance.
higher resist-

however, lies in the

principaldifference,

manner

of

connecting the instrument to the circuit. As a voltmeter is

the line to measure
the voltage,it is
connected directlyacross
desirable that the voltmeter take as littlecurrent as is practicable.
the moving coil of
Because of its comparativelylow resistance,

ELECTRICAL

INSTRUMENTS

135

MEASUREMENTS

AND

the line,as it
cannot.be connected directlyacross
would
ordinarilytake an excessive current and might be burnt
Therefore
it is necessary
out.
to connect
a high resistance in
in Fig. 123.
series with the moving coil. This is shown
By
current
Ohm's
the
instrument
is
to
Law the
proportional
through
be graduated in
the voltage,so that the instrument
scale can
volts. The resistance required is easilydetermined.
Assume
in
that an instrument gives full scale deflection with 0.01 amp.

the

voltmeter

-ufison-

-14,9900-

L^y/VVW^^VNA/WWVVWVVVVNA^

|148a)j

160

16

16

160

(6)

(a)
Fia.

123.

"

in

of connectiDg resistance

Methods

voltmeter.

If it is
and that the coil resistance is 20 ohms.
moving coil,
then the
full scale,
desired that the instrument indicate 150 volts,
the

circuit must

total resistance of the instrument

V
B

150

-V

14,980 ohms

has

additional

0.01
a

are

If it be desired that this

deflection with

15

15,000ohms.

=
^

As the instrument

be

that

resistance of 20 ohms, this means

necessary.
same

instrument

also have

full scale

volts,the resistance of 14,980 ohms

may

be

15

tapped

so

(Fig.123 (a))

that the resistance OB

q-^t

1,500

ohms, and this tap can be brought to a binding post. Another

result is showninFig. 123 (6). Wind
method
of securingthe same
20
another resistance equal to 1,500
1,480 ohms and cojinect
it from a binding post to the junctionof the resistance and the
moving coil. This last method is advantageous as it permits
also injuryor repair
independentadjustment of each resistance;
"

in

one

resistance does not affect the other.

Multipliersor Extension Coils." The range of a voltmeter

having its resistance incorporatedwithin the instrument, may be
116.

136

DIRECT

increased

by the

CURRENTS

of external resistance connected

use

in series

with the instrument.

Example,

"

has

150 scale voltmeter

(a) 300 volts?

(a) In order
volts

as

to maintain

17,000 ohms.

the

through

current

same

34,000 ohms

already has

34,000

Ygg
17,000 ohms
ohms

must

External

is

is

17,000

resistances

external

at 300

be doubled.

necessary.
the added

17,000 ohms,

resistance wiU

be.

Ans.

be,

now

already within

be added

are

17,000 ohms,

17,000

total resistance must

(6) The

What

the instrument

flows at 150 volts,the resistance of the circuit must

As the instrument

000

of

in series with it so that its range

(6)600 volts?

Therefore, 17,000

As

resktance

external resistance should be connected

the

68,000 ohms.

instrument,68,000

to the

used in this

instrument.

17,000

"

51-,

Ans.

called

mnUipliers,
or
They are usuallyplaced within a
perforated.box and the terminals brought out to binding posts.
The multiplyingpower
is marked
of the multiplier
near
a terminal.
The equation giving the relation between
the resistance of
the multiplierjB*,the resistance of the instrument jRm, and the
multiplyingpower M is as follows:
sometimes

extension

manner

are

coils.

^t-^!^

(49)

Example, In the above problem

of the
(6) the multiplying power
"

is as
multiplier
^

follows:

61,000 + 17,000
=

"

i7;ooo

117. Hot-wire
In

the

Instruments.

instruments

fore
hereto-

considered,the action of
the instrument
depends on
the electromagneticaction of
a

Fig.

124.

"

Braun

Principle of Hartmann
hot-wire

and

current.

There

type of instrument

is another
which

pends
de-

instruments.

for its indications upon

A diagram of this instrument

heating action of the ciui'ent.

AB is a fine wire of platinum-silver
is shown in Fig.124.
through
is
At C, a wire CF
attached to AB,
which the current passes.
the

ELECTRICAL

INSTRUMENTS

AND

137

MEASUREMENTS

At

This passes around

Ej on CFj a silk fiber EH is attached.
the pulley W, and is held in tension by the springH.
When
a
current
flows through AB^ the heat expands the wire ABj reducing
the tension in the wire CF, and allowingthe spring H
to pull the silk fiber to the left. This fiber,
actingon the pulley
the scale.
the pointerP over
Wy moves
When
current

used

as

an

anmieter,

shunt

is necessary

unless the

used as a voltmeter,a
is very small.
When
is connected in series with the wire AB.

sistance
high re-

This type of instrument is *'dead beat,"that is,

it is very sluggish
in its behavior and only reaches its ultimate deflecton after
This is an
lapse of considerable time.
advantage in the
of fluctuatingcurrents as the needle follows the
measurement
be accuratelyread.
fluctuations very slowly so can
Another
advantage of the hot wire type of instrument is that it can be
used for alternatingas well as for direct currents.
It is often
used as a transfer instrument to measure
alternatingcurrents in
This type of instrument
of direct current.
terms
is particularly
useful for the measurement
of high frequencyalternating
currents,
its
indications
of
if
the frequency
is
as
are
a shunt
independent
not used.
For this reason
this type is very useful in radio telegraphy.
Such instruments
affected by temperature and do
are
not hold their calibration for very long periods. Therefore,for
work they should be calibrated at the time of using.
accurate
the

ELECTRICAL

MEASUREMENTS

Measurement
118. Voltmeter-ammeter

portion of

an

of Resistance
Method.

"

The

electric circuit is,by Ohm's

resistance

of

any

Law,

V is the

that portionof the circuit and / is

voltageacross
the steady current
viously,
flowing in that portion of the circuit. Obthe voltage V may
be measured
with a voltmeter,the
where

current

/ measured

with

an

ammeter,

and

the

resistance

computed.
requiredto determine the resistance R in the circuit
of power
The source
in Fig. 125.
is the 110-volt supply.

Let it be
shown

138

The

CURRENTS

DIRECT

small and if connected

resistance R is comparatively
volts would

110

across

to insert

it is necessary
the current.
R

across

take

The

excessive current.

an

resistance R' in series with R to limit

voltmeter,however, must

it is desired to know

as

directly
Therefore,

be connected

the resistance of this

directly
portion

of the circuit only.

Fig.

Example,
reads

125.

"

24 amp.

The

voltmeter

What

(Fig. 125)

is the value

of measuring

method

Voltmeter-ammeter

"

reads

resistance.

19 volts when

of the resistance

the

ammeter

R*t

resistance:

The

i2

^i

0.792

ohm.

24

As

R',
Under

matter

The

these

reads 24 amp.

terminals

are

determine

requiredto

of interest let it be

voltmeter

transferred

conditions the voltmeter

from

across

reads 91 volts and

the resistance of
R
the

to

across

ammeter

R\
still

Therefore:
Ql

/2'=|^3.79 ohms.
=

It is sometimes

desired to

measure

resistances of such low value

their terminals,
connected directlyacross
that,if a voltmeter were
which
be comparativelylarge,
the contact
resistance,
may
and might even
would
introduce considerable error
exceed in
To
magnitude the resistance which it is desired to measure.
the voltmeter
eUminate
this error
due to contact
resistance,
terminals are connected well inside the terminals BB
(Fig.126)
meter
through which the current is led to the specimen. As the volttakes but a very small current, small sharp pointed con-

140

DIRECT

the

same

are

as

i must

current

CURRENTS

flow

through each

so

that the

voltages

follows:

F2
Fi
where

F2

iRv

(1)
(2)

iR

R, is the resistance of the voltmeter.

Dividing (2) by (1) and solvingfor iJ,

R
This

method

R^y^I^

(60)

of

measuring resistance is particularly

useful
in determininginsulation resistance of dynamo windings^cables.

{a)
Fig.

127.

As

etc.

"

such

(h)

Measurement

of resistance

resistances

are

very

by the voltmeter

method.

high they are usually expressed

1,000,000ohms). It will

(1 megohm
be seen
from equation (50) that the greater the value of Rvy
be measured
the greater the resistance that can
by this method.
For this reason
special150 scale voltmeters,having resistances
of 100,000 ohms
(one-tenthof a megohm) are available. These
about six times as great as can be obtained with
give a sensitivity
the ordinary 150 scale voltmeter.
to the
Fig. 127 (b) shows the applicationof this method
in megohms

of the insulation resistance of

measurement

Example,
current

connected
now

"

When

reads

the

120

of

core

to the

volts.

What

cable and

_,
0.1

the

sheath

in Fig. 127

as

across

of the voltmeter

is then

of the

(6). The

direct
nected
con-

cable is

voltmeter

is the insulation resistance of the cable?

120

terminal

lead-covered

side of the line

other

10 volts.

One

cable.

is connected

100,000-ohm. voltmeter

line it reads
to

:r^

10

10
=

,
1.1

megohms.

iim.

ELECTRICAL

120. The

going
Bridge. In distinction to the foreof measuring resistance,the Wheatstone
Bridge

Wheatstone

methods
method

is

141

MEASUREMENTS

AND

INSTRUMENTS

"

in which

one

the

unknown

resistance is balanced

resistances. The bridge in its simplest

against other known
form, is shown in Fig. 128.
Three known
resistances ilf iV,P,
,

and the unknown

from

Current

other two

the

Across

make
two

to form

diamond.

opposite corners

two

and

the

some

and

measurement,
M

arms

each set at

connected

6, is
galvanometer.

corners

connected

are

batteryB feeds the

diamond.

of the

To

resistance X

and

are

fixed value

resistance,usually 1, 10,
100, 1,000 ohms, etc. The
P is then adjusted until
arm
the
galvanometer does not
deflect. If the galvanometer Fiq. 128." Elementary Wheatstone
bridge.
does not deflect,
current
no
be
flows through it and therefore the two points a and b must
at the same
h and h
/4,
potential.Also the currents /i
current passes through the galvanometer.
as
no
If the points a and b are at the same
the voltage
potential,
ob and:
drop oa
IiM
hX
(1)
of

Also the

voltagedrop

ac

be and

hN
And

since

/i

I4P

Is and I2

IiN

IA

I2P

(2)

Dividing (1)by (2)

M

^hP'^'N

IiM

hX

(51)
which is the

equation of the Wheatstone

called thQ ratio

the

arms

and

the balance

Bridge. M
or

rheostat

and N
arm.

are

viously
Ob-

battery and the galvanometer may be interchanged

without affectingthe relation given in equation (51).

142

The
not

many

differ in

types of Wlieatstone Bridge found

from
principle

lie in the

bridge as well
A

that

positionsof the

in the

in

shown

practicedo

Fig. 128.
Af, iV, and

arms

in which

manner

in

The
P

on

the coils in these

ferences
difthe
arms

out of circuit.

plug type of bridge is shown in Fig. 129. M

of three resistances of 1,000,
100,and 1 ohms respectively,

common

consists

FiQ.

129.

and

"

Massachusetts

to 1 ohm
P may

Institute of Technology

consists of three of 10, 100, and

consists of

as

in and

cut

are

CURRENTS

DIRECT

and

of resistances

number

pattern of Wheatstone

1,000 ohms

bridge.

respectively.

ranging from 5,000 ohms

the proper combinations

between 1 and 11,110
number

of such values that with

be made

equal to

any

whole

plugs
infinity
that the bridge
( )and a 10,000-ohmcoil. The infiniteplugsmean
circuited at these points and by their position
be open
can
be made
the 10,000-ohm coil may
a part of P.
a part of iV or

ohms.
00

Between

the outer

ends of N

and P

are

two

ELECTRICAL

unknown

The

AND

INSTRUMENTS

resistance X

be connected

may

the infiniteresistances,
ifit is found

143

MEASUREMENTS

across

advisable to do

and P is another infiniteresistance,

across

any
so.

which

one

of

Between

the unknown

resistance may also be connected,the infiniteplugbeing removed.

In this type of bridgethe resistance coils are connected across

compositionbars. When it is desired

to insert a resistance the plug is removed, and when it is desired
to remove
a resistance it is short-circuited by the plug. These
plugs have hard rubber tops and are tapered. As the principle
of error
in this type of bridgeliesin the contact resistance
source
to fit tightlywhen
used.
of these plugs,they should be made
and simultaneously
This is accomplishedby exerting a slightpressure
As dirt
twistingthem, thus giving a wiping contact.
of error
the plugs should be
oxide are
and
a
frequent source
kept clean.
cut

gaps

in

heavy brass

or

using the bridge,much time

followed in obtaininga balance.
In

is

certain

unknown

be saved if a systematic procedure

may
Assume
that it is desired to measure
a

bridge as shown in Fig. 129,

galvanometer circuits and a shunt

Connect

resistance.

the

placing keys in the battery and in the

the galvanometer to protect it from
deflecting
violentlywhen
the ratio arms
Make
M and N
the bridge is considerablyout of balance.
each 1,000 ohms, a 1 to 1 ratio. With the galvanometer well shunted and
all the plugs in P (Res.
vanomete
0),depress first the batteryand then the galthe
The
is
Now
observed
to
deflect
left.
to
key.
galvanometer
the 6,000-ohm plug and the galvanometer deflects to the right.
remove

around

From,

these

two
observations,

is less than

facts

are

determined.

The

unknown

sistance
re-

galvanometer deflects to the

5,000
left the value of resistance in P is too small,and when it deflects to the right
the 5,000-ohm plug and removing
the value of P is too large. By inserting
the 1,000-ohm plug the galvanometer stilldeflects to the right,
indicating
in P is too large. This is repeated with 500 ohms, 200 ohms,
that 1,000 ohms
etc.
By proceeding in this manner, it is found that the galvanometer does
until a 2-ohm
This means
reverse
that the unknown
not
plug is removed.
2 and
5 ohms.
resistance lies between
By removing the two 2-ohm
and
the
unknown
resistance is narrowed
down
a 2
plugs and then a 1
between
To get a more
2 and 3 ohms.
to
precisevalue the ratio arms
made
be changed. M
is now
and
1 ohm
must
2,000 ohms unplugged
all the time reducing the shunt S, a balance
in P.
By successive trials,
in P.
Then:
is obtained at 2,761 ohms
X

^P

and

when

the

-^2,761=2.761

ohms.

obtaining a balance the batterykey should always be depressed before

galvanometer key, so that the current in the bridge has time to reach

In
the

ohms

144

introduce
A

the electromotive

force of self-induction may

error.

an

convenient

more

arm

Otherwise

value.

constant

CURRENTS

DIRECT

in

is shown

of the

arrangement

Fig.

130.

resistance units of the

resistances

The

consistingof ten

are

1-ohm

rheostat

arranged in groups
coils,the next of

of

one
equal resistances,
group
10-ohm
coils,etc. Each group is called a
coils,the next of ten 100-ohm
decade
is
This arrangement
decade.
has the
Only one plug per
necessary.
advantage that the plugs are always in service,so are not so likelyto be
mislaid or to become
dirty;there is less probabilityof error in reading;it
is a simple matter
to see that the few plugs used are
and
fittingtightly,

ten

njiKnTLnHrQI^
rWi

rivi

rWl

rTn

rWf

rWl

rWI

n"i

""V1

rwi

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

iHnHunjinrt^
fwfl

rWI

rVVi

rfW

rWl

WYl

rVtl

IWl

rVi

flT%

1111111111

FiQ.

130.

balance

Arrangement

"

of rheostat

arm

resistances

in

decade

bridge.

It is obvious that nine coils per decade

be quickly obtained.
sufficient for obtaining any
desired resistance,
although ten coils per

are

decade

can

often

are

used.

convenient type
principlehas been extended to an even more
similar to the
of bridge,the dial bridge. Instead of using plugs,a dial arm
cause
type used in rheostats is employed to select the required resistances. Beof its ease
into extensive use.
of manipulation this type has come
Care should be taken to keep the dials and contacts free from dirt and oxides.
Fig. 131 shows a dial bridge of the Leeds " Northrup type.
The

decade

121. The
Wheatstone
of

Slide

two

Bridge. The
"

Bridge,in which

slider which

moves

over

slide wire is

the balance
a

German

simplified

is obtained

silver

or

by means
sistance
manganin re-

typicalslide wire bridge is shown in Fig. 132.

between
resistance wire A J5,100 cm. long,is stretched tightly
heavy copper blocks CD, 100 cm. apart. A meter scale is
wire.

The

Wire

ELECTRICAL

INSTRUMENTS

Fig.

10

131.

"

Leeds

AND

"" Northrup

MEASUREMENTS

dial bridge.

145

146

CURRENTS

DIRECT

placed along

this wire.

along
key K' is movable
is
the key K'
the scale and when
pressed a knife edge makes
The rest of the bridgeconsists of a heavy
contact with the wire.
resistance
resistance fl,and the unknown
copper bar E, a known
though
X.
Rib connected between D and E and X between C and E, alof R and X are interchangeable.
the positions
The galvanometer is connected between the key K' and E and
the battery terminals are connected to C and D,
A balance is
obtained by moving K^ along the wire until the galvanometer
shows

contact

deflection.

no

TiQ.

132.

"

Slide-wire bridge.

from

Let I be the distance in centimeters

to K'

when

unit

per

balance is obtained.

to the other end

K'

from

length of the

100

of the scale.

Let

cancels out

and

be the resistance

*-

Ir
r

l)r.

(100
Bridge:

the law of the Wheatstone

Z is the distance

"

the resistance of I is Ir and

Then

of the wire is

that of the remainder

By

Then

wire.

end of the scale

one

(52)becomes
^

(52)

l)r

(100:

^^^

'(100n
-

(52)may

also be written
"

This is

equivalentto statingthat when

the slide wire is divided into two

X

^^*^

100^/
a

parts which

balance
are

is obtained

to each other

as

is to R.

The

slide wire is not

as

accurate

as

the coil bridge,because

the

148

DIRECT

this resistance.

produce

resistance of the fault to

in the measurement

not

ground,the resistance of

so

the conductor

is

increased and

location of the fault may result.

In Fig.133, the distance X to the fault may
X

(L-

be found

as

false

follows

X)

(55)

length of one cable.

The slide wire is split
into two sections which are to each
the two lengthsof cable on each side of the fault.
Solving(55)for X,
L is the

where

as

ground does

long as the conductorIf the conductor is broken with both ends lyingon

error

any

is not broken.
the

The

CURRENTS

X
This

other

^,

(56)

that the resistance per foot of both conductors

The jumper tieingthe cable ends
and is uniform.

assumes

is the same,

togetherat B should make good connection,as contact resistance

at this point may
introduce an appreciableerror.
A ratio and
be used instead of
of a bridge box may
rheostat arm
obviously,
the slide wire.
One conductor
Example, A cable 2,000 ft. long consists of two conductors.
is grounded at some
A
between
stations.
point
Murray loop test,
with a 100-cm. slide wire bridge,is connected as in Fig. 133 to locate the fault.
"

balance

From

is obtained

at 85

How

the station is the ground?

far from

equation (56)

L
X

cm.

"

"

rrrr

600

2,000

ft. from

Z'

15

85

the station at which

the

measurement

is

made.

123. The
cable

Varley loop is also used to locate

similar in principleto the Murray loop,a

Varley Loop.

faults.

"

It is

bridgebox being necessary,

in Fig. 134.
M and N are

The

however.

The

connections

shown

bridgeand P is
the rheostat arm.
It is necessary
that the batteryand the vanomete
galturbances
disthe
order
avoid
to
positionsshown, in
occupy
in the galvanometer due to earth currents.
A balance
is firstobtained by means
Let r be
of P, with the switch S at a.
the resistance per foot length per conductor,
uniform.
assumed
the two

ratio arms

of

are

INSTRUMENTS

ELECTRICAL

(It will be noted that

bridge.)

and

^r(L +L

Before X

can

Fig.

of cable in series and

134.

makes

them

simple bridge measurement

resistance.

of the

(57)

to know

r.

test.

the fourth
made

is then

Call this resistance R,

To obtain

this,
This throws both lengths

Varley-loop

"

arm

-{-rX

positionb.

to

one

X)

be found it isnecessary

the switch S is thrown

together form

149

MEASUREMENTS

AND

Then

of

bridge.
of the total loop
arm

the resistance per foot

of cable
R
r

2L

is not

(This measurement
or

if the resistance per foot

necessary

the total resistance of the cable is alreadyknown.)

of R in

Substitutingthis value

(57)
R/2L(2L
X)
P + RX/2L

Solvingfor X,

'

'_2L/NR
M

R\

MP\

(58)

This

equation gives the distance in feet

equation is frequentlygiven as follows:
NR

In this
resistance
If Af

case

Rx is not the distance

which is simpler in form than

The

(i?
-

(58)
.

(59)

N
to the

along the grounded conductor

iV in equation (58)
X

the fault,

MP

to

p)

fault,but rather the

to the fault.

(60)

150

CURRENTS

DIRECT

Example. In locating a fault by the Varley loop test,the connections

in Hg. 134 were
Each conductor is 2,800 ft. long. With the
used.
shown
ance
switch at (o) and Af
1,000, P was found to be 137 when a bal10, iV
then
these
Switch
8
is
thrown
Under
to (6).
obtained.
over
was
obtained when
Af
10, iV
1,000,P
221,
conditions,a balance was
2.21.
making R
"

"

By equation (58) the distance in feet

'
^

to the fault

'"

""

iirC'"^ Toio

""

^'^""^^'"')
"

^-

to measure
practiceit is necessary
the resistance of the insulation of cables,both at the factory

124.

and

Instilation Testing. In
"

cable is installed.

after the

low value of insulation

indicate that the insulation is of

may

an

sistance
re-

inferior grade.

v^
Ayrton

Shnnt

Battei%SI

FiQ.

low

135.

"

Measurement

of the insulation resistance of

cable.

insulation resistance after installation may

proper
indicate imhandling or faultyinstallation. The voltmeter method

in many
applicable
cases, but where the
is
insulation resistance is high even
a high resistance voltmeter
sensitive.
not sufficiently
To make the measurement, a sensitive galvanometer isutilized.
from 100 to 500 volts,
is also
A considerable source
of potential,
be secured from direct
Such potentialmay
usuallynecessary.
and testsilver chloride cells,
current mains, although dry cells,
tube batteries connected
in series are
more
satisfactory.A
simplediagram of connections is shown in Fig.135.
is one
The method
of substitution. A known
usuresistance,
described in Par. 119 is

ELECTRICAL

INSTRUMENTS

AND

151

MEASUREMENTS

ally 0.1 megohm (100,000ohms),is firstconnected in the circuit

The unknown
and the galvanometer deflection noted.
resistance
X is then substituted and the galvanometer readingagain noted.
As the currents in the two cases
are
inverselyproportionalto the
circuit resistances,
the unknown
resistance can
be determined,
the galvanometer deflections being used rather than actual
values of current.
Let Di be the deflection with the 0.1 megohm
and

D? be the deflection with the unknown

D2

0.1
X

Under
accurate

resistance.

0.1

(61)

it would

ordinarycircumstances

not

alone,because the unknown

of megohms and the known
make

times smaller than Z"i that it would

many

This

to obtain
possible

results under these conditions

be in the hundreds
resistance may
This would
resistance is but 0.1 megohm.
so

be

is
difficulty

by

overcome

the

the deflection D2

not be

readable.

Ayrton shunt
only is in circuit,

of the

use

the 0.1

megohm
the galvanometer sensitivity
ordinarilyis such that it would
shunted.
deflect ofifthe scale unless the galvanometer were
low value as 0.0001.
Therefore the shunt is adjusted to some
Call this readingof the shunt Si and the galvanometer deflection
Di. The
1/Si.
multiplying power of the shunt equals Mi
described in Par. 113.

When

The

cable is
until

now

reasonable

deflection is obtained.

D2 and the value of the shunt

M2

now

The

S2.

Its

in the circuit in the two

cases

justed
ad-

the shunt

into the circuit and

introduced

ing
Call this read-

multipljdngpower

is

I//S2.

current

h^MiDi
I2
Therefore

the unknown
Z

M2D2

from
resistance,
0.1

^
I2

0.1

^
M2D2

(61),is

(62)

the cable for the 0.1 meginstead of substituting

practice,
ohm,
the cable is firstshort-circuited by the wire shown dotted,
This wire is then removed,
Pig.135, and the constant determined.
placingthe cable in circuit. Ths 0.1 megohm is leftpermanently

In

152

DIRECT

CURRENTS

in circuit to protect the galvanometer in case of accidental shortcircuit of the cable. Its resistance is usually not appreciable

compared
necessary

to that of the

cable,so that

no

correction is ordinarily

for it.

key S is ordinarilyprovided. When in position

(a)the circuit is closed through the cable. When thrown over to
(6) the cable,which is chargedelectrostatically,
through
discharges
the galvanometer.
When
the switch (a) is first closed there is a rush of current
which charges the cable electrostatically.
(See par. 153, Chap.
time this
IX.) It takes time to charge the cable,so for some
A

switch

or

Fig.

136.

"

Charge

and

discharge

curves

of

cable.

charging current flows,decreasingcontinuously. This is shown

in Fig.136, giving the relation of the galvanometer deflection to
the time.
As it is often inconvenient to wait for the galvanometer
to reach a steady deflection,
it has been arbitrarily
agreed to
take the deflection at the end
used in

of

one

minute

as

the value to be

determining insulation resistance.

the switch S is thrown
When
to (6) the electrostatic charge
in the cable rushes out through the galvanometer in the reverse
to absorption it requiresconsiderable time for
direction. Due
the cable to become
totallydischarged. This is also shown in
Fig. 136.
In making insulation resistance measurements, precautions
must
be taken to insulate thoroughlythe apparatus itself. Hard
rubber posts should be used for supports and, wherever possible.

ELECTRICAL

INSTRUMENTS

the leads should be carried

to

rest

with

insulation resistance varies

temperature,

measurements

the

so

should

made

are

153

MEASUREMENTS

through the air rather than be allowed

The

ground.

the

on

AND

temperature

be

mously
enor-

which

at

carefullydetermined

the
and

stated.
Example,

cable

The

"

tested for insulation.

20

the shunt

and

cm.

obtained

curves

deflection with

The
read

read

the shunt

insulation

whose

When

0.0001.
The

0.1.

0.1

cable

the
was

in

shown

are

megohm

only

was

in circuit

was

in

shown

curve

Fig. 136
Fig. 136

was

2,200 ft. long.

is its insulation resistance?

(a) What
(6) What

is its insulation resistance per mile?

Ml

M2

1/0.0001
10,000
10
1/0.1
Dt (from curve) =11
cm.
.

(a)
(b) The
because

^,10,000

=0.1

'

20

of

to

Therefore

"

,"^
182
megohms.

less than

leakage current

that

Ans.

of the

2,200-ft.
length

is directlyproportionalto the length

the resistance of this

the length of cable.

for the mile

"

resistance per mile will be

the amount

of the cable.

path

_,

The

length is greater than it is for the

is

inverselyproportional
area
leakage
fore
length. There2,200-ft.

leakage path

cross-sectional

of the

the resistance per mile

R

1^

182

75.0

Ans,

megohms.

POTENTIOMETERS

125. The

Potentiometer.

The

potentiometeris an instrument
of voltage. Its standardization
measurements
for making accurate
standard cell. (See
depends primarilyupon the Weston
Par. 89, Chap. VI.) The principle
is as follows:
motive
in Fig. 137(a) that a standard cell S has an electroAssume
force of exactly 1 volt. Let a storage cell Ba supply
Let the wire ABhe
current to a wire AB through a rheostat R,
divided into 15 divisions each of 1 ohm resistance,
making the total
The standard cell is conresistance oi AB
nected
equal to 15 ohms.
with its negativeterminal to the negative terminal of the
storage cell and its positiveterminal is connected to the tenth
1-ohm
coil C through a key and galvanometer. If 0.1 amp.
flows through the wire AB, the voltagedrop through each^resistA C willbe 1 .0 volt.
will be 0. 1 volt and the voltagedrop across
ance
"

Digitized
by VjOOQIC
.

154

DIRECT

If the

key be depressedno

CURRENTS

will flow

through the galvanometer,

the standard cell emf. is in exact oppositionto this
as
1-volt drop. If,however, the current in AB
is not exactly0.1
current
will flow through the standard cell circuit due
amp.,
to the voltage AC
being either greater or less than 1 volt. If
the current
is less than 0.1 amp. the galvanometer deflects in
and if it is greater than 0.1 amp. the galvanometer
one
direction,

.1

.9

.S

.4

.S

."

B".

i\^
0

current

.7 .8

.0 1.0 1.11.21.S1.4

4il +

1Ji

(N

the wire A-B

(o) Standardizing

(b) Measuring an unknown

emf.

S
Fig.

(c)

137.

"

Simple potentiometer.

Obviously it is possibleto so
that the galvanometer deflection is
in AB
adjust the current
is exactly0.1
Under
these conditions the current
in AB
zero.
each resistance in AB is 0.1
and the potentialdrop across
amp.
deflects in the

volt.
Let

Therefore
it be

force E

A B

may

required to

whose

value

negative terminal

Fig. 137(6).
is connected

direction.

reverse

be marked
some

measure

is known

is connected

in volts

as

unknown

to

be less than

to

the end

shown.
electromotive
1.5 volts.

of the

wire

Its

AB,

positiveterminal of the electromotive force

through the galvanometer and key to a movable
The

156

DIRECT

the

As

amp.

in

it when

across

of 11 turns
Each

turn

slide wire

CURRENTS

DB

ohms, the voltagedrop

is 5.5

adjustment is 1.1 volts.

of resistance wire

mounted

represents 0.01 volt and

This slide wire consists

on

marble

cylinder.

the entire wire is divided

into 1,100 divisions.

standard

The

cell has

that instead

so

Fig. 137
this small
the

of

(a), an
excess

settingcan

Fig.

139.

"

in
voltageslightly

connecting the standard

excess

of 1.0 volt

cell

exactly as in

added

resistance -40 is necessary to allow for

voltage. A contact T is movable on ^4.0 so that
be

made

correspond with the electromotive

adjusted

are

Leeds

to

cell used.

force of the standard

contacts, which

"

to

and

JIf' are

balance

the

Northrup potentiometer without

the movable
unknown

emf.

accessories.

correspondingto 0.1 volt,

and M' moves
double-throw
double-pole,
(D.-P.D.-T.)switch (correspondingto Swj Fig. 137(c))changes
the connection of the galvanometer from the standard cell to
the unknown
three galvanometer keys, Ri,
emf.
There
are
ance
R2, and Ro, Ri should firstbe depressedas it inserts a high resistin series with the galvanometer and prevents a violent
deflection if there is considerable unbalancing. R2 inserts less
moves

over

resistance and

depressedwhen

the 15 contacts, each

the slide wire.
A
over

there is

no

resistance in series with

the final balance

Ro which

is

is obtained.

A resistance S shunts 0.9 of the current

OB^ when the

is automaticallyput
from

plug at K is changed. The resistance K

in circuit,
and therefore
keeping the total potentiometerresistance,
the battery,constant.
the load on
By this arrangement,

ELECTRICAL

INSTRUMENTS

AND

157

MEASUREMENTS

readingson the potentiometerare all made one-tenth their

previousvalues.
An external view of this potentiometeris shown
in Fig. 139.
with the Potentiometer.
127. Voltage Measurements
tiometers
^Potenare
designedto measure
potentials
up to 1.6 volts only.
For
the measurement
of potentialsin excess
of this value a
voU box is necessary.
A volt box is merely a very high resistance
from
which suitable taps are
brought. This is illustrated by
AD
the resistance AD, Fig. 140.
to have a resistance
Assume
the

"

Volt

JL
,((00

^
J5$ J

leaves the wire at

Koo that

140.

and

10,000 ohms

of

4"

Fig.

"

Volt-box

AB

and

'"

resistance of 100 ohms.

a.

AB

If

no

will be

If leads be carried from

AD.

To Potentiometer
E.M.F. Termimdfl

drop- wire connections.

B, the voltagedrop across

across

Box

AB

current

^^%^o,ooo

to the potentiomete

the

potentiometerwillmeasure
J^oo the voltageacross
AD, since the potentiometerprincipleis an oppositionmethod
that no current
is taken from B.
so
Therefore,if a voltmeter
is
V
with AD.
being calibrated it should be connected in parallel
If the voltmeter reads 119.0 volts and the potentiometerreads
1.184 volts,the true line voltage across
the voltmeter will be
1.184

is

100

the correction to the voltmeter

0.6 volt.

In

similar manner,

voltagesfrom 1.5 to 15 volts are connected

multiplyingfactor in this case being 10.

AC, the
The Drop Wire.

across

the line.
box

Therefore

118.4.

are

voltmeter

One

connected

of the voltmeter
connected

to

GH

"

is

resistance connected

terminal

and

one

to the end G of this wire.

and

the

movable

across
directly

terminal
The

of the volt

other terminal

remaining terminal of the volt box

contact
K.
By slidingK along GH

are

any

158

DIRECT

CURRENTS

desired

When
used in this manner,
voltagemay be obtained.
to the operation
It is not necessary
GH
is called a drop wire.
for adjusting
of the volt box, but is merely a convenient means
the voltage.
128. The
As has

of

Measurement

with

Current

Potentiometer.

justbeen pointedout, a potentiometeris designedto

voUage: It

also be used

"

ure
meas-

by merely
Let an unknown
current / flow through a
applyingOhm's Law.
resistance R,
If E, the voltagedrop across
known
ured,
ft,be measthe current
/ is immediately determined, since for this
part of the circuit both the voltageand the resistance are known.
may

to

current

measure

Therefore:
R

The

of

method

making the

It is desired to know

the exact

To

FiQ.

141.

"

meter, in order

is connected
also with
are

current

of

an

and

potentiometer.

determine

its errors, if any exist. The ammeter

in series with the standard resistance,
and

rheostat to control the current.

two

in

Fig. 141.,
passingthrough the am-

with

ammeter

provided with four terminals

current

is shown

E.M.F. Terminals
Potentiometer

Calibration

to

measurement

smaller

as

Standard

resistances

rule,two heavy

ones

bindingposts for potential. The

for
two

potentialbindingposts are connected to the potentiometer,the

The voltageacross
the standard
proper polaritybeingobserved.
resistance is then measured
of the potentiometer.
by means
Standard
resistances are
decimal
usually adjusted to even
such
val^es
as
10, 1, 0.1,0.01,etc.,ohms.
They are ordinarily
rated to carry a current
that will give 1.0 volt drop. Thus

INSTRUMENTS

ELECTRICAL

the 1 ohm

keep the

can

Fig. 142

in

provided with

they
(a) is

cool

resistances

type shown

the 0.001

1 amp.,

carry

motor-driven

Fig.

rated

for

ohm, 1,000amp.,

are

often immersed

set

in

"

Standard

largercurrents, 1,000

To

in oil. The

type shown

(6) Self-contained

142.

etc.

oil bath
water-jacketed

stirrer. The

(a) 0.01 ohm.

159

MEASUREMENTS

AND

0.001

in

(6) is

ohm.

resistances.

amp.

and

The

more.

water

jacket, the stirrer,

etc.,are included within the unit itself.
Knowing tliktthe potentiometer is Umited to 1.5 volts,it
is easy

to select the proper

Fig.

haying

143.

of 100

ohm.

range
0.01 ohm

would

require1.5/15

at

Ammeter

amp.,

be used.
=

resistance.

calibration

would

An

instrument

curve.

require 1.5/100

Likewise

0.015

15-scale instrument

0.1 ohm.

they should be checked at ten

calibrated,
fifteen points on the scale and the correspondingcorrections
each point are plottedas ordinates.
(The instrument read-

When
or

would

"

standard

instruments

are

160

CURRENTS

DIRECT

plottedas abscissas.)As

ingsare

etc.,it is customary

to scale errors,

in

by straightlines as shown
the correct

when

current

instrument

an

successive

points
For instance,(Fig.143),

to connect

Fig. 143.

the instrument

scale is subject

reads 50 amp.

is 50 4- 0.8

50.8 amp.

of Power.

129. Measurement

"

Direct current

power

is

ally
usu-

of a voltmeter and an anmieter.

Since
by means
the power is the product of the volts and the amperes
{P
BJI),
to multiply the volts by the amperes
it is merely necessary
to
be necobtain the power
in watts.
Certain precautionsmay
essary
in measuring the power,
however.
measured

r-VWW^
Correct

Am

Ainineier

meter

Incorrect

Volt meter

(a) High
Fio.

144.

"

(b)

Resistance

Correct

and

incorrect

methods

in power

Assume

that it is desired to

Low

Resistance

voltmeters

of connecting

and

meters
am-

measurements.

measure

the power
is connected

taken

by

an

candesce
in-

as shown
lamp. If the voltmeter
by the
dotted line in Fig. 144 (a),the current taken by the voltmeter is
In other words,the voltmeter
by the ammeter.
being registered
is a load connected in parallel
with the lamp. As the current
taken by the lamp is small,this voltmeter current, although of
itself small, may
introduce a very
appreciableerror into the
That is,the power taken by the voltmeter will be
measurement.

included

in

the

measurement.

There

are

three methods

of

be calculated,
The voltmeter power may
eUminating this error.
knowing the voltmeter resistance,and proper correction made.
when the ammeter
The voltmeter may
is being
be open-circuited
the
read if it is certain that this will not alter the voltageacross
lamp. The voltmeter lead may be connected as shown by the

INSTRUMENTS

ELECTRICAL

161

MEASUREMENTS

AND

through
the voltmeter is not reading the
the ammeter.
In this last case
the lamps, but its readingis too high by the
true voltageacross
As the resistance of the lamp is
drop through the ammeter.
is usually
high and that of the ammeter
low, this last error
negligible.
However, if a low resistance CD is beingmeasured,Fig.144(6)
the resistance is necessarily
meter
the drop across
low, and if the voltsolid line

that the voltmeter

so

does

current

not

pass

in this
error

be

be

may

outside the ammeter,

connected

the

small

very

reading

is

largecurrent

required

resistance,and the addition of

of the low

voltmeter

preciable
ap-

This will not introduce

inside the ammeter.

for the measurement

very

voltmeter

The voltmeter should

ammeter.

appreciableerror, for presumably

an

the

introduced,as

voltagedrop in the

includes the
now

is connected

case

to the

current

reading is

ammeter

negligible.
The

precautionsshould be observed also in making

above

measurements

Example.
A

lamp.

When

volts and
the

resistance of 16,000 ohms are used for the measurement.

it reads 120
the voltmeter is connected
inside the ammeter

the

lamp
Apparent
Power

the power taken by a 40-watt tungsten

and a 150
having a resistance x)f 0.15 ohm

measure

0.5 scale ammeter

scale voltmeter

by

It is desired to

"

sistance
re-

and

having

reads

ammeter

what

power

taken

0.35

is the apparent
120

0.35

by voltmeter

is the true

if the voltmeter

power

power

taken

loss isneglected?

42 watts.

What

amp.

0.9 watt.

=
_

lo,OOU
True

to lamp =41.1
power
voltmeter
introduces

The

If connected

The

voltmeter

will

now

the

read

cent,

The Wattmeter.

"

in this

error

will

the ammeter

case.
now

read:

(0.15 X 0.3425)

apparent power
is negligible.
which
cent.,

130.

2 per

outside the ammeter,

120

and

watts.

120.05

34.25

1 he wattmeter

It cojisistsof fixed coils FF

and

120.05

41.12,an

measures

error

power

of 0.05 per

directly
.

pivoted coil M,
within the magnetic fieldproducedby coilsFi^as shown in Fig.145.
The coils FF are wound
with comparatively few turns of wire
which are capable of carryingthe entire current
of the circuit.
11

free to turn

162

DIRECT

CURRENTS

moving coil M is wound with very fine wire and the

is led into it through two control springsin the same
manner
The

current

isled into the coilof

is connected
ammeter

Weston

instrument.

in series with the load in the

is connected.

line in series with

The

same

current

that

The fixed coil

manner

moving coilis connected

as

an

the

across

manner
as
a
high resistance R in the same
voltmeter coil is ordinarily
connected.
The field of the coilsFF is proportional
to the current and the
current in the coil M is proportional
to the voltage. Therefore
the turning moment
of the circuit
is proportionalto the power
and it also depends on the angular positionof M with respect
is taken into consideration when
the scale is
to FF, which
a

marked.

QQQ^
Fig.

Owing

to

the

145.

"

^The iodicating wattmeter.

high degree of

accuracy

obtainable

by the

use

of the voltmeter

direct current

and ammeter, the wattmeter

is seldom used for
As it is subjectto stray fields,
measurements.
versed
re-

readingsshould be taken, that is,both the current and

voltageshould be reversed and the average of the two readings
is used more
used.
The wattmeter
extensivelyfor alternating
than for direct current.
A more
current
complete description
togetherwith its uses is found in C'lap.Ill,Vol. II.
131. The

Watthour

Meter.

"

The

watthour

meter

is

device

(See Par. 63, page 60.) As energy is the

measuring energy.
product of power and time, the watthour meter must take into
As power
is usuallysold on
consideration both of these factors.
dollars may
depend upon the accuracy of
basis,many
an
energy

for

164

DIRECT

CURRENTS

greatlyexceed the rated current

terminates at the upper binding post

of the

not

the

These

meter.

coils FF

are

on

wound

This

meter.

line

the
so

right-handside of
that they aid each

rotates.
they supply the field in which the armature
The other line wire runs
straightthrough the meter to the load.
A shunt circuit is tapped to the upper line on the left-hand side.

other and

It

firstto the armature, through the silver brushes By which

runs

rest

the small commutator

on

C.

From

the brushes

the line

passes through coil F\ and through a resistance R to the lower

This resistance R is omitted in certain types of meters.
line wire.

through FF, and there is no iron.

the magnetic field produced by these coils is proporcircuit,
tional

As
in

the

load current

passes

the armature, in series with resistance,

the line,the current in the
directlyacross
As

to the load current.

is connected

proportionalto the line voltage.Neglecting

the small voltagedrop in FF, the torque acting on the armature
to the product of the load current and
must then be proportional
the load voltage or, in other words, it is proportionalto the
passingthrough the meter to the load.
power
is to register
there
It can be proved that if the meter
correctly,
must
be a retardingtorque acting on the moving element which is
proportionalto its speed of rotation. To meet this condition
shaft. This disc
aluminum
disc D is pressed on the motor
an
In
the poles of two permanent magnets MM.
rotates between
cutting the field produced by these magnets, eddy currents are
set up in the disc,retardingits motion.
As the strengthof these
is proportionalto the velocityof the disc and they are
currents
acting in conjunctionwith a magnetic fieldof constant strength,
their retardingeffect is proportionalto the speed of rotation,
so
is fulfilled.
that the condition for correct registration
eliminated in the rotatingelement,
Friction cannot
be entirely
meter

even

armature

is

with the most

of the meter

careful construction.

the effect of friction is

Near

the rated load

but
negligible,
practically

which is constant,is a much

lightloads the effect of friction,
greater proportion of the load. As the ordinary meter
mayof
considerable
the
at
loads
a
portion
time,
operate
light
during
at

it is desirable that the

is

accomplishedby

armature.

means

due

error

to friction be eliminated.

of coil F' connected

F' is so connected

This

in series with the

that itsfieldacts in the

same

direc-

ELECTRICAL

tion

that due

as

INSTRUMENTS

AND

to coils FF,

165

MEASUREMENTS

Therefore

it assists the armature

it is acting
Being connected in the shunt circuit,
continuously. The coil is movable so that its positioncan be
so
adjustedthat the friction error is just compensated.
To reduce friction and wear, the rotatingelement of the meter
is made as hght as possible. The element rests on a jewelbearing
/, which is a sapphirein the smaller sizes and a diamond in the
heavier types. The jewelis supported on a spring. A hardened
steel pivot rests in the jewel. In time the pivot becomes dulled
and the jewel roughened, which increases friction and causes
to run
the meter
more
slowlyunless F' is readjusted. The moving
element turns the clock work of the meter dials through a
A

to rotate.

and the gears G,

Fig. 146 (5) shows the interior view

worm

of

Thomson

watthour

meter.

Even if the initial

Adjustment of the Watthour Meter.
the registration
of a watthour
meter
adjustment be accurate
132.

"

This isdue to many

causes, such
on
pittingof the conmiutator, roughening of the jewel,wear
in time,become

may,
as

incorrect.

pivot,change in the strengthof the retardingmagnets, etc.

is largelybased on the regto consumers
As the cost of energy
istration
of such meters, it is important that they be kept in
adjustment, as a small error in the largersizes may ultimately
the

difference of many
dollars one
the other.
or
way
adjust the meter it may be loaded as shown in Fig.146(a).
a

mean

To

The

power

and
over

by

caUbrated

revolutions of the disc D

The

ammeter.

periodof time which ismeasured

relation between
most

by the load is measured

taken

watt-hours

and

are

meter
volt-

counted

The
stop watch.
the revolutions of the disc,in
with

meters, is as follows:
WXH

where

=^

(63)

KXN

TT is in watts
/f is in hours
*'

constant^'

usuallyfound

is the

is the revolutions of the disc.

meter

on

the disc

multipliedby the
revolutions of the disc givesthe watt-hours registered
by the meter.
The gear ratios and clockwork take care of the dial registration.
When
checkinga meter, the time is usuallymeasured in seconds.
This

equationmeans

that the meter

constant

166

DIRECT

CURRENTS

Equation (63)then becomes

t is the time

where
When

in seconds.
is

the meter

the voltmeter and

tested,

ammeter

are

read

while the revolutions of the disc are being counted.

intermittently
A run of about a minute givesgood results.
Let the average
determined
watts
and ammeter
readingsbe TFi.
The

watts

average

from the corrected voltmeter

by the

indicated

as

during the

meter

same

periodare, from (64),

JNTX

Ji: X

3,600

^^^

^
V

The

of the meter

cent, accuracy

per

is

W/Wi

100

meter
Example, In the test of a 10-amp. watthour
53.6
revolutions
in
40
disc
makes
the
seconds.
0.4,
and amperes
during this period are 116 volts and

having

"

of

the per cent,

of the meter

accuracy

9.4

0.4 X

40

up

slightly. With
a

meter

There

magnets
are

that the meter

means

are
are

moved

may

is'

1,074

oe-

'

98.5

An".

is 1.5 per cent, slow and

should
and

be speeded
careful adjustment,

brought within 0.5 per cent, of accurate

tration.
regis-

Near full load the

adjustments to be made.
If the meter
moved.
is running slow the magnets
two

nearer

retardingcurrents
the magnets

What

'^

calibrated indicatinginstruments

easilybe

volts

3,600
_
~

100

This

average

1,090.

^
"

Per cent, accuracy

constant

9.4 amp.

53.6
T,

at this load?

116
Average standard watts TTi
meter
from
watts
(65)
Average
^

The

are

the center
is

of the disc where

reduced, and if the

moved

farther from

the effect of the

meter

the center.

is

running fast
If the meter

correctlyadjustednear full load,and is found to be in

error
near
lightload,the error is obviouslydue to friction. The
lightload adjustment (made at from 5 to 10 per cent, rated load)
is effected by moving the friction compensating coil F\
If
has been

the meter

is slow the coil F' is moved

in

nearer

the armature, and

ELECTRICAL

if the meter
This

INSTRUMENTS

is fast it is

adjustment of F'

may

AND

167

MEASUREMENTS

pulledout further from the armature.

affect the fullload adjustment slightly

Load

Neutral

Fia.
so

that the meter

at

lightload.

+ \

Fig.

Other

147.

"

Diagram

of

3- wire watthour

meter.

should be re-checked at fullload and then

again

BU8

148.

"

Astatic heavy

Types of Watthour
designed to register
energy

current

Meters,
upon

"

watthour

The

meter.

three-wire

three-wire system.

meter

is

It does

168
not

DIRECT

coils FF

shown

Fig. 147.

as

the meter

differ materiallyfrom

that the two

in

CURRENTS

shown

connected

are

The

in

in

Fig. 146 except

oppositesides of the line
be connected

circuit may

armature

be connected across
it may
the outer
is used the neutral connection
If this latter connection

to the neutral

wires.

shown

as

or

is omitted.

to the meter

In the former

the meter

case

does

not

registeraccuratelyunless the voltagesbetween the two outer

lines and neutral are equal This error is usuallysmall.
The
meters
already described should not be installed near
bus-bars carrying heavy currents because the strengthof the
field and of the retardingmagnets may
meter
be affected by
eliminate the effectof stray fields an astatic
is used, Fig. 148.
There are two armatures
on

the stray fields. To

type of

meter

spindlewhich
heavy conductor.

the

One

below the conductor.

the fieldin which

in the

rotate

armature

magnets
the

are

rotates

the other armature

effect will be nil. There

These

is above

armature

and

the

single

other

is

Any strayfieldwill presumably strengthen

one

the field in which

magnetic field created by

two

rotates

strengthof

so

surrounded

it will weaken

ing
that the result-

retardingmagnets.
creased
strengthof one is in-

the other is decreased.

are

as

sets of

placed that if the

so

these magnets

are

much

as

by

an

For further tection

proiron box.

CHAPTER
THE
133.

The

VIII

MAGNETIC

CIRCUIT

Although the general nature

and characteristics of magnetism were
discussed in both Chapters
I and II,no quantitativerelations were
considered.
If the magnetic
of
circuit
and
the
linked
with
this
properties a
ampere-turns
circuit be known, the magnetic flux can be calculated in the same
Magnetic

Circuit.

that the current

manner

"

be calculated

in the electric circuit may

if the resistance and

circuits

are

In this respect the two

voltagebe known.
similar. The magnetic circuit differs from the electric

circuit in three respects,which

makes

itdifficultto attain the

degree of precisionin magnetic calculations

same

as

are

obtained

in electrical calculations.
The

electric current

has

been

considered

as

confined

to

path, for example, a wire. The surrounding air and the

insulatingsupports for the wire have an extremelyhighresistance,
that any leakage current which escapes from the wire is negliso
gible
compared with the current flowingin the wire or conductor.
In the magnetic circuit there is no known
insulator for magnetic
flux.
In fact,the air itselfis a fairlygood magnetic conductor.
Therefore
it is impossibleto restrict magnetic lines to definite
that electric currents are restricted. This
paths in the same
way
is niustrated by the fact that even
in the best designeddynamos
from 15 to 20 per cent, of the total flux produced leaks across
air
paths where it cannot be utilized. The presence of this leakage
and its intensityis often
be detected with a compass,
flux may
when they are several feet
suflScient to magnetize watches even
known

distant from

the machine.

Magnetic paths are usuallyshort and have largecross-sections

in proportionto their length. They are often so complicatedin
their geometry that only approximations to their magnetic resistance
can

be obtained.

This

often

causes

magnitude in magnetic calculations.

169

errors

of considerable

170

CURRENTS

DIRECT

tric
ordinaxy conditions of use the resistance of most elecconductors is substantially
constant, although temperature
changes may cause variations of several per cent. Correction for
The
the effect of temperature changes can be accuratelymade.
magnetic resistance of materials,however, is not constant but
This resistance depends to a large
wide ranges.
varies over
The magnetic
extent
the magnetic historyof the material.
on
resistance of iron may
easilyincrease fiftytimes when the flux
alters from a low to a high magnetic density.
Under

MAGNETIC

UmTS

Ampere-turns (IN). The

ampere-tiu'ns acting on a
circuit are given by the product of the turns linked with the circuit
For example,
and the amperes
flowingthrough these turns.
10 amperes
flowingthrough 150 turns give 1,500 ampere-turns.
result is produced by 15 amperes
The same
flowingthrough 100
If any
turns.
ampere-turns act in opposition,they must be
134.

"

subtracted.

(mmf. also F). Magnetomotive force

tends to drive the flux through the circuit and corresponds to
emf. in the electric circuit. It is directlyproportionalto the
ampere-turns of the circuit and only differsfrom the value of the
factor 0.4t
1.267. That is,
ampere-turns by the constant
Magnetomotive Force

"

0.47r7iV

1.257 IN.

The

magnetomotive force of a circuit is measured by the work

done in carrying a unit north pole through the entire circuit.
but the name
The unit of magnetomotive force is the gilbert,
The gilberts
gilbertis seldom used in commercial work.
acting
circuit are obtained by multiplyingthe ampere-turns by
on
a
0.4t

or

1.267.

is resistance to the passage

((R). Reluctance
cuit.
magnetic flux and correspondsto resistance in the electric cir-

Reluctance
of

The

"

unit of reluctance is that of

This unit is called the oersted.

in commercial
Permeance

The

centimeter-cube

of air.

oersted is seldom

name

used

work.

((P). The

permeance

"

of the reluctance

((P

-^)and

of
may

circuit is the

be defined

erty of the circuit which permits the passage

of the

as

cal
recipro-

that prop-

magnetic flux

172

DIRECT

CURRENTS

path in air having a lengthof 3 cm. and a crossHsection

shown
of 1 sq. cm.
in the jSgure,this path is equivalent to
as
three centimeter-cubes
placed in series. As the total flux must
through each cube, it is evident that the total
pass successively
reluctance is 3 units (oersteds).The reluctance is proportional
to the lengthof the flux path.
sists of

(a) Path whose

reluctance

(") Path

is 3 oersteds.

whose

reluctance

^z

is

oersted.
Fio.

On

149.

of simple magnetic

Reluctance

"

paths.

the other

hand, if the path has a lengthof 1 cm. and a

cross-section of 3 sq. cm., as shown in Fig.149 (6),
the reluctance
of the path through which the flux passes is one-third that of one
cube alone, or 3^^ oersted. The reluctance is inversely
portional
proto the cross-section of the path.
in iron,having a permeability
Moreover, if these paths were
ju,

the flux would

in

value
mmf
.

two

means

/a

times

air,provided the
maintained

were

the

be

same

between

poles faces.
lower reluctance.

reluctance

its

This
The

of any
portion of a
circuit is proportional

magnetic
to its length,inverselyproportional
to
Fig.

The

160.

inversely proportional to the

permeability of the material.
proportionahtyis unity,since the reluctance of a
long and 1 sq. cm. cross-section is one oersted.

Reluctances

"

of

constant

path in air
Hence,

cm.

its cross-section and

in series.

li
(Ri
where

ii

length in

consideration;Ai

cm.

the

Aim

of that
uniform

circuit under

part of the

cross-section

in

sq.

cm.

of

THE

MAGNETIC

that

and
portion of the circuit;
portion of the circuit.
If

173

CIRCUIT

/xi

permeabilityof that

the

magnetic circuit consists of several parts in series as shown

in Fig. 160, the total reluctance is:
a

(R
=

(R? +

(Ra +

(R4

Zi/AiMi+ /2M2M2 + /3/ASM3+ U/Aah^,

Permeances
permeance

(Ri +

in

parallelare

(66)

added

together to find the total

in parallel
added togetherto
are

justas conductances

find the total conductance.

The

total permeance
(P

and

reluctances in

(Pi +

(P2 +

combine
parallel

1/(R

(P3 +

(P4

justas resistances in parallel.

l/(Ri+ 1/(R2+ 1/(R3+ 1/(R4

Permeability of Iron and Steel. The permeabilityof

iron or steel depends on the quahty of the material,the flux
density and the previousmagnetic history.
136,

"

H
Fig.

The

151.

"

30
Gilberts

Magnetization

relation of the flux in iron

force cannot

be

40
per

curve

or

Cm.

for cast

steel.

steel to the magnetomotive

in simpleform.
expressed

It is necessary

to show

Such
curve."
by a curve called the "magnetization
Abscissas
for one grade of cast steelis shown in Fig.151.
a curve
and
are
magnetomotive force in gilbertsper centimeter (fl"),
ordinates are the correspondingflux densities (^).
this relation

174

CURRENTS

DIRECT

From

to B the

curve

line.
is practically
a straight

Beyond

B the flux

densityincreases much less rapidlyfor a given increase

The
in magnetomotive force and the iron approachessaturation.
pointC, where the bend in the curve is very decided,is the "knee
of the ciu^e."
Beyond C the flux can be increased but slightly
with a very great increase in the magnetomotive force.
even
The

iron is then said to be saturated.

The

type of

curve

shown

Fig. 151 is called the normal saturation or induction curve.

for other commercial
Fig. 164 shows normal induction curves
grades of iron.
in

leoo

1400
PERMEABILITV
CURVE
CAST
STEEL

1200

f-iooo

s;
^

800

eoo

400

200

2000

4000 6000

BclElux

Fia.

Fig. 152 shows

Each

162.

"

the

8000

12,000

Density

Linei

20.000
16,000
Sq. Cm"

per

Permeability curve

for cast steel.

permeabilitycurve

ordinate is obtained

for this

same

steel.

point of
the curve
in Fig. 151.
It will be noted that the permeability
It begins at a comparatively low
varies over
wide range.
a
at the point p, and then decreases
value,increases to a maximum
to about

by dividing5 by

for each

value.

one-fifth its maximum

137. Law

H^

Magnetic Circuit. ^The relation between

for the magnetic circuit,
flux,magnetomotive force,and reluctance,
is identical with the relation between
current, emf., and
of

the

"

resistance for the electric circuit.

0
-

H,

^
(R

the gilbertsper cm., is also equal to the lines per sq.

in air 0
H/Gi, (R is unity,being a centimeter-cube,so "^
since the cross-section of the cube is 1 sq. cm.
=

(67)

cm.
=

in
Hand

air,since
"f"

B,

THE

The

176

CIRCUIT

MAGNETIC

to the magnetomotive
jlvxis proportional
forceand inversely

to the reluctance of the circuit.

proportional
If the magnetic circuit consists of several distinct parts having
reluctances (Ri,6I2,etc.,in series and magnetomotive forces Fi,
Fi, from equation(66)

F1+F2+FZ

OAirlN

...

(68)

FiQ. 153.

Example.

^The

"

through which

the iron to be

Ring-type electromagnet.

"

of 1.5 amp.

current

flows.

Assume

determine
Neglectingfringing,

800.

250

the

turns

of wire,

permeabiUty of
rin"

flux in the

the

also the flux density.

and
F

0.4jr X

li

18 in.

U
Ai

"

From

1.5 X

260

18 X

Ke in.
0.2
A,
=

2.64

He

46.7

2.64

sq. in.

471

0.2 X

cm.

0.476
2.54

cm.

2.64

1.29 sq.

cm.

equation (68)
471

with

ringmagnet, Fig. 153,is wound

471

46.7
1.29 X

0.476
""
'
1

800

1.29 X

0.0443

+ 0.369

1.0

1,140 lines (maxwells). Arts.

The

flux

density:
B

"

1 140
~t~nQ

"

138. Method
be solved

884

6,700 lines per

of Trial and

readilyby

lines per sq.

Error.

the method

"

cm.

(gausses)

sq. in.

Magnetic problemscannot

used in Par. 137.

This is due

176

DIRECT

to the fact that

the

CURRENTS

permeability(which

is

variable but

is

given in the problem as a constant value of 800) is not ordinarily

similar to those
and curves
known until the flux densityis known
Therefore the perof Figs. 151 and 152 have been consulted.
meability
is not
As

the

answer

usuallynecessary

known

until the

in turn

depends

to resort

has been

answer

the

upon

to trialand

determined.

permeability,it is

error.

Example, The iron ring of Fig. 163 and Par. 137 is made of cast steel
is given in Fig. 152.
The air gap is reduced
to
permeabilitycurve
He in. Determine the flux and the flux density.
Assume
that the permeabilityis 800.
"

whose

^'

18.13

2.54

1.29

800

^-^^

__
-

0.123(Ra=^2|:^=
^^^
=

0.0446

From
must

Fig.

152

^^

0.123

2,810 maxwells

2,180 gausses.

the permeability at this density is 980.

be recalculated using the

new

18.13

^'

value

of

Therefore

(Ri

permeability.

2.54

^-^^^

^
-

"

1.29 X

980

471
^
The

value of B

0.0365

0.123

2,950 maxwells.

2,290 gausses.
correspondingto this flux density is 990 or sufliciently
close to the value 980 just used, the last two values of flux and flux density
correct.
are
substantially
As

new

the value of

139. Determination

shown in Par.
Ampere-turns. It was
68, Chap. IV, that the voltagedrop per unit lengthof a conductor
is independent of the total current
but depends only upon
the
current densityand the resistivity
of the conductor.
In a similar
the magnetomotive force per unit length depends only
manner
the fluxdermty and the reluctivity
of the material.
This is
upon
proved as follows :
Writing equation (68)for one portionof the circuit,
of

"

T-

MAGNETIC

THE

177

CIRCUIT

//^

(69)
magnetomotive force is equal to the product of the flux
densityand the length of the magnetic path, divided by the
of the material.
To determine the magnetomotive
permeability
The

10

20

30

40

GO

60

TO

so

90 100 HO

Amper*
Fig.

force for

154.

"

-tarns

120 130 140 160 100 ITO ISO 190200

Inch

per

Typical magnetization

curves.

lengthof a circuit it is only necessary to know the

flux densityand the permeability. Instead of plottingthe permeability
is usually
againstflux densitythe magnetizationcurve
plottedwith ampere-turns per unit length as abscissas and the
flux densityas ordinates.
This is more
convem'ent
corresponding
and avoids using 0.47r and also the permeability. Such curves
in Fig. 154 for various commercial steels used in the
shown
are
manufacture
of electrical machinery.
In problems where flux and the cross-section of the magnetic
paths are known, and it is desired to find the requisite
ampereenable
referred
the
turns to produce this flux,the curves
just
to,
a

unit

solution to be

readilyobtained.

178

DIRECT

^To illustrate the

Magnetization Curves.
of the magnetizationcurves
the followingproblem is given.

140. Use
use

CURRENTS

of the

"

to produce an air-gap
Example. Detennine the ampere-turns necessary
The cores
cast
flux of 750,000 lines in the electromagnet of Fig. 155.
are
iron and the yoke and pole pieces are cast steel. Neglect fringingand
leakage.
"

^^^

CMt

Fig.

steel

155.

Typical electromagnet.

"

flux density in the lower

The

yoke:

",.^.,,""
ampere-turns per inch for

The

is
steel),
The

length of

flux

path

IiNi
is

368 ampere-tums
or
lower yoke.

density in

the

is

(approximately)16 in.

16 X

23

required to produce

cores

750,000

As

there

curve
are

two

(castiron)the ampere-tums
cores, the total

I2N2
The

path
error,

pole piecesare in
is 0.25 in. shorter.
so

flux of

750,000 lines in the

46,900

4X4
the

368

is

B2

From

Fig. 154 (cast

23.

mean

The

density of 62,500,from

every

length will be

16 X
way

per inch

118

118.

16 in.

1,890

identical with the yoke, except that the

This small difference will not make

the amperes-turns for the two

IiNi

poles piecesare:
368

any

appreciable

180

CURRENTS

DIRECT

The

teeth, air ducts, fringing,etc.

ture

another

poles introduces

flux between

of

amount

factor which

leakage
be

must

considered.
in
consider the dynamo shown
calculations,
each pole into
a flux of 7,500,000lines from
air gap has an effective length of 0.235 in.,after corThe
the annature.
rection
has been made
for armature
The
etc.
teeth,fringing,
leakage coefficient (ratioof core
flux to armature
flux)is equal to 1.15.
The paths of the fluxes from the various poles,includingthe leakage flux,
sider
Conshown
in the figure. The lengths of path are easilydetermined.
are
the flux path ahcdef.
As

simple example

of such

It is desired to send

Fig. 156.

The
5c
5

length ob

0.235

the

(approximatelyone-eighth
in.)

.^^^
-

5"

24.7"

^A
flux densities

The

are

of

in

cores

"

Flux

density in yoke

one-half going each

Flux
This
and

density in
must

This

makes

o'/ifi
v
'\)

armature

^' J

is

^^

90,000

"

as

pole flux divides,

the

about

39,000.

ia\

to allow for the

25 per cent,

air duct

space

laminations.

density in

the armature:

39,000
The

core

in the yoke.

way

between
the

flux in the

be increased

the spaces

less

follows:

as

yoke,

12.6 in.

7,500,000 X 1.15
8,630,000 as the
flux plus the leakage flux.
equal to the armature
8,630,000
J
T:n
Flux
cores
J if^
m
density
54,000.
^^
Flux

the

19.7 in.

=^=

/e

(approximately)

in.

circumference

mean

5"

10.8

air-gap density

1.25

^'^^'^

48,800
39,000

of
Knowing the above factors,and utilizingthe magnetization curves
Fig. 154, it is a comparatively simple matter to determine the total ampereturns per pole.
For 54,000 lines per sq. in.,19 ampere-turns per inch are necessary
for
for ah:
cast steel (Fig.154). Therefore

^Core ah IiNi
Yoke
' Core

^Gap

19

10.8

64

19.7

6c I2N2
cd hNz
de UNi

hNi

0.313

39,000
0.235

Arm.
-

efl^i
Gap fa ItNi

3 X

IaNa

12.6

(caststeel).
steel).
(caststeel).

1,260 cast
205

X
=

Total

205

-'

2,870 (air).

(See equation 71)

(O. H. sheet steel).
2,870 (air).
38

7,448 ampere-turns.

THE

MAGNETIC

polesin series supply the excitation

As two

181

CIRCUIT

for this flux the ampere-turns

pole are

per

IN

7,448/2

3,724. Am,

symmetrical,each complete magnetic circiiit requiresthis same

number
of ampiere-turnsper pole. The
design of the excitingcoils themselves is not a diflScult matter.
142. Hysteresis. If the magnetomotive force actingon an iron
the relation between mmf,
sample begins at zero and increases,
and the flux (orflux density)
As this machine

is

"

will be similar to that shown

by

Oa

curve

(Fig.157). This

is called

curve

saturation

normal

magnetization
has already been

or

and

curve

the

discussed.

magnetomotive force

If the

decreases, the flux will

now

decrease

not

but

aOy

along the line

will

decrease

less

When
rapidly along ab.
point b is reached, the mmf.
is

zero

duction
but the magnetic in-

has not

reached

zero.

density Ob is called

The

flux

the

remanence.

Before

the

density can be reduced

zero, the magnetizingforce

flux
to

must

be reversed in direction.

That

is,it requiresa negative

Fig.

157.

"

Hysteresis loop.

magnetizing force Oc to reduce the flux density to zero.

The magnetizing force Oc is called the coercive force.
the magnetizingforce be increased in the negativedirection
If now
the flux densitywill be carried to a
to df where Odf
0"x',
flux densityd'd is
The negativemaximum
d'd
negative maximum
equal to a'a. If the magnetizing force is now increased toward
will pass through point e when the magnetizing
zero, the curve
Oe
Ob.
A posiforce is again zero and the negativeremanence
tive
Oc is necessary to bringthe flux density
coercive force Of
Oa'
the magnetizing force again becomes
When
again to zero.
=

182

DIRECT

the flux

densitywill return

CURRENTS

to its

originalvalue

at a,

closingthe

loop.
is
complete cycleof magnetization,and the curve
called a hysteresis
tion
loop. Such a loop shows that the magnetizaforce
behind
the
iron
in
lags
magnetomotive
per centimeter
is
the magnetizing force,and that an expenditureof energy
or
requiredto carry the iron through a cycle of magnetization.
flux
If several loopsare taken,each having different maximum
of the three loopsshown
they will have the appearance
densities,
The maximum
in Fig. 168.
mal
pointsa, ai, a^ all lie along the norThis is

one

saturation

FiQ.

curve

158.

"

Oa2.

Hysteresis loops for three maximum

143.

flux densities.

to
Hysteresis Loss. The hysteresisloss is proportional
the area
of the hysteresis
loop,Figs.167 and 158. In fact the
loss may
be obtained by findingthe area
of the loop
hysteresis
to scale,
and dividingby 4jr. This givesthe loss in ergs per cycle.
For example, let the area
of the smallest loop,Fig. 168, be A
sq.

in.

"

The

scale is such

that

1 in.

on

the abscissa scale

presents
re-

gilbertsper cm., and 1 in. on the ordinate scale

represents4 kilogausses.The ergs loss per cycleis:
10

A
T^,

^'^

10 X

4,000
ergs.

THE

To

by

MAGNETIC

this energy

convert

183

CIRCUIT

loss into

joulesor watt-seconds

divide

107.

the
hysteresisloss per cycledepends upon two factors,
flux density. The loss
magnetic material and the maximum
within certain limits may
be expressedby the Steinmetz Law as
The

follows:

Wk

(72)

nB^'^

hysteresisloss per cu. cm. in ergs per cycle,17 is a

flux
depending on the material,and B is the maximum

is the

Wh

constant

density in
Below
Hard

gausses.

are

given a few typicalvalues of

cast

steel

Forged steel
Cast iron

";:

0.025

Sheet iron

0.004

0.020

Silicon sheet steel

0.0010

0.013

SiUcon

0.0009

steel

Example, What will be the ergs loss per cycle in a core of sheet iron
flux density is 8,000
having a volume of 40 cu. cm., in which the maximum
"

Wh

0.004

8,000i."

3.9031

6.2449

log 1,767,000

6.2449

log 8,000
1.6 X

3.9031

Wh

0.004 X

Total loss W

1,757,000
7,028 X 40

7,028 ergs per cu. cm. per cycle.

Ava.
281,QP0 ergs per cycle.

INDUCTANCE

144.

Linkages. If
"

current

flows in

conductor,a magnetic
This magnetic flux completely

flux is set up about the conductor.

encircles the conductor
and the current
encircles the flux.

"

Some

in the conductor

familiar

pletely
com-

examples of this

are

given in Fig.159, where the currents and related fluxes are shown.
As a current and the resultingflux always completely encircle
This is shown
each other they are said to link with each other.
well in Fig. 159 (c),where a conductor carryinga
particularly^
current is linked with an anchor ring.
of lines
The product of the turns of conductor and the number
of flux linkingthese turns is called the linkagesof the circuit.

184

DIRECT

CURRENTS

Example, A certain solenoid

flowing in the winding produces
linkages?

has

"

800

The

number

of these

turns.

20

of

current

flux of 2,500,000 lines.

2,500,000

800

What

5
are

amp.
the

10" linkages.

unit current

linkagesper

in

circuit is

called the inductance

bol

"

''L,

of the circuit and is representedby the sjonimplying linkages. The unit of inductance is the henry.

Oarrent

Fig.

Inductance

159.

from

"

definition :

N"t"

is the

Note,

"

are

in

It is necessary

equal

to

one

10"

henrys, "t"is the flux in maxwells,

amperes.*

inductance

and / is the current

(73)

I X
where

linkages.

Illustrations of flux-current

lines

Gurren

(5)

in

to divide

line in the

by 10* because 10* magnetic

peres,
practicalsystem of volts,am-

etc.

Example.
"

What

of the above

is the inductance

20

10"
.^,

^=-5OO0i- =4.0
145. Induced

Electromotive

circuit?

Force.

"

henrys.
If the terminals of

an

sulated
in-

and a
coil,Fig. 160 (a),be connected to a galvanometer,
a
magnetic field be set up through this coil,either by .thrusting
the galvanomother means,
bar magnet into the coil or by some
eter
be
to
deflect
observed
will
momentarily and then to return

THE

185

CIRCUIT

MAGNETIC

temporarilyinduced in
the flux through the coil has ceased to change,
the coil. When
If investigation
be made, it
this electromotive force also ceases.
that

This shows

to rest.

will be found

emf

an

has been

that the direction of this induced

electromotive

figureand that this direction is such

that if the emf. be allowed to produce a ciurent,this current will
is the same
tend to push the bar magnet ovi of the coil,
or what
thing,will oppose its enteringthe coil.
from the coil.
be withdrawn
If the magnet
Fig. 160("),the
galvanometer will be observed to deflect again, momentarily as
before,but the deflection is oppositeto its direction in the first

force is that shown

(a)North

in the

Fig.

case.

(6)North

pole inserted in coil

The

160.

Induced

"

electromotive

direction of the induced

pole withdrawn
force.

electromotive

force is

now

such that if the emf.

produces a current, this current will tend

to prevent the magnet from being withdrawn
from the coil. The
electromotive force in each

chmge of

case

is transient and

ceases

when

the

through the coil ceases.

If careful measurements
be made, the value of this electromotive
force will be foimd to depend upon : (1)the number of turns
in the coil,(2) the rate at which the flux linked with the coil
flux

changes.
The average

force in volts is given by

electromotive

N"t"10-8
e

(74)

where N is the number

of turns

flux in lines linked with the

in the

coil,and

is the total change of

coil,
"t"
t is the

time

in seconds

re-

186

DIRECT

CURRENTS

quiredto insert or withdraw this fliixfrom the coil. 10~* reduces

the flux 0 to practical
units so that e becomes volts. The minus
sign indicates that the induced emf is in oppositionto the force
which produces it.
.

rate of

is the average

change of flux,so that the induced

electromotive

force may
be said to be proportional
to the number
of turns and the rate of change offlux.
Example. A flux of 1,600,000
flux through the coil is decreased
"

is the induced

What

lines links
at

electromotive

coil having 360 turns.

uniform

force

to

rate

during the

This

in 0.2 second.

zero

of withdrawal?

time

e=350i^^l0-.
volts.

26.25

Ans,

fact that the currents

The

produced by induction oppose the

motion producing them should be carefully
noted, for this principle
is manifest in practically
all types of electric machinery.
This principle
firstformulated by Lenz, in a form known
was
as
LfCnz's Law
^^

In

all

which

which

the induced
indiLction,
of electromagnetic

cases

have such

says:
currents

direction that their reaction tethds to stop the motion

producesthem.'^
law

This

is also based

That

energy.

the law of the conservation

upon

is,the induced

currents, which

of

representenergy,

the expense of the mechanical energy

produced
required
to push the magnet in the coil against their opposition,
the
or
at

are

requiredto withdraw

energy

of the induced

currents, which

Electromotive

146.

the magnet

Force

against the opposition

try to prevent this withdrawal

of Self-induction.

"

If

coil be

nected
con-

coil. As this flux increases it must

(Fig.161),current will
produces a flux linkingthe
induce an emf. in the coil,

the

the number

to

batteryand

switch S closed

begin to flow in the coil. This

magnitude of which depends

coil and
and

current

the rate at which

also from

increase in the flux

of

current.

must

have

in the

By Lenz's Law,

Fig. 160(a),the electromotive

such

direction

linkingthe coil and

Therefore

of turns

flux increases.

of

consideration

force thus induced

increase

the

on

hence

this current

as

to oppose

must
cannot

oppose

reach

the
any

its

188

DIRECT

CURRENTS

rapiditywith which the current in a circuit rises to its ultimate

value.
Fig. 163^ shows the rise of current in a circuit whose
impressed voltageis 10 volts,resistance 20 ohms and inductance
0.03
0.6 henry. The time constant
of this circuit is 0.6/20
should be
seconds and is shown
the diagram. This curve
on
inr^
compared with Fig. 162, in which the circuit has the same
resistance but has no inductance.
pressedvoltageand the same
=

J^

"~6.

T
.02

.01

aO

.06

.06

.12

.14

.16 .18

Second

FiQ.

163.

Rise of current,

"

in

an

circuit.

inductive

and an inductance
Example. ^A relay having a resistance of 400 ohms
is the time con110-volt
is
circuit.
connected
What
stant
across
a
henry
of the relay? To what value does the current
in the relayrise in this
"

of 0.4

time?
04
The

time constant

jj^n
~

^-^^

second.

0.632^
=

0.1738

amp.

delayed rise of current in a circuit due to selfinductance

of
should be carefullykept in mind, since it accounts for some
the time lag observed
in relays,tripcoils,
When
etc.
a shortcircuit takes place there may
the
be considerable delay between
time
the short-circuit occurs
at which
and the opening of the
breaker or switch controlled by the relay. The effect of inductance
This

is also

short-circuit.

an

inductive circuit carryingcurrent

current
^

does not

cease

The equation of the

E is the

where

switch
rate

factors
controlling

on

rush
If

of the

one

of

immediately,as

curve

in the initialcurrent-

be

the
short-circuited,

it does in

showing the riseof

current

non-inductive

is*="D(l"~*ir)

current
at time, t seconds after closing
impressed voltage,i
The
current increases at a
Napierian logarithmicbase.
==

and

the

E/L

amp.

per

second

at the instant when

the switch is closed.

"

but continues to
conditions,
until an appreciabletime after

become

zero

This

the short-circuit.
The

induction.

the current

when

force tended
so

to

to the electromotive

of

force of self-

force in the coil. In the

electromotive

an

due

current

electromotive

induced

the

to

prevent the flux being withdrawn

in

Fig.160(6),

force of self-induction tends to prevent

the electromotive

now

the instant

linkingthe coilis due to the current,and

ing,
In decreasthis flux also decreases.
decreases,

that the

way

is due

does

flux

the flux induces

same

flow and

similar

circuit under
not

189

CIRCUIT

MAGNETIC

THE

the decrease of the current.

.02 .04

.06

.08 40

.12

.14

.16

Second

FiQ.

curve

164.

"

Decay

in

of ctirrent

showing the decrease

an

inductive

of the current

circuit.

with time is givenin

constants
as the circuit shown
Fig. 164. The circuit has the same
It is usuallyadvisable to fuse the batteryso that it
in Fig. 163.
will not be injured,
since short-circuiting
the inductive circuitalso
short-circuits the battery,as is shown in Fig. 164.
It thus appears that the effect of inductance is always to oppose
crease,
change in circuit conditions. If the current tends to inany
inductance opposes
it;if it tends to decrease,inductance
tends to oppose this decrease.
Inductance correspondsto inertia
A body having inertia opposes any force tending
in mechanics.
when the body is at rest,and if the body is in
to set it in motion
force tending to bring the body to
motion, inertia opposes
any
rest.
^

The

equation of this

curve,
Rt

where
the

i is the value of the

switch,and

current

he
at a

/o is the initial value of

time, t seconds after

current.

the

closingof

190

DIRECT

CURRENTS

If,after having established the current in the circuitof Fig.163,

at the switch
the switch S be opened,a noticeable arc will appear
blades. This arc will be much
greater in magnitude than that
formed at the contacts of the switch in the circuit of Fig. 162,
cuit
with resistance only in the circuit,
although the current and cirThis arc is due to the
in each case.
voltage are the same
electromotive
have such
In

force of self-induction and

value

fact this

as

to

cause

severe

circuits may
at the switch contacts.
al*cing

voltage has been known

alternator fields as

to

in

to

some

reach

such

puncture their insulation when

values

in

the field

ft
.FieldDiM:harge
AWVWVVV

OQQQQQQQOQQQQOOQ.
Field

Fig. 165.

circuit is

"

Field-discharge switch

opened. To

with

connections.'

protect the field from puncture,

field

dischargeswitch shown in Fig. 165 is often used. At the instant

of opening the switch the field (and the hne temporarily)is
paralleled
by the field dischargeresistance. The energy of the
field is dissipatedpartly in this resistance rather than at the
switch contacts.
Contact with switches opening inductive circuits,
in the case of very low voltages,
should be carefully
even
avoided.
Not only is there the danger of being burned by the
arc, but of being injuredfrom the high induced voltagesas well.
Calculation of the Electromotive Force of Self-induction.
From
equation (74)page 185, the electromotive force induced in a coil
due to a change in the flux hnking the coil is
"

=-Ar|lO-"

THE

where

of turns, and

is the number

191

CIRCUIT

MAGNETIC

the
"t"/t

the

at which

rate

changes.
Remembering that

flux

-^

10-"

N"l"10-8

or

jr,7(equation73, page

184),

and also that the electromotive force of self-induction opposes

change in current, its value may be writtenic^

electromotive

The

force

respect to time.

The

to the
self induction isproportional

ol

and the rate of

product of the inductance

the

minus

change of

current

with

motive
sign indicates that this electro-

force opposes the change of current.

If the inductance varies as well as the flux,equation (75)maybe
written:

--i.L\"l\',
the additional term

(76)

accountingfor the electromotive force due

to

change in the inductance.

any

Example,
generator
amp.
what

The

has

an

If the

henrys.
is

"

field circuit

of

inductance

of

field current

interrupted in

0.06

of

12

second,

induced electromotive
average
force in the field winding?

is the

12
e

147.

g^

To

Field.

Ans.

of the

Magnetic

establish a

magnetic

Energy

"

1,440 volts.

field energy
be expended.
must
maintain
field
To
constant
a
does

require an expending
in electromagnets.
of energy even
lost in the exciting
The energy
coils of electromagnets is accounted
not

of

suspended

weight.

as

field is stored
a

166.- -Energy

heat in the copper and is not concerned

with the
of the magnetic field itself. The energy
of the magnetic
for

energy

FiQ.

potentialenergy and is similar to the energy of

raised weight, Fig. 166.
Work
is performed in raisingthe
or

192

DIRECT

CURRENTS

but no expenditureof energy is required

position,
to maintain the weight in this position. The energy of the weight
due to its positionis Wh foot-pounds,where W is the weight in
pounds and h the height in feet through which the weight has

weight

been

to its

raised.

many

This

is available and

energy

be

can

utilized in

ways.

In the

same

the

way

available and

example, the

make

may

itself manifest

at the switch

arc

stored in the

energy

magnetic field is

in many
ways,
as, for
In an alternating
current

contacts.

circuit this energy

all be returned to the circuit.
may
The energy
of the fieldin joules,
or
watt-seconds,is
W
where

is the circuit inductance

(77)

1/2LP

henrys and

in

/ the current

flowing.
Example,
10

^In a circuit having

"

What

amp.

is the

iatemipted
by the magnetic field during
W

1/2

inductance

is the average
this time?

4 X

1,000watts

henrys, the

is

current

If this circuit is

value of the power

200 watt-seconds.

102

of 4

magnetic field.'

the

of

energy
second, what

in 0.2

an

expended

Ans,

200

1 kilowatt.

Arts.

of the magnetic field

Equation (77) shows that the energy
if
is proportional to the square of the current.
Therefore
be reduced by a suitable resistance to one-half
the current
can
the
its initial value before opening a highly inductive circuit,
energy

of the

at the switch contacts

arc

fourth of its initialvalue.

opening the

field circuit of

can

be reduced

to

This fact should be remembered

a

one-

when

dynamo.

A very common
of the electromotive force of self-induction
use
in the so-called spark coil used for gas lighting. This
occurs
coil consists of
laminated
shown

iron

considerable number
core.

The

core

is

of turns

of wire wound

usuallymade

on

of iron wires

a
as

in

Fig. 167. This coil is connected between the bellringing battery B and the grounded gas pipe. The other
terminal of the battery is connected directlyto the insulated
the gas burner.
When
meet, the circuit is closed,and a
contact

on

the laminated

core

the two

contacts

on

the burner

magnetic field is established in

of the spark coil. As the

two

contacts

of the

THE

burner

MAGNETIC

separatCjthey snap

193

CIRCUIT

apart and

the circuit is broken

denly^
sud-

Consequently,a high electromotive force of self-induction

is produced in the spark coil. This causes
at the cona hot arc
tacts,
which ignitesthe gas, the gas beingturned on simultaneously
with the closing
of the contact pointsand by the same
mechanism.

Gas

Cock

'^Ground Connection
FiQ.

167.

Electric

"

gas

ignition.

magnetic field
at the gas jetwipe by each
which is built up as the two contacts
other.
Energy is thus stored in the magnetic field. When
this energy is released suddenly by the contacts snapping open,
in a hot spark at the
considerable power
is developed resulting
contact points.
Inductance.
two
148, Mutual
In Fig. 168 are shown
coils,
A and B.
Coil A is connected to a batterythrough a switch "S.
Coil B is not connected to any source
of voltage,but to a galvanomete
Coil B is placedso that its axis is nearly coincident
with that of A and the two coils are close together. When the
switch S is closed,current
flows in coil A, buildingup a field
which links the coil. The positionof B with regard to A results
in a considerable part of the magnetic flux produced by A linking
B,
Therefore,if the current in A be interruptedby opening
the switch S, or if it be altered in magnitude, a change of flux
This emf.
in B inducing an emf. in S.
simuUaneovsly occurs
the terminals
is detected by the galvanometer connected across
of B.
Upon closingthe switch S the galvanometer will deflect
momentarily, and upon opening the switch S its deflection will
reverse, showing that the induced voltage on opening the circuit
is opposite in direction to the induced voltage on closingthe
The

spark coil may

be considered

"

13

as

having

194

circuit.
is induced
are

CURRENTS

DIRECT

Because
in B

coil 5 is in such
to the

due

said to possess

Fio.

electromotive

168.

"

Mutual

of flux in

inductance

between

two

and

an

these two

induced

The

induction

A,

that

emf

coils

emf. is

an

coils.

its

magnitude,

184, is

N2 is the number
flux from

relation to A

mulvxiL inductance.

62

where

change

force of mutual

equation-(73),
page

=^

N^

^ 10-8

volts

in coil B, 02 the change in magnetic

links coil B, and t the time in seconds

of turns

coil A which

required to change the flux by 02 lines.

Even

though coils A and B be brought close together,all the

flux,01, produced by coil A does not link coilB. Only a certain
proportion,if,of "t"ilinks B, K being less than unity. That is:
62

iV^2

10-8 volts

(78)

196

CURRENTS

DIRECT

(Fig.169) the coefficient of coupling,Ky may be made

all the flux linkingcoilA
nearlyunity. That is,practically

iron

core

very

also links coil B.

FiQ.

169.

"

Effect

of iron

core

upon

mutual

inductance.

in the
example of mutual inductance occurs
induction coil (Fig.170). A primary winding,P, of comparatively
very

common

core

C.

current

which

wire and

few turns,is wound

iron
on
a laminated
This winding is connected to a batteryB,
The primary

coarse

is interrupted
by

the iron armature

passingthrough the contact D, against

A is held by a spring. When
the core C
Spark"^

FiQ.

170.

"

Induction

coil.

A is drawn
is magnetized by the primary current, the armature
from D, opening the circuit and causingthe
toward it and away
flux in the

core

to

to
drop practically

pullsthe armature A against the contact

is repeated. By this process the flux in
being established and then destroyed.

zero.

D
the

spring then
again,and the cycle
C is continually
core
The

THE

MAGNETIC

197

CIRCUIT
,

is placeda

of
secondarywinding,/S,consisting
turns
of fine wire. This winding is thoroughly insulated
many
the same
from the primary winding,but as it is wound
core
on
as
P, the two coils have a high value of mutual inductance.
Because of the change of flux in the core, due to the interruptions
of the primary current, a high alternatingemf. is induced in
the secondary. This induced electromotive force may
be considered
the
due to the mutual inductance existingbetween
as
primary and the secondary coils. The induction coil has many
gine
applications.Its wide use in automobile and gas enpractical
ignitionsystems is important.
that a force exists
149. Magnetic Pull. It has been shown
be accurately
between magnetized surfaces. This force can
and quite close together,
calculated if the surfaces are parallel
beinggiven by
On the

same

core

"

where

/ is the force in dynes, A

the

of each of the two

area

in square centimeters,and B the flux

This becomes :

densityin

faces
sur-

gausses.

B^A
P

24:64

kilograms

if B is expressedin kilolines per sq.

F

cm.

-^-^^^lb
72,130,000

ifB is in lines per

Example.
"

"

The

sq. in. and

of

core

200,000lines passes from

What
is the
equalarea.
A

"

^ (2)2

in square

inches.

solenoid is 2 in. in diameter

the

pull on

end

of

the

into

core

the armature

in

63,8002 X

3.14

per

sq. in.

total flux of

iron armature

pounds?

3.14 sq. in..

200,000/3.14 63,800 lines

an

and

of

IX

CHAPTER

CAPACITANCE

ELECTROSTATICS:

in motion, has only been

far,electric currents, or electricity
is called
in motion
considered.
dynamic
Electricity when
however, be stationary or at rest.
electricity. Electricitymay,
the electricity
is called static electricity.
these conditions
Under
So

is

There

static

The
of its

electricityusually
Charges.

Electrostatic

machine

induction

FiQ.

"

to

the

charges

on

tricity.
elec-

quantity.

terminals

connected

Electrostatic

to

an

static
electro-

equal ellipsoids.

two

insulated

of

ellipsoids.

insulated.Fig. 171, the ellipsoid

the positiveterminal
will be charged with positive

conducting and

are

connected

171.

be

"

If

dynamic

different because

appears

small

extremely high potential and

160.

which

of static and

in the nature

difference

no

electricityand

that

are

connected

to

the

negative terminal

will

of negative electricity. The

charged with an equal amount
the entire surface of the
over
charges will distribute themselves
the
but the density of the charges will be greatest on
ellipsoids,
ends of the ellipsoidswhich
are
adjacent. This is due to the
be

fact that the

If the two
the

two

will leak

positiveand negative charges

wires

from

attract

the electrostatic machine

charges will not be sensibly affected.

through the insulatingsupports.
away
198

each

other.

be disconnected
In

time

they

199

CAPACITANCE

ELECTROSTATICS:

gether.
tofree to move
were
they would come
ellipsoids
comiected together with a wire a spark
If they were
would be observed at the instant that contact was made, showing
to the other.
that current flows for an instant from one ellipsoid
Both
of the above effects are due to the fact that the positive
and negativechargesattract each other.
lipsoid
If a
161. Electrostatic Induction.
positivelycharged ellipsoid
another insulated elA
(Fig.172(a)) be brought near
had no charge,a minus charge will be
Bj which initially
As B did not hold any charge
found on the end of B nearest A.
and it is assumed to be perfectly
no
insulated,
electricity
initially,

If the two

"

can

have

out

gone

from

and

none

have

reached

it from

c"

c::^)

c3

can

(h)

ia)
Fig.

external sources,

so

172.

"

Electrostatic

that the net

Therefore, a positivecharge 6'

end

farthest from

A.

induction.

charge on
must

must

also appear

This charge

stillbe
on

zero.

at

the

equal to, 6,
of opposite sign the net charge on
B is
the two
and
are
as
still zero.
It will be noted that the minus
charge 6 is as near
as
possibleto the positiveinducingcharge a, whereas the positive
as
charge 6' is as far away
possiblefrom the positivecharge a.
This is due to the fact that the unlike charges attract each
other and that like chargesrepeleach other.
Also charges a and h are called bound
charges,and charge V
is a free charge. This may
be proved by connectingB to ground
(Fig. 172(6)). The charge V will be found to have escaped to
ground, whereas the two charges a and h remain.
Charge V
will seek a positionas far away
from a as possible.
If a were
be a positivecharge.
a negativecharge,h would
The above experiments are
all illustrative of the following
outer

must

be

laws of electrostatics.

Charges of unlike sign attract

repeleach other.

each

other and

chargesof like sign

200

CURRENTS

DIRECT

chargewill
positive

indiice

negativechargeon

body near

it,

or

it.
charge on a body near
negativechargewill induce a positive
north pole
a
This is similar to magnetic induction, where
induces a south pole,etc.
(See Par. 16.)
Unit electrostatic charge is defined
162. Electrostatic Lines.
distant from an equal
that charge which, if placed 1 cm.
as
charge in air,will be repelledwith a force of 1 dyne.
be placed
If a unit positivecharge,P, which can move
freely,
two oppositely
at various pointsin the field near
charged bodies,
it will be found to move
along certain well defined paths, the
path in each case being determined by the point at which the
A

"

Fig.

173.

"

Electrostatic

field between

charged conductors.

tively-c
charge startingfrom the posialong a definite path until
body will always move
the
it reaches
negatively-chargedbody. The several paths
This is
which such a charge may
follow are shown in Fig. 173.
similar to the behavior of a unit north pole when
placed in a
difference of potentialis produced
a
magnetic field. When
unit

charge

between

two

starts.

The

conductors

unit

an

electrostatic^^ld also results.

The

intensityof this field at any point is equal to the force which is

exerted on a unit positivecharge at that point. Such a field
be representedby lines just as with the magnetic field.
may
The
density of the Unes represents the fieldintensity.The
field between
two
irregularbodies is sketched in Fig. 173, the
lines of force being representedby the paths which the unit
charge would follow if allowed to move
freely.

ELECTROSTATICS:

An

electrostaticline

conductor

and

of force begins

ends at

respect it resembles

CAPACITANCE

201

positively-charged
conductor.
In this
negatively-charged

at

magnetic line of force which begins at a

north pole and ends at a south pole. The electrostaticline of
force is not like a magnetic line of induction which is always a
closed curve.
(See Par. 11.)
a

Electrostatic lines of force distribute themselves

the flow lines or stream
lines in

the

is
one

the other.

flows in

an

exactlyas do
electric current,or the magnetic

magnetic field.

There
on

lines of

difference,
however, between electrostaticlines,
hand, and magnetic lines and electriccurrent lines on
one

No

how

matter

much

current

conductor,the conductor
injured mechanically,provided it

kept

is not

cool.

Neither

is

magnetic

PfT^^^

be

can

ductor
con-

how
injured, no
many
magnetic hnes exist in it. But there is
matter

limit to the number

which

may

lines become
cannot

exist

of electrostatic lines
in

medium.

too

concentrated

withstand

the stresses

and

it

This

break-down

is

ruptured

or

If the

the medium
which

"breaks

result

down.''

be followed

Fig.

174.

"

static
Electrotween
lines be-

by a
a
needle-point
dynamic arc, which increases the injuryto and a plate.
the medium
by burning.
In a gaseous
medium
break-down
it is possiblefor a partial
to occur.
Let a needle point in air,Fig. 174, be raised to a
high potentialabove a plate. The electrostatic lines will be concentrated
the plate.
at the needle pointbut will be spread out over
As the stress is most
highly concentrated at the needle point,
the air will obviouslybreak down at this pointfirst. This breakdown
be detected by the blue glow or corona^ which appears
can
is
around the needle point,and at the same
time an odor of ozone
between
evident.
the point
occur
Complete rupture cannot
and the plate,at least at first,
because the air beyond a certain
region aa is stillnot stressed to the break-down point.
As
the potentialis raised,however, the boundary of the
will continue
to 66, and
to
disrupted region will advance
1

See

Chap. XII,

may

Vol. II.

stress

202

DIRECT

with

advance

CURRENTS

increasingpotentialuntil
the

longer support
takes place.

no

stress, when

Dielectrics. If electrostatic
"

between

the medimn

in distinction to the
which

remaining air can

complete break-down

phenomena

conductors

two

the

propertiesof

are

is called
the

being considered,
dielectric. This is

medium,

same

relates to electricalconduction.

as

an

sulator
in-

For example, air

its dielectric strengthbeing

particularly
good dielectric,
sulators
only about 75,000 volts to the inch,but it is one of the best in-

is not

known.
The

abilityof

substance

to resist electrostatic break-down

is called its dielectric strength.This

unit thickness when

the substance

is

expressed in volts

is placedbetween

per

flatelectrodes

For example, the dielectric strength

having rounded corners.
Rubber
of air is approximately 3,000 volts per mm.
and varnished
cambric
have a much
greater dielectric strength than
air,that of rubber being in the neighborhood of 16,000 volts
or
400,000 volts per in.,and that of cambric being
per mm.,
about

twice

as

great as the value for rubber.

volts per unit thickness

called the voUagegradient. For

impressed across a dielectric is

pressed
example, if 24,000 volts are immils of insulation,
the gradientis 24,000/30 or

The

30

across

800

volts per mil.

163.

Capacitance. Two

is called

"

conductors

separatedby

dielectric

condenser.

-y^

-"

Battery

Fio.

Condenser

175.

"

Charging

and

discharging a

condenser.

Fig. 175 shows two conducting platesconnected to a battery,

the platesbeing separatedby a dielectric. There is also a singleswitch S and a galvanometer G in
pole,double-throw (S.-P.D.-T.)
the circuit. If the switch S be closed to the left,
the galvanometer
vvilldeflect momentarily, and then come
back to zero.
This
indicates that when the switch is closed,a quantity of electricity

204

CURRENTS

DIRECT

vanomet
voltage of the battery,Fig. 175, be increased,the galdeflection on
charge and on dischargewill increase
also. This is due to the fact that the charge given to the condenser
its terminals,
is proportionalto the voltageacross
justas
the amount
of water in the tank will be proportionalto its
height H (Fig.176). The relation between the voltage,and the
charge in a condenser may be expressedby the equation:
If the

(81)

CE

=^

in a condenser is equal to the

is,the quantity of electricity
C.
This constant
C is called
voltage multipliedby a constant
The practical
imit of capacithe capacitanceof the condenser.
tance
ombs
is the farad. If C is in farads and E in volts,Q is in coulor
ampere-seconds.
The farad is too largea unit for practical
denser
purposes, as a conhaving a capacitance of 1 farad would be prohibitively
large. The capacitanceof the earth as an isolated sphere is less
thousandth
of a farad.
than one
The microfarad^equal to one
millionth of a farad,is the unit of capacitanceordinarilyused.
By transposition,
equation (81) may be written as follows:

That

As

example of the

an

problem

The
600

has

mains.

Q/E

(82)

QIC

(83)

of the

use

quantity

capacitanceof

If the current

it flow before

must

above

the following

consider
relations,

A condenser
600-volt

the condenser

in the

0.12 coulomb

or

200 microfarads

is maintained

constant

and is connected
at 0.1 amp.,

fullycharged?
fullycharged, is Q
ampere-second.

"

long

is

condenser, when

0.12

across

how

0.000200

O.U
1.2 seconds.

Arw.

SpecificInductive Capacity or Dielectric Constant." A

has
plate condenser (Fig.177(a)),with air as a dielectric,
parallel
a measured
capacitance C\. If a slab of glassor of hard rubber
be inserted between
the plates so as to fillthe intervening
completely (Fig.177(6)),and the capacitanceof the condenser
space
again be measured, it will be found to.be greater than its
value be C2. The
previous value. Let this new
increase in
154.

ELECTROSTATICS:

205

CAPACITANCE

capacitanceobviously must

be due

the presence

to

of the

glass

rubber.

or

The

ratio

C2/C1

dielectric constant

ic

is called the

spedjicinductive capacity or
,

of the material between

permittivity
j

or

the

denser
con-

capacityof air is assumed

inductive
plates.
specific
to be unity,just as the magnetic permeabilityof air is likewise
assumed
to be unity.
The

(6)

(a)
Fio.

177.- -Plate

In the table
of the

common

Bakelite

dielectric.
some

dielectrics:
4

1 to

Paraflan

8.8

Glass
Ice

glassas

inductive capacitiesof
given the specific

are

more

then

having air and

condenser

5.5

to

Rubber

10

Hard

86.4

Mica

2.5

Paper

1.7

1.9

compounds
rubber

Transformer

to

5.5

to

2.6

oils

to

2.3

to

1.5

to

3.5

2.3

to

2.6

EquivalentCapacitanceof Condensers in Parallel. Let it

requiredto determine the capacitance,C, of a number of con-

166.
be

"

I
JcT
FiQ.

178.

"

Capacitances

in

"1^

parallel.

the condensers having respective

parallel,
capacitances
of Ciy Ciy C3. This arrangement of condensers is shown in Fig.
the condensers be E and
178.
Let the common
voltage across
the total resulting
charge Q. Obviously,

densers in

CE

C^y

and

Qi
"For

238,

more

et seq.

CiE, O2

complete data

see

"Standard

Qb

CzE

Handbook,"

Section 4, Par.

206

DIRECT

The

total

CURRENTS

charge
Q

C^

Qi + Q2 + Q3

CE

CiE

CE

i?(Ci+ C2 + Ca)

Ci + Ca + Ca

.-.

-|-C%E

-|-Cs"f

(84)

TJiat

the restdting
is, if condensers are connected in parallel,
capacitanceis the sum of the individual capacitances.
This is analagous to the groupingof conductances in parallel
in the electric circuit.
Three

of 5, 10, and 12 microfarads,

having capacitances
condensers,
connected
What
mains,
600-volt
across
are
(a)
single
respectively,

Example,

replace the combination?

would

condenser
each

"

(a)
(6)

Oi
Qj
Q"

5 +

10 +

12

charge

on

5 X

10 X

600

12

600

EQUIVALENT

27 microfarads

Ana,

3,000 microcoulombs

600

Total charge
166.

is the

(") What

condenser?

6,000 microcoulombs
7,200 microcoulombs.
27 X
16,200 m.c.

CAPACITANCE

OF

Ana.
600

(check).

m.c.

CONDENSERS

SERIES."

IN

Fig. 179, three condensers,having capacitancesof Ci, C2,

and Cz respectively,
connected in series across
the voltageE,
are
In

It

Ej

^1=

Z9.
^

i.

"^^

C-

E%

i.

f3

Cs

is desired to determine

the

capacitance of an' equivalent

singlecondenser. Let Si,E2,and
Ez be the potentialdifferences
the condensers Cu C2,and
across
After the voltage
C3,respectively.
E is appliedto the system, there
will be + Q units of charge on
the positive
plate of Ci, and by
the law of electrostatic induction

Fig.'

179.

"

Capacitances

in

series.

r\

"

umts-x

must

i_

be

j
mduced
"

on

its negativeplate.
Now

consider the

regiona which consists of the negativeplate

of Ci, the positiveplate of C2, and the connectinglead. This
since it is assumed
system is insulated from all external potentials,
that the condensers have perfectinsulation.
Before the
voltage was appliedto the system of condensers,no charge ex-

ELECTROSTATICS'.

207

CAPACITANCE

After the

applicationof the voltage,the

stillbe zero, as no charge can flow
net charge in this region must
into
through the insulation. Therefore,+ Q units must come
existence in order that the net charge in the region a may
main
re0.
This charge of + Q units
zero.
(+Q
+("
Q))
will go the plateof C2 since it is repelledby the + charge on Ci
just as the charge 6',Fig. 172 (a),took a positionon the end of
far as possiblefrom the positiveinducingcharge
the ellipsoid
as
The same
a.
reasoning holds for the region 6, between C2 and
C3. Therefore, each of the three condensers in series has the
each
same
charge Q. (This is analagous to resistances in series,
of which must
current
the same
if no leakageexists.)
carry
Consider the voltagesJ?i,E^y E3.
isted in the

region a.

El

^-,
Et
d

The

^,
C2

^3

from
^
^-3

of the three condenser

sum

equation(83),page

voltagesmust

204.

equal the line

voltage:
Ei -\-E2 ")~Ez
E

have

y^,

a.a

=-^+^+^
Ci

Also E

by definition

C2
the

C3

equivalentcondenser

C must

charge Q.

Substitutingthis value for E,

C2

(^3

of the equivalent
reciprocal
of a number
capacitance
of condensers in series is equal to the sum
of the
of the reciprocals
capacitances
of the individual condensers.
That

isJ the

assuming for condensers connected in series that with direct

each condenser is inverselyproporcurrent the potentisdacross
tional
to its capacitance,the factor of leakage is absolutely
neglected. If the condensers are even
leaky,however,
slightly
In

208

DIRECT

CURRENTS

through the series and eventuallythe potential

distributes itselfaccordingto Ohm's Law.
a

flows

current

El
where

I is the

ohmic

IRiy Ez

7/22,and E3

IRz

leakagecurrent, and fii,/?2,and Rs

the respective

are

of the three condensers.

resistances

in series:

connected

Example

of condensers

Consider

that the three condensers

of Par.

of
155, having capacitances

in series across
dOOare
respectively,
of the combination;
volt mains.
Determine
(a)the equivalentcapacitance
each condenser,
(h) the charge on each condenser; (c)the potentialacross

6, 10, and

12 microfarads

connected

assuming no leakage.

1,=!+-^+^

(a)

(h)
(c)
^^

1/0.383
2.61

I.
^1

=0.383

2.61 microfarads.

600

1566 microcoulombs,
each condenser.
on

"

1,566

Ana.

10-"

",^
-313

,^
volts

5X10-'

1,566

"

^^

10-'
--^

10

10-^

,.

157 volts

^'y2^X^10-^'
=130

^"^

volts.

Ana.

As a certain quantity of
Energy Stored in Condensers.
is stored in a condenser and a difference of potential
electricity
exists J^etween the positiveand negative plates,energy
must
157.

"

stored in the

be

is
existence of this energy
the condenser
the spark resulting
from short-circuiting

by
plates. The

shown

energy

in

joulesor
W

This may

The

condenser.

also be written

wattnseconds

is

1/2 QE

(86)

1/2 CE^
1/2 QyC

(87)
(88)

similarityin form of (87) to the equation for the energy

stored in the magnetic fieldshould be noted.
(Seeequation (77)
stored in the electrostatic field
page 192, Par. 147.) The energy
of the voltage^
is proportional
to the square
whereas the energy
field is proportional
stored in the electro-magnetic
to the square
The

of the current.

ELECTROSTATICS:

Example,

"

Determine

Using equation (88),

Wi^}i

(1,566X 10-")"

TT

no"iw

"

5 X

W.-H

total energy

of the

condensers

in

'

-/

The

in each

energy

the total stored energy.

series of Par. 156 and

TF,

stored

the

209

CAPACITANCE

10-^

^^fg^^^y'
y
^^^^"f

K (1,566X

10-"

^'^'

0.1225 joule

Ans,

0.1020

joule

Ans.

600)

0.4698

joule.

Ana.

Capacitance. ^As a rule it is impossibleto

calculate the capacitanceof a condenser,
or the mutual
capacitance
of conductingbodies,because of their
complex geometry and also because
168. Calctilation of

"

the dielectric constants

media

of the intervening

always

not

are

known.

There

are

curately
ac-

some

simple cases, however, where accurate

calculations are possible.
The plate condenser,Fig.180,is the
mi_

simplestform
be
the

the

area

of

"!-!"

^o^

of condenser.

-"Q*

^rdtdxio*

180.

"

jt_

"

Let

side of each

one

C=

Capacitance

pute

of

condenser.

plate in

square

centimeters,d

platesin centimeters and k, the dielectric

between the plates. The capacitanceis
of the medium

distance between

constant

MxtxW

"^i"rof*^ads.

(89)

equationitis assumed that the electrostatic lines between

the two platesare parallel.
The total capacitanceof a simple platecondenser of this type
be accuratelycalculated for the followingreason.
All
cannot
the platesas certain
the electrostatic lines do not lie between
lines pass from the back of the positiveplateto the back of the
negative as shown in Fig. 181 (a). This results in the actual
capacitancebeing greaterthan the value as justcalculated. This
be avoided by using one more
error
platein one group than
may
in the other.Fig. 181 (6). In this case the area
A, equation(89),
includes both sides of all the plateswith the exception of the two
outside ones.
As the charge on both outer platesis of the same
In this

14

210

CURRENTS

DIRECT

the

plateshave

the

sign and

electrostatic

potential,no

same

bulging or
"fringing"of the lines near the edges of the platesmay occur
unless the platearea is largecompared with the distance between
lines

can

them.

between

pass

An

due to the

error

plates.

^d
(a) Electrostatic leakage lines ot

plate

(h) Multi-plate condensers.

condenser.
Fig.

181.

Example of Condenser Design, It is desired to construct a platecondenser

The plates are of tin-foil
having a total capacitance of 8 microfarads.
"

6 in. X

having

and of tin-foilare
The

1 mil thick.

8 in. and

mils thick and

necessary?

of each

area

distance between
d

The

is of paper
dielectric

7 in. X

How

of 3.

9 in. and 2

sheets of paper

many
will be the dimensions of the condenser?

What

plate is:
6 X

The

The

dielectricconstant

"
(2.54)

8 X

309.6

sq.

plates:
0.002

capacitancebetween

2.54

0.00508

cm.

two

plates(from equation 89) :

3 X

309.6
=

4t

cm.

0.00508

9 X

0.01616

mf

10"

Therefore:
8
=

sections

495

are

0.01616
These

sections

platesand
Thickness

495

are

indicated

sheets of paper

at
are

d, Fig.

181

needed.

(6).

This

necessary.

Tin-foil

496

0.001

0.496

in.

Paper

495

0.002

0.990

in.

1.486 in.

means

that

496

212

DIRECT

CURRENTS

throw of the
chargedthrough the galvanometer and the maximum
galvanometer is read. Several check readingsshould be taken.
If it
The
galvanometer should return immediately to zero.
In a
shows a steady deflection it indicates a leaky condenser.
the ballistic throw of the galvanometer
correspondingmanner
be read on dischargeby closingswitch S to the rightafter
may
charging. Let Di be the deflection of the galvanometer when Ci
is connected,Qi the quantitygoing into the condenser,and E the
Then
the condenser.
by equation (90)
voltageacross

Also
where

Ci is the unknown

Qi

Qi

capacitance.
.\CiE

If

KD,
CiE

KDy

(a)

capacitance C^ be substituted for the

condenser and another set of readingstaken,
the standard

now

unknown

C2E

or

KD,

^ ^

Dividing (o)by (b),

CtE

KD2

j^ is the galvanometer constant.

It is often desirable to

use

an

Ayrton shunt

in such

ments
measure-

such a
When
gives the apparatus greater range.
shunt is used,proper correction must be made for its multiplying
as

it

power.

In the

of
bridgemethod two capacitancesform adjacentarms
a Wheatstone
Bridge and two resistances form the other two arms,
Fig. 183 (a). An alternating-current
supplyis preferable. The
of power
secondaryof an induction coil may be used as the source
be made
to charge and discharge
or
a battery with
a key may
the system as shown in Fig. 183 (6). A telephoneis used as a
detector except in (6). Let C, be the unknown
capacitanceand

C2
are

standard
two

known

which

may

or

may

one
resistances,

not be

of

adjustable.Ri and R2
which should be adjustable

unless Ci is so.

Googk

adjusted,until there is
sound in the telephone,showing that the bridgeis in balance.

Either C2
no

213

CAPACITANCE

ELECTROSTATICS:

Under

or

of the resistances is

one

these conditions:
Cx

-K2

C2

-Ki

Cx

FiQ.

183.

"

Bridge methods

"

(91)

^ip~

of

capacitance.

measuring

battery is used, a double contact key K is necessary.

K is pressed and released,
and until the bridge is balanced,the
galvanometerwill deflect both upon the chargeof the system, when
the key is
the key is pressed,and upon
the discharge,when
released. The bridge is balanced when the galvanometer does
either charge or discharge. Equation (91) is
not
deflect on
then applicable.
When

In the above
if any

measurements,

leakagethrough

that there is little

it is assumed

the condensers.

Galv.

Ayrton

H
p

Shont

Perfect Cable

"

""i""=r
-i-xFaialt

FiQ.

160. Cable

184.

Testing

Chap. VII, it

"

was

"

^Locating an

Location

shown

that

open

of
a

in

Total

cable.

Disconnection.

grounded fault in

"

In

cable

by suitable resistance measurements, such as

If a cable be totallydisconnected
the Murray and Varley loop tests.
and its broken ends remain insulated these loop tests are

could be located

impossibl^rThe

distance to the fault may

now

be determined

214

DIRECT

CURRENTS

The connections are shown

in
by capacitancemeasurements.
Fig. 184. The capacitanceCi of the length,x, to the fault is
If a similar perfectcable
firstmeasured by the ballisticmethod.
the faultycable,the two are looped at the far end and
parallels
the capacitanceC2 of a lengthI of the perfectcable plusthe length
I
21
X
X oi the faultycable is measured.
Let c be the capacitanceper ft. of each cable, assxmied to
"

"

be the

"

for each

same

Ci
where

is the

xc

galvanometer

KDi

constant

and

Di the deflection

correspondingto Ci.
Likewise,
C2

Dividingone

(2Z

x)c

JRlDs

equation by the other,

Di

X
^

21-

The
not

D2

capacitanceper unit length and the total capacitancedo

enter into the

standard

condenser

capacitancesof the

equation, so that it is

for the calibration of the

various

deflections when
ton shunt.

not

necessary

to

use

galvanometer. The
lengthsare proportionalto the galvanomete
corrected for the settingof the Ayr-

CHAPTER
THE

Definition.

161.

of

means

GENERATOR

A generator is

"

acting in conjunction with

the

and

the

current

applied

power

162.
VIII

(a)

to

lines

185.

electromotive
of

linking the
the
In

Fig.

north

by
the

185

and

magnetic
the

Simple

coil

usually stationary
of

alternatingfield

the

by mechanical

^^ )

in

is based

the

varied

in any

passing

magnetic

through

in

Chap.
an

way,

coll

field.

of the

turns

this

on

coils is varied

shown

lines

^.^

in

was

It

"

coil is

is induced

The

coil.

flux

principle. The

by the

relative

motion

of

field.

south

coil.

in

pole.

field and

be

is

power

stationary and

Force.

coil rotating

coil revolves
a

surface,

conductors

armature

the field is driven

oo!l

generator
and

flux links the

If

"

armature

armature

Electrical

types

is

or

linking

throngh

force
the

most

armature

Electromotive

paasins

Fig.

its

its shaft.

if the flux

Maximum

In

the armature

Generated

that

action

the

generators
Either

chanical
me-

accomplished by

upon

the field is

generator

rotates.

armature

rotates.

of the

motion

converts

field.

magnetic

In the direct-current
and

is

magnetic field.

relative

generated by the

This

carrying conductors

armatm'e

an

which

machine

electrical energy.

into

energy

Let

imiform

In

in this

(a) the coil is perpendicular

position the

this flux be

rotated

it will lie in the

magnetic field produced

to

possible

maximum

0.

counter-clockwise

position shown

in

quarter of

volution,
re-

(6). As the plane of

215
(

216

DIRECT

CURRENTS

the coil is

to the flux no lines link the coilin this position.

parallel
Therefore,in a quarter revolution the flux which links the coil
has been decreased by 0 lines. The average voltageinduced in
the coil during this periodis,therefore,

where
for

10-"

N is the number

of turns

quarter revolution.

per

iVr| (Chap. VIII, equation 74)

second.

But

Therefore, the

in the coil and t the time

t

j^

where

the revoliUions

voltage during

average

required

quarter

revolution is
e

The

4iVr/j0lO-8

generationof electromotive

type, which

volts

force in

moving coil of this

those used in dynamos, may
also be
the
analyzedby considering

is similar to

total electromotive
to the

being due
the

force

forces

generated in each
the

coil.

The

side of
motive
electro-

force of
is the

of

sum

electromotive

as

turn

one

of the electromotive

sum

forces in each

ductor
con-

forming the sides

of the
FiQ.

186.

cutting

Conductor

"

in series

of the turn.
considered

that the induced

of flux linked

either

Consider

cm.

passes

conductor.

are

connected

by the end

individual electromotive

being generated in the

electromotive

with

no

way

same

nections
con-

forces

conductor

are

rather

conflicts with the fact

force is also due

the coil. The

to

the

change

total emf. is obtained

assumption.

the conductor

a6. Fig. 186,free to slide along the

two

ef. The rails are connected at one end ce by a

A magnetic field having a densityof B lines per sq.
perpendicularlythrough the plane of the rails and

metal railscd and

voltmeter.

as

The

in the coil. This in

than induced

under

conductors

these

field.

magnetic

then

uniform

turn, since

THE

Let the conductor

ab

217

GENERATOR

velocityto the position

aV.
While this movement
is taking place,the voltmeter will
indicate a certain voltage. This voltage may
be attributed to
either of two

at

move

uniform

causes.

positiona'V the flux linking

is increased,
the conducting loop formed by ce, the rails and oft,
of this loop.
because of the increasing
area
2. An
electromotive force is generated in the conductor
ab
since it cuts the magnetic field.
Similarly,the electromotive force developed by the coil in
in the
be attributed to the emf.'s generatied
in Fig. 185 may
conductors
on
oppositesides of the coil through their cutting
of magnetic lines. These
connected
conductors
in series
are
by the end conductors,or connectors, which in themselves
generate

The
which

to

moves

electromotive

no

developed

forces
emf.'s

ab

conductor

1. As

The

force.
in the

direction of the electromotive

coil sides

are

such

that these

additive.

are

electromotive force in volts

cuts

conductor
generatedby a single

magnetic field is
e

BlvlO-^

(93)

mutually perpendicular.
B is the flux density of the field in gausses,
I the length of
in centimeters^
and v the velocityof the conductor
conductor
where

B, I and

in.centimeters
That

v are

second.

per

the electromotive

force induced

change of the flux

linked with a coil is the same
that obtained by considering
as
the emf.'s generatedby the cuttingof magnetic lines by the conductor
be illustrated by a concrete
which make up the coil may
example. Let the flux have a density of 100 lines per sq. cm..
The conductor
Fig. 186. The distance ab is 30 cm. and aa' is 20 cm.
ah moves
at a uniform
velocityto positiona'b' in 0.1
second.
The

is the electromotive

What

flux

change of
0

force

across

20 X

100

60,000 lines.

in 0.1 second.
change occurs
185
Then by equation (74),page

This

C6?

linkingthe coil is:

30 X

by

1^^10-"
=

0.006 volt.

218

CURRENTS

DIRECT

Applying equation (93)

,

20
V

It will be

30 X

cm./sec.

200

that the

seen

200

lO"*

being induced by the change in

of Induced

0.006 volt.

whether

being generated by the

as

itself cutting the field or

163. Direction

result ia obtained

same

force is considered

electromotive
conductor

100

flux

whether

the
con-

it is considered

as

linkingthe coil.

Electromotive

Force.

Fleming's

definite relation exists among

the direction
and the
of the flux,the direction of motion of the conductor

Right-hand

Fore

Rule.

"

Thumb
in direction of motion,
finger along lines of force.
gives direction of induced emf.
FiQ.

direction
a

of the

187.

"

electromotive

it

finger

Fleming's right-hand rule.

force in the

definite relation exists between

of the flux which

Middle

conductor

the direction

just as

of current

and

produces.

determining this relation is the

Fleming right-handrule. In this rule the fingersof the rigM hand
are

very

convenient

utilized
Set the

as

method

for

follows:

the thumb, and the middle fingerof the

fore-finger,
right hand at rightangles to one another (Fig.187). If the
tion
fore-finger
pointsalong the lines offlux and the thumb in the direcof motion of the conductor,the middle fingerwill point in the
direction of the induced electromotive force.
This rule is illustrated by Fig. 187.

220

DIRECT

CURRENTS

Fig. 189. Each ring is continuous and insulated from the other
ring and from the shaft. A metal or a carbon brush rests on
each ring and conducts the current from the coil to the external
circuit. (See Vol. II,Chap. I.)
whose direction is
If a direct current is desired,that is,one
always the same, such rings cannot be used. A direct current
direction.
must
always flow into the external circuit in the same

To

Fig.

As

the

emf.

189.- -Current

from

taken

External

Circuit

rotating coil by

means

of slip-rings.

since the
necessarilybe alternating,
produces it is alternatingas has just been shown,

coil current, must

which

this current

be rectified before it is allowed

must

to

enter

the

accomphshed by
using a splitring such as is shown in Fig. 190. Instead of using
two
rings,as in Fig. 189, one ring only is used. This is split
external

This

circuit.

rectification

can

be

(6)

Fig.

by

saw

The
or

two

cuts

190.

at

Rectifying effect of

"

two

so

or

commutater.

connected

one

to each of the sections

produced.

A careful consideration of
of the current
external

splitring

points diametricallyopposite each other.

ends of the coil are

segments

circuit

are

in the

tion
Fig. 190 will show that,as the direccoil reverses,

its connections

simultaneously reversed.

to the

Therefore, the

THE

221

GENERATOR

direction of flow of the current

in the external circuit is not

changed. The brushes pass over the cuts in the ring when the
coil is perpendicularto the magnetic field or when it is in the socalled neutral plane and is generating no voltage,as shown in
Fig. 188. These neutral pointsare marked 0-0-0 in Fig. 190 (6).
By comparing Fig. 188 (6)with Fig. 190 (6)it will be seen that
the negative half of the wave
has been reversed and so made
positive.
value twice in each cycle,as shown
A voltage with a zero
in Fig. 190, could not be used commercially for direct current
would have a small output
machine
service. Also a single-coil

Reaultant

Electromotivefoi

Fig.

191.

"

Effect of two

coils and

four

motive

for its size and

commutator

force

segments

upon

the electro^

wave.

of Fig.
weight. The electromotive force wave
be improved upon by the use of two coils and four com190 may
mutator
segments. Fig. 191. This givesan open circuit type of
winding, since it is impossibleto start at any one commutator
segment and return to this segment again by followingthrough
the entire winding. In this particulararrangement
the full
electromotive force generated in each coil is not utilized,
one
as
coil passes out of contact with the brushes at pointsa, a, a, Fig.
191 (6),and the voltageshown by the dotted lines is not utiUzed.

222

DIRECT

CURRENTS

Winding. This type of winding in its

elementary form, Fig. 192, consists of insulated wire wound
spirallyaround a ring (or hollow cylinder of iron) with taps
taken from the wire at regularintervals and connected to commutator
tage
segments. This winding is simple,and has the advanthat a singlewinding is adapted to any number
of poles,
if the voltage limitations do not prevent. The portionsof the
conductors which lie inside the ring cut no flux and act merely
for the active portionsof the conductors.
Because
as connectors
of the small proportion of active conductors a relatively
large
is required in such a winding. In small
of copper
amount
165.

Gramme-ring

Fig.

"

192.

"

Gramme"ring

machines, there

is not

conductors

through the

back

sufficient

winding.

these inactive

to carry

room

In

gramme-ring
winding formed coils cannot be used and this makes the winding
expensive. This type of winding has a high inductance,which
renders good commutation
difficult.
It will be noted
in

armature

that the electromotive

gramme-ringwinding is the

of all the coils that lie between

a

brush another

the

being assumed
The

nor

do

forward

brushes

of the electromotive

sum

When

brushes

due

coil passes
Fig. 193 shows

to

for each

forces

one

to take its place.

voltage curve

is

four
a

coils,it

sine

wave.

force of each coil is plottedseparately. These

forces do not

they

force between

brushes.

force between

that the

electromotive

electromotive
time

moves

electromotive

core.

reach

all have

their

their maximum

zero

value at the

value at the

same

same

time

THE

to the

owing

GENERATOR

of the
positions

223

individual coils. The

electromotive

force at any point is the sum

individual electromotive forces. This

these

at this

resultant

point of

voltageshould

compared with the electromotive force obtained with the

coil

windingshown

forces

equal the

but is made

open-

tive
Fig.191,in which the resultant electromo-

in

force does not

be

of the individual electromotive

siun

of the successive tops of the individual

It will be noted that a fairly
motive
smooth resultant electro-

waves.

up

force is obtained

coils,the "ripples"being
noticeable but comparativelysmall in magnitude.

Fig.

193.- -Resultant

with

electromotive

force

between

gramme-ring winding is

possibleto
the

same

four

due

four

to

series-connected

coils

brushes.

called

dosed

winding,since it is
start at any one
point in the winding and return to
point again by passing continuouslythrough the
a

winding.
Winding.

166. Drum

"

The

to the ring windingare

objections
drum
winding. The conductors

by the use of the

of this winding all lie upon the surface of the armature
and are
back
connected to one
another by front and
connections or coil
ends {ad and 6c,Fig. 194, are coil ends). With the exception
of these end connections, all the armature
copper is "active,"
that is,it cuts flux and so is active in generatingelectromotive
overcome

force.
The

sides of each

distance between
is under
and

as

both

coil should

move

the electromotive

are

pole pitch (the

of

forces of these two

directions,
Fig. 194.
conductors

one

adjacent poles)apart; If one conductor

north pole the other is then under a south pole,
but under different poles,
in the same
direction,
centers

be about

connected

in the individual coils are

Due

at their

to

conductors
the

manner

will be in posite
opin which these

ends, the electromotive forces

additive.

224

DIRECT

CURRENTS

gramme-ring windings,and

In most

in the earlierdrum-wound

smooth.
The
core
was
machines, the surface of the armature
conductors were
held in positionpartlyby projectingpins,and
were
preventedby bindingwires from flyingout under the action
construction has been
of centrifugal
force. The smooth
core
superseded by the "iron-clad" type where the conductors are
embedded
in slots as indicated in Fig. 197. The slots are lined
with insulation and the conductors are held in firmlyby wooden
or
non-conductingwedges in the largermachines (seeKg. 224),
and by bindingwires in the smaller types (seeFig.214). These
constructions

much

are

better

mechanicallythan

the smooth

Commutator;

Fig.

194.

"

On

gap.

coils in place

the other

4-pole, drum-wound
a

armature.

much

hand, as the coils are embedded

This
high inductance.
due to
and the flux pulsations

have

on

they also permit

type and

armature

core

Two

makes

commutation

the armature

shorter airin

iron,they

more

teeth

difficult

give pole-face

and tooth losses.

167. Lap
wound
wound
are

Winding.
"

Direct-current

with former-made
on

These

are

coils are

usually
usually

of turns, and
the necessary
number
with cotton or mica tape. They are then bent

machines

then wound

coils,
Fig. 195.

armatures

with

into proper shape by another machine.

The two ends
bare so that later they may
be soldered to the commutator

are

left
bars.

should be equal or nearly

called the coil pitch,
coil,
equal to the polepitch,so that when one side of a coil is under a
north polethe other is under a south pole. This span may
be as
low as nine-tenths of the pole pitch,in which
case
a fractional
pitchwinding results.
The span

of the

THE

Usuallytwo coil sides

225

GENERATOR

slot,one

coilside

lyingat the
top and the other at the bottom of the slot. That is,if the side
coil is in the bottom of a slot,
of one
its oppositeside liesin the
top of

occupy

other slot.

some

one

This allows the end

connections

to be

easilymade as the coil ends can be bent around one another in

a systematicmanner,
passingfrom the bottom to the top layerby
of the peculiartwist in the ends of the coils.
means

"ID

Fig.

195.

Formed

"

armature

coils.

one
side,ob (Figs.194 and
constituting
This may
196), of a coil will be termed a winding element.
of several conductors taped together. Even
consist of one
or
when there are several conductors,they will be shown as a single
ously
Obviconductor in the wiringdiagram, as indicated in Fig.196.

bundle

The

there

of wires

will be twice

The number

coils.

of the armature
denoted

Fig.

194.
16

by

2/5.

The

as

many

of elements

is the

hack

This back
number

of

of these elements

that the coiladvances

as
on

there

are

the back

of the winding and will be

'pitch
pitchis obtained by the connection 6c,
elements spanned on the commutator

226

mRECT

CURRENTS

is called the

frontpitchand will be designated

by y/. This may be greater or less than the back pitch bid not
and if it
equalto it. If it be greater,the winding is retrogressive,
be less,
the winding is progressive.This isillustrated in Figs.197
end of the armature

Conductor

198.

and

to conductor

back

to

being made

connection

the

the back of the armature

on

Therefore,the back pitchyh

10.

connected

10 is then

1 is connected

Conductor

9.

the front of the armature,

on

the

at

commutator

segment.

.^X
winding

winding/
Elements

Elements

'^y^

:^'^
-r-TT
FiQ.

196.

"

EZE

Single coil representing

Therefore,the front pitch yf

coil of

3-turn

==

This

7.

an

winding.

armature

winding

is therefore

progressive.

layers,only two-layer
The conductors or elements lying
in the top of the slots will be given odd numbers
and those in tlie
bottom
side of a
of the slots even
As one
numbers. Fig. 197.
As most

windings are

now

made

in two

windings will be considered.

coil liesin the bottom

slot and the other side in the top of a

slot,
obviouslyyh and y/ must both be odd. Further,if they were
both even, all the conductors could lie only in either the odd or
the

slots but could not liein t)oth.

even

having

of

simplexlapwinding

slot,the return connection cannot be

made
back to the original
slot but it must
always lead back to
is next to the original
a slot which
slot. Thus, in Fig.197,the
two

connection
back
and

elements

In

per

is from

the top conductor 1 to conductor 10, thence

to 3, i.e.,
to the top of the next slot. Therefore,the front

back

That

pitchescan

only differ from each other by

2.

is,
2/^ =

2// "

(94)

228

DIRECT

advance

whose

It will be
necessary.

that for every coil one commutator

Therefore,the number of commutator

of

winding elements

and N is the number

Figs. 197 and

segments

the surface

on

of coils.

198 it will be

commutator

one

viewed

segment is

seen

armature

From

direction when

end.

Z is the total number

where

the

counter-clockwise

the commutator

from

ot

is in

CURRENTS

vances
winding ad-

that the

seen

segment for each complete turn.

designinga winding it is necessary that the oppositesides of

each coil lie under different polesso that the two electromotive
In

forces generated in the coil sides may

Hence the
be additive.
of elements
pitch should be nearlyequal to the number
average

pole.

per

The

three

fundamental

conditions

be fulfilledby

to

lap

winding are:
(1) The pitch must be such that the oppositesides of the coil
lie under unlike poles.
and only
(2) The winding must include each element once
once.

(3) The winding must

be re-entrant

Example, Assume that the armature

Design a two-layerlap winding having

of

"

There
^

"

9.

36

are

The

elements.

back

The

2/6

Startingat 1, the winding will

l-10-3-12-5-14r-7-16^9-18-l

close

must

equal to
=

itself.

has

18 slots.

per slot.

pitch should

y/

on

4-pole machine

elements

two

average

be made

pitch can

or

be

nearly equal to

9.

progress

as

follows:

1-20-13-22-15-24^17-26^19

28-21-30-23-32-25-34^27-36^29-2-31-4-33-6-35-8-1.

ing
winding table. It is very useful in checkthe winding. By proper
checkingit may be seen that each
conductor is included once
and only once
and that the winding
closes at the same
conductor,1 in this case, at which it began. The
winding is shown in Fig. 198 as if it were splitaxiallyand rolled
The above is called a

out

flat. It will be noted

that the brushes rest

on

segments to

THE

which

elements

connected

are

229

GENERATOR

lie

which

11 and 19, for example.*

as
poles,
168. Lap Windings Several Cofl Sides

per Slot

"

it is often necessary

sizesof machines
elements

or

in

slot

sides per

coil sides in

used,one
number

to

"

between

the

In the

larger

place several coil sides

slot,usually4, 6, or 8. More than eightcoil

for placingseveral
rarelyused. The reason

one
are

slot is

midway

follows: If two

as

elements

per slot were

in the bottom layer,a large

in the top layerand one
This would reduce the
of slots would be necessary.

size of the slots and

make

the space

factor

low.
cross-section to the slot cross-section)
would be

so

that the teeth would

narrow

(ratioof the

copper

Also the tooth roots

be

mechanicallyweak.

By placingseveral elements in each slot the number of slots is

reduced and largerslots result. This also reduces the cost of
winding.
Coils made up from several individual coils are shown in Fig.
195. The
two
and are placed
three coils are taped as one
or
in the slots
of

as

commutator,

careful examination

of the armature

running from
indicatinga quadruple coil.

246 shows

Fig.214, page

to the

unit.

four wires

each

coilside

numbering and connections of the conductors are in no

different from those alreadydescribed in the case of but two

The
way

coilsides per slot.

The selection of the
are

used,is
Assume

per slot.

several coil sides per slot

restricted than it is with two elements per slot.

more

that
The

has 72 slots and

6-polemachine

of elements

total number
Z

The

pitch,where

72 X

on

six elements

the armature

surface:

432

pitchshould be approximately

Let

If this back
to conductor

Vh

71

Vf

69

pitchis used a coil

72 (Fig.199). Then

must

reach from

the next

conductor 1

coil will

obviously
reach from conductor 3 to conductor 74*
fore,
thereThese two coils,
and accordingly
span different distances on the armature

230

DIRECT

CURRENTS

different spans, as a study of Fig. 199 will show.

In
when sible,
practiceit is desirable that the coils be all the same
posand further it should be possibleto tape all three coils together
must

have

and

placethem

If in the above

in the slots as

imit.

71, the coil containing

conductor
1 will reach from the upper
side of slot A to
left-hand
the lower kft-handside of slot JS,that is,from conductor
1 to
conductor

74.

case

Conductor

of slot A to the center

reach from

FiG.

hand

the upper

199.

"

yb

Method

side of slot B.

73 and

y/

3 will reach from

and bottom

of slot B, and

right-handside of slot A

of

the center

connecting the

conductors

As all three coils now

and

conductor

to the lower

of

span

top

5 wiU

right-

triple coil.

the

same

tance
dis-

over,
they will be equalin size,form,etc. Morethe three singlecoils can be taped togetherto form a triple
if three coils
coil and placedin the two slots as a unit. Therefore,
have their adjacentsides in the top of one
slot,their other sides
of some
other slot. This condition
should lie togetherin the bottom
is obtained by making the back pitch one
greater than a
multipleof the number of coil sides or elements per slot. For
example, in the illustration just given, yt is equal to 73, one
greater than 72, 72 being a multipleof 6.
each having
If foiu*batteries,
169. Paths through an Armature.
electromotive force of 2 volts and a current capacity of
an
in parallel,
be connected
10 amp.
Fig. 200 (a),there will be
four paths for the current to follow in goingthroughthe batteries.
on

the armature,

"

The

voltageof the

combination

will be 2 and the ampere

"

Digitized
by VjOOQIC

capac-

THE

ity 40, making

231

GENERATOR

total power

capacityof 80

watts.

If now

these

batteries be

arranged in two groups of two in series,Fig.

200 (6),
there result but two paths for the current to follow,
but
the voltageis now
4 volts. The current capacityis now
20 amp.,
80 watts, its previousvalue.
and the power capacityis 4 X 20
be so connected
Similarlythe conductors in an armature
may
same

==

that certain groups

of conductors are
then be so connected that there
may

parallel.To

determine

the number

in series. These
are

two

of such

"

Parallel and

more

parallel
paths,start

(a)
Fio. 200.

or

groups
paths in

(6)
series-parallel
arrangement

of batteries.

terminals,as for example, the negative,

and see how
different paths through the armature
it is
many
terminal.
possibleto follow in order to reach the positive
in the grammeThe simplestarrangement of conductors occurs
ring winding. Pig. 201 (a) shows a winding for a 4-pole
at

one

of the machine

niachine.

Startingat the (" ) terminal,one path may be followed by

going to brush (a),through the winding at (1)to brush {d)and then
to the

(+)

A second

terminal.

path is obtained by going to

brush

(a),then through

(6)and then to the (+) terminal.

A third path is obtained by going to brush (c),
through path (3),
then through brush (6)to the (+) terminal.
A fourth path is obtained by going to brush (c),
through path
(4)to brush {d)and then to the (+) terminal.

path (2)to

brush

232

DIRECT

This makes
these
Assume

CURRENTS

four separate

the (

paths being in

paths between
parallel.

that there

10 amperes

path

are

per

"

) and (+)
and

be considered

nals,
termi-

tween
20 volts be-

beingequivalent
shown
to four batteries connected
as
Fig. 201 (6),each
at 20 volts. Battery 1 corresponds
10 amperes
batterydelivering
to path 1, battery2 to path2, etc.
bushes.

The

armature

may

as

in

Fig.

It will be

201.

"

Four

paths in parallelthrough

that the four batteries

an

armature.

connected

in

parallel
minals
because their four positiveterminals and their four negativeterconnected together. The total current
are
respectively
seen

are

at 20 volts.
In a similar manner
delivered will be 40 amperes
each path in the ring winding will deliver 10 amperes,
making
20 amperes
The potential
per brush or 40 amperes
per terminal.

difference between

brushes will be 20 volts.

paths through a drum winding are not as easy to follow as

the 18-slot
those through a ring winding. Fig. 202 shows
For the
drum
winding of Fig. 198 developed in circular form.
with heavy lines,one
two
sake of simplicity
paths are shown
The

THE

233

GENERATOR

to brush

b, and the other from brush c to brush d.

These
constitute two
paths. By tracing through the lighter
lines,two more
paths may be found, one between brushes c and
b and the other between brushes a and d,making four paths in all.
In all simplex lap windings there are as many
pathsthroughthe
armature
there are poles.
as
from

Fig.

brush

202.

"

Heavy

lines show

two

of the four

parallelpaths of

lap winding.

170.

Multiplex Windings." Fig. 203 shows a 36-slot,4pole winding,in which every alternate slot is filled. There are
two conductors per slot. The back pitch,
17,and conductor
2/",is
1 connects

to conductor

18 then connects

the front

18
to 5

on

the back

on

the front of the armature,

of the armature.

ductor
Con-

making

Instead of returningto the conductor

13.
pitch y/
by ^ from the initial conductor,the return is made to
differing
tors
Conduca conductor
differing
by 4 from the initial conductor.
S and 4 are
to, this winding. Furthermore,
not connected
only alternate commutator
segments are utilized. It will be'
=

234

DIRECT

CURRENTS

winding closes on itselfafter goingonce around the

armature; that is,this winding is re-entrant and is in itself complete
in the same
manner
as
any simplex 18-slot winding. (See
Fig.202.)
seen

Fia.

that this

203.

"

Duplex

doubly-re-entrant

lap

winding

"

one

winding

only

being

shown.

As this

winding uses

and alternate commutator

only alternate slots,
segments, another winding,the dupUcate of this one, can be
this new
front
winding having the same
placedin the vacant slots,
and back pitchas the other,and being connected
to the commutator
segments not utilized by the other. This winding will also
and is,therefore,
re-entrant.
close on itself,
These
two
windings are separate and are insulated from each
other on the armature, but are connected togetherelectrically
by

236

If the number
35

CURRENTS

DIRECT

or

of

coils and

37

coils,
Fig. 203, be odd, that is,if there
commutator
segments, the winding will

axe

not

having gone once around the armature, but will return

one
slot,or two conductors,to the rightor to the left of the one
at which
than four elements
it started.
(If there are more
slot at which
to the same
it
return
per slot the winding may
started,but removed
by two conductors from the conductor at
which it started.) Therefore, this winding does not close or
become
around the armature,
re-entrant,after having passed once
but
lustrat
around
must
once
again before closing. This is ilpass
After
in Fig.204 (6). The initialwinding starts at a.
close after

(a) Duplex

doubly
Fig.

passing once

re-entrant

205.

"

around

winding.

Duplex

(b) Duplex

singlyre-entrant

windings in diagrammatic

the ring armature

winding.

form.

it does not

close at

as

does the

ductor
winding in Fig. 204 (a),but terminates at 6, one conremoved
from
The second winding, shown
a.
dotted,

starts at h and

after passing once

around

the armature, closes at

a.

Although this winding passes around the armature

twice, it
only closes once, so is said to be singlyre-entrant.
Therefore,
this constitutes a singly re-entrant
duplex winding. The two
Their
difference is best
windings are the same
electrically.
illustrated by the two simple diagrams of Fig. 205.
171. EqualizingConnections
in Lap Windings. ^Lapwindings
consist of several paths in parallel,
the parallel
connections
may
If several batteries are conbeing made
nected
through the brushes.
in parallel
and their emf .'gare not equal,ciu'rents circulate
when
the batteries,
external load is being supeven
no
among
plied.
"

This
batteries.

means

constant

loss of energy

which

heats the

THE

This

exists in

condition

same

237

GENERATOR

Because

generator armatures.

in the air gap, due to the wearing

slightinequalities
be
of the bearings,lack of mechanical alignment,etc.,there may
slightdifferences of electromotive force in the different paths
differences of emf. will cause
These
through the armature.
different points in the armature,
between
currents
to flow
when
flow through the brushes even
and these currents
must
no
current
is being delivered by the generator. To relieve the
brushes of this extra
current, several points in the armature
of very

' I ri rii

1 I I I im

^
FiG.

206.

"

I i

f r [ ] 11

r fVi

I ] ivi II I) I

i^:i

f r'-rrrrri

Simplex lap winding with equalizingconnections.

connected
simultaneously at equal potentialsare
together by heavy copper bars. This allows these circulating
to another withcurrents to flow from one
out
point in the armature
these equalizer
passing through the brushes. To make
of coils should be a multiple of the
connections,the number
number of poles,and the coils per pole should be divisible by
which

are

small number

some

As

an

example,

as

assume

or

3.
an

8-pole generator having

12

slots

coil sides per slot. There will be 96 slots and

192 coil sides. The
number
of coil sides per pole will be 24.
Let t/b
A portionof this winding is shown in
25 and t//
23.

per

pole and
=

two

It will be noted that every fourth coil is connected

Fig.206.
to an equalizingconnection.
The
to
coils that are
connected
the same
the same
tive
equalizingconnection occupy
positionsrelato the poles. (Seethe two half -coils drawn
with heavy lines.)
This is necessary
such coils should
be generating the same
as

238

DIRECT

voltageat
two

instant.

every

the

under

segments

CURRENTS

It will be noted

in

Fig. 206 that the

positivebrushes

two

connected

are

togetherby an equalizingconnection.
coil should be connected
to an equalizing
Theoretically,
every
connection,but as this would
of
require an undue number
such

ficient,
connections, it is sufto
practically,

third

every

This
number

of coilsper

2, 3

poleshould

small number

Fig.207 shows

4.

or

coil.

that the

reason

be divisible by
as

fourth

or

is the

connect

ture
large direct-current armawith the equalizerconnections

at

the

back

of the

armature.

172.

Wave

has been

rent

which

armature

occupies
pole. This

next

again
two

to

or

second

conductors

""""

conductor
the

imder

conductor

more

shown

that in the

of the

Up winding a COnductor under one

nected
pole is Conto a conductor
directly
nearly corresponding positionimder the

Electric Co. direct-cur.

with equalizer rings.

F.0. 207.-General

Winding." It

is then

original pole, but

removed

the initialconductor.

from

hack

connected

This is

Vf
(a) Lap

Fig.

shown

in

Fig.

is connected
under
to

the

cf which

(b)

Winding:

208

to

next
is

208.

"

Lap and

(a),where

conductor

cd

wave

Wave

"\

Winding

windings.

conductor

having

north

pole
correspondingpositicm
ab under

cd is then connected
pole. Conductor
adjacent to ab under the originalnorth pole.

south

THE

239

GENERATOR

Obviously it would make no difference as far as the direction and

magnitude of the induced emf in the winding is concerned if the
north pole,
connection,instead of returningback to the same
to the next north pole,as shown in Fig.208 (6).
advanced /ort/;ard
When' the connection is so made, the winding passes successively
north and south pole before it returns again to the original
every
pole,as shown at a'V in Fig.208 (6). The winding after passing
reaches conductor a'h' lyingunder the
around
the armature
once
same
poleas the initialconductor ah. When a winding advances
it is called a wave
from poleto polein this manner,
winding. The
of units*spanned by the end connections on the back of
number
is called the hack pitch and is denoted by yh in
the armature
Fig. 208 (6). This is similar to the correspondingterm in the
of elements
lap winding shown in Fig. 208 (a). The number
.

which

connections

the end

on

span

the commutator

end

of the

frontpitch and is denoted by i//. This should

also be compared with Figi 208 (a). As in the lap winding, y/
is the

armatiu*e

and

yh must

in order that

both be odd

one

side of

in the top of a slot and the other side in the bottom

Unlike the lap winding, yf may
equal yh in the wave
The

above
certain

A
front

making the
any

winding

wave

pitch of

Likewise

In

is illustrated

The

19.

both

as

lie

coil may
of

slot.

winding.

follows:
have

may

back

pitch of

23 and

pitch

average

the front and

the back

pitch may

each be 21

pitch21.
pitch
event, the average
average

y-'-^
y may

be either

even

or

(98)

odd.

end
falls
winding viewed from the commutator
in a slot to the left of its startingpoint as a'6'.
Figs.208(6)and
209
around the armature, the winding
(a),after passing once
is retrogressive.If,on the other hand, it fallsto the rightof its
startingpoint,as shown in Fig. 209 (6),it is progressive.
The wave
restricted in itsrelation to the
winding is much more

When

the

240

CURRENTS

DIRECT

lapwinding,for the following

In a simplex wave
reason.
winding, after having passed once
around the armature, the winding must falltwo conductors either
to the rightor to the left of the conductor at which it started.
Thus in Fig. 209 (a),if there are two conductors per slot and
ab liesin the bottom
conductor
of one slot,conductor a'6'must

number

of slots and coilsthan isthe

lie in the bottom

of the slot next

slot,this means
from each other by 2.

(a) RetrogreBsive
commutator

wave

winding- -34

as

this would

constitute
py

where

p is the number

oft and

conmiutator

coil

two

a^V will

winding

"

32

segments.

209.

Let y be the average

.pitch.Assume
after passingonce
aroimd the armature,
do

are

(6) Progressivewave

segments.
Fig.

not

As there

that conductors

sides in each
differ

to ab.

that the

winding closes

which,of course, itshould

short-circuit. Then:

polesand Z the number of coil sides or

elements.
But the winding must
not close after passing once
In fact,it must
not
around.
close until every
slot is filled.
Therefore,after passingonce around the armature, the product
equal Z but must be Z " 2. That is:
py cannot
ot

py

"2

"2

or

(99)

The

signindicates
gressive
winding.
+

progressive
winding and the

signa

retro-

241

GENERATOR

THE

that a 4-polearmature
has 63 slots
assume
illustration,
and four conductors per slot,
making 252 winding elements. Let
the average
pitch be 63, the front and back pitch both being
63.
As in thie lap winding diagrams, a single-turn
coil will be
used to representa coil having several turns, as indicated in Fig.
210.
Startingat conductor 1,the winding willadvance as follows :
As

an

l-64-127-190-(253or 1)
That
the

is,the winding will close on itselfafter going once

which

armature,

condition

constitutes

around

short-circuit and

Windiog;
Elements

jjjT
i 1 1 I I 1 1 iTrr
Fig.

210.

makes
may
wave

"

Single-turn coil representing

coil

3-turn

for

winding

diagram.

windingimpossible. (The method by which a winding

be placed in these slots will be shown later.) Therefore,a
winding is impossiblein a 4-pole machine if 252 winding
the

elements

are

to be included.

the number

of coils.

Nc

Z/2,

pairsof poles p/2

Substitutingin equation (99)

Let j"i

segments, which is also

of commutator

Let N-c be the number

2Nc

2pi

2Nc " 2
^=

Nc

2v.
v^y

"

(100)

If Pi is odd and y is odd, the product piy is odd, as the product of

is always odd.
two
odd numbers
Adding or substracting
unity

Ne

makes

even.

winding whose average pitchis odd and

mutator
or^ 5^^ pairsof poles,the number of comgoles,

Therefore,with

having^,10, 14

segments

pitch is
must

even

the

wave

and

coils must

number

each be

of commutator

each be odd.
'

16
.

even.

If the average

segments

and

coils

242

DIRECT

On

CURRENTS

the other

hand, if j"i is even, correspondingto 4, 8, or 12

poles,the product piy is even, so that A^c must be odd. The appUcationof equation(100)is illustrated in Fig.209. There are
6 polesand the average
pitch,y, is 11. Applying equation(100),
1
32.
iNTc 3 X 11 + 1
The 34 seg34; AT, 3 X 11
ments
shown in (a).Fig. 208, which gives a retrogressive
are
winding,and the 32 are shown in (6),which givesa progressive
winding. Nc is even in either case.
This is another limitation of the wave
winding and shows
possible.
winding justconsidered is imwhy the 252-conductor (12"-coil)
of coils must
be odd in a 4-polewinding.
The number
omitted, making 250 elements, the
However, if one coil were
winding would progress as follows:
=

or 3)
l--64-127-190-(253

-"6^129-192-5, etc.
That

is,the winding would advance by

conductors after each

two

the armature, which condition makes the winding

possible.This,ofcourse, reduces the number of commutator
segaround

passage

Commutajtor
Fig.

211.

"

Dummy

coil and

"creeping"

in

forced

wave

winding.

If,in this case,

the armature
standard,having 126 slots,the
stampings were
coil. This coil
winding would be possibleby omitting one
would be inserted in the slots just the same
the otftercoils,
as
ments

and coilsfrom 126 to 125,an

except that its ends would

segments

but

would

be

not

odd number.

be connected

to the commutator

taped and thus insulated from the main

244

DIRECT

CURRENTS

startingpoint for each complete passage around the armature,

showing that the correct pitchhas been chosen.
There are three positivebrush sets,a, 6, and c, and also three
number
that would be used in a
negativebrush sets,the same
lap winding. It should be noted that the three + brushes,a, 6,
and c are all connected togetherdirecUyby the winding. Moreover,
the conductors

which

connect

these three brushes

all he

between the polesin the neutral plane,where they are not cutting

magnetic lines and are for the instant,therefore,dead

conductors.
Hence, if brushes 6 and c were removed, the current
could easilypass through the armature
to brush a and thence to
the external circuit. In like manner,
two of the negativebrushes
It is desirable
could be removed, without serious disturbance.
any

to

utilize all six brush

commutator

brush
In

three times

sets,
as

as

two

brush

long in order

sets would

mean

to obtain the necessary

area.
a

wave

winding only two brushes

are

necessary

regardless
of

the number

it is usvAdlydesirable to use the same

of poles,althoiigh
number of brushes as poles.
There are cases, however, where it is desirable to use only two
brushes.
The best example is in railwaymotors where it would
be difficult to obtain access
to foiu* or six brushes.
By means
of a small hand hole in the motor
is
a comparatively
casing,it
brushes located on the top of the
to reach two
simple matter

commutator.
174. Paths

Winding. In a simplex wave

through a Wave
winding there are always two parallelpaths,regardlessof the
number
of poles. Fig.213 shows a 4-pole,17-slot,
simplexwave
winding,having two coilsides per slot. One of the paths isshown
by the heavy lines. Approximately half the winding is shown
the other path. (The coils
heavy, the other half constituting
short-circuited by the brushes are not included.) A wave
ing
windbe duplex,triplex,
have any degree of multiplicity
or
may
justas the lap winding may.
The paths through the armature
depend only on the degree of
and not on the number
of poles. A simplex wave
multiplicity
winding always has two paths,a duplex winding four paths,etc.
It is interesting
the current and voltage of an
to compare
for the various ways
armature
of connection.
Consider a 6-i)ole
"

THE

When

machine.

connected

as

be 300 volts and the armature

Fig.

213.

"

245

GENERATOR

simplexlap winding let its emf

current

per

terminal be 120

17-slot,4-pole,simplex wave
winding; back pitch
7; one of two parallelpaths shown
heavy.

followingtable givesthe values of current and

when
the winding is changed, the total number
conductors remaining fixed.

The

Volts

Paths

Simplex lap
Dupjex lap
Triplexlap.
Simplex wavp
Duplex wave
Triplexwave
.

Kw.

36

12

150

240

36

18

100

360

36

900

40

36

450

80

36

300

120

.36

that in this

particularmachine the triplex

result as the simplexlap winding.
winding givesthe same
wave
The kilowatt capacity is not affected by the connection used.
The above relations should be kept in mind when it is desired
It will be

noted

of armature

12(^

able
obtain-

300-

Amperes

amp.

9, front pitch

emf.

"f

246
to

DIRECT

change

machine

This

another.

may

CURRENTS

from

one

often

be

and

voltage rating to
by merely changing the

current

done

connections.

conmiutator

Types of Winding. A wave

winding
has an advantage in that it givesa highervoltage with a given
conductors.
number
of polesand armature
It is used,therefore,
those designedfor 600-volt circuits.
in small machines,especially
176. Uses

Two

of the

"

Cam mutator
Armature Core
Shaft

Armature

On Is

Armattire

(6) End

view

of

an

Westinghouse

wave-wound

(a) 25 H.P.

armature

showing open construction

tating-pole D. C. motor.
Fig.

In this

case

lap winding would

small conductors.

generator

This

in turn

"

armature.

Westinghouse

commu-

214.

large number of
higherwinding cost and

result in
means

very

less efficientutilization of the space in the slots.

tromotive
The wave
winding has the additional advantage that the elecforce

in each

conductors,which

produced by series-connected
successive north and south poles.

path

lie under

is

THE

247

GENERATOR

due to such causes

as airAny magnetic unbalancing,therefore,
and
difference
does
not
variation
in pole strength,
produce
gap
cross
currents,because the correspondingconductors of each and

Fio.

215.

"

Low-

voltage, high-speed G.
(Note double

E.

commutator

armature

and

shrink

for

electrolytic work.

rings.)

path are moving by the same

polesand the effect of such
in each path. Hence no equalizer
unbalancing will be the same
every

connections

are

necessary.

Treatedduck stripsprotect
coilsfrom rubbing.
Leeos ro be aitached
bars.
to zoft\miAtor

Ffshpaper cellsprorpct
coils in core slots.

Ventitsrion
holes.

End-plate

fitcompaciiy
Willi
Coi'is
"et sideslo^ether

rivetedto core.

"Armaturekeyed to shaftwhich may be

windings.
removed withoutdislurbinj
Fig.

216.

"

Partly wound

armature

showing method
house).

of assembling coils (Westing-

of using only two brushes with a wave

winding,
possibility
and the correspondingadvantage in railwaymotors, have already

The

been

mentioned.

large currents are required,the lap winding is more

of paths. As 200
since it gives a large number
satisfactory,
When

248

CURRENTS

DIRECT

Fig.

Fig

218."

217.

"

Frame

rings
"

Westinghouse

type S. K. motor.

Westinghouse 230-volt, 35 H.P., 850 R.P.M., shunt

motor.

THE

249

GENERATOR

of paths
the limit,a largenumber
path is practically
be used where heavy current
must
output is desired. This is
true of largeengine-drivenmultipolargenerators.
particularly
and
Figs. 214 and 215 show two different types of armature
in the process of being wound.
Fig.216 shows an armature

amp.

per

CONSTRUCTION

DYNAMO

176.

Frame

and

functions.

two

It is

"

The

frame

yoke of a dynamo has

portionof the magnetic circuit (see Figs.

Cores.

or

nnnnml^if-^
Single SUmplngt

^sssmmnj
Bhant

FMd

Pole

Fig. 219.

"

Construction

of

38,39 and 40) and it acts

as

whole.

In small

12-pole,direct-connected, engine-driven generator.

as

mechanical

support for the machine

weight is of Uttle ance,

importiron.
The feet almost always

machines, where

yoke is often made of cast

form a part of the casting. In another
type of construction a
steelplateis rolled around a cyUndricalmandrel and then welded,
Fig.217. The feet in this case are made of steel stampings and
In largermachines
the yoke is made
are riveted on, Fig. 218.
of cast steel and is usually more
less oval in cross-section.
or
Figs.219 and 220. The feet are a part of the yoke casting.
The yoke for the largermachine
is usually cast in two pieces
the

250

which

are

bolted

large machines
177. Field

and
Cores

together. This
and

Shoes.

"

The

to

field

shipment of
be removed
easily.
cores

steel laminations.

are

When

made

of

made

of

usuallycircular in cross-section,
as
section allows the minimum
length of turn for a given

Fig. 220.

facilitates the

allows the armature

forged steel,cast steel and

cast or forged steel they are
such

CURRENTS

DIRECT

"

Westinghouse engine-driven, 300 K.W.,

500- volt,150 R.P.M.

held to the

generator.

yoke by bolts,Figs.219
built of sheet steel stampings,
and 220.
The laminated cores
are
nately
alterFig. 221. They are stacked so that the pole tip comes
This results in there being
side and the other.
on
one
but half the iron in a pole tip cross-section and so producing a
When
stacked
saturated pole tip,which assists commutation.
to the proper
thickness,
they are riveted togetherand dove-tailed
is not necessary.
to the yoke. In this case
a separate pole shoe
be bolted to the solid
A laminated or a solid steel pole shoe may
core

section.

These

cores

are

252

DIRECT

shaft,Fig.

223.

at the

CURRENTS

This reduces
time

the amount

permits a free

of sheet steel

sary
neces-

of air

through
This air is then thrown out through
the center of the armature.
the ventilating
ducts by centrifugal
action,as indicated by the
The stampings in Fig. 223 are clamped togetherby
arrows.
and

Fig.

223.

"

same

Cross-section

of

passage

size generator;

moderate

end

armature

plates held by bolts. These end platesmay

coils.
supports for the overhang of the armature
When
it is not

the armature
economical

becomes

stamping.

also

serve

as

greater than 30 in. in diameter,

tures
completering. Such armamade up of segments similar to those shown in Fig.219.
are
These are dove-tailed to the armature
ping
spider,each segment lapthe jointin the next layer.
The slots may
be straightsided.Fig. 223, in which case the

to

stamp out

THE

253

GENERATOR

binding wires. In the larger

machines the conductors are held in the slots by wooden wedges,
some
Fig.224. The slots must be well insulated,as grounds are troubleand are expensiveto repair. A layer of a hard substance
such as fish paper, fiber or press board should be placed next to
conductors

are

held in the slots by

the laminations.

should

This in turn

be lined with varnished

ally
empire cloth. The conductors themselves are usuings.
covered with cotton insulation,
except in the heavy bar windThe
of conductors are bound togetherin one
coil
groups
by cotton tape. (See Fig. 216.)

cambric

or

"

^Wooawi

Wedge
board

Ptpm

or

paper

EiDpIn Cloth
-Tape
D.c.a

-"

slot
I})Open slot
Semi-closed

^a)Open

containing triplecoil
coil sides,
two
si
12 turns
containing
containing
slot and "mush"
winding.
Fig. 224."

Types

per

coil.

of slot,

To reduce the flux irregularities

in the air gap, due to the teeth,
is used occasionally.In this case
semi-closed slot.
Fig.224 (c),

the individual conductors

so

(O

(6)

(a)

the coil ends must

slots.

Such

must

be

be

placedin

by one,
placed in the

the slot one

taped after the coils are

pense
winding is called a ''mush'' winding. The exof winding prevents the generaluse of this type of slot in
a

direct-current machines.
179* The

Commutator.

"

The

commutator

is made

of

wedge-

shaped segments of hard-drawn or drop-forgedcopper, insulated

from one another by thin layersof mica.
The segments are held
together by clamping flanges {DD, Fig. 225), which pull the
drawn togetherby throughare
segments inward when the flanges
bolts. These
the
flanges are prevented from short-circuiting
of built-upmica {F, Fig. 225). This
segments by two cones
construction
is illustrated by the commutator
of the machine
shown
in Fig. 223.

254

The

CURRENTS

DIRECT

leads from

the armature

slits in
longitudinal

(il) Assembled

the

coils may

be soldered into small

of the segments

ends

commutator.

{B) Commutator

bar.

insulatingstrip.
(C) Mica commutator
(DD) Clamping flanges.
steel tube.
{E) Drawn
clamping flanges and
(F) Insulation used between
Fig.

may

have

225.

risers

180. Field

Crocker- Wheeler

"

(Fig.223)
(6).)

(Alsosee Fig.214

FiQ. 226.

"

Shunt

Coils.
"

double-cotton-covered
vacuum

and

the segments

or

then

to

field coil and

The

and

commutator

which

bars.

commutator

these

details.

leads

soldered.

are

edgewise series winding.

field coils

wire.
(d.c.c.)
impregnated with

are

The
an

usually wound
coils

are

dried

with
in

insulatingcompound.

THE

The outer

wound
set

some

insulation is often protected by tape or cord on

In the largermachines
air space is often left
an

cotton

the outside.
between

The
coils are
also
layers for ventilatingpurposes.
metal spools,Fig. 226.
An edgewise series winding,
on
distance from the shunt winding, also is shown here.

Fig.

181. The
the current
are

255

GENERATOR

Brushes.

from

usuallymade

227.

"

"

Rocker

The

ring and brush holder.

is to carry
to the external circuit. They

function

the commutator

of the

of carbon,although in very

brushes

machines
low-voltage

256

DIRECT

they may
The

be made

of copper

CURRENTS

gauze,

or

patentedmetal compounds.

brush

holder,Fig.227, isfastened to the brush stud and holds

the brush in its proper positionon the commutator.
The brush
be free to shde in its holder in order that it may
follow
in the commutator.
The brush is made
to
irregularities

should
any

bear down

on

the commutator

should be from

and
made

by

1 to 2 lb. per

spring,Fig.227.

sq. in.

To

The

decrease

resistance the upper

portionof the brush is copper
this platingis connected to the brush holder by a

of copper ribbon.
is also shown in Pig.227.

rocker

ring with

cross

sure
pres-

the electrical

plated

pig-tail

connections

CHAPTER
GENERATOR
182.

Electromotive

XI

CHARACTERISTICS
Force

in

Armature.

an

The

"

path of

the

magnetic flux from the poles of a generator into the armature, and
The
a curve
showing the flux distribution are given in Fig. 228.
ordinate at each point is proportional to the flux densityin the
flux density is given by
air-gap at that point. The maximum
the ordinate -Bmax- The
positive ordinates of the distribution
north pole flux entering the armature
and the negative
curve
are
ordinates are flux leaving the armature
and entering a south pole.

^/ffliiini[iftw\^TO^"

^\
^/ff/M/iiiiiiiiiii\\\^

"^

/77f/tMniiiinn\\

im
FiQ.

228.-^Flux

distribution

at

load

no

of

D.

C.

generator.

leaving a north pole is given by the area under one

of the positive parts of the distribution curve.
Similarly,the
and entering a south pole is given
total flux leaving the armature
by the area of one of the negative parts of the distribution curve.
Each
be
positivepart and each negative part of the curve
may
replaced by a rectanglehaving the same
by the
area, as shown
The
dotted
line,Fig. 228.
height of this rectangle will be B
maxwells
centimeter, which is equal to the average
per square
value of the flux density under an entire pole pitch.
Let it be required to determine
electromotive
the average
in a singleconductor
it passes through the flux
force induced
as
of successive poles.
Let the total flux leaving a north pole or entering a south pole
The

be

total flux

"l"maxwells.

Let

length of the conductor

revolutions

per
17

be the

in sq. cm., I the active

in
the speed of the armature

pole

in cm.,

area

second, and P the number

257

of

poles.

258

CURRENTS

DIRECT

through the distance ab, or one

induced voltage,by equation (93),page

the conductor

When

pole pitch,the

passes

average

217, is
e

Blv 10-8

flux density,I the active length of the

is the average
conductor in cm., and v the velocityof the conductor in cm. per
B

where

second.
ab

where

i is the

requiredfor the conductor

time

to traverse

the

distance ab.
e

since Bl
b

cut

as

(ab) gives the total flux between the points a and

by the conductor and is therefore equal to "l".

If there

and p paths through the armature,

such conductors in series. (SeePar. 169.)

Z such conductors

are

be

Z/p
the total voltagegeneratedbetween

there must
Hence

-^^fll0-=|l0-

Example,
There
The
per

are

"

is

("""
has

simplex lap winding.

the armature.

on

flux density is 60,000 lines

and the average
10 in. square
is the voltage induced between
brushes?
What

poles are

sq. in.

P
p
.

10 X

900/60

50,000

r.p.m.

5,000,000Unes

6 X

Curve.

300

"

,^
225 volts.
"_

--

Saturation

15 r.p.s.

(seePar. 169)
X 15 X
5,000,000
-'
"Q-^^iQ-s

follows:

10 X

"

183. The

where

f^

6-pole generator

r.p.m.,

conductors

300

as

900

brushes

Am.

Equation (101) may

be written

260

\f
RECTI

^cENTS

similar to that of

Fig.229 is obtained. This is shown in

Fig.230 and differsfrom the curve of Fig.229 onlyby a constant
quantity{KS). Two curves
shown in Fig.230, one plotted
are
a

curve

for 1,200 r.p.m. and

the other for 900

The

r.p.m.

curves

are

similar,any

ordinate

lower

being 900/1,200
ing
correspond-

curve

of the

of the value of the

ordinate

of

Thus,

curve.

the

upper

at ordinate ac,

ab

900
^
"

1,200

ac

Also at ordinate a'"/

a^

900

aV
Field

Fig.

230.

Current

Saturation

"

curves

1,200

If the saturation
for

of

curve

two
a

different speeds.

generator for

speed has

one

been

for other

curves

be

speeds may

determined, saturation
readilyfound by the method

justindicated.
Hysteresis. The

184.

"

determined

saturation

oab, Fig. 231 (a),is

curve

for increasingvalues of the field current.

If when

(a)-

point 6 is reached

Fig.

the

231.

"

Hysteresis loops.

field current

be decreased, the

path along the curve

field current, the correspondinginduced
will not

retrace

greater than it

by the
page

curve

its

was

bed.

bao.

For

any

voltage will

curve

given
now

be

This is shown
for increasingfield currents.
This is due to hysteresisin the iron. (See

181, Par. 142.)

Fig. 231

(b) shows

the effects obtained

when

the

curve

is

carried

261

CHARACTERISTICS

GENERATOR

aloDg the path oah, back to c, and at c the field

current
is again increased,
the curve
ultimatelycoming back to
oab at the point a.
It is evident that for any given value of field current, there
is no singlevalue of flux. The value of flux for any given field
whether
the field current was
current depends upon
increased
until it reached the value in questionor whether it was
decreased.
This characteristic of the magnetic circuit should be carefully
borne
in mind, for the operating characteristics of both generators
affected
and motors
to a considerable degree by
are
hysteresisin the magnetic circuit.
up

185. Determmation

,the saturation

Saturation

of the

Curve.

connect
experimentally,

curve

To

"

the

determine

in
field,

series

Am.
O

r^'
D.C.

Supply
Field

F:g. 202.

with

an

voltmeter

ammeter,
should

"

Connections

across

for obtaining saturation

A
of power.
tei^minals.
the armature

direct current

be connected

across

curve.

source

the fieldcurrent,values of which

measures
Obviously the ammeter
the voltmeter reads the values of induced
are
plottedas abscissas;
armature
nections
voltage,which are plottedas ordinafes. These conshown in Fig. 232.
As the voltagedrop within the
are
the terminal
due to the voltmeter current is negligible,
armature

volts and

the induced

volts under

these conditions

are

identical.

During the experiment the speed should be determined each time

that the other readingsare taken.
If the speed cannot be mamtained constant, corrections can be easily
made for any variation,
described in Par. 183.
by the method
When

the saturation

curve

of

shunt

generator is determined

262

CURRENTS

DIRECT

it may
reduce

be

high resistance to
sufficiently
A drop wire conits loT^er values.
nection,

obtain

difficult to

the field current

to

Fig. 233, allows field currents

without the
is

use

with

easily made

in

rheostat,shown

as

low

as

Such

of excessive resistance.
well-known

the

tained
to be ob-

zero
a

connection

''3-point"type of field

Fig. 233.

oEieU

Fig.

In

233.

Drop- wire connections

"

determining the

saturation

for obtaining field current.

curve

the field
experimentally,

continuouslyin one direction,either up

or
down, as shown in Fig. 231 (a). Otherwise minor hysteresis
loops,such as shown in Fig. 231 (6),will be introduced.
The field current in this experiment should be obtained from
H
for two reasons:
a
supply other than the generator itself,
the generator excited its own
the voltageand field current
field,
would be inter-dependentand it would
be difficult to adjust
justment
the field current
without the voltage in turn changing this addue
Also a voltagedrop would exist in the armature
current

to the

should

be varied

field current.

the true induced

would

be

The

voltmeter

would

voltage,although the

not

error

then
from

ing
be readthis

cause

sUght.

By Ohm's Law the current in a

resistance.
circuit is proportional
to the voltage,for a constant
If the current be plottedagainst volts.Fig. 234, a straightline
passingthrough the originresults. For example,ifthe resistance
when
of a field circuit be 50 ohms, the current will be 2 amperes
when
the voltageis 75 volts,
the voltageis 100 volts;1.5 amperes
when
the voltage is 50 volts. This relation is
and 1 ampere
Curve I shows the resistance line
shown in Curve II,Fig.234.
186. Field Resistance

for 80 ohms
current

shows

same

"

It will be noted that at 80 volts the

fieldresistance.

is 1.0 ampere,

the

Line.

at 40 volts it is 0.5 ampere,

relation for

etc.

Curve

fieldresistance of 40 ohms.

III

263

CHARACTERISTICS

GENERATOR

higher the resistance the greater the

slope of the resistance line. In fact the slopeof the line is equal
It will be noted

that the

120

110

100

00

80

70
w

300
"
50

40

SO

20

10

1.0

0.5

1.5

2.0

2.5

Amperes

FiQ. 234.

"

Field resistance lines.

to the fieldresistance in ohms

tangent, of the anglewhich

since the

the line makes

with the axis of abscissas is

-i.

Load

Fig.

187.

Types

"

Shunt

use,

connections.

generator

generaltypes of
the shunt,the compound and the series.

of Generators.

generator in common
In the shunt

235.

"

There

are

three

type the field circuit is connected

terminals,usuallyin

series with

across

the

rheostat.Fig. 235.

ture
arma-

The

264

DIRECT

shunt

must
field,therefore,

in order that it may

current.
The
has

CURRENTS

have

comparativelyhigh resistance

take too great a proportion of the generator

compound generator issimilar to the shunt,but
not

additional field winding connected

an

in series wth the

ture
arma-

load.Fig.270, page 296. The series generator is excited

entirelyby a winding of comparatively few turns connected in
series with the armature
and load.
(See page 301.)
or

Field Current
FiQ.

188. The
curve

drawn

of

"

Shunt

the

Method

Generator.

ohms,

60 volts 2.5 amp.

; etc.

zero.
manner:

As

Fig.

236

its shunt

building

shows

up.

the saturation

field resistance line

so

that at 120 volts it takes 5 amp.;

at

startinga generator the induced voltage is

come
generator may
up to voltage in the following
the generator is brought up to speed there will be a

the instant of
The

"

generator

it will be observed,has
plot. This field,

same

resistance of 24

At

of shunt

generator and

shunt

on

236.

GENERATOR

small

voltage cho, in this instance about

due

armature

to the residual

4 volts also exists

across

the armature

across

current

in this

current

across

od'

be obtained

curve

to the field resistance line at d.

of field current.

Thus

in turn

it will be

produces a voltagein excess

increased voltage in turn increases
is cumulative.

The

curve.

The

zontal
horiThe

The

by

seen

jecting
pro-

produces a highervalue
of field

value

the field current, that

will continue

to

the fieldresistance line

machine

8 volts

of its previousvalue and this

machine

point/ is reached, where

saturation

This field current

that each

seen

current

until

by drawing

voltage,6'c,is about 8 volts.

in the field,
be
as
ampere
may

0.33

which

the fieldresistance line at 6.

produces a voltaged'e,which

action

the field is connected

is o6'or about 0.2 ampere.

sulting
By conit will be seen
that for this field

case
particular

about

This

value of field current

The

can

imtil it meets

the induced

produces

volts,induced in the

of the machine.

magnetism

terminals.

the saturation

because
field,

the

flows in virtue of this 4 volts

hne from

265

CHARACTERISTICS

build up

cannot

is,the

build up

crosses

the

beyond this

point for the followingreasons:

Consider a point h on the field resistance line,above /. This
To propoint represents a fieldcurrent og'of about 5.3 amperes.
duce
this field current
requiresa voltageg'h of about 128 volts.
of 5.3 amperes
But this field current
produces an induced voltage
g'g of only 122 volts. If 128 volts are requiredto produce the
of 5.3 amperes
field current
and the machine
can
only produce
122

volts at this field current, it is obvious

build up to the
It is evident that
iron did not become

increased

to 60

not
can-

point h.
a

would

machine

build up

if its
indefinitely

saturated.

189. Critical Field Resistance.

be

that the machine

ohms, the

"

If the resistance

of the field

field resistance line will be represented

by oa, Fig. 237. This line

point a', corresponding to about

crosses

the saturation

6 volts.

curve

at

Therefore,with this
not build up beyond

value of field resistance,the generator will

ance
a'. If the fieldresistance be slowly decreased until the fieldresistline "reaches

oh, the generator will be observed

to

start

building up rapidly. It will of course

stop building up at the
point V, The value of the field resistance correspondingto oh is
the
called the critical fieldresistance.
In this particularcase

266

CURRENTS

DIRECT

resistance is 120/3.25or 36. 1 ohms.

the criticalvalue, the

for

reasons

be

may

generator

cannot

to Build

Up.

FaUs

190. Generator

If the fieldresistance exceeds

"

generator failingto build

in such

connected

build up.
There are
up.

three

(1) The

that the current

way

conunon

shunt

sent

field

through

startingis in such a direction as to ''buck*' or reduce the

tions,
residual magnetism instead of increasingit. Under these condibuild up.
To test for this,
the generator cannot of course

it

on

Field

237.

Fig.

open

the fieldcircuit.

the current

Critical field resistance.

If the

voltagerises when the fieldisopened,

is bucking the residual magnetism

be reversed.
upon

"

Current

If

opening and closingthe

the voltmeter

it may

be assumed

and the field should

field

produces no

effect

that the field circuit is

open.

(2) The

field resistance may

resistance. In this case, the

be greater than

procedure is

to

the critical field

reduce

the

field

resistance until the machine

(3) There
to

jarringor

may
to too

be

no

builds up.
residual magnetism

long a period of idleness.

in the

machine, due

If the armature

cir-

268

and the armature

when

CURRENTS

DIRECT

current

are

which
actingsimultaneously,

the generator is under load.

The

armature

occurs

magnetomotive

(a) Ourrent in Field Ck"ilonly

nn^n^xr.

-nugoono

"Brash

Cc) Current
Armature

Fig.

238.

force crowds

"

Effect

of armature

in both the
and Field

reaction upon

the field of

the symmetrical field flux shown

pole tipin the north

Axla

in

generator.

(a)into the

upper

pole and into the lower pole tip in the south

pole. As the generator

armature

is shown

rotatingin

clockwise

GENERATOR

"

269

CHARACTERISTICS

it will be noted that the flux is crowded into the trailing

direction,
On the other hand, the flux is weakened
pole tipin each case.
in the two leadingpole tips.
is to displacethe fieldin the
The effect of the armature
current
direction of rotation of the generator. It should be borne firmly
in mind that the flux is not pulled around by the mechanical
rotation of the armature.
To the

rightof Fig.238 (c)the

fieldvector

The

vectors.

reaction is shown

armature

F and the armature

by

Fa combine

vector

tion
rightanglesto form the resultant field vector Fo* The direcwhich correspondstd the
of Fo is downward
and to the right,
general direction of the resultant flux in the drawing. The
be at rightangles to Foy provided the direcneutral plane must
tion
at

of the resultant flux is the

same

as

that of the resultant

magnetomotive force.
As the neutral plane is perpendicularto the resultant field,
that it too has been advanced.

it will be observed

It

was

shown

X"0xnagiieiIziiiff
Pomponenti
of the Armatare

OroM

limf.

Magnetizmg

Component of the
Armatare

Fig. 239.

in

Chap.

"

Relation

field to brush

of armature

the coil undergoing commutation

neutral

later.

of the neutral
brushes

must

right must

are

advanced

plane,all the
stillcarry

carry

that

current

the brushes

of this neutral

littleahead

If the brushes

so

the generator delivers current

plane. When

should be set

as

axis.

cuit
they short-cirit is passingthrough the

that the brushes should be set

Mmf.

conductors

current
out

to

plane,as will be shown

correspondto the advance
to

the left of the two

into the paper,

of the paper.

The

and those to the

result is shown

270

CURRENTS

DIRECT

with the
of the armature
fieldmoves
brushes. Its axis always lies along the brush axis. Therefore
ward
points downdownward, now
Fa) instead of pointingvertically
be
and to the left,as is shown
Fa may
by the vectors.
to the polaraxis and Fc
resolved into two components, Fd parallel
perpendicularto this axis.
It will be noted that Fd acts in direct oppositionto F, the
in

Fig. 239.

The

direction

field.
Fig.238.

main

Therefore,it tends

to reduce

the total flux

nnnnnn

"ti )

(b)
\
"ja-^jL^^-p^

Fio.

240.

Demagnetizing

"

and

Demii"7ie tizing Armature

Conductors

Cr^i^

Armfltnre

cross-magnetizing

Ma^etizing
Conductors

components

of

armature

reaction.

and

is called the

action.
redemagnetizingcomponent of armature
Fc acts at right angles to F and produces distortion,
Therefore,it is called the cross-magnetizing
ture
component of armaso

reaction.
The
shown

exact

in

conductors

which

produce these

two

effects

are

Fig. 240. In (a) the brushes are shown as advanced

by an angle /3to correspondto the advance in the neutral plane.
All the conductors within the angle 2/8,both at the top and at

GENERATOR

the bottom
to send

as

271

CHARACTERISTICS

of the armature, carry current in such a direction

flux through the armature
from rightto left. This

be checked

by the corkscrew rule. These conductors thus

act in direct oppositionto the main fieldand are therefore called
the demagnetizingarmature
conductors.
Their magnetomotive
force is representedby the component Fd, Fig.239.
Fig. 240 (6) shows the flux produced by the conductors not
included within twice the angle of brush advance.
tion
The direcand perpendicularto the polar
of this flux is downward
conductors cross-magnetizethe field. The mmf.
axis. These
producing this flux is representedby the component Fc, Fig.239.
may

The

resultant of Fd and
should

It

be

and

Example,

lap

"

wound

how

many

many

armature

delivers 120

15

How
and

4-poledynamo

and

advanced

are

remembered

mechanical

has

the

of both

sum

are

surface

^8S

the

amp.

conductors.

The

the external circuit.

to

netizing
demag-

The

machine
brushes

grees.
de-

demagnetizing
cross-magnetizing

ampere-tums

Twice

that

cross-magnetizing
ampere-turns is equal to one-half
of ampere-conductors.

the number

is

Fc is F^.

Brush

/
Axi8"^^
y

there?

lead
the angle of brush
four brushes, so
are

Fd

ir- Field

is 30**. There

the total number

that

covered

by

the

of degrees

ductors
demagnetizing conTherefore ^i the

is 120".
conductors
96

the

on

conductors,are

armature,

or

demagnetizing

conductors.

As

the

there

are

Fio

machine

Resultant

241."

is lap wound

and

effect of armature

field mmf's.

four

paths through the

current
30 amp.
path
120/4
per
30 X 96
Demagnetizing ampere-conductors
2,880.
Demagnetizing ampere-turns
2,880/2
1,440. Ans.
number
of cross-magnetizingconductors
The
be % of the conmust
ductors
the
armature.
of
on
Therefore, the number
cross-magnetizing

armature.

The

"

"

ampere-tums

is
192

30
"
"=

^"^

2,880.

Ans.

Fig. 241 shows the method of findingthe resultant magnetomotive

F is the field magnetoforce acting on the armature.
motive
force and F^ is the armature
magnetomotive force,
acting
axis
the
brush
after
brushes
the
been
have
advanced.
Fo is
along
F
less
than
the
due
the
to
resultant
of
the
two, being
demagnetiz-

272

CURRENTS

DIRECT

ing component of F^- Fa can be resolved into two components

at right angles to each other,Fd the demagnetizing component
mmf
and Fc the cross-magnetizing
of the armature
component
.

of the armature
192.

mmf.

Armature

Reaction

in

MultipolarMaclunes.

"

Reactions

as in the bipolar
manner
multipolarmachines in the same
machines that have justbeen described.
The pictureto the eye
and
be a littledifferent,
however.
In Fig.242 the armature
may

in

occur

FiQ.

the field poles of

242.

"

Field

flux of

multipolar generator.

multipolarmachine are shown, the armature

being shown as a flat surface,for convenience.
In (a)are shown the alternate north and south poles,together
with the magnetic flux entering the armature.
There is no current
conductors.
tributio
In (6) the flux disflowing in the armature
is shown.
It will be observed that it is symmetrical
about the polar axis. It is substantially
constant
under the pole
shoe and drops off graduallyat the edges,due to fringing. It
in the interpolar
falls to zero
and reverses
The neutral
spaces.
plane is the region where the flux is zero and under no-load
conditions is midway between the poles.
conductors carryingcurrent,
Fig. 243 (a) shows the armature
the field current
These
armature
conductors
being zero.
produce
The

flux in

manner

magnetomotive

varies

uniformly from

similar to that shown

force of the armature

zero

at the

pole axis

in

is not
to

Fig.238 (b).
uniform, but

maximum

in the

GENERATOR

of the

center

273

CHARACTERISTICS

The

interpolarspaces.

armature

the lines qr and st may be considered as

coil,the current flowinginto the paper
on

the left and out

a panconstituting
cake

in the conductors

in the conductors

of the paper

L^

-j

tween
be-

conductors

on

the

right.

"

(a)
Armature*

Magnetomotive

force
Flax

I
.

Fig.

243.

Flux

"

due

to armature

reaction in

multipolar generator.

Midway between gr and st the magnetomotive force will be a

maximum, as the magnetomotive forces of all the conductors on
both sides are actingtogetherat this point. The magnetomotive
force directly
under the polecenters iszero since for every ampereResultant

!/"

FJux-.^

.^

A 1

Bieucrai

nane

FiadFlu:

Fig.

244.

"

Resultant

flux

found

by

combining

field flux (Fig. 242) and

ture
arma-

flux (Fig. 243).

poleaxis there is a symmetricallyrent

spaced ampere-conductoron the other side carryingan equal curdirection. The net magnetomotive force at the
the same
on
due to all such ampere-conductorsis obviously zero.
pole-centers
The magnetomotive force distribution along the air-gapis shown
conductor

on

one

side of any

274

DIRECT

CURRENTS

by the dotted line,Fig. 243 (6). Owing to the high reluctance

has not the same
of the interpolar
shape as
spaces, the^iix curve
but droops in the interpolar
the magnetomotive force curve
spaces as shown in Fig.243 (6).
of
The resultant flux is found by adding the two flux curves
constant
Figs.242 and 243, as is done in Fig.244. (Thisassumes
in the iron.) It will be noted that the flux peaks
permeability
the trailing
on
pole tip,Fig. 244, as in the case of the bi-polar
generator. Also the neutral plane has advanced in the direction
of the rotation. In order to keep the brushes in the neutral plane
Fig.245
they should be advanced as this neutral planeadvances.

Fio. 245.

shows

the

"

Field distortion in

4-pole generator.

crowding of flux into the trailing

pole tipsin

4-pole

generator.
193.

Compensating Armature
effect of the armature

of the brushes with

Reaction.

"

As

the

netizing
cross-mag-

usuallynecessitates the shifting

tion
reacload,it is desirable to minimize armature
if this can
be done
conveniently. One practicalmethod,
when laminated pole cores
are
used, is to use a stamping having
but one
These are
pole tip,as shown in Fig. 221, page 251.
is built up.
This leaves
alternatelyreversed when the core
in the poletips
resulting
spaces between the poletiplaminations,
having but one-half the cross-section of iron along their lengths.
Therefore,the pole tip becomes highly saturated and its per-

"

276

DIRECT

spending

conductor.

armature

series with

CURRENTS

the armature

so

This

winding is connected

that the magnetomotive

forces

in
are

oppositeand equal at all loads. These windings allow the use

of a very short air-gap,
with the accompanying reduction in field
and in fieldloss.

copper

The

has
principle

Thompson-Ryan

been

applied to many
modern
machines
where commutation
difiicultiesare unusually
series motors
great, as in alternating-current
(see Vol. II, page
The
conductors
motors.
281) and in large rolling-mill
are
in
indicated in Fig.247 (6).
the manner
installed in the pole faces
This type of construction is used in the Ridgeway dynamo.
The
are

conductors

to
as

in series with the armature

adjustedthat their ampere-turns

so

not

connected

are

the armature

rule have the

ampere-tmns

same

number

are

in almost

at each

of conductors

exact

and
position
op-

point. They do
as

the armature

that of one armature

pointii^
path, whereas the current through this compensating winding is
of the currents in the various parallel
the sum
paths through the
The small polesbetween the main poles.Fig. 247 (6),
armature.
saturated for any flux tendingto leak between the main poles.
^re
reaction is also reduced by increasingthe lengthof
Armature
the air gap, thus oflFering
higherreluctance to the armature flux.
field copper
and a greater field
A longer air-gap means
more
because the armature

current

at each

current, however.
194. Commutation.
force induced

in any

"

It has been shown

singlecoil of

that the electromotive

direct cm*rent

generator is

and in order that the current may flow always in the

alternating,
is necessary.
direction to the external circuit,
a commutator
same
coil as it
Fig. 248 shows the changes of current in an armature
approaches and recedes from the brushes. It is assumed that
is being realized. The load is such that 20
ideal commutation
flow in each path of the armature, making 40 amp.
amp.
leavingthe machine by this one brush. The current distribution
throughout the brush is also assumed to be uniform.
When
in positions(1),(2) and (3) each coil (and, therefore,
successive positionsof any one
particularcoil)carries 20 amp.
As
is

the brush

covers

four segments

and

the current

distribution

uniform, 10 amp. must flow into the brush from each segment.
from
to
when
(4),the
Therefore,
passing
position(3)

GENERATOR

277

CHARACTERISTICS

coil must

lose the 10 amperes

which pass from this segment into
the brush.
Hence, in position(4)the coilcarries only 10 amperes.
Before

coil

reaching position (5) the

givesup another 10
is zero when the coil reaches position
so that the current
amperes
(5). When the coilreaches position(6)the current flows through
the coil in the reverse
due to current
enteringthe
direction,
brush from' another armature
path. The current reaches 20
in position(7) and remains 20 amperes
in the further
amperes
positions(8),(9)and (10).

+ Brush

\\ \

\ \N

T
h-*

Fig. 248.

"

Current

80"

ao-u- io-^

*-io

in coil undergoing

"-ao
""^ja6-"-y

commutation

""-"

"

ideal conditions.

consists of two parts:

Therefore,commutation
1. Reversingthe current in any coil from its full positive
value
to an equal negative value.
This reversal must take placein the
short time interval required for a segment to pass under
the
brush.
2. The
must

current

be conducted

Part

two

paths meeting

uniform

until the brush

amperes
rate

at the brush

to the external circuit.

(1) is illustrated by Fig. 248

coil is +20
at

suppliedby the

to

value of "20

(6). The

is

current

reached, when

amperes.

in the

it reverses

This is

perfect

commutation.
is only approximated
-foregoingideal commutation
preventingits realization.
practice. There are two causes

The

in

278

CURRENTS

DIRECT

the coilis in

positions(4),(5)and
(6) it is short-circuited by the brush. If any voltage is being
induced in the coil when it is in these positions,
a large current
will necessarily
flow,since the resistance of the short-circuited
It will be noted that when

16

Fig.

coil is very

low.

249.

"

Short-circuit currents

resistance constitutes the

Fio.

250.

"

Change

through

This resistance consists

of the coil plusthe contact

Fig. 249 shows

assumed

of current

brush.

merely of the resistance

resistance of the brush.

This contact

major portion of the total resistance.

currents
of 15 and 5 amperes
flowing

in coil when

brushes

are

too

far back

of the neutral

plane.

in coils (4)and

due to voltagesinduced in them

(5)respectively,
while they are being short-circuited by the brush.
If the local short-circuit currents
of Fig. 249 be superposed
those of Fig. 248 (a)the current distributes itselfover
the
upon

GENERATOR

in the

279

CHARACTERISTICS

in

shown

45
Fig. 250 (a). There are now
enteringthe brush and 5 amperes leavingit. Therefore,
amperes
instead of 40, and in one
the brush has to handle 50 amperes
twice that which
place there are 20 amperes
per segment, or
occurred under the ideal conditions of Fig. 248.
This will tend
to produce heating and undue
spaxJdngunder the heel of the

brush

manner

brush.

Fig.250 (6)shows the

varies under

these

new

in which

manner

conditions.

the current

Instead

of

in the coil

dropping uni-

-I-Brush

\\\\\
T-^Hriizrnaancziiz:
aa-"-

Fig.

2(j-" lOo-*.

20-"

251.

-*-6o

Commutation

"

*-fiOa
*-f20o

-^26o

with the brushes

too

*^20a

-*"

80a

far ahead,

it firstrises to 25 amperes
before starting
It will be noted that the time for reversingfrom

formly from 20 amperes

to

reverse.

+20

amperes

time hj which

"20

to

makes

amperes

has been reduced

commutation

more

from

difficult. The

time t to
curve

of

when the brush is too far back of the neutral

Fig. 250 occurs
going
plane. Voltagesare then induced in the coils as they are undercommutation.
The

curves

of

Fig.248 (h)and

250

(h)are called commutation

curves.

If the brushes

are

placed tod

far ahead

of the neutral

plane,

CURRENTS

280

DIRECT

short-circuitcurrents

flow under

This

the toe of the

sparking under

produces undue

condition

brush, resulting
of Fig.251.
curve

of the

commutation

distribution and

in the current

the toe

brush.

wide, both the heel and the toe will

in the
short-circuit coils in which voltagesare induced,resulting
of Fig. 252.
Moving the brushes either
commutation
curve
If the brushes

backward

forward

or

only remedy is a

shows

"

The

case.

brush.

Commutation

Electromotive

in this

assist matters

does not

narrower

Fig. 252.

196. The

too

are

with too

brush.

of Self-induction.

Force

coil just as

wide

"

Fig.253 (a)

it is

enteringthe commutation
The
slot conductors
embedded
in iron and, due to
zone.
are
the current flowingin the coil,
considerable flux passes through
in this case
the coil,
upward. Let the value of the flux be "^i.
coil is shown just after it has left the
In Fig. 253 (6) the same
armature

an

v^wt^k"^;

l\g/;bi^L

V^^i^^"-

(a) Before commutation

Fig.

253.

conmiutation
its

as

The

"

(b ) After
of flux through

Change

The

zone.

current

previousvalue,but it

now

^'L

commutation

coil undergoing commutation.

through the coil

flows in the

reverse

is the

same

direction.

flux is still"^ibut it has been reversed in direction.

Therefore,in the time t seconds required for a segment to

pass the brush or commutating zone, the flux has changed by
lines. This is shown in Fig.254,where the ideal commutation
2"t"i
This change of flux will induce a voltage,
is assumed.
curve
e

being the

"

2"^i
---

number

10"^ volts

of turns

(fromequation74, page
in the coil.

"'^'^'^^'
by

185)

(^OOglC

voltage,with its

This

lookingupon

be considered
and

mutual

inductance

in

Fig. 254.

force of self-induction.

this

follows: The

as

is shown
direction,

proper

It is called the electromotive

Instead of

281

CHARACTERISTICS

GENERATOR

voltagephenomenon, it may
coil has self-inductance,
armature
as

coils. This inductance

with other armature

tends to prevent the current reversingin the same

manner
that inductance tends to prevent change of current in any circuit.
though the brushes are set exactly in the
Therefore, even

plane and the coils undergoing commutation

magnetic Knes, there will be a voltage induced

cutting

neutral

are

no

in the coil

due

its

to

self-inductance

own

and

inductance.

mutual

to

ElectromotiTo

To

force o(

SelMndactioD

Fig.

254.

Electromotive

"

force of self-induction

in

to
voltageit is necessary
the neutral plane in a generator. When

ehminate

this

it finds itselfin

commutation

coil undergoing

set the brushes

the

field of the

same

tion.
commuta-

ahead

of

coil is

undergoing
polarityas that

enter.

about to
zone
are
leavingthe commutation
Therefore,this field induces a voltage which assists the

current

to

which

the conductors

reverse.

duced
statingit is that the electromotive force inahead of the
in the coil due to its cuttingflux in the zone
neutral plane is in exact oppositionto the electromotive force of
shown in Fig.254, and so neutraUzes
self-and mutual induction,
Another

of

way

it.
that the brushes be kept ahead of
It is therefore necessary
the neutral plane in a generator
in.order to obtain satisfactory
y
commutation

under

load conditions.

voltages induced
in a coil due to the shifting
of the neutral plane and also due
self-inductance are
its own
to
comparatively low in value,
being of the order of magnitude from a few tenths of a volt to
perhaps 4 or 5 volts. But they are acting in a circuit having
coil is extremely
a
very low resistance. The resistance of one
196.

low

so

Sparking

that most

at

the

Commutator.

"

The

of the circuit resistance is at the brush

contact.

282

CURRENTS

DIRECT

contact

currents

reach such

may

sparking at the brushes.

brush

low, these short-circuit

resistance is too

If the brush

is desirable from

excessive values
the

as

to

produce

severe

hand, a low resistance

the standpoint of carrying the current
On

other

out to the external circuit with minimum

loss.

contact

low contact

but the
resistance,
short-circuit currents are excessive when they are used.
fore,
Therelow voltage,high
their appUcation is limited to very

Copper brushes have

current

machines.

In

very

this

case

copper

is often

gauze

used.

disadvantage of using copper brushes is that they

*'cut" the conunutator
mechanically.
brushes have a much
Carbon
higher contact resistance than
and therefore limit the short-circuit ciu*rents,
givingmuch
copper
results. In addition,they are
less
more
more
or
satisfactory
graphiticin their composition and so lubricate the commutator
to a certain extent.
Unusually hard carbon brushes may cut the
Different grades of carbon are requiredfor different
commutator.
Another

machines.
The

from

of the current

passage

to the brush

the commutator

phenomenon than it is one of pure

will show myriads of minute
A careful examination

is

more

of

an

arc

conduction.

existing
between
the brush surface and the commutator.
The voltage
the commutator
and
the brush, instead of
drop between
tion
being proportionalto the current (as it would be with conducand is equal to about
1
only) is substantiallyconstant
Bits of copper
be found in the positive
volt per brush.
may
the negative
brush due to the arcing. The voltagedrop across
the positivebrush, due to the
brush is different from that across
and
case
negative in the other.
being positivein one
copper
These facts all substantiate the arcingtheory.
After a machine
Another proof is the so-called "high mica."
has been in operationfor a considerable time, it often happens
that the mica

above

insulation between

was

mica

is much

trudes
pro-

in so-called
resulting
long supposed that this was

than

of the copper
is of
fallacyof this supposition

wearing

segments

the surface of the commutator,

"high mica," Fig. 255. It

due to the mica being harder
the

the commutator

arcs

away

harder

evenly for the brush

than

more

the copper, which resulted in

The
readilythan the mica.

course

the copper,

cannot

evident.

the two

grind the

copper

Even
must

though the
always wear

until it

conaes

in

284

DIRECT

CURRENTS

of

The
increasingmagnitude will be formed.
deeper the depressions,or the higher the mica, the largerand
more
vigorous these arcs become.
Hence, any condition which
creases
produces sparking and so roughens the commutator
only inthe sparkingand roughening,or, these actions are cumulative.
of the
If a commutator
is sparkingbadly and the cause

commutator,

arcs

Fig. 257.

"

Proper method

of fittingbrushes.

will deteriorate very

corrected,the commutator
become inoperative.
soon
The brushes should be fitted very
tator
carefullyto the commusurface by grinding with sandpaper in the manner
shown
the surface of the commutator
should
in Fig. 257.
Carbon
on
be removed
not use
waste.
A slightly
with an oilycloth. Do
be partiallysmoothed
with fine
roughened commutator
may
of emery
the particles
are
as
sandpaper. Do not use emery,
bars. If the
conducting and may short-circuit the commutator

sparking is
rapidlyand

not

commutator

is

285

CHARACTERISTICS

GENERATOR

grooved by

the

brushes,or is otherwise

in poor

it should be turned down in a lathe.

condition,
such as loose mica and loose segments, are
Other difficulties,
It is often possibleto rectifythese
serious in character.
more
difficultiesby tighteningup the commutator
clamp bolts.
197. Commutating Poles (Interpoles).Fig. 258 shows the
geometricalneutral or no-load neutral plane and the neutral
plane under load. It will be noted that this is merely Fig.244
"

the brushes

reproduced. If

plane,there would

258.

"

properlyeven

tate

Brush

The

zone.

brushes will not

Neutral^

advance

if advanced

to the

pole flux is

to the load neutral

The

zero.

that the short-circuited coils are

commu-

plane.

commutating

plane. This

force of self-induction

stillexists in the coilsundergoingshort-circuit,

even
due

neutral

^^'V^^

to proper

to the fact that the electromotive

is due

no-load

severe

Load

Fig.

in the

because
sparkingunder load conditions,
appreciableflux,"^2,due to armature
reaction,
be

of the very
existingin the neutral

now

remained

brushes must

cuttingthe

ifthe

voltage

be advanced

so

flux "t"i
of the next

Fig. 258, in order that an electromotive force

be generatedwhich will balance the electromotive force of
may
self-induction. It will be noted that this position
is in the fringe
of the next pole flux. A very slightmovement
of the brushes in
either direction makes a very marked
change in the flux so it is
In
under these conditions.
difficultto obtain good commutation
commutation
be impossibleto obtain satisfactory
fact,it may

pole,as

shown

in

When
the
because of the steepnessof the flux-distribution curve.
best positionof the brushes is obtained,the trailing
tip of each
brush

may

weak

be in too

strong

field and

the

leadingtip in

too

field.

opposite to it in
neutral,it is
direction,could be produced in the geometrical
obvious that the flux in the neutral plane could be brought to zero
If

in

flux

spiteof

having the

armature

same

value

reaction.

If

as

"^2,but

flux

having

value "^2+

"l"\

286

DIRECT

CURRENTS

would
be obtained
produced, satisfactorycommutation
without moving the brushes.
It is the function of commutating
poles to produce just this flux.
Commutating polesconsist of narrow
poleslocated between the
main poles. They send a flux into the armature
which is of the
For
commutation.
magnitude to produce satisfactory
proper
example, in Fig.258, the commutating pole must first produce a
flux equal to "/"2so as to neutralize,
in the neutral zone, the inwere

"^

"

n^

t
FiQ.

259.

"

Flux

produced

of flux due to armature

crease

additional
induction

L^"

by commutating

reaction.

pole alone.

It must

also

the

produce an

force

electromotive

"t"ito balance
in the coil undergoing commutation.
flux

This

of selftating
commu-

pole flux is shown in Fig. 259. The pole producingit at

be a south pole. Fig. 260 shows the resultant
this point must
flux obtained by combining Figs.258 and 259.

Fio. 26O.-7-Resultant

As

the armature

induction
to

of main

flux and

reaction

and

commutating-pole

"

the electromotive

in the coils undergoing commutation

the armature

flux

are

machine

loaded.

force of self-

both proportional

current,the compensating flux produced

also be proportionalto the

commutating poles must
The commutating polesare wound, therefore,
armature
current.
with a few turns of comparativelyheavy wire and are connected
in Fig.261.
The air-gap
in series with the armature, as shown

by

the

GENERATOR

287

CHARACTERISTICS

so that the commupolesand the armature is large,

tatingpole flux is nearlyproportionalto the armature current

between

these

at

all loads.
of polesin the direction
It should be noted that the sequence
of rotation in a generator is Ns and Sn, where the capitals
refer

poles and the small lettersrefer to the commutating

poles. Fig. 262 shows an interpoleseparate from the machine.
Fig. 263 shows the frame and field coils for a commutating pole
motor.
It will be noted that only two commutating poles are
to the main

Fig.

261.

"

Connections

in this

of

shunt

field

4-pole machine.

and

commutating

poles.

Each

pole has twice the

fore,
strengththat it would have if four such poleswere used. Therethe proper
commutating voltage is induced in but one side
of the coil undergoing commutation.
In practice,
commutating polesare so designedthat they produce
necessary

flux of greater

magnitude than

is necessary.

The

entire

commutating pole circuit is then shunted by a low resistance

mutation
shunt, this shunt being adjusteduntil the best condition of comis obtained.
The commutating pole shunt is shown in
Fig. 261. This shunt is sometimes made inductive so that the
will flow to the commutating poles
proper proportionof current
sudden changes of load,such as occur
in railway generators.
on

288

CURRENTS

DIRECT

198. The

Shunt

Generator:

Characteristics.

"

If

shunt

voltage,be loaded,the terminal

voltage will drop. This drop in voltage will increase with in-

generator, after buildingup

PiQ. 262.

crease

of load.

Such

Commutating

"

263.

"

Frame

and

pole and winding.

in terminal

voltageis undesirable,
in generators which supply power to

drop

especiallywhen it occurs
incandescent lamps.

Fiu.

to

field coil for Westinghouse

30 H.P., direct-current,interpole

motor.

It is very important to know the

generator for each value of current

abilityto maintain

its

voltageat the terminals of a

because the
that it delivers,

voltageunder load conditions determines

GENERATOR

large measure
specifiedservice.
in

the

To

test

of
suitability

generator, in

289

CHARACTERISTICS

order

to

generator for certain

determine

terminal

volts to current, it is connected

as
263. The machine is self excited and

page

is connected

in the Une to

measure

performingthis test it is often desirable

the field circuit so
current

as

shown
a

as

relation of
in

Fig.235,

voltmeter

its terminals to indicate the terminal

across

ammeter

the

is

volts.

nected
con-

An

the load current.

In

ammeter

in

to connect

to be able to follow the

an

change in the field

the load is applied.

startingthe test,rated load should first be applied and

the field current adjusted until rated voltageis obtained.
The
In

Load

Fig.

264.

"

Shunt

load should then be thrown

voltmeter.

The

Current"/

generator

characteristic.

off and the no-load volts read

on

the

load should then be

graduallyapplied,reading
the volts and the current for each load. The speed of the generator
ings
should be maintained
constant throughout. If the readacteristic
be plottedas shown in Fig. 264, the so-called shunt charresults. If,in a small generator, the load be carried
far enough, a rapid decrease of voltage will occur, as shown
This is called the break-down
in Fig.264.
pointof the generator.
Further applicationof load results in a very rapid decrease of
voltage and beyond a certain point any attempt at increase of
load results in
load may
current

even

will

decrease of current

rather than

an

increase.

be carried to short-circuit conditions and

actuallydecrease

as

short-circuit is

yet the

approached.

This is due to the fact that the field is short-circuited and

19

The

any

290

DIRECT

CURRENTS

flowingat short-circuit is due

of the machine only.

to the residual

current

If the external resistance be

which

it started.

The

increased,the voltage will

now

rise slowlyand will ultimatelyreach

magnetism

value not far below that at

fact that the

voltagefollows a different
when
the short-circuit is removed
is primarily due to
curve
hysteresis.When the load is being appUed, the voltageis dropping
and the iron is on the part of the cyclerepresentedby c, Fig.
231 (a). When
the voltagestarts to increase,
it returns along the
path a, Fig.231 (a),page 260. There is less flux for a given field

60

100

150

250

200

800

350

400

460

600

Amperes
Fig.

265.

"

Typical shunt characteristic.

and

consequentlyless voltageis induced in the machine

the return curve.
This,togetherwith a lesser field current
upon
for the return curve
resultingfrom the lower voltage,accounts
lyingbelow the other.
In practice,machines
are
operated only on the portionab
(Fig.264) of the characteristic. Fig. 265 shows this portion of
for a 100-kw.,230-volt generator. The rated current
the curve
The generator field rheostat is
is 100,000/230
435 amperes.
set so
that the generator terminal voltage is 230 when
it is
this load of 435 amperes.
delivering
There are three reasons
for the drop in voltageunder load of a
current

shunt generator:

voltageis less than the induced voltage by

the resistance drop in the armature.
That
is, the terminal
voltage
E
V
laRa
(103)
(1) The

terminal

292

DIRECT

CURRENTS

flux,due to saturation and also hysteresis,

is illustrated in
as
Fig.231 (a),page 260. Therefore,a generator when operatingat
hi^h saturation maintains its voltagebetter than when running at
low saturation.
This is illustratedby
for

curves

230-volt

Pig. 267, which shows

generator,one

at 900

saturation

two

r.p.m. and the other

If the no-load

1,200 r.p.m.

voltageof the generator in each

is 230 volts,the generator will be operating at point (a)
case
the 1,200 r.p.m. curve
and at point (6) on the 900 r.p.m.
on
As point (6) correspondsto a much
curve.
higher saturation
at

Field

Currentt

Pig. 267.

of the armature

"

Load

Relation

of shunt

Current

characteristics to speed.

tain
(a),the generator will mainits voltage better at 900 r.p.m. than at 1,200 r.p.m., as
shown by the characteristics in Fig. 267.
199. Generator
Regulation. The abilityof a generator to
of its suitability
for
maintain its voltageunder load is a measiu*e
shows quantitatively
service. The regulation
constant potential
the amount
the voltagevaries from rated load to no load.
ardization
The definition of regulation
accordingto the A. I. E. E. Standrated load and
Rules is the rise in voltage between
load. This is usuallyexpressedas a percentage. Regulation
no
defined as follows:
be more
specifically
may
and fieldiron than

"

Regulation
As

an

100

example,in Fig.266, the

Per cent,

volts

"

i~d^

regulation
=

100

rise in

(percent.)(104)

voltagefrom b

to

be
-jr.

Googk

be

GENERATOR

In

the

100-kw.

voltage is

regulation

shunt

The

100 ^^
230

230

200. Total Characteristic.

to

volts.

252

^^

100

characteristic of

characteristic is shown

generator whose

Fig. 265, the no-load

voltageis 230.
Per cent,

293

CHARACTERISTICS

rated

load

9.6 per cent.

Reference is often made

"

in

to the total

characteristic,
which reference has alreadybeen made, is the relation existing

between

load current

and terminal volts.

is the relation between

The

armature

current

armature

diflFersfrom

current

of current

amount

The

generator.

shunt

The

totalcharacteristic

and indu^ced volts.

the load

by

current

the

flowingin the field.

Total Characterlrtle

"^"^

o
Fio.

The

armature

268.

"

characteristic of shunt

Total

generator.

current
.

/a
when
The

induced

//

// the shunt field current.

/ is the load ciu*rent and

volts
E

where

/ +

V is the terminal

laRa

voltageand Ra the

(104)
armature

includingbrush and brush contact resistance. The

is the curve
showing the relation of la and
be foimd

from
graphically

the shunt

characteristic as

resistance,
total characteristic
It may
follows:

E.

Let qr, Fig. 268, be the shunt characteristic. Draw

done in Figs.236 and 237.
resistance line Oa, as was
of

will have

the appearance
fact that the abscissas

are

the field
The

line

owing to the
being nearly vertical,
scale.
current
plotted to armature

294

The

CURRENTS

DIRECT

the OY

horizontal distances from

for each value of

value of fieldcurrent

axis,Oq to Oa^ give the

voltage. By adding these

the total curto the shunt characteristic,

rent
horizontally
is given by the resultingcharacteristic qe. For example,
at point c on the shunt characteristic the distance cfdf is added
at cd, givingpoint d on the characteristic qe.
horizontally
resistance drop line Oh is then plotted,
The armature
assuming
The voltagedrop
that the brush contact resistance is constant.
It is only
to the current.
is then proportional
in the armature
value of current
to determine
the drop e'f at some
necessary
Oe', That is,the voltagedrop
distances

e'f

the OX

vertical distances from

The

Of,

the Une

Draw

{Oe')Ra

axis,

drop for each value of current.

0/',give the armature
Adding these drops to the characteristic qe, as ef e'fisadded at
the point e, the total characteristic qf is obtained.
that the total induced voltage
It should be borne in mind
givesthe total power developed
multipliedby the total cmrent
All of this power is not available,
within the armature.
however,

Oe' to

for two

reasons:

as

la^Ra loss iu the

armature

itself,
appearing

copper.

output is consumed

of the armature

(2) Some
shunt

is lost in the armature

of thi^ power

(1) Some

in

field.

Example,
of

"

A
0.07

generator has

20-kw., 220-volt,shunt
ohm

and

shunt

power is developed in the armature

Rated
current

an

afield resistance of 100

220
T
^^
=100=

Armature

2-2 ^"^P-

current

la
Induced

2.2

90.9 +

93.1 amp.

volts
^

developed
P

220

(93.1 X 0.07)

226.5

volts.

in armature
=

226.5

93.1

armature

ohms.

it delivers its rated output?

when

Field current

Power

heating the

21.1 kw.

Ans,

sistance
re-

What

295

CHARACTERISTICS

GENERATOR

The

be obtained

result may

same

by adding

losses

power

as

follows:

Field loss

loss

Armature

developedin

Power
P

20,000 +

Pf

Pa

^^*

watts.

(93.1)*0.07

607

watts.

armature

+ 607

484

21,091 watts

Generator.

Compound

201. The

484

^The

"

Ana.

drop in voltage with

is characteristic of the shunt

load, which

21.1 kw.

generator, makes

this

tial.
type of generator undesirable where constancy of voltageis essen-

to lighting
where
appliesparticularly
circuits,

This

very

Shunt-field
Rheostat

Pig.

269.

"

Connections

of

slightchangeof voltagemakes
power

of incandescent

compound

generator

change in the candle-

material

lamps. A

(short shunt).

be made

generator may

constant
produce a substantially
a
voltage, or even
voltage as the load increases,
by placing on the field core

which

turns
are

connected

are

connected'

so

as

in series with

to aid the shunt

the load.

turns

when

These

to

rise in
a

few

turns

the generator

delivers current, Fig. 269.

the ciurent
As the load increases,
the flux
through the series turns also increases and, therefore,

through the
is to

armature

increases.

increase the induced

The effect of this increased flux

voltage. By

proper

the series ampere-turns, this increase in armature

made

to balance

the

drop in voltage due

adjustment of
voltagemay be

to armature

reaction

296

DIRECT

CURRENTS

and that due to the resistance

current
causes

If the terminal
drop in the armature.
voltage is maintained
substantially
constant, the field
will not drop as the load increases. Therefore,the three
of voltagedrop, namely, armature
reaction,laRa drop,

w
Shmit
: Field

(a)

(6)

ShoEtShunt

Fig. 270.

"

Compound

Long Shunt

connections.

generator

drop in fieldcurrent (Fig.266),are neutralized more

completelyby the effect of the series ampere-turns.

and

The

shunt field may

terminals.Fig.

be connected

(a), in which

270

directly
across

If the shimt field be connected

short shimt.

less

the armature

the machine

case

or

is called

the machine

across

Over

ComponndAd
_E!lat

impounded
Under

Compounded

Current

Fio.

271.

"

Compound

characteristics.

generator

terminals outside the series field,

Fig.270
shunt.

The

(6),the machine

operatingcharacteristic is about the

same

is long

in either

case.

If the effect of the series turns

at rated load

as

at

no

is to

produce the

load,the machine

(See Fig. 271.) It is seldom

same

is said to be

voltage
pounded.
flatcom-

possibleto maintain

GENERATOR

297

CHARACTERISTICS

voltagefor all values of current from no load to rated

load.
The tendency is for the voltagefirstto rise and then to
voltage at rated load as was
drop again, reaching the same
obtained at no load. The particular
shape of the characteristic
is due to the iron becoming saturated,so that the added series
ampere-turns do not increase the flux at fullload as much as they
do at Kght load. When
the rated-load voltageis greater than the
no-load voltage,the machine
is said to be over
compounded.
When
the rated-load voltageis less than the no-load voltage,
the
machine
is said to be under compounded.
Generators
are
seldom under compounded.
constant

lOO

(a)
Fig.

272.

"

Over-compounded

200

(b)
generator maintaining constant
of

voltage

the end

at

feeder.

in isolated
Flat-compounded generators are used principally
ductors
plants,such as hotels and office buildings. The size of the conin the distribution system of such plantsis determined
almost entirelyby imderwriters' requirementsas to carrying
capacity. Wires conformng to these requirements are usually
tween
of such size that only a very small voltagedrop takes placebe-

the generator and the various

loads.

used
where
the load is
generators are
indistance from the generator. As the load creases,

Over-compounded
located at

some

the

voltageat

the load tends

to

decrease,due

to

the

voltagedrop in the feeder. If,however, the generator voltage

risesjustenough to offsetthis feeder drop,the voltageat the load
remains

constant.

Example.

"

Consider

the conditions

shown

in Fig. 272 (o). A certain

The load is suppliedover
a

load is 4,000 ft. distant from the generator.

feeder. The no-load voltage of the generator is 500
500,000 CM.
It is desired to maintain the load voltage at a substantially
constant

volts.
value

298

DIRECT

of 500

volts from

CURRENTS

load to the maximum

no

be the characteristic of the

must

If the cables
be 500

or

amp.
0.01 volt per

0.001

"normal"

the

density the

per cir. mil (Par. 68), and

amp.

foot,making
The actual drop is

amp.

What

current

would

generator?

operated at

were

of 300

demand

the

be

drop would

total drop of 80 volts.

1^

80

48 volts.

The
generator terminal voltage should rise from a no-load value of 500
volts to 548 volts when
300 amp.
are
being delivered to the load.Fig.
272

ih).

Compound generators
over
compounded. The

usuallywound so as to be somewhat
degree of compoimding can then be
regulated by shunting more

are

Diverter
or

/VNAAA

less current

away

from

series field. To do this

the
low

verter,
shimt, called a diis used,Fig. 273.
Compound
generators
which supply 3-wire distribution
systems usuallyhave two
series field windings,one connected
resistance

to
273.

Fig.

"

Series-field diverter.

each

armature.

side of

There

are

the
two

separate series windings

on

winding being connected to the positiveterminal

and the other to the negative terminal of the machine.
(See
Fig. 338, page 376.)
In a compound generator the induced voltagein the armature
each

pole,one

is:
S

I,R. +

laRa

(105)

where

voltage,/" the series field current,la

is the terminal

current,and R^ and Ra the seriesfieldand armature

the armature

respectively.(jB"is the equivalentparallelresistance

of the series field and diverter,if a diverter is used.
/, then
current
in the diverter and series field.)
equals the combined
In a long shunt generator J,
/o.
resistance

Example.
voltage of
shunt

"

A
230

compound
volts

field current

when

generator, connected
it is

is 4 amp.,

deliveringa

the

armature

short shunt, has

current

resistance

of 150

terminal

The
amp.
and the
0.03 ohm

300

DIRECT

The

distance

owing
the

in each

same

be less than

now

speed. But

increased

the

to

will

oa

as

case,

CURRENTS

the increase

it

was

in

(a),

Fig. 274

the distance

will be

ah

depends

of series turns

solelyon the load. The increase of voUage cd is much greater in

fore,
(6)than in (a),owing to the lessersaturation of the iron. Therewill have the more
the higher speed machine
risingcharin Fig. 274 (c). It will be noted that
is shown
as
.acteristic,
the effect of speed upon
the compoimd characteristic is just
opposite to the effect of speed upon the shunt characteristic.
(See Fig. 267.) This is due to the fact that saturation opposes
change of the flux in each case.
of

203. Deteimination
"

It is often

Turns:

Series

determine

desired to

istic.
Character-

Armature

of series

the number

it is necessary to place upon the poles of

generator in order to make it either flat-compounded or
it any desired degree of compoimding.
which

turns

value.' Let this value of shunt field current

proper

give

to

determination,adjust the no-load voltageto its

the

make

To

shunt

the generator to its rated load and

bring the terminal volts

value

to the

of field ciurent

by

of the field rheostat

means

desired value.
be

Load

be /i.

1%. The

Let the
necessary

responding
cor-

crease
in-

of field ampere-tiu'nsis

where
turns

Nah

shunt-field turns

Let / be the rated- load current

Then

NJ^

number

obtained

appUed

pole or

total

of the

machine, and iV, the

series turns.

necessary

The

per

used).

be

may

(eitherturns

by

of series turns

means

the

(h-I^N^

for

of the armature

flat-compoundingmay
characteristic.

The

also be
load is

in the usual way.

It is preferableto
excite the fieldseparately,
in Fig.275.
Load is applied
as shown
to

armatiu'e

and the terminal

of the
voltageis maintained constant by means
shunt-field rheostat. Corresponding values of field current
and
armature
current
noted.
When
the two
are
are
plotted (as

GENERATOR

in

shown

Fig.276) the resultingcurve

istic. The

owing

current

To

fieldcurrent

301

CHARACTERISTICS

increases

is the armature

more

to saturation.

determine

the number

of series turns

necessary,

the increase of field current

the shunt

turns and

the current

character-

rapidlythan the armature

feeby

multiply
by

divide

Oa,

"^
FiQ.

275.

"

Connections

for

obtaining

armature

characteristic.

Series-fieldturns for flat compounding

6c

N.

N.K

Oa
'^A

where

of turns of the shunt field.

N^h is the number

"^

FiQ.

204. The

276.

"

Armature

Series Generator.

winding is connected

"

characteristic.

In the series generator the field

in series with the armature

and the external

of a comparativelyfew turns
necessarily
of wire havinga sufficiently
largecross-section to carry the rated

circuit.

current

It must

consist

of the generator.

u.

302

DIRECT

The

series

generator in

CURRENTS

instances is used for constant

most

work, in distinction to the shunt generator which

constant
potential.Fig. 277 shows the saturation

maintains

rent

series generator and also its characteristic.

differsin

no

from

way

The

characteristicis similar in shape to the saturation

saturation.

of

curve

saturation

that of the shimt generator.

cur^

The
curve

curve

external
for low

voltage at each point is less than that shown

The

Amperes
Fig.

by the saturation

277.

"

Series generator

characteristic.

due to the drop through

by the amount
and the drop due to armathe armature
and field,
la{Ra + i2"),
ture
reaction. The
reaches a maximum
curve
beyond which
armature

curve

reaction becomes

so

great

as

to cause

the

curve

to

droop

These machines
sharply and the voltagedrops rapidlyto zero.
reaction.
are
designedto have a very high value of armature
builds up as follows:
If the series fieldis connected in such

The

due

machine

to the residual

manner

that the current

magnetism aids this residual magnetism, the

generator will build up, provided the external resistance equals or

GENERATOR

303

CHARACTERISTICS

is less than that indicated

by the external resistance lineOa.

The

line Oa is therefore called the criticalexternal resistance line.

the

external

swings down
shunt

As

decreases,the external resistance line

the right,as has alreadybeen discussed for the

resistance
to

The line 06 issuch

generator,Par. 189.

line.

It would be

impossibleto operate with an external resistance corpractically

responding
to the line Oa^ or to any line cuttingthe curve
to
the left of d,as a small increase in external resistance would swing
the resistance line away from the curve
resultingin the generator's
its
load.
machine
The
to
is designed
dropping
operate
tially
along the portion6c of the curve, which correspondsto substanconstant
The current is not affected by a concurrent.
siderable
change in external resistance,
correspondingto the line
06 swinging up or down.
To obtain close regulationthe series
field is shimted by a rheostat.
The resistance of this rheostat
is controlled by a solenoid connected in series with the line. In
be held
this way
the current delivered by the generator may
constant.
substantially
arc

In the past, the series generator has been much used in series
lighting. The Brush Arc machiuQ and the Thomson-Houston

Both of these
examples of such machines.
armatures.
have open-circuit
(SeePar. 164.) As the voltageon
the comfrom 2,000 volts to 10,000 volts,
the commutator
mutators
ranges

generator are

common

have

generator there
connected
and

between

wide gaps
are

as

in series so

many
as

or

to reduce

out the

also to smooth

two

as

segments.

In the Brush

Arc

three separatecommutators
the voltageper commutator

in the voltagewave.
ripples

(SeeFig.
commutator.
(For a
Electric Machinery,"

191.) There are but four segments per

more
complete descriptionsee "Dynamo
S. P. Thompson, Vol. I.)
is transmitted by direct currents at potenIn Europe, power
tials
the
as
Thury System.^ This high
high as 50,000 volts,in
voltage is obtained by connecting several series generators in
The
current.
series and
voltage
transmitting at constant
increases

with the load.

one

at each end

as

5,000 volts
iSee

Hill

Co.

"Standard

generators have

The

of the armature.
per

commutators,

potentialmay run as high

Regulation is obtained by

The

commutator.

Handbook,"

two

Fourth

Edition, Chap.

XI, McGraw-

304

CURRENTS

DIRECT

shunting the fields. The power is utiUzed by series motors

at the desired pointsin series with the Hne.

nected
con-

Series generators are often used as boosters on direct current

feeder becomes excessive,
feeders. When
a particular
a drop on
it may

be

load,than

cheaper to install a booster,and utilize it at the peak

to invest

in

generator operatingon

more

the

copper.

The

booster

is

series

straightportionof the magnetization

Booster

Motor

Fia.

278.

"

The

Volts drop te
Feedw

series booster.

the terminal

voltage being proportionalto the current

Likewise the voltagedrop in the
flowingthrough the machine.
feeder is proportionalto the current in the feeder. If the generator
be connected in series with the feeder.Fig.278 (a),and adjusted
properly,its terminal volts may be made always equal to
the drop in the feeder,as shown in Fig.278 (6). Therefore, the
curve,

voltageat

the load may

The booster
be maintained
constant.
is direct-connected to a shunt motor
taking its power from the
bus-bars.

If the

drivingpower

should in any

way

be removed,

the series generator will reverse

speed of a series motor without
that it will run

away

booster should

never

305

CHARACTERISTICS

GENERATOR

and

operate

as

The

motor.

load is

practically
unlimited,so
pieces. Therefore,such a

and tear itselfto

be belt-driven and

should

have

some

device to prevent its running away.

205. Effect of Variable Speed upon Characteristics.

generator is being tested to determine

"

tective
pro-

^When

its characteristic

or

its

it is assumed
that the generator speed is maintained
regulation,
at a constant value,the rated speed of the generator. Any drop
in voltageresulting
from a drop in speed of the prime mover
or
drivingmotor is not chargeableto the generator.
In practice,
of the prime
a drop in speed with load in the case
is often unavoidable.
mover
Therefore,the regulationof the
creased
generator is made to include the voltage drop due to this dethe regulation
making out specifications,
speed. When
driven by its prime mover
should be
of the generator when
specified.Speed correction applied to characteristics of generators
because
which
is somewhat
of
the
factors
involved,
many
enter the computation. For a more
complete discussion see ''A
Solution of an Acceptance Test Problem, '' by W. B. Kouwenhoven, Elect. Wld., Vol. 71, Jan. 19, 1918.
206. The Unipolar or Homopolar Generator. ^^ In the ordinary
direct-current generator,the voltageas generatedis alternating
"

and

the current

must

be rectified or

generator, however,
commutator

commutated.

direct current

is

In the unipolar

generated,and

no

is necessary.

The

principleof 'the unipolargenerator is that of Faraday's

disc dynamo. Fig. 279 (a). If a disc be rotated between
the
poles of a magnet, an emf. is generated between the center and
the rim of the disc. A current can
be taken from the disc by
placing a brush at the center and another at the rim. The
in Fig. 279 (o) would not be practicablebecause
disc shown
the electromotive force is generated only at one
portion,so that
current
when the external
flow back through the disc even
can
circuit is open.
If an annular pole be used. Fig. 279 (6),an
equal electromotive force is generatedalong each radius,so -that
the current has no return path in the disc itself.
For

complete discussion
Edition, Section 8, Par. 228.
1

20

more

see

the ''Standard

Handbook," Fourth

306

DIRECT

Fig. 279

(c) shows

brushes

The

66

crossnaection of

unipolar machine.

polarityand the brush a is of the

to brush
oppositepolarity. A hole in the castingallows access
Such
with a rotatingcylmade
a.
inder
generators are sometimes
and

are

of

CURRENTS

one

said to be of the axial type.

The chief disadvantageof the unipolar
type of generator is the
at high speeds. It is necessary
very low voltagegenerated,even
to

connect

are

several discs in series in order to obtain

Fig.

279.

"

working

unipolar generator.

The

(c),having an armature
diameter of about 20 in.,and running at S,000 r.p.m., would
give only about 40 volts. Another disadvantageis the difficulty
from
of conducting the current
the disc at the high speedsat
voltages. The

which
Such

generator in Fig. 179

these machines

generators

are
are

run.
necessarily

manufactured

by

both

the

General

Westinghouse Co. Their field of appUcation is that of a high speed,turbo-driven generator,designedfor

high currents at low voltages.
207. The Tirrill Regulator. It has been pointedout that the
voltage of a generator varies with the load, speed, etc. By
of a Tirrill regulator,
the voltage of a generator can be
means
maintained
constant
under
even
rapid fluctuations of load.
Electric Co. and

the

"

308

DIRECT

other is connected
The

relay contacts

CURRENTS

the line

through the main contacts.

intermittentlyshort-circuit the generator

across

field rheostat.
The

control magnet can open

to close. These
contacts are
main

the main

contacts

or

allow

normally held closed by a

spring. Assmne that the voltagerises. The potentialwinding
of the main control magnet strengthensthis magnet and opens
This opens one of the windings on the relay
the main contacts.
action. The relay contacts
magnet and so nullifiesthe diflferential
and the short circuit removed
from
then pulled open
are
the generator field rheostat. This immediately reduces the
action takes place when
the
generator voltage. The reverse
voltagedrops.
As a matter
of fact both relaysare constantlyvibratingso
that the changes in the generator voltageare very small.
The
relay contacts are shunted by a condenser to reduce
sparking. Owing to the fact that these contacts can carry
to have the
only a very small current, it is usuallynecessary
and so maintain
the bus-bar
regulatoract on an exciter field,
voltageconstant through the exciter.
be
A compensating winding on the main control magnet may
series shunt to give the system a rising
connected
a
across
characteristic and so compensate for line drop.
\roltage

them

CHAPTER

XII

MOTOR

THE

Definition.

208,
is

machine

for

It

"

stated

was

converting

Chap. XI

in

mechanical

that

energy

generator

into

electrical

energy.
In

similar way

into mechanical

cal energy

be used

may

209.

the motor

either

as

is

The

energy.
motor

as

or

for

machine

generator.

Principle. Fig. 281(a) shows

strength or intensity in which

same

converting electrimachine
however,

"

is

stant
magnetic field of conthat
placed a conductor

(a)

(J)
Fig.

281.

carries

Force

"

no

acting

on

w
in

current

(6) the conductor

In

current.

carrying

conductor

is shown

but the field due to the N

into the paper,
been
A
removed.
cylindricalmagnetic field

about

the

field,which

this

due

conductor

be

may

to the current

determined

in it.

carrying a
and S poles

as

current

has

field.

magnetic

The

exists

now

of

direction

by the corkscrew

rule, is

clockwise.
the

Fig. 281(c) shows

field and

the main
current

above

to reduce

The

in

The

by combining
field due

to the

conjunction with the main

it opposes

result is to crowd

the flux

field obtained

to the current.

acts

conductor, whereas

conductor.
and

that due

in the conductor
the

resultant

the main

the flux above

density in the region below

field below

field
the

the conductor
the conductor.

309
Digitizedby

(^OOgle

310

DIRECT

It will be found

that

push the conductor

CURRENTS

force acts

the

on

conductor,trying to

by the arrow.
think of this phenomenon

down, as shown

It is convenient

to

crowding of the lines

on

as

due

side of the conductor.

one

lines of force may

be considered as
tension. These lines always are

to the

Magnetic

actinglike elasticbands imder

endeavoring to

contract

so

as

be of minimum

length. The tension in these lines on the

side of the conductor is tending to pullit down as shown
upper
in the figure.
If the current in the conductor be reversed,the crowding of
the lines will occur
helow the conductor,which will tend to move
it upward, as shown in Fig.281(d).
The operationof the electricmotor depends upon the principle
that a conductor carryingcurrent in a magnetic field tends to
at rightanglesto the field.
move
210. Force
Developed with Conductor
Carrying Current.
The force acting on a conductor in a magnetic field is directlythe strengthof the field,
the
proportionalto three quantities:
magnitude of the current, and the length of the conductor lying
in the field. The force in dynes is given by
to

"

F
where

is the flux

active

lengthof
The

amperes.

5ZJ/10

densityin lines per

direction of the
force

all

are

sq.

cm.

or

gausses, I the

in centimeters and I the current

the conductor

direction of the

(106)

dynes.

the
field,

conductor,and

to
mutually perpendicular

id

the
one

another.
of 20 turns lies with its plane parallelto a
Example, ^A coil consisting
flux density in the fieldbeing 3,000 lines
the
field
magnetic
(seeFig. 286),
The
axial length of the coil is 8 in. The current per conductor
per sq. cm.
the force in pounds which acts on each
is 30 amp.
Determine
side of the coil. (See arrows
in Fig,286a.)
"

B
Z

3,000

8 X

2.54

20.32

cm.

/ =30

Fi
As there

are

3,000 X

20.32

30/10

182,900dynes.

20 turns
F

182,900 3,658,000dynes
3,658,000/981 3,730 grams
20

3.73 kg.

3.73

2.204

8.23 lb.

Ans.

311

MOTOR

THE

relation between
Rule.
The
Fleming's Left-hand
the direction of motion of a
direction of a magnetic field,
211.

"

in that fieldand

force is given by

the
ductor
con-

the direction of the induced electromotive

Fleming's Right-hand Rule.

the direction of a
the relation between
similar manner,
the direction of a cm-rent in that field and the
magnetic field,
In

Fio.

282.

Fleming's left-hand rule.

"

direction of the resulting

motion

of the conductor

by usingFleming's Left-hand

Fleming'sLeft-hand

Rule:

fingerin the direction of the

current

in the

vnll point in the direction in which

is illustrated

be determined

Rule.

Point the forefinger

in the direction of the field
or

This

can

flux,the middle

conductor,and the thumb

the conductor tends to

move.

by Fig. 282.
N

"Cotton
ib)

(a) Mator
Fio.

Another

283.

"

Motor

method

and

generator

Generator

action.

determiningthe above relation

is to make
of the fact that the crowding of the magnetic
use
lines behind the conductor tends to push it along. It is necessary
merely to sketch the main fieldand the Unes about the conductor,
shown
in Fig. 283(a). It is evident that the Unes will be
as
convenient

for

312

CURRENTS

DIRECT

crowded
motion

at

right of the conductor

the

so

that the direction of

is to the left.

Fig. 283(6) is shown a similar condition for a generator.

to the right.
In this case the conductor,as a generator,moves
In

Hence

in

generator the conductor

must

against a force

move

tending to oppose its motion, and so the conductor requiresa

This drivingforce is supplied
drivingforce to keep it in motion.
to which the generator is connected.
by the prime mover
212. Torque. When
an
armature, a fly wheel or any other
force is necessary
device is revolvingabout its center, a tangential
This force may be developed
to produce and maintain rotation.
itself as in a motor
within the machine
engine,or it
or steam
be appliedto a driven device such as a pulley,
a shaft,a
may
"

Force
Belt

Fia.

284.

"

Torque

dae

to

Tension

developed by

belt and

by

gears.

otfa street car, etc.

total effect of the force is determined not only by

generator,the driving gears

on

the wheels

Fig.284. The
its magnitvde but also by its arnty or radial distance from the
center of the pulley or gear to the line of action of the force.
The product of this force and its perpendiculardistance from
the axis is called torque.
Torque may also be considered
to

produce rotation.

as

mechanical

coupletending

It is expressedin units of force and

tance.
dis-

Englishsystem, torque is usuallyexpressedin poundsfeet. (This distinguishes

it from foot-pounds which represent
work.)
In the

In the c.g.s. system the unit of torque is the dyne-centimeter

(a very small unit),and in the metric system the unit is the

kilogram-meter.

313

MOTOR

THE

The
Exam-pie, ^A belt is driving a 36-in. pulley as shown in Fig. 286.
side
is
that
the
30
loose
and
in
lb.
90
belt
is
in
side
of
the
the
tension
tight
"

Determine

lb.

to the

the torque

applied

3^ Lb.

pulley.

The

sides of the

two

'

^^"^

in

belt

are

that

the

"^

acting
opposition
pull on the rim of the pulleyis
so

net

90

This

30

60 lb.

force is acting 18
the

ft. from

1.5

in.

of

center

or

the

pulley. Therefore the torque

T

60

1.5

90

Ib.-ft. Arm,
90 Lb.

Fio. 285.

213.

a
a

"

Example

of torque

produced

Torque Developed by
a
pulley by a belt.
upon
Motor.
Fig. 286 (a) shows
coil of a singleturn, whose plane liesparallel
to a magnetic field.
"

out

flows into the paper in the left-hand side of the coil and
of the paper in the right-handside of the coil. Therefore,

the

left-hand

Current

Fi

and

conductor

to

the

right-handconductor

Fio.

286.

force Fi.

These

Both

to

act

develop

tends

"

Torque

two

turn

torque.

tends to

at

diflPerent

forces tend to rotate

it in

downward
move

force

upward with

positionsof

coil.

the coil about its axis.

counter-clockwise

As the current

with

direction

and

in each of these conductors

so

is

force
they liein magnetic fieldsof the same
strength,
F2. In (a) the coil is in the positionof maximum
Fi
torque
distance from the coil axis to the forces
because the perpendicular
acting is a maximum.
When
the coil reaches the position(6) neither conductor can
move
any farther without the coil itself spreading. This is a
the

same

and

developed

move

314

CURRENTS

DIRECT

distance from
torque because the perpendicular

positionof zero

the

coil axis to the forces is zero.

If,however, the current in the coil be reversed when the coil

reaches position(6) and the coil be carried slightly
beyond the

EL^iojaafi

^^j^^^"

Fio.

dead

287.

"

center, as

tends to turn
To
each

Torque

through

on

shown

in

(c),a torque

is

in motor

continuous

the armature

the neutral

torque in

must

still

direction.

motor, the

be reversed

plane or plane of

is therefore necessary.

armatures.

developed which

the coil in the coimter-clockwise

develop a
coil

developed by belt conductors

just as

current

it is

passing

tator
torque and a commuThis is analogous to using a comzero

in

^When

Example.
"

develops 60

the

and

value of the torque

If the current remained
would
field,

the line it

from

amp.

increases to

current

75 per. cent,

to

is the

what

80 amp.,

developed?
the

constant

ening
value of torque, due to the weak-

new

be
0.75

Due

50

taking

If the field strength is reduced

lb .-ft.torque.

of the

is

certain motor

of its originalvalue
new

CURRENTS

DIRECT

316

60

45 Ib.-ft.

to the increase in the value of the

current,however, the final value of

torque will be

^
ou

45

72 Ib.-ft. Ana,

expressedby the above

The
equationsis the entire torque developed by the armature.
due
less than this,
torque available at the pulley will be slightly
to the torque lost in overcoming friction and in supplying the
that the torque

be remembered

It must

iron lossesof the armature.

214. Counter

If this armature

ohm.

about

0.05

across

110-volt

"

The

is

motor

directly

connected

were

the

of

resistance

ordinary 10-horsepower, 110- volt

of the

armature

Force.

Electromotive

be

Law, would

mains, the current, by Ohm's

110

2,200 amp.

0.05

This

value

of current

is not

only excessive but unreasonable,

considers
one
especiallywhen
of such

that the rated cmrent

of 90
in

the

is in

motor

neighborhood

When

amp.

operation,the

the armature

is

by

is

motor

through
not determined
evidently
current

its ohmic

resistance

alone.
The
every
Ifotion Qf Conductor

Fig.

288.

of currents

"

Relation
and

conductor.

of the direction

voltages in

motor

The

and

so

of

conductors

in addition to
its surface,
current

is in

motor

similar to that

way

generator.

are

be

of

armature

on

carrying

developing
torque,

cutting flux.

Therefore,

electromotive force.

generatingan
If the right-handrule be appliedto determine the direction of
this induced electromotive force (seeFig. 288),it will be found

they

must

by VjOOQ
Digitized

IC

317

MOTOR

THE

That is,it opposes

oppositionto the current.
This induced emf iscalled the
enteringthe armature.

that it is always in
the current

force

electromotive

counter

electromotive

the counter

the line

oppose

voltage.

back

or

electromotive

force.

As

the current it must

also
force opposes
Therefore,the net electromotive force

circuit is the difference of the line

voltage
Let V equal the line voltage
and the back electromotive force.
and E the back electromotive force. The net voltageactingin

actingin the

armature

circuit is

the armature

The

follows Ohm's

current

armature

TT

Law

and is

r"
..

/.
Ra is the armature

where
This

be

equation may

"'V^

=^

(109)

resistance.

transposedand written
E

=V

laRa

(110)

compared with equation (104),page 293, which

is the similar equation for a generator.
Li a generator the induced emf. is equal to the terminal voltage
the induced
resistance drop. Li a motor
plvs the armature
emf. is equal to the terminal voltage minus the armature
sistance
realways
drop. The counter electromotive force must
be less than the terminal or impressed voltage if current is to
at the positiveterminal.
flow into the armature
This should be

Determine

Example,
"

when
The

the terminal

voltage is

back
110

electromotive
volts and

force

of

its armature

10-hp. motor

is taking90 amp.

resistance is 0.05 ohm.

armature

the

"

'^
=

110

(90

0.05)

110

4.5

105.5 volts.

Ans.

interestingexperiment for demonstrating the existence

of counter electromotive force is shown in Fig.289.
A lamp bank
An

is connected

in series with

First close switch S^ which

the

armature

of

shunt

closes the field circuit.

Then

motor.

close

closingSi the lamps will bum brightly,

being practically
speeds
up to candle-power. As the armature
and
become
dimmer
will
dimmer, showing that
up, these lamps

Si.

At

the instant of

318

CURRENTS

DIRECT

generatinga counter electromotive force which

opposes the Une voltageand so leaves less voltagefor the lamps.
the armature
is up to speed,the lamps will be very dim.
When
fore,
If,however, the fieldswitch S2 now be opened,the flux and, therethe counter electromotive force will be immediately reduced
will be shown
which
to zero
practically,
by the lamps again
the armature

is

5^
00

Fig. 289.

"

(^O

Demonstration

of counter

electromotive

force.

coming up to full candle-power. (In practicewhen a motor is

in operation,the field circuit should not be opened under any
conditions whatsoever.)
Equation (101),page 258, for the induced electromotive force
in a generator will obviously apply to a motor.
That is,the
counter

electromotive

force
E

volts
-^-TTTT^
10^

from one north

4" is the total flux enteringthe armature
in revolutions per second,
pole,s the speed of the armature
where

poles,Z the number of conductors on the surface

of the armature, and p the parallel
paths through the armature.
As Z, P, 7", and lO""* are
all constant
for any given motor,

the number

the counter

of

electromotive

force becomes
E

which

is identical with

Ki"t"S

equation (102),page 259, S being given

in R. P. M.

Solvingfor speed
E
S

^K

(111)

where
K

1/Ki

THE

319

MOTOR

speed of a motor is directly

proportionalto the counter
electromotive forceand inversely
to the field.
proportional
Substitutingfor E in (111) its value given in (110),the speed
The

becomes
"S
This

^-^-

(112)

a very
important equationfor it shows
ij3

variation of
Example.
When

K^^

"

with

motor

^A certain

connected

speed

changes of load.
an" armature

has

motor

110-volt

across

the law of

mains

and

resistance of 0.1 ohm.

20

taking

is 1,200 r.p.m.
What
is its speed when taking 50
the
with
field
increased
10 per cent. ?
mains,

its speed

amp.

from

amp.

these

same

Applying (112)

^110 -'50X0.1
Si

105

02

105

0f
__

Si

110-20X0.1

__

01

"f"i
'

108

4"i

108

4"i

Si

1,200

Therefore:

^-I'^iSS
But

02

1.10 01

"

Therefore:

^^

216.

^'200i5|.^=l,060r.p,m.
Ans.

Annature

Reaction

Fig. 290(a) shows

and

Brush

Position

in

Motor.

"

Due
carrying current.
to the armature
ampere-turns, a magnetomotive force Fa is produced
in the armature, and the direction of flux produced by this
mmf
is at rightanglesto the polaraxis. Fig.290 (6)shows the
the magnitudes and directions of the armavectors
representing
ture
mmf.
Fa and the field mmf. F.
By adding these two
the resultant mmf. Fo is obtained.
The total flux
vectorially,
produced by Fo is distorted as shown in Fig.290 (c). It will be
noted that (1) the flux has been crowded
into the leadingpole
tips,and (2) tlieneutral plane perpendicularto the resultant
a

motor

armature

field has moved

to

move

backward.

Therefore

the brushes backward

in

motor

with increase of

it is necessary

load,whereas

in

320

DIRECT

CURRENTS

motive
forward. Were it not for the electroforce of self-induction (see Par. 195), the brush axis
would coincide with the neutral plane. Due, however, to the
necessityof counteractingthis last electromotive force, the
brushes are set behind this load neutral plane,as is shown in Fig.
and the generator it is neces290 (c). That is,in both the motor

generator they

are

moved

onnoprn

Keuiml

FiQ.

sary

290.

"

to set the brushes

counteract

This

I'lancv

Armature

movement

Axis

reaction in

beyond the

this electromotive

backward

Brush
\^

motor,

load neutral

planein

order to

force of self-induction.
of the brushes is accompanied by

the field,
as indicated
demagnetizingaction of the armature
upon
in Fig. 290 (d),where F'^ is the demagnetizing component of

321

MOTOR

THE

Therefore,as the load is increased on a motor the armature

reaction tends to increase the motor
speed. In fact instances
with short air-gaps(producing
where motors
have been known
reaction)have run away when the load wasappUed.
high armature
conductors
carrying current
Fig. 291 shows the armature
and passingunder successive north and south poles. It will be
reaction Fa in the first inter-polar
noted that the armature
space is upward. (See Fig.243.) Therefore,if a commutating
pole is to be used it must be a north pole,in order to oppose this

Fa'

O0O

0O

ee"e""""""000000000o

Rotation

Fig.

291.

Relation

"

of commutating

force of the

poles to main

poles in

motor.

by tending to send a
flux down
into the armature.
F'a must then be opposed by a
south pole. Therefore in a motor, the relation of main polesand
commutating poles,in the direction of rotation,is Nn /Ss,or
opposite to the corresponding relation for a generator. (See
Fig. 261, page 287.)
The polarityof the interpoles
should be carefully
investigated
with a compass,
if a motor
happens to be sparkingbadly from
unknown
be due to their being
some
cause, as the sparkingmay
connected.
incorrectly
magnetomotive

216. The
same

Shtmt

manner

as

Motor.
a

shunt

"

armature

^The shunt motor

is connected

in the

generator,that is,its field is connected

the line in

with the armature.

parallel
A field rheostat is usuallyconnected in series with the field.
If load is appliedto any motor
it immediately tends to slow
down.
In the case
this decrease of speed
of the shunt motor

directlyacross

lowers the back

electromotive

constant.

If the back

more

current

tially
force,as the flux remains substanelectromotive

flows into the armature

decreased,
(seeequation 109, page

317). This continues until the increased

sufficient torque to meet
The

of a
suitabiUty

motor

the demands

for any

force is

armature

current

duces
pro-

of the increased load.

particular
dutj^is determined

322

DIRECT

CURRENTS

factors,the variation of its torque with

load and the variation of its 8j"eed
with load.
fore,
ThereIn the shunt motor
the flux is substantially
constant.
almost directly
from equation (108),the torque will vary
For example, in Fig. 292, when the
with the armature
current.
is 30 amp.
armature
the motor
current
develops 40 Ib.-ft.
the motor
develops
torque, and when the current is 60 amp.
80 Ib.-ft.torque. That is,when the current doubles the torque
almost

entirelyby

two

doubles.

10

40

30

20

60

eo

80

70

Amperes
Fio.

The

292.

"

speed of a

series motors; torque-current

and

Shunt

where
accordingto equation (112),

varies

motor

7-

curves.

laRa
"t"

In the

case

of the shimt

constant.

load

on

the motor

motor, K, V, Ra, and

"^ are

Therefore,the only variable is 7o.

stantially
all subAs the

increases,la increases and the numerator

of

changes only a
small amount.
The speedof the motor willthen drop with increase
As laRa is ordinarily
from 2 to 6
of load,as shpwn in Fig.293.
is of this
per cent, of F, the percentage drop in speed of the motor
the shunt motor
is conorder of magnitude. For this reason
sidered
a constant
speed motor, even though its speed does drop
with increase of load.
slightly
this equationdecreases.

As

rule the denominator

Googk

324

DIRECT

CURRENTS

ciency will be discussed in the next

that the shunt
it does not

run

used where

are

constant speed is
substantially
shop drives,spinningframes,blowers,etc.
impression that shimt motors have a

as in machine
required,

is

speed. Therefore
the load is removed, providedthe field

intact.

motors

There

will be noted

definite no-load

when

away

circuit remains
Shunt

has

motor

chapter. It

erroneous

an

startingtorque and therefore, should not be started under

load. Startingboxes are usuallydesignedto allow 125 per cent,
of full-load current
to flow through the armature
the first
on
notch.
Therefore,the motor develops125 per cent, of full-load
the
torque at starting. By decreasingthe startingresistance,
motor
could be made to develop 150 per cent, of full-load torque
will overheat
boxes however
without trouble. Ordinary starting
under these conditions,if the startingperiod is too long.
low

217.

The

Series

Motor.

in series with

the fieldis

In the series motor

"

the armature,
field has
wire

and

as

shown

in

this wire

The

Fig. 294.

comparativelyfew
must

nected
con-

turns

of

be of sufficient

cross-section to carry the rated

armature
current
of the motor.
pends
the flux,"^,de-

In the series motor

the

entirelyon
FiG.

of

294.-Connection8

jf

^.^^^

^j^^ ^^^^

armature

cur-

is

^f ^^ie motor

motor.

series

operated at moderate saturation,the

almost
flux will be
directly proportionalto the armature
current.
Therefore,in the expressionfor torque,
T
to be

if "^ is assumed

The

K\is

a,

Ktl"l"

proportionalto /, the expressionbecomes

T

when

K':P

(113)

constant.

torque is proportionalto the

square

of the armature

rent,
cur-

Fig. 292. When the current is 30 amp. the

at 60 amp.
the torque is 80 Ib.-ft. That is,
torque is 20 Ib.-ft.;
current
results in the quadrupling
the doubling of the armature
shown

as

of the torque.
above

It will be noted

thai

as

the torque rises very

of the series motor
makes its use

60

increases

in

amp.,

of torque

are

the current

increases

characrapidly. This teristic

desirable where large

desired with moderate

increases in

cur-

THE

325

MOTOR

saturation and armature

reaction both tend
practice,
as
rapidlyas the square of the
prevent the torque increasing
In

rent.

to

current.

'

When

equation(112)is appliedto
^

where

if is

rent, Ra the

"

+ ^'^
^"^^"

(114)

/" the motor

constant,V the terminal voltage,
resistance

armature

field resistance
north

"l"the flux entering the armature

and

from
added

resistance in order to obtain the total motor

la and 0

Both

vary

cmv

includingbrushes,i2"the series

is now
pole. /?" the resistance of the series field,

the armature

speed

the series motor, the

to

ance.
resist-

with the load.

As the load increases,the voltage drop in the fieldresistance

and

the armature

resistance increases because this voltagedrop is

proportionalto the current.

Therefore,the back emf becomes
the motor
to run
more
slowly,although this
less,which causes
effect is only of the magnitude of a few per cent.
The flux
with the load. Therefore
0, however, increases almost directly
the speed must drop,in order that the back emf. be of the proper
value, which is usuallya few per cent, less than the terminal
The resistance
voltage. Both effects tend to slow down the motor.
from 2 to 6 per cent, of the terminal
drop is ordinarily
voltage V so its effect on the speed is only of this magnitude.
to the flux "l"and a
The speed is,however, inversely
proportional
given percentage change in "l"produces the same
percentage
change in the speed.
decreases
the flux "t"
Wheii the load is decreased,
correspondingly
must
and the armature
speed up in order to developthe required
If the load be removed
back emf.
altogether,
0 becomes extremely
in
is
dangerous
small,resulting a very high speed. It
.

to

remove

almost
wreck

the load from

certain to

reach

series motors,

speeds where

as

their armatures

are

action will
centrifugal

them.

of a series motor
Fig. 295 shows the characteristic curves
concaves
plottedwith current as abscissas. The torque curve
which have justbeen stated. The speed
upward for the reasons
is practically
inverselyas the current, that is,at largevalues
of current
the speed is low and at small values of current the

326

DIRECT

speed is high. The

characteristics cannot

small values of current

CURRENTS

because

the

be

determined

speed becomes

for

dangerously

high.
The
at

reaches
increases rapidlyat first,
efficiency

about

half load and

with the load.

increases.

The

effect of these becomes

field and

The

of the current

The

(PR), so

that these losses increase

when

occurs
efficiency

maximum

largeas

pared
com-

less as the load

loss varies

armature

maximum

This is due to the fact

lightloads the friction and iron losses are

that at

load.

then decreases.

the

as

square

rapidlywith the

the friction and iron

Current

Fig. 296.- -Typical series motor

characteristics.

practically
equalto the copper losses. These curves
should be carefully
istic
compared with the correspondingcharacterof the shunt motor, Fig. 293.
curves
Series motors
used for work which demands
are
largestarting
In adetc.
such
dition
street cars, locomotives,cranes,
as
torque,
to the largestartingtorque, there is another characteristic
which makes them especially
desirable for
of series motors
losses

are

traction
drive
motor
same

The

'

purposes.
street

When

car.

maintains

Assume

the

therefore tends

series motor,

on

the

the

car

shunt

ascends

speed of the

value that it has when

motor

that

other

the
to

car

take

car

at

motor

to

grade, the shunt

approximately the

is running
an

is used

on

excessive

level ground.
current.

hand, automatically slows down

327

MOTOR

THE

i I I I I 1 I I I I 1 I I M
40 H. P.
VOLTS

OUTPUT
AT

DIAMETEB
ARMATURE

TURN0,

PINION

OF

TERMlNAl.8
CAR

HELD

t9, GEAR

IkPUT

12 AMP.

AT

MOTOR

BOO

WHEEL

83"

SPOOLS

n"."

67, RATIO

TURNS

8. B"

100

90

86

80

82

TO

28

"24

60

S
"

1400
1200

"

^
"-

60.

fi

$ 40
*^

I20 I 1000
**

.3I6 i

800

30

12

2b

10

200

296.

Fig.

Fio. 297.

"

"

Typical railway

Railway

motor

motor

with frame

characteristics.

lowered

for inspection.

328

CURRENTS

DIRECT

reaching such a grade, because

upon
It therefore develops more
torque
drop in speed allows the
a

motor

to

increase of power.
shimt
than
motor
a

moderate

smaller

of the increased
at reduced

current.

The

speed.

develop a largetorque with but

Hence,

could

series motor

operating under

the

be

same

conditions.
When

the characteristics of

railway motors

are

plotted,the

refer to the output at the track and not at the motor shaft.
eral
Fig. 296 gives such characteristics for a 500-volt,40-hp.,Gen-

curves

Electric

railwaymotor.

It will be noted that tractive effort

is plottedrather than torque. The speed of the car in miles per

hour is given rather than the r.p.m. of the motor
armature.
These

differ from

curves

the

of torque

curves

and

r.p.m.

respectively
by a constant quantity,determined by the gear ratio
The efficiency
and by the diameter of the drivingwheels.
curve
resemble closely
is also the efficiency
at the rails. These curves
of Fig. 295.
the characteristic curves
Fig. 297 shows a typical
with half of the casing lowered.
railway motor
have an
^A shunt motor
218. The
Compound Motor.
may
additional series winding in the same
manner
as
a shunt generator.
This
be
winding may
"

connected
shunt

so

that

it aids

winding, in which

the
case

is said to be cumulative

the motor

the
series
compound; or
the shunt
winding may
oppose
winding,in which case the motor
issaid to be differential
compound.

The

characteristics

cumulative
are

Fig.

298.

"

of

Torque

and

shunt

and

compound

combination

of

the

motor

of the shunt

and
series characteristics. As
acteristics
speed charcompound
the load is appliedthe series turns

motors.

increase

torque for

any

given current

to be

the

flux, causing the

greater than it would

be for

On
the other hand, this increase of
simple shunt motor.
flux causes
the speed to decrease more
rapidlythan it does in
in Fig.298.
These characteristics are shown
the shunt motor.
The cumulative
develops a high torque with
compound motor

the

increase of load.

sudden
does not

run

It also has

definite no-load

speed,so

the load is removed.

when

away

329

MOTOR

THE

Its field of

applicationlies principallyin driving machines

which are subjectto sudden applicatipns
of heavy load,such as
in rolling
occur
mills,shears,punches, etc. This type of motor
is used also where a largestartingtorque is desirable but where
be convenientlyused.
Cranes
a
straightseries motor cannot
and
elevators are
representativeof such loads. In elevators
the

series tmns

are

usuallyshort-circuited

speed.
In the differential
compound

when

the

motor

reaches

motor, the series field opposes

the shxmt field so that the flux is decreased

the load is applied.

as

results in the

constant
or
speed remaining substantially
even
increasingwith increase of load. This speed characteristic
is obtained with a correspondingdecrease in the rate at which

This

used where a
the torque increases with load. Such motors
are
constant
speed is desired. Because of the substantially
very

speed of the shunt motor there is littleoccasion to use the

differential motor.
In startinga differential compound motor
the largestarting
the series field should be short-circuited,
as
current
large
passingthrough the series field may be suflSciently
constant

to

overbalance
start

to

the

and

cause

the motor

Typical torque and

direction.

wrong

of the differential

curves

Fig.

in

the shunt field ampere-tums

compoxmd

motor

are

speed

also shown

in

298.

armature

the direction of rotation in any motor, either the

alone or the fieldalone must
be reversed.
If both are

reversed

the direction of rotation remains

To

it is

reverse

fore,
unchanged. Therein so far as the direction of rotation of the motor
is concerned,
immaterial which line is positive.

219. Motor

Starters.

10-hp., 110-volt
volt
Such

motor

It

would

current

connected

were

the motor

armature

cut out

as

be

not

resistance

when

would

214

that if a

directlyacross

be

^-^

or

should

be

connected

comes

ditions.
con-

in series with

resistance may

up to

110-

2,200 amperes.

permissibleunder commercial

starting. This

the armature

electromotive force.

in Par.

shown

was

current
mains, the resulting

Hence,

back

"

be

gradually
speed and developsa

330

DIRECT

Fig. 299 shows

a

motor.

the

CURRENTS

of

use

It will be noted

simpleresistance

for

starting

that this resistance is in the armature

circuit and that the field is connected
the

directlyacross

the armature

across

putting the
with

resistance

the whole

be littleor

torque

the field
be

would

developed and

startingwould be experienced.
Fig. 300 shows a 3-point starter.
the connections

directlyto
It makes

series

Uttle

^^

purposes.

connects

in

motor, there would

"* starting. There

^'''"^!f;;;;^1^^^^r''^''''
Rtarung

from

con-'

terminals,

voltageacross

no

outside

K the field were

the resistance.
nected

line and

shown
and

armature

an

This
in
a

whatever

not

differ fundamentall

Fig. 299.

field terminal

line

One

tied to-

with the

startingbox.
The
other line goes to the line terminal of the startingbox
The starting
which is connected directlyto the startingarm.
g^her.

moves

arm

box.

over

These

no

contacts

contacts

startingresistance.
which

connection

does

in
difficulty

set

connect

The

with

taps distributed along the

terminal of the

startingbox,
is the right-handend of the startingresistance,
is connected
armature

to the other armature

connection in the

startingbox

contact, through the

box.

in the slate front of the starting

terminal

of the motor.

is connected

hold-upmagnet,

This field terminal is connected

The

field

from the first starting

to the field terminal

of the

directlyto the other

minal
ter-

of the shunt field.

startingarm makes connection with the firstcontact,

the line and at the same
the field is put directlyacross
time all
the startingresistance is in series with the armature.
As this
the starting
When
is moved
resistance is graduallycut out.
arm
the arm
the startingresistance is
reaches the running position,
all cut out and, to insure good contact, the line and armature
conductors
frequehtty are connected directlyby a laminated
feeds
brush, shown in Fig. 300. The field current now
copper
back through the startingresistance. This resistance is so low
compared with the resistance of the field itself that it has no
material effect upon
the value of the field current.
A spring
tends to pull the startingarm
back to the startingposition.
When

the

332

CURRENTS

DIRECT

springsback to the startingpositionand so prevents the motor

running away.
The 3-pointstartingbox cannot
be used to advantage upon
variable speed motors
quently
having field control. Such motors frehave a speed variation of five to one.
This results in
the field current
The
having approximately this same
range.
"J

Fig. 301.

hold-up magnet

may

of field current

and

"

Connections

for

^^JUi^mt

4-point starting box.

be too strong, therefore,

at the
too weak

at

the lower values.

highervalues
To

obviate

this

is used. Fig. 301.

It is similar to
a 4-point box
difficulty
the box shown in Fig.300, except that the hold-upcoil is of high
resistance and is connected
the line. The
across
only
directly

difference in the connection

connected

is that the ''lineterminal"

to the side of the line which

runs

be

must

directlyto the

com-

THE

and

armature

mon

333

MOTOR

field terminals.

When

the

voltage leaves

line,the hold-up coil becomes dead and allows the

springback to the startingposition.
the

the field resistance is contained

Sometimes
box.

The

box

Fig.

302.

"

then has two

Westinghouse

arms,

as

within the

shown

in

arm

to

starting

Fig. 302.

The

starting and speed-adjustingrheostat.

and cuts out the

by the longer arm
armature
During the starting
ordinarymanner.
period the field rheostat is short-circuited by the fingerS, Fig.

shorter

302.
arm

arm

is

pushed

up
resistance in the

When
is held

the starting resistance

by

the

is all cut

out, the shorter

sistance
magnet and the short circuit of the field re-

pushing S to the right. The

by this arm
longer arm, which has no spring,inserts resistance into the field
When
backward.
the voltage goes off,the
circuit when moved
shorter arm
springsback carryingthe longerone with it.
is removed

334

DIRECT

stoppinga motor,

In

CURRENTS

the line switch should

always be opened

With shmit motors,

throwing back the startingarm.
the line switch can be opened with no appreciablearc, since the
has a back electromotive force and the field can discharge
motor
On the other hand, if the
gradually through the armature.
is thrown
startingarm
back, the field circuit is broken at the
last contact button.
Owing to the inductive nature of the field,
the contact.
this results in a hot arc which bums
To prevent
rather than

(") Series starter, no-load

Fig.

the contact

from

303.

"

Series

being burned,

motor

release
starters.

small

fingerbreaks the

arc,

Fig.302.
The

seriesmotor

starter needs

no

shunt fieldconnection.

There

having a no-load voltagerelease,

shown in
shown in Fig.303 (a),and one having a no-load release,
Fig. 303 (6). In the former type, the hold-up coil is connected
the voltage
when
the line and releases the arm
directlyacross
off the line. In the latter type, the hold-up coil consists
goes
two

are

of

principaltypes,

few turns

one

in series with the motor.

falls below the desired

When

value,the startingarm

the motor

current

is released.

This

MOTOR

THE

last type is
a

particularly
adapted

of
possibility

motor

speed

the load

dropping to

such

where

there is

low value that the

dangerous.
used where the operationof the

are

the direct control of

under

and elevator motors.

crane

to series motors

become

may

Controllers

335

The

an

motor

operator,as in

controller must

be

is

street

more

tinually
con-

car,

rugged

the

than

startingbox, since the controller is used for constant

while operating.
starting,stopping and reversing the motor
Such
controllers usually have an
external resistance which is
in the controller. A shunt motor
cut in and out by fingers
field
rheostat may
also be incorporatedin the controller. Controllers
are
be
usuallyfitted with a ''reverse,"
so that the motor
may
run

in either direction.

Fig.

304.

"

automatic

Cutler-Hammer

starter

"

dash-pot type.

practice. They have

They cut out
advantages over the hand-operated starter.
many
the startingresistance at a definite rate, so that the blowing of
tion,
due to too rapidaccelerafuses and the opening of circuit breakers,
Automatic

starters

are

often used

in

is used
In many
installations where a motor
be started and stopped by merely turning
it may
intermittently,
avoided.

are

likelyto shut the motor

Employees will be more
with
is not being used, because of the ease
down when the power
In the largersizes of
which startingand stopping are effected
when extremelyrapid operationis necessary as
motors, especially
starters
alone can
in rollingmills,automatic
give satisfactory

snap

switch.

results.
of the

slidingcontact type,
the control switch is closed,the
control. When
with remote
solenoid S becomes
energizedthrough L2, i, the control switch.
Fig.304 shows

an

automatic

starter

336

CURRENTS

DIRECT

C, H, D, to Li. This closes the line switch and energizesthe

solenoid through the auxiliarycontact Fy to A, B, to Li. The
againstthe
energizingof this solenoid pullsup the startingarm
action of a dash pot. The armature
current flows from L2, the
of the motor
switch,Aij through the series field and armature
back to Aif to N, through the startingresistance to H, B',
and Li.

As

soon

as

the

starts

arm

noid
the line switch sole-

to move,

D, B'j Li.
L2, L, the control switch,C, -ff,
This inserts the additional resistance DB' into this circuit,reducing
circuit becomes

its current

and therefore its power

!-"

R\
Bi

Ri

Fig. 305.

Bt

is

A.O.

6-

Arm.

(C)3

Electric Controller

and

Mfg. Co. automatic

startingresistance is all cut out,

contact

At

"

LHu

^8

H5 (h

the

the

with
same

When

consumption.

B, making
time

brush

direct connection

the contact

opened. This reduces the

on

starter.

the

between

makes

arm

Li and

Ai-

resistance A-B
short-circuiting

current

sufficient to hold up the startingarm.

opening the control switch.

in the solenoid to

The

motor

value

is stopped by-

By using 3- and 4-way switches,this type of controller may be

operated from widely separated points. Instead of a simple
be controlled by a float switch,a
switch,the motor may
snap
switch, or any other automatically-operatedswitch.
pressure
Fig. 305 shows a simple and ingenioustype of starter of the
contactor

type.

The

contactors

themselves

operate

as

follows:

THE

337

MOTOR

Fig. 305 (a) and (5)represent a rectangulariron frame, FFy and

than at
at the bottom
plunger,P. The plunger,P, is narrower
the top and the narrow
part of it fitslooselyin an opening in the
bottom of the frame, FF,
There are two air-gaps,
DD, between
airthe plimger,P, and the bottom
of the frame, PP, and one
[/,between the plunger,P, and the top of the frame, FF.
gap,
in the figure,
A coil is placed around the plunger,P, as shown
the black circles represent the cross-sections of the wires
CC.
If a heavy current flows through the coil,
of the coil,
magnetic
where

lines will stream

the air-gap,
through the plunger,P, across
f/,back through the frame,FF, and through the narrow
part of
the air-gaps,
the plungerP, and also across
DD Fig.305 (a) The
that some
of the lines go through the air-gaps,
reason
DD, is that
the narrow
P, is saturated,or, in other words,
part of the plunger,
it cannot
fore,
thereeasilycarry any more
magnetic lines. These lines,
forced to pass through the air-gaps,DD, when a large
are
current
flows through the coil. The magnetic lines in the air-gap,
f/,cause
an
upward pull on the plimger,but the weight of the
plunger and the downward
pullof the magnetic lines in the airIn Fig.305 (6)conditions are
gaps, DDj hold the plunger down.
the same
as in Fig. 305 (a)except that less current
flows through
the coil CC, with the result that there are not so many
Unes existing
through the plunger P, the air-gap U, and the frame FF.
of these lines now
Most
part of the
pass through the narrow
DD,
The downward
plunger,but there are stilla few in the air-gaps,
due
to the Unes passingthrough the gap, DD, is now
pull,
small and the pullin the gap, U, is suflScient to raise the plunger.
The operationof the switch is shown in Fig.305 (c). When
the
line switch is closed,the current flows from the positivemain
through the coil Ci of contact 1, the resistances Ri, R2, and R^
.

in series and

coil.She,on

the motor
contactor

sufficiently
strong

armature

to the

CCz is also put

negative main.

across

A shunt

the line but it is not

to raise the

plunger of 3.
When
the current falls to a suflGiciently
low value,the plunger
CPl
as
rises,
already described,closingthe contact pointsBl,
which
which

short-circuits Rj.

This

causes

an

increase

of

current

through the coil C2. When the current drops

again, due to the motor
coming up to speed, contactor CP2
R2 and causing the current
operates, short-circuiting
to feed
now

passes

338

CURRENTS

DIRECT

drops again,Cs operatesand shortcircuits all the resistances and coils so that the plungers of 1
3 is held up by the shunt coil She.
and 2 fallback.
Controllers and circuit breakers
220. Magnetic Blow-outs.
Their function
often equipped with magnetic blow-outs.
are
that
is to extinguishthe arc, resulting
from opening a circuit,
so
The principle
and so bum
the arc does not persist
the contacts.
through Cz. When

the current

"

of blow-outs

is

follows:

as

is to be broken

are

Fig. 306.

When

in

The

contacts

placedbetween

the

the contacts

open,

between

which

polesof a magnet,
the current

as

the

arc

shown

tends to per-

Arc

Fig. 306.

sist in the form

field so
to

of

across

arc.

Magnetic

This

arc

blow-out.

finds itselfin

magnetic

immediately follows. The arc starts

the field according to Fleming'sleft-hand rule.

that motor

move

an

"

action

doing so it draws itselfout to such an extent that it is broken.

221. Resistance
Units.
Starting boxes are usuallydesigned
the startingcurrent
for startingduty only. They can
carry
but they canof the motor safelyfor the short periodof starting,
not
carry such a current continuously. The box resistance units
are
usuallyof the type shown in Fig.307. In the smaller types
In

"

the

wire is wound
or

shown

in

it may

Fig. 307.

in the form
be wound
In

of

helix.

asbestos

It may

be self supporting

porcelainforms, as
the largertypes, cast-iron gridsare used.
on

or

340

DIRECT

The

principalobjectionsto this method

that

are

excessive amount

an

series resistance

Fig.308
of

The

that

of power

of

is lost in the armature

without

speed-loadcurve

resistance in series with

with series armature

half speed is obtained

at

308.

observed

series armature
60 per

cent,

When

ohm.

(a) What
reduce

(6) How
the

power

(a)

value

which

is

about

and

of the power
supn
in the series resistance. Without
is lost;
50 per

cent,

or

4 per cent.

has an armature
resistance of 0.25
220-volt,7-hp. motor
takes 6 amp.
running without load at 1,200r.p.m. the armature
^A

be

resistance should

connected

in series with

the armature

to

to 600 r.p.m.
at its rated load of 30 amp.?
the speed of the motor
resistance?
in
much
is
lost
the
(c) What percentage of
power

terminals?
armature

speed regulationis the usual

series resistance the

"

load rises to

no

the

to

the armature

Example,

at

speed of the motor when there is no

with resistance
resistance. The speed regulation

equal
practically

pliedto

speed

resistance method.

armature

"

that the

is about

It will be

W)

Speed control and regulation

"

the

resistance

rated load.

(a)
Fig.

speed control

speed regulation is very poor.

In
for comparison the speed-loadcurves

the

with and

motor

armature.

shows

and

(6)there is shown

shunt

CURRENTS

circuit is delivered at the armature

delivered to the armature

(d)

What

speed regulationof

is the

the armature?

Neglect

reaction.

load)

El (atno

220

(6 X 0.25)

218.6

volts.

BOO

E2 (at600 r.p.m.)

218.5

220

Total {R +

Subtractingthe

Ra)

armature

3.69

109.3 volts.

1,200
109.3

110.7

30

3.69 ohms.

30

resistance,
-

0.25

3.44 ohms.

Ana.

Googk

(6) Power

lost in the series resistance

Pi

(c) Power

(30)2X

3 44

220

30

3 Q9g

wQ,tiH,

Ana.

circuit

delivered to armature
Pi

Power

341

MOTOR

THE

6,600 watts.

delivered to armature

Pi

6,600

3,096

3,504 watts.

delivered to armature

Percentage power

3,504
^

6,600

53.1 per cent.

Ana,

(d) Speed regulation

600
1,200
1,200
-

System.
Multi-voltage

In

"

available

are

These

voltagesare

the

at

ages
this system several different voltterminals of the motor.
armature

suppliedby

often

Ans,

50 per cent.

balancer

set, Fig. 309.

Balancer

Fid. 309.

"

Set

Multi-voltage speed control.

field of the motor

is connected

permanently across
fixed voltage and, with the 4-wire system shown, six voltages
a
Intermediate speed adjustments
available for the armature.
are
be made with a limited fieldcontrol. Owing to the necessity
can
and due to the large
of having a balancer set,or its equivalent,
The

shunt

of wires

number

necessary,

this system

is little used

in this

country.

System, In this system, shown in Fig. 310,

of a separate
variable motor
voltage is obtained by means
By varying the fieldof the
generator,6, driven by a motor. Mi.
the motor
terminals,Af 2,
generator, the desired voltage across
the supply
field is connected
motor
The
is obtained.
across
Ward

mains

Leonard

in

"

parallelwith the fields of the other

two

machines.

342

CURRENTS

DIRECT

Fig. 310, Ml is a motor drivinggenerator G, (? in turn supplies

Jlf2 whose speed
of motor
variable voltageto the armature
This system is very flexible and gives close
is to be varied.
adjustmentof speed. The chief disadvantagesare the necessity
of having the two extra machines and the low over-all eflSciency
of the system, especially
This system has been
at lightloads.
In

Mains

Fi^ld

Fig.

used

310.

Ward

"

Leonard

system

extensivelyfor turning the

of speed control.

of

turrets

but is
battleships,

supersededfor

now

this purpose.
In the foregoing methods

Field Control.

of

speed control,
volts have been varied.
A change of speed may also
the armature
of a fieldrheostat.
be obtained by varying the flux,"^,by means
"

This method

is very efiicientso far

as

is concerned

power

and for

-"\ Field Flti*

Fig.

any

311.

"

Eiffect of

weak

field upon

brush

position.

particularspeed adjustment the speed regulationfrom

load to full load is excellent.

The

range

of

no

speedobtainable by

ordinarymotor is limited by commutation

difficulties. Referring to Fig. 311, F is the field flux at low
speed and Fa is the correspondingarmature flux. The resultant
flux is Fo. If it be attempted to double the speed of the motor
fieldflux will be F\
the new
The brushes
by weakening its field,
this method

will now

with

the

have to be moved

farther backward

so

that the armature

at F

positionshown

flux will be at the

343

MOTOR

THE

The

a.

resultant field

is F\.
It is evident that the neutral
to

considerable

equal

the field flux.

to

and

extent

plane has been moved

that the armature

In addition

field that the motor

tends

to

run

demagnetizing action due

commutating-pole motors only

the

be

should

where

used

the

weaken

In order

away.
to

so

flux is about

sparking at the

severe

field may

the strong armature

commutator,

to

backward

the main

to eliminate

moving of the brushes,

the

is

large. A range
of 5 to 1 in speed variation
with
is obtainable
properly
machines
designed
having commutating poles.
speed

range

Motor.

Stow

The

this

In

"

type of motor, shown in Fig.

slide in
312, the field cores
and

of the

out

actuated

through

by

yoke and

wheel

hand

are

bevel gear
varying the

rod and

The
Stow
Fig. 312.
motor.
By
length of the air-gap,the flux,
be varied.
As the
and therefore the speed of the motor, may
reluctance to the armature
flux is increased at the higher speeds,
with the increased air-gaps,
with commuthere is little difficulty
tation.

mechanism.

In
armature

The

other

words, the

Motor,

ratio of field ampere-turns

does not

ampere-turns

Lincoln

"

change.

In the Lincoln

"

motor, made

out

of the field structure, as shown

is moved

liance
by the Reflux entering

Engineering Company, the

is varied by moving the rotating armature

Electric and
the armature

out

cutting flux

of the

field

is reduced.

to

in and

Fig.313. As the armature

conductor
the length of armature
in

Therefore

the armature

must

rotate

develop the requisiteelectromotive force.

This gives a finelygraduated speed control over
wide ranges,
These motors
ratios as high as 10 to 1 being obtained.
are
provided with commutating poles.
faster in order

to

344

DIRECT

Fig. 313.

"

CURRENTS

^Lincoln adjustable speed motor.

THE

345

MOTOR

^In a 2-inotor trolleycar, two

Control.
Railway Motor
be efficiently
obtained.
The motors
different si)eedscan
are
firstconnected in series through a startingresistance 22 as shown
in Fig. 314 (a). This resistance is gradually
cut out by the controller
receives
comes
as the car
up to speed and then each motor
one-half the line voltage. This is the firstrunning position. For
given value of armature current each motor will run at half
any
its rated speed. As there is no external resistance in the circuit,
the motors
are
nearly equal to
operating at an efficiency
very
the terminals of each.
that obtainable with full-linevoltageacross
223.

"

Trolley
Trolley

Trolley

ICall

( }") Running
Motors
Fig.

When

314.

"

(c) Starting,

with

4 Motors

in Parallel

control of series motors.

Series-parallel

it is desired to increase the

speed of the

car,

the two

with each other and in series with

parallel
a
portion of the resistance J?. This resistance is graduallycut
the running position is reached, each
motor
out
and when
in Fig. 314 (6).
receives full-linevoltage,as shown
In a 4-motor
are
usuallydivided into two groups,
car, the motors
of two motors which are always in parallel
each group consisting
motors

with

are

each

thrown

in

other.

In

starting,these

two

groups

are

connected

of a
taking the place of the singlemotor
in Fig. 314 (c).
This startingcondition is shown
2-motor
car.
the full-speed
When
running positionis reached,both groups are
then receives
the line. Each motor
connected in parallel
across
full-linevoltage.

series,each

in

group

Multiple-unitControl.
"

and locomotives,

largethat direct platform control is

of the questionfrom the standpointof the size of controller,
the currents become

out

In the heavier electric cars

so

346

CURRENTS

DIRECT

Moreover, when cars are operated in

safety,and expense.
itis necessary that the motors on all the cars shall be under
trains,
control and that they shall operate simultaneously.
a single
In the multiple-unit
system, all the heavy-currentswitching
contactors located beneath the car.
is done by solenoid-operated
These contactors in turn are operated by an auxiUary circuit
which runs
the entire lengthof the train (Fig.
called the train line,
315) The train line is made continuous through plug and socket
.

Trolley Wire

S^ Coupler

Ground

Car

"

Train

Line

Oar
315.

"

"=?=" Ground

"

Fig.

connectors

"^-S^i

"

Principle of multiple-unit control.

located in the

couplers. The wires of this train

line receive their power
through the master controller operated
As this train line current is only of the magby the motorman.
nitude
of 2.5 amperes,
small
be
controller
a
used.
can
platform
Another
distinct advantage of this system is that the rate of
cuttingout the startingresistance during the acceleration periods
is outside the control of the motorman, being accompUshed by
car

contactors
automatically-operated

proper

the

times.

This insures uniform

openingof the
caused by

is used.

which

car

too

close in sequence at the

acceleration and eUminates

circuit breakers and the shocks to the

rapid acceleration when

manual

ment
equip-

operation

348

DIRECT

the line in series with

CURRENTS

Such

braking is not effective

for completelystoppingthe motor armature, as the braking action
when the armature
is stationary.
ceases
Dynamic braking for a series motor is shown in Fig.316. In
(a), which shows the holding or "ofif" position,the motor is
ical
totallydisconnected from the line. The solenoid of the mechanbrake becomes
de-energized,resultingin the brake being
set.
(See Fig. 33, page 23.) In (6),the brake solenoid and the
series fieldare

connected

resistance.

across

the line in series with

(") Braking
Fio.

The

armature

has

316.

"

or

resistance.

Lowering

Dynamic

braking.

resistance connected

across

its terminals

through the brake solenoid and series field on one side. The
brake is released,
the armature
acts as a generator sending current
through the braking resistance and so is retarded.
except
Regenerativebraking is based on this same
principle,
that the power
is returned to the line rather than wasted in resistance.
Such a system is used on the electric locomotives of
the Chicago, Milwaukee
and St. Paul Railroad.

Prony Brake.
at
of a motor
the efiiciency

226. Motor
determine

Testing
"

"

It is often necessary

to

certain definite loads and

THE

over
frequently

its entire range

be necessary,

the efficiencymay

349

MOTOR

operation. A knowledge of

of

in the

as

case

of

acceptance

an

power-measuring device
taken by some
machine, such as a
for determining the power
blower, etc. Knowing the motor input,which
generator, pump,
and a voltmeter,and also
ammeter
with an
be measured
can
the motor
test;further,

be used

may

as

|BHfiWBMi.

";

317.

Fig.

knowing the motor

be computed.
can
the

most

in
efficiency

This

Such

brakes

shown

in

length,a

are

up

made

Fig. 317.
canvas

to the brake

brake.

band.

power

given input
delivered to

etc.

of
making direct measurements
about 50 hp. is to use a prony brake.
One typicalform is
various forms.

to

in

of

It consists

brake

for any

output will be the

method

common

motors

prony

the output
efficiency,

generator, the pump,

The

Typical

"

stops

band

By

and
means

of
a

wooden

hand

of the proper

arm

wheel for

of this hand

sion
applyingten-

wheel

the motor

350

CURRENTS

DIRECT

load

be controlled.

can

vibrations of the brake

oil dash pot is advisable,to prevent

An
arm.

due to the rotation

pullon the arm
of the drum, plus the dead weight of the arm.
By multiplying
the net balance readingby the distance L, the torque of the motor
The

balance

the

measures

be determined.

can

There

two

are

of the brake

for

brake

band

The

arm.

edge, such

of knife
drum

simplemethods

and

tionless

as

the brake

fulcrum, so

determiningthe dead weight

and

is loosened

the top of the

is placed between
pencil,

sort

some

fricsubstantially
the dead weight of
that the balance registers

carriage. This

acts

the

as

alone.

arm

and

Another

easier way is to turn the drum

toward the balance by hand,
and

stop
In

this

read

the

case

the brake

the

balance.

friction of
the balance

causes

high. If this
tating
operation be repeated by rothe drum in the opposite
the balance reading
direction,
will be too low, due to the
to

read

too

of these two
Fig.

318.- -Work

by

developed

will

prony

brake.

oi this type

cooled

are

into the hollow brake drum.

cannot

reach in the open

much
exceed this. The

are

To

determine

the

heat

arm.

prevents the drum

developed in

into steam.

requiredto

into steam, a moderate

comparatively cool.

water

very

from

As the maximum

can

of heat units

readings

ordinarilyby pouring water

This water

utilized in converting the water

number

average

temperature which
air is 100" C, the drum temperature

hot.
becoming excessively
water

balance

rect
nearly the corvalue for the dead weight

give

of the
Brakes

The

friction.

same

amount

convert

of water

As
a

the

drum

is

considerable

small amount

of

will keep the drum

equation for the horsepower developed by

such a brake,consider Fig.318.
Let F be the net force in pounds
acting at a perpendiculardistance L feet from the center of the

THE

drum.

First

is pulledaround
done

in

the drum

revolution

one

times the distance

The

of the force F.

means

of this

The

F acts is 2tL,

around

arm

the drum

arm

distance
The

work

is the force

F(2tL).

is S revolutions

done

work

by

is stationary
and that the

through which the force

revolution

per

that the drum

assume

351

MOTOR

F{2TrL)S.
horsepower

If /S is the revolutions per minute, the

27r(FL)S

Hp.
but FL

is the torque

33,000

lierefore
T, therefore
2irTS

Hp.

33,000

^'^
0.00019

33,000
Therefore

Hp.=

Obviously,the

of work

amount

same

TS

0.00019

(115)

is done

the brake

on

face
sur-

rotates or the
stationaryand the arm
is stationaryand the drum
rotates.
arm
Therefore,equation
(115) appliesto brakes of the type shown in Figs.317 and 318.
power
It will be noted that in this particulartype of brake the horseis independent ot the diameter of the drum.

whether

the drum

is

and voltmeter
Example, In a brake test of a shunt motor, the ammeter
measuring the input read 34 amp., 220 volts. The speed of the motor
"

is found
26.2

to

lb.

be

The

910

torque T

Hp.'output
(6) Output
Input

746

34

26.2

0.00019

8.23
220

23.8

Efficiency17
In brakes

2.4

arm

reads

"

23.8 lb.

910

8.23

hp.

Ana.

6,140 watts.
7,480 watts.
=

-'

100

82.1 per cent.

arm

Ans,

should be

kept approximately

simple type of brake is the rope brake shown in Fig.

A rope is given a turn and a half around a drum and the
The largerbalfree ends are each held by a springbalance.

Another

two

2-ft. brake

47.6 Ib.-ft.

47.6

of this type, the brake

level.

319.

of the motor?

(o) Net reading of balance

The

on

is found to be +2.4 lb. (a) What

weight of the arm
at this particular
(6) What is its efficiency

dead

is the output
load?

the balance

and

r.p.m.

352

DIRECT

CURRENTS

the end of the rope which is being pulleddownward

by
the rotation of the drum.
Let Fi be the reading of the larger
is on

ance

and Fi that of the smaller balance.

balance

As Fi and F2

oppositedirections with respect to the rotation of the

is Fi
the net pullat the drum periphery
Fj.

in

pull
drum,

"

The

torque in Ib.-ft.is

(Fi-F2)R

r=
where

R is the radius of the

FiQ. 319.

Example.
"

and

Ft

Rope

"

In

8.2 lb.

rope

The

brake

320.

"

Jagabi Tachoscope.

of the type shown in Fig. 319, Fi

32.4 lb.
If the motor
is 10 in. in diameter.
speed
=

horsepower

does

the motor

develop?

torque
T

The

Fio.

brake.

TTie drum

is 1,400 r.p.m., what

pulleyin fed.

(32.4

8.2)

24.2

6/12

10.08 lb.

horsepower
Hp.

0.00019

10.08

1,400

2.68.

Ana.

THE

of

226. Measurement
of machines

is as

The

torque.

most

having

counter

"

rule much

revolution counter.

method

Veeder

The

revolutions

be found

cannot

of the

measurement

is to

use

type is
are

of

simple revolution

convenient

sink
counter-

form

of

recorded

be set to

by subtractingthe

speed

the measurement

tip which fitsinto the

The

As this counter

counter.

The

simplerthan

conical rubber

of the shaft.

must

$peed.

common

353

MOTOR

counter

the
on
directly
zero, the actual speed
reading before from

that after the measurement.

The

of speed
Jagabi tachoscope,Fig. 320, is a combination
and stop watch.
The spindle may
counter
be inserted in the
counter-sink of the shaft without recording. A littlepressiu-e.

Volts

(6) Speed-voltage

curve

of

magneto.

Speed

however,

causes

with magneto

measurement

the counter

and

stop watch

and

to

voltmeter.

start

eously.
simultan-

They also stop simultaneouslywhen the pressure on the

made
with this type of
Measurements
tachoscope is removed.
free from personalerror.
instrument
are
value
of speed.
Tachometers
indicate the instantaneous
There
actuated
checked

tachometers, where

mechanical

are

by centrifugalaction.
at each

after

This

the

indicator

is

type should be carefully

of use, as it is especially
subject to
time.
been in service for some

occasion

having
A simpleand convenient type of tachometer isthe combination of
and a voltmeter,as shown in Fig.321 (a).
a direct-current magneto
In the magneto
the flux is produced by permanent magnets and
is constant.
so
Therefore,the voltage induced in the magneto
to the speed. If this voltage
is directlyproportional
armature
error

354
be measured

DIRECT

with

CURRENTS

voltmeter,the voltmeter readingmultiplied

gives the speed directly.The relation of speed
by a constant
be plottedas shown in Fig.321(6) and the speed
to volts may
read directlyfrom the plot. This plotis ordinarily
a straight
line through the origin,which makes
termined
one
point accuratelydea

It is convenient
of the machine

whose

to attach

the magneto

to the shaft

speed is being measured, by a pieceof

rubber tubing. It is usuallynecessary
to thread a small stud
into the end of the shaft whose
speed is to be measured, as
shown in Fig. 321 (a).

356

DIRECT

resistance R
the

CURRENTS

is inserted to

stationaryarmature.

should be made

limit the current

Par.

(See

with the armature

in order to obtain

an

118.)

in three

average

or

flowing through
The

measurement

four different positions

value of resistance.

As

the

used in making
low-readingscale of the voltmeter is ordinarily
this measurement, the instrument may be injuredon opening the
circuit by the rise of voltage due to the self-inductance of the
armature.
Therefore,the voltmeter should be disconnected
when the circuitis beingopened or closed and when the armature
is being turned.
Shunt Field, ^The field takes a current 1/ at the terminal voltage
V of the generator or motor.
Therefore,the power lost in
"

the fieldis

Pf

(117)

Vis

lost in the field rheostat

This includes the power
chargeableto the field circuit.
Series Field.

"

as

this is

^The series fieldloss is

P.

I.^R.

(118)

where I, is the seriesfieldcurrent,which may or may not be equal

is
to the armature
current, depending on whether the machine

long or short shunt.

Rt is the series field resistance.
diverter is

If

series field shunt

or

resistance of this
used,R" is the equivalentparallel

diverter and

the series field and 7, is the current

of the series

field plus that of the diverter.

losses in the

The
the

same

way

as

are

commutating polecircuitare determined

in

those of the series field.

foregoinglosses are all copper

measured
directlyor calculated with
from instrument readings.

losses and

The

IRON

can

be either

high degree of precision

LOSSES

iron rotates in the same

Eddy Currents, As the armature
magnetic fieldas the copper conductors,voltagesare also induced
in this iron. As the iron is a good conductor of electricity
and
the current paths are short and of largecross-section,
rents
largecur"

would
shown

be set up in the armature

iron were
it a solid mass
as
in Fig. 323 (a). These currents
represent an excessive

LOSSES;
power

OPERATION

EFFICIENCY;

could not be tolerated in

loss which

357

commercial

machine.

iron in the manner

indicated in Fig.
By laminatingthe armature
323(6),the paths of these currents are broken up and their magnitude
is reduced to a very low value. Laminating does not entirely
eliminate these eddy current losses,
but it does reduce them
It will be noted that although the laminations
to a small value.

(6)

(")
Fio.

323.

"

Eddy

currents

in armature

iron without

with laminations.

and

break up the eddy current paths,they do not interpose

reluctance
in the magnetic circuit,
to the direction of
since they are parallel
the

magnetic flux.
These eddy currents

proportionalto both the speed and

the flux. As the loss varies as the square
of the current
(PR),
loss
both
varies as the square of
the eddy current
the speed and
are

the flux.

eddy current loss in a certain machine is 600 watts when

the total flux is 2,000,000 lines per pole and the speed is 800 r.p.m.
What
flux
isincreased to 2,500,000lines and the speed increased
is the loss when the
to 1,200r.p.m.?
Example.

"

^"

The

"x(IS)'x(S)"-.""'---

Hysteresis,^Itwas shown in Chapter VIII that when iron is

carried through a cycleof magnetization(Par.143)there results an
of the hysteresis
loss proportional
to the area
loop. The
energy
iron in an armature
zation
undergoesa similar cycUc change of magneti"

when
of the armature

the armature
iron at

rotates.

Consider

(a).Fig.324, when

pole. This small section has

the small section

it happens to be under

poleat
When
the section reaches position(6)its poleshave
its ends.
become reversed,as shown.
Obviously,nearlyallthe armature

north

north and

south

358

DIRECT

CURRENTS

iron is

continuallygoing through similar cycles of magnetic

reversals. Therefore,there results a hysteresis
loss in the armature
iron as the armature
rotates.
This loss is directly
tional
proporto the speed and is proportionalto the 1.6 power. of the
flux density,
maximum
by the Steinmetz formula,(^uation 72,
loss.
Laminating the iron does not affectthe hysteresis
page 183)

Fio. 324." -Reversal

in armature

of magnetic
iron.

flux

Fia. 325.

"

Pole-face loss due

of flux from teeth.

to tufts

in
Pole-faceLoss, The flux enters and leaves the armature
tufts through the teeth as has alreadybeen shown
(page 29, Fig.
the pole face,
40, Chap. II). As these tufts of flux pass across
in the pole face.
These pulsations
"theyproduce flux pulsations
This
set up eddy currents in the poleface,as shown in Fig.326.
loss also accompanies these
results in a power loss. A hysteresis
function of the
flux pulsations.These combined losses are some
flux and of the speed. They are reduced,being in part due to
eddy currents,by laminatingthe polefaces. (SeeFig.221.) (^
"

FRICTION

These

LOSSES

brush
bearing friction,
functions of the speed.

losses consist of

windage, and all are

friction and

SUMMARY

The

foregoinglosses may

be summarized

Copper losses:
Armature

Shunt

la^Ra

field 77/

Series field L^R,

"

as

follows

LOSSES;

359

OPERATION

EFFICIENCY;

Iron losses

(armature and poleface):

function of flux and speed.
Eddy current
HyBteresis function of flux and speed.
Friction losses (bearings,
brushes,windage)
function of speed.
"

stray

"

power

"

The
f

lated.

losses can

copper

measured
accurately

iron and friction losses

The

calculated

be

readilymeasured

can

or

can

neither be

so

be calcu-

'

accurately,'

separate losses.

Moreover,.
function of the flux,or speed, or both)
since they are all some
these losses are combined
and are called stray losses;
the power
that they represent being called stray power.
As stray power
is a function of the speed and the flux only,it
will be constant
in a given machine
provided the flux and the
Therefore,no matter what the load is,
speed be kept constant.
'
does not change unless either the flux or the
the stray power
speed changes.
In distinction to the copper losses the stray power isallsupplied
mechanically. For example, in a motor, a mechanical torque is
making the torque available at
required to supply these losses,
In a
the pulley less than that developed by the armature.
and not i
generator these losses are suppliedby the prime mover
by the generator itself. On the other hand, the electricallosses
are
suppliedby the generator itself.
is the ratio of
229. Efficiency.The efficiency
of a machine
output to input. Thus:
nor

so

as

"

Eff.

2HtP^
=

input
also be written in either of the

This may

-2Ht2Ht

Eff.

followingways

(119)

"

output + losses
Eff.

iJ^ILi?????

(120)

mput

Therefore,if the losses in a machine be known, the efficiency

be found for any given input or output.
may
Example. A shunt motor
losses are 1,800watts.
What
Using equation (120)
"

^"

takes

40

amp.

is the motor

(220 X 40)

1,800

at 220

volts.

The

efficiency?
"

-^

total motor

360

CURRENTS

DIRECT

mechanical

quantities are
determinations,equation (119) is
ordinarilyused in eflSciency
and equation (120) for
used for generators (output is electrical)
motors
(inputis electrical).
The efficiency
and Generators.
230. Efficiencies of Motors
of electrical apparatus is high as a rule. For instance,a 1-hp.
of about 65 per cent. ; a 5-hp.75 per cent. ;
motor
has an efficiency
A 500-kw.
a 20-hp.88 or 89 per cent.
a 10-hp.82 per cent.,and
of 94
machine may
have an efficiency
As

electrical units

rather

than

"

cent.

per

of
efficiency

The

determined

from

motor

simultaneous

of its input and

as

in Par.

shown

was

brake

prony

be

may

urements
meas-

its output

225, where

used.

was

Theoretically,the efficiencyof
generator
similar

be determined

may

by

manner

in

measurements

of

input and output. The output

with an ammeter
is readilymeasured
The input, howand a voltmeter.

its

FiQ.326.

"

Cradle dynamometer,

The
of the

dynamometers
as

torque
have
rule.

is Very

ever,

The

measure.

in

ment
measure-

Ues
difficulty

transmitted
been

difficult to

to

devised

generator

the

the- generator.
but
may

Torsion

factory
unsatisthey are
be suspended in a

'*

shown
in Fig. 326.
The ends of the generator
as
cradle,''
shaft are supported in bearings,so that the frame is free to
The
turn.
torque is determined
by measuring the torque
to prevent the frame's turning. Such
cradle is
a
necessary
sitates
expensive,is not readilyadaptable to all generators and necesthe generator shafts' protrudingbeyond both generator

bearings.
In any

direct measurement

of

efficiency
percentage error
any
measurement
of either output or input introduces the
same
percentage error into the efficiency.
In the direct measurement
of efficiency
the power
necessary
for the test must
be equal to the rating of the machine.
In
addition to supplying this power
there must
be means
for ab-

in the

LOSSES;

OPERATION

EFFICIENCY;

361

with small machines,

sorbingit. This is not a serious matter
but when large machines
are
tested,supplying and absorbing
if not quiteimpossible.
the necessary
be difficult,
power
may
Because of the foregoingreasons, it is often desirable and even
to obtain the efficiency
by determining the losses.
necessary
A

Exam'ple.
"

250-kw.

230-volt

is

d.c. generator

800
delivering

amp.

The
resistance is
is 20 amp.
armature
0.005 ohm
The stray power at
and the series field resistance is 0.002 ohm.
this load is 2,500 watts.
The generator is connected
long shunt. What is
at

The

volts.

230

the generator

Output

field current

at this load?
efficiency

230

800

Sh. field loss

230

Armature

820"

820^

loss

Ser. field loss

Stray

184,000 watts.
20
4,600 watts
0.005
3,360 watts
0.002
1,340 watts
2,500 watts
=

power

Total loss
E"F.=

11,800 watts
184,000
94
195,800

184,000
184,000 + 11,800

231. Measurement

Stray Power.
the speed in

of

the flux and

duplicate.
order
to
duplicate the stray
loss. As the speed from
power
equation (111) is S
KE/it"y
it is onlynecessary
to duplicate
the speed's and
motive
the electro-

Ana.

per cent.

merely to

It is necessary

"

motor

or

generator in

force

obtain the proper

To

in

machine, whether

to

value of 0.

stray

measure

order

the

power,

it be

"

Determination

power

Ught
generator, is run
(without load) as a motor, as shown

or

327.

Fig.

motor

in

of

stray

dynamo.

connected
The

This

the line in series with

across

total power

power

in

input to the machine

is distributed

the field loss,some

is the stray power,

Via +

VI

S.P.

VI

armature

goes

to

supply

la^Ra loss and the

beingzero.

+ la^a + S.P.
I.ma

=(YIa)-

field is

is:

S.P. , the output

f

The

rheostat..

follows: Some

as

suppliesthe

Fig. 327.

mainder
re-

Therefore

(121)

362

The

115- volt mains.

from

The

stray power,

armature

/"

current

S.P.

116

"

5 amp.
(5)*0.03

675

It will be observed

takes

motor

12

speed?

12

running lightas

the armais 7 amp.

and
ture
is the stray power loss of the machine at

What

of flux and

value
particular
armature

input to the

field current

The

resistance is 0.03 ohm.

The

the total

to

generator when

shunt

"

equal

resistance loss.

the armature

Example,
amp.

is

stray power

minus

this

CURRENTS

DIRECT

that the armature

0.75

574 watts.

Arts.

in this
la^Ra is negligible

instance.

that the above

Assume

100 amperes
generator is delivering

at

The field current

volts at 1,000 r.p.m.
is 7 amperes.
It
is desired to determine the value of its stray power under these
110

conditions.
If the full-load electromotive

the

lightas

same
a

When

is readilymeasure
the stray power
d
carryingthe above load,the induced emf.
motor

^
S
To

cated
speed S be dupli-

the generator is running light,

the stray power will
When
is running
the machine
in both cases.

when
be

force E and

make

110 +

1,000

these

(107 X 0.03)
r.p.m.

adjustments of

and
is

IAmi

S, the generator

run

as

-|fc_J-A/VWW

shown

as

328.

an

motor,

ammeter

Fig.
and

are

nected
con-

the

terminals.
for

stray

power

rheostat

measurement.
so

is connected

across
directly

Connections

the

circuit and

voltmeter

"

in

directlyin
armature

328.

nected
con-

A rheostat R

Fig.

volts

113.2

follows

as

ture
arma-

The

is first adjusted
that

Vi

drop at this load beingnegligible.

The fieldrheostat is then adjustedto give a speed of 1,000 r.p.na.
value of speed and flux
The machine is now
operatingat the same
is the same
in
load. Therefore,the stray power
as it did under
the two cases
and is equal to VJa
la^Ra^
113.2

the small
volts,

armature

"

Googk

364

CURRENTS

DIRECT

that the loss for any value of total flux

(See
though the average flux be the same.

''peaks"under

load

so

increased,even
page 273, Fig.244.)
is

In

stray-power

definite value
range

The

of the machine.
value and

another

to

speed varied

the

and

2D0

100

the field current

run,

the

run

400

600

300

the

over

field current

be

may

may

held at

probableworking
then be adjusted

repeated. At least three values

700

600

800

900

1000 1100 1200 1800

R. P. M.

FiQ. 329.

of field current

value under

should

which

in this

Example.
generator by
"

when

these

43.5 amp.

The

Determine

1.5 and

At half

'and the minimum

is likely
to operate and

similar to those shown

in

an

mediate
inter-

Fig. 329

are

manner.

obtained from a 10-kw. 230-volt

of Fig. 329 were
justdescribed,the generator being run as a motor

curves

obtained.

were

its armature

in each

same

1.8 amp.

The

rated

current

is

generator at half load and at rated load,the

case, the respectivevalues of field current

The

speed is constant

43.5/2

21.8

1.6

230

1.5

at

1,000 r.p.m.

load,
la
la^Ra
VI

of this machine

resistance is 0.14 ohm.

its efficiency
as

voltage being the

being

the machine

the method

curves

and

curves.

power

be used, the maximum

Curves

value.
obtained

Typical stray

"

21.8 amp.
23.3 amp.
=
76 watts
(23.3)20.14
=

345 watts

Fig.329,

Prom

I to

curve

one-third
1,000 r.p.m. ordinate,
amp.), the stray power is found

the

on

II

curve

365

OPERATION

EFFICIENCY;

LOSSES;

1.5

=*

the distance from

to be 230

watts.

The efficiency
at this load is:
230

5,000

21.8

^^

Eff.

230

21.8

76

345

88.6 per
^

230

^
Ans.

cent.

5,650

At rated load,
/

43.5

la

43.5

la^Ra

In

Fig. 329,

curve

II to

to be 330

1.8

the

ordinate,one-third

distance from

the stray power

1.8 amp.,

43.5

10,000
UfiSO

230

43.5

414

+287+

-h 330

that it is desired to determine

Assume

running

287 watts

414 watts.

is found

watts.
230

j,"
^^-

230

III,corresponding to

curve

45.3 amp.

==

the 1,000 r.p.m.

on

1.8

(45.3)^0.14

VI f

as

line. Under

"^

^^^-

^^'^^'' ^"^*-

of this machine
efficiency

the

when
the

at 230 volts from

r.p.m. and taking 45 amp.
is found to be 1.6 amp.
these conditions the field current
at 900

motor

/a

la^Ra
VI f

45

1.6

43.4 amp.

(43.4)20.14
230

1.6

264 watts

368 watts

On the 900 r.p.ni. ordinate.

Fig.329, two-thirds the distance from
II (= 1.6 amp.), the stray power is found to be 225 watts.

curve

to curve

230
^"

45-

^^'

264

368

225

9,490

230-X45

^,

^^Io;356=^'-^P^^^^^*^

It is also

possibleto determine the stray power of a machine

of a smaller machine
whose
by drivingit without load by means
In using this method
is known.
it is possibleto sepaefficiency
rate
the friction and windage losses from the core loss by measuring
the power
delivered to the machine
closed and again when it is opened.
233.

OpposdtionTest" Kapp

Method."

when

The

foregoingstray-power method

of

machine

the losses are

is not under

load when

the field circuit is

objectionto

the

measuring losses is that the

beingmeasured, so

their values may

able,
If two similar machines are availbe in error.
be determined
their losses may
when
both machines
are

loaded,and yet
The

Fig.330.

suppliesonly the losses of the two

connections for making such a test are Shown
the line

chines.
ma-

in

'"^

366

DIRECT

The
and
have

coupled togethermechanically
then connected
The motor
should
line,as shown.
are
startingbox. Five ammeters
used, one in each field,

circuit and

armature

The

armatures.

two

that their currents

Fig.

The

are

to the

in each

one

so

similar machines

two

are

CURRENTS

330.

"

fields

Kapp

opposition method

operation of the

mechanical

is less than

by the

ammeter

for determining

follows: The

as

The

delivered

power

supplyingthe

directlyto the line

Ai.

losses.

supplies
trical
supplieselec-

motor

generator. This in turn

to the motor.

power

is

set

to the

power

connected

are

indicated

not

are

in the line

one

by the generator

requiredby the motor, owing to the losses in the

machines.
two
Therefore,this deficit must be made up by the
line which suppliesthe current 7.
The total input to the two armatures
is VI
that

This power

is distributed
Motor

Ri

and

R2

are

Ii^Ri

loss

armature

h^Ri

stray power

Generator
where

loss

armature

Generator
Motor

follows:

as

stray

power

the motor

and

generator

armature

ances.
resist-

As the generator field is

necessarily
stronger than that of the
motor, because it requiresthe higher internal voltage,its stray
will be greater than that of the motor, as stray power
increases with increase of flux. As a close approximation,the
power

total stray-power loss may

in

be divided between

the two

machines

proportionto their induced voltages.

Let El

induced

equal the

motor

induced

volts and

volts.

Ei

E2==V

IiRi

hR2

E2 the generator

367

OPERATION

EFFICIENCY;

LOSSES;

in the two machines.

Let Pi and P2 be the values of stray power

Then:

k-k
total

The

input

machines

the two

to

"'^''
goes

to

supply their

because the output of the sysand stray-power losses,

tem
tracting
and the field power is suppliedseparately. By sub-

armature

is zero

losses from the

the armature

input,the total Tstraypower

(Pi + P2) remains.

That

is:

Pi + P2
The

field losses

V7

WR^

by
directly

mea^red

are

h^Ri

the anuneter

in each

field circuit.
is
that each machine
are
advantages of this method
the regulationof each machine
operatingimder load conditions;
be determined;the line need supply only the losses.
may
similar
The principaldisadvantage is that it requirestwo
machines.
The assumptions made in regard to the stray power
distribution may be slightly
in error.
The machines are brought into operationby firststartingthe
motor
with the startingbox.
The generator voltage is then
made
terminal voltage and the generator
equal to the motor
terminals are then connected directly
the motor
across
terminals,
just as generators are connected in parallel.Care should be
taken that the correct polarityis observed.
The generator field
until the
is then strengthened and the motor
field weakened
The

desired conditions of load and

"

manner

The

in

shown
fields are

so

generator

current

supplying

each
The

similar

Two

Example.

li is 45

under

amp.

Under

120 X

are

these

conditions

I^^R,

li^Ri

1,440 watts
57 2^ 0.12
46^ X 0.12
Total

in the

is 0.12 ohm.

/i is 57 amp.,

current

the

and

390 watts

243 watt^

633

watts.

the

line is

Find the stray power

the line

12

connected

resistance of each

/ of 12 amp.
at 120 volts.
these conditions of load.

suppliedby

power

120-voit,7.5-hp. motors

The armature
Fig. 330.
adjusted that the motor

current

machine

obtained.

speedare

of

368

CURRENTS

DIRECT

Total stray power

El

E2
The

motor

1,440

120

120

633

(57

X
(45]

807

watts.

0.12)
0.12)

113.2 volts

125.4 volts.

stray power
1100

^"""
The

125.4

generator stray power

^''

is

""^"^^'^^^113.2 +

Knowing the stray

readilycalculated.

113.2+125.4
807 =424

"

and

power,

watts.

and fieldlosses,
the

the armature

efficiency

all power apparatus,

Ratings and Heating. Practically
it be steam
whether
engines,gas engines or dynamos, has
definite power
ratings. These ratingsare determined by the
manufacturer
and are supposed to givethe power which the apparatus
to condeliver. It is interesting
can
sider
safelyor elBiciently
what, in general,determines the rating of various power
234.

"

devices.
Both

the load

steam

engine and

for which

types of prime

steam

turbine

their efficiency
is

mover

can

carry

are

usuallyrated

maximum.

These

high overload

at

two

without

load
difficulty.Ordinarily,
they can carry at least 100 per cent, overbut at reduced efficiency.
easily,
Owing to their excessive weights and costs, largegas engines
are
usually rated as high as possible,which is near the point
to operate. Their thermal
at which
efficiencyis
they cease
so much
ordinarily
greater than that of the steam engineor tiu-bine
that the questionof weight is more
important than the question
of efficiency.
Electrical apparatus is usuallyrated at the load which it can
safelycarry without overheating. (Commutation may at times

limit the output of direct-current machines.)

If the temperature of electrical apparatus becomes
the cotton

insulation upon

the armature

high,
and the fieldconductors,
too

carbonized and brittle.

insulatingvarnishes,become
This may
result ultimatelyin grounds and shOTt-circuits within
Rules specify
the machine.
The A. I. E. E. Standardization
and

the

safe temperature

limits

as

follows:

LOSSES;

EFFICIENCY;

(A) Cotton,silk,
paper, allimpregnated;enameled
Above

369

OPERATION
wire

105" C.

imtreated

95" C.

(B) Mica, asbestos

(C) Pure
mica, quartz,

125" C.

limits specified.

No

etc

important, therefore,to be able to test a machine

in order to determine whether it is operatingwithin safe temperature
limits. The difficulty
in making such tests lies in the fact
within the coils,at points
that the highest temperatures are
which are not easilyaccessible. The highesttemperature within
the machine
is called the "hot spot" temperature.
The
be measured
temperature at the surface of the winding may
bulb againstthe surface and
by placinga thermometer
It has been found that
coveringit with a small pad of cotton.
15" C. added
to this reading will give an approximate value of
It is very

the hot spot temperature.

It has already been shown

changes with

that the resistance of copper

the temperature.
this
By utilizing

ductors
con-

ciple,
prin-

idea of the average

a winding may
temperature
be obtained.
The increase of resistance per degree rise of temperature
be obtained from the formula 1/(234.5 + 0/ where
may
within

an

t is the
at

surrounding

ambient

an

resistance per
Example,

or

room

ambient

temperature. For example,

temperature of 30" C, the increase of

degree rise is 1/264.5

With

"

or

an

ambient

temperature

0.00378.
of 30" C. the resistance of the

a
generator increases lProm 104
temi)erature rise?

shimt

field of

Temperature

Owing

to the

motors

in order that
such

rise

0.077/0.00378

an

generators should

accurate

test of their

be

run

0.077

"

r^rj

long time requiredto reach

and

is its

What
^

fractional change in resistance is

The

ohms.

112

to

20".4

C.

constant

from

temperature

Ans.

ture,
tempera-

6 to 18
may

hours,

be made.

the heating is often

long time is usuallyprohibitive,
accelerated by running overload for an hour or so and then dropping
back to rated load.
By this procedurea very good idea of the

As

ultimate temperature may often be obtained in a run of 2 or 3 hours.

perature,
To get an idea as to how close a machine is to its ultimate temit is often
1

See

Par.

48,

page

43.

desirable to

plot

curve

of temperature

370

CURRENTS

DIRECT

of this type for a shunt

typicalcurve
in Fig. 331.
At the beginning of the test,there is

during the

rise

field is shown

test.

the field coils

sUght differenise of temperature between
of heat is given
and the room.
Therefore,but a small amount
out by the coils and
as
a result the temperature rises rapidly.

but

the difference between

As

the coil temperature

temperature
conitant

Tempcratare^^

and

the

room

and

increases,more

hcat is

by

thc

and the temperature

coils,
less rapidly. Therefore,the

rises

morc

givcn

out

"

y^

increase becomes

of temperature

less

of temperature
time, for a dynamo.

-Curve

with

When

331,

Hour*

331

the

Fig.

becomes

curve

the total
practicallyhorizontal,
the coils is
heat developed m
the heat dissipatedby the coils and the coils have

to

reached

of

curve

rise

"^

equal

This

the time increases.

as

is illustrated by the
FiQ.

rate

constant

temperature.

Similar

curves

"

"""

would

"

hold

parts of the machine.

for other

resistance when
measuring the armature
determining temperature rise. The object of this meaaurement
is not to determine
the resistance with the idea of calculating
the loss,
but to determine the change of resistance in the armature
due to change of temperature. Therefore, it is essential
coppery
be taken in

Care must

the

that

and
that
of the copper
alone be measured
in every
surement.
meapath through the copper be the same
To exclude all resistance except that of the copper,

resistance

the current

the

brush

and

contact

resistances

be included

not

must

in

the

Therefore,the voltmeter leads must be held on

the commutator
in Fig.
segments inside the brushes, as shown
in
should be marked
and
332 (a). Moreover, these segments
the
under
subsequent measurement
they should be directly
every
brushes.
This insures the same
same
conducting path for each

measurement.

measurement.

When
current

contact
a

to

The

is so measured, the division of

multi-polararmature
in the various paths is determined
in part by the brush
resistance. Thus in Fig.332 (6),
the current from brush
a

brush

h is 7i and

total current

that

from

brush

entering the brush

to

brush

is their sum,

is Jj.
amp.

372

DIRECT

temperatures at any

time.

coil sides

between

CURRENTS

If the

between

or

located

thermo-couplesare

coil sides and

core

in

i2-layer

added; if the thermo-couples are

tween
placed becoil sides and core
coil sides and wedge in a
between
or
1000
single-layer
winding 10" C. are added, and 1" C. for every

winding 5" C.

volts above

are

volts terminal

6000

pressure.

The

hottest

spot is

the

highestvalue by either method after corrections have been

applied.
236. Parallel Rmming
In most
of Shunt Generators.
xx"wer
plantsit is necessary and desirable that the power be supplied by
several small units rather than by a singlelargeunit.
reUable than a single large
(a) Several small unitfe are more
unit, for if a unit is disabled the entire power supply is not cut
be conoflf. (6) The units may
nected
"

in service and

taken

out

correspondwith the
the station. This keeps

of service to
load

on

the units loaded up to their rated

ciency
capacitywhich increases the effi-

operation, (c) Units

be repairedmore
readily if
of

may

there

333.

"

Characteristics

generators

shunt

of

-several in the station.

be
.(d) Additional units may
to correspond with
growth of station load.

Amperes

Fig.

are

in parallel.

The

station

load

may

stalled
inthe

(e)

exceed

singleavailable unit.
Shunt generators, because of their drooping characteristic,
are
well suited for parallel
particularly
operation. In Fig. 333 are

the

capacity of

shown

any

shunt generators which will be

2 respectively.It wiU be noted

the characteristics of two

designated as

No.

1 and

No.

drooping characteristic.
If the two generators are connected in parallel.
Fig. 334, their
be the same,
terminal voltagesmust
neglectingany very small
voltagedrop in the connecting leads. Therefore,for a common
terminal voltage,Vi,Fig.333, generator No. 1 deUvers/i amperes
and generator No. 2 delivers h amperes.
That is,the machine
with the more
drooping characteristic carries the smaller load.
that some
Assume
condition arises which temporarily causes
that

generator

No.

has

the

more

LOSSES;

generator No. 1 to take

than

more

373

OPERATION

EFFICIENCY;

its share of the load.

This

might arise from a temporary increase in the speed of

its prime mover,
or it might be occasioned
by change of load on
No. 1 would immediately tend to operthe system. Generator
ate
its
characteristic.
This
results
at some
in a
point a on
drop in its terminal voltage,which tends to make it take less
load.
Therefore, any tendency of one machine to take more
than its share of the load results in a change of voltagewhich
this tendency. Therefore,shunt generators in parallel
opposes
condition

Bw-bMB

Double

Trip

C C

Pole

^^'^^^^

Breaker

BbeoBtat

Fia. 3^.

system
if any
carry

are

The
shown

such

the system occurs, each

of the increase or decrease of load.

connections
in

voltmeter

all the load.

mover

generator should have its own

of No.

must

ammeter.

is sufficient for all the machines.

can

2 is out

to the voltmeter

be connected

through suitable plug

that No.

machine

are
operatingshunt generators in parallel

Each

individual machines
bus

on

for

Fig.334.

common

Assume

equilibrium. The reactions of the

hold the generators in parallel.Moreover,

to

as

generators.

in stable

change of load
some

for the paralleloperation of shunt

Connections

be said to be

may

"

connectors

of service and

It is desired to put No.

2 is started

and

No.

or

tial
poten-

selective switches.

that No.

1 is supplying

2 in service.

is

or

The

brought

up

The
to

prime
speed.

374

DIRECT

CURRENTS

adjusted so that its voltage is just equal to

that of the bus-bars,which
condition may
be determined
by
Its field is then

the voltmeter.
No.

breaker

The

is connected

to

switch

and

the system.

are

Under

that of the bus-bars

takes

generator
bus-bar

voltageconstant.

must

that it may

be

deUver

strengthenedxmtil the

out of

its fieldis weakened

and that
service,
is strengthened until the load of the first

machine

voltage

It may
be necessary to
1 simultaneouslyin order to maintain the

the field of No.

take

2 is

will flow between

its share of the load.

weaken

To

in order

Therefore,the field of No.

current.

these

conditions,
its induced voltage is just

however, it is not taking any load,as

equal to the bus-bar voltage and no current
potential. Its induced
points at the same
greater than

closed and

now

of the other machine

-^^Bng

FiQ.

machine

is

The

zero.

clearingthe
to the

prime

mover

will be

delivered

one

to

Compound

and

then

in

parallel.

the switch

shocks

prevent any

to the

are

or

opened,
machine

disturbance

system.

generator be weakened
this generator, which

tend to drive its prime

It is evident

generators

breaker

manner
or

If the field of

"

Connecting in and removing

machine.

service in this

from

and

335.

too

will

much,
run

as

current
a

motor

mover.

that if shunt

generators

are

to divide the load

properly at all points,their characteristics should be similar,that

voltage
drop from no load to fullload,
is,each should have the same
Generators.
236. Parallel Running of Compound
Fig. 335
bars,
shows two
over-compounded generators connected to the buspositiveand negative terminals being properly connected
as
regards polarity. Each generator is taking its proper share
"

of the load.

Assume

that for

increased load.

some

The

375

OPERATION

EFFICIENCY;

LOSSES;

1 takes

generator No.

reason

in its series

current

strengthensits field and

force thus causingit to take still
load.
On the other hand,
more
which

winding

slightly

must

crease,
in-

raises its electromotive

No.l

"

the system load is assumed to

be fixed,
generator No. 2 will at
as

of its
drop some
load,resultingin a weakening
the

time

same

of its series field and

further
load.

In

quent
conse-

dropping of its
short

very

time

No. 1 will be
a

motor,

driving No. 2 as
and
ultimately the

breaker of at

least

one

of the

Amperes
^"'

^^^'

"

Characteristics of compound
in .parallel.

generators

will open.
This condition is again illustrated by

machines

individual characteristics of the two

the machines

Fig. 337.

"

to the

are

operatingat

Typical connections

Fig.336, which shows the

machines.

Assume

voltage Fi, which

for

two
compound
parallel.

respectivecurrents /i and Iz- Assume

a slightly
increased load. Its voltage will
some
point a. This increased voltage means

generators

that

corresponds

operating in

that No. 1 takes

then

tend to rise to

that the machine

376

CURRENTS

DIRECT

takes stillmore

and

current

the efifectwill continue

until ultimately

the breaker opens.

stable
compound generators may be considered to be in unequilibrium. That is,any action tending to throw the
machines
out of equilibrium is accentuated
by the resulting

These

reactions.

by connectingthe two series

fields in parallel,
Fig. 337. This connection,which in Fig. 337
ties the two
negative brushes together,is a conductor of low
resistance and is called the equalizer. Its operationis as follows:
The machines

Assmne
share

may

be made

stable

that generator No. 1 starts to take

of the load. This increased current

through the field of generator No.

+

1 but

more

than its proper

will pass

also,by

only

not

of the

means

BaB

-^Jqaa^i"^^

Series

Field

Fia.

338.

"

Compound

generators

requiring two

equalizers.

of it will pass through the fieldof generator No. 2.

equalizer,
some
and
Therefore,both machines are afifectedin a similar manner
No.
To
to

1 is unable

to take the entire load.

proportionatedivision of load from

full load,the followingconditions must
be satisfied:
must
(a) The percentage regulationof each armature
maintain

the

no

load

be the

same.

(b) The series field resistances must be inverselyproportional

to the machine
ratings.
It is not always possible
teristics
to adjustcompound generator characof series field diverters so that they divide the
by means
load properly. Suppose Fig.337,that the seriesfieldof generator
,

LOSSES;

377

OPERATION

EFFICIENCY;

and bus-bar have

by a diverter. If the equalizer
this diverter shunts the series fieldof genenegUgibleresistance,
rator
No. 2 as well as that of No. 1. Therefore,the diverter
merely drops the characteristic of the entire system but does
not afifectthe division of load.
The proper load adjustments
of a very low resistance in series with
be made
by means
may

No. 1 is shunted

of the series fields.

one

It should
either shunt
obtained

that the desired division of load among

be
compound generators at any one load may

be noted
or

by adjusting their field rheostats.

However, it is
constant
at all loads,

usuallydesirable that this division remain

if an operator is not in continuous attendance.
fore,
Thereespecially
it is desirable that generators operating in parallelhave
similar characteristics.

compound generator with a singleseries field usuallyhas a

as shown
3-poleswitch,one blade of which connects the equalizer,
in Fig. 337.
If a 3-wire generator (see page
394) having two
series fields is to be connected,a 4-poleswitch is necessary
as
there are two equaUzers. (See Fig. 338.) The load ammeter
in a compound generator should always be connected
between
A

the armature

terminal

the series field

and

the
circuit,

the bus-bars.
ammeter

current, due to the fact that

may
some

If it is connected

indicate the generator

not

of the generator current

be

passingthrough the equalizer.

Compound generators are put in service and

may

in

service in the

same

is adjustedand

manner

as

shunt

taken

out

of

generators,that is,the load

of the shunt field rheostat.

by means
237. Circtiit Breakers.--"jrenerators,
and electric circuits
motors
in generalrequireprotectionfrom short-circuits and overloads.
The
sudden load imposed by a short-circuit may
injure
the generator or its prime mover.
Wires may
overheat under
in fire hazard.
Two
the short-circuit current,resulting
common
devices are used for opening short-circuits and overloads,the
fuse and

the

shifted

circuit breaker.

The

fuse has

much

lower

first

On the other hand, it is worthless

occupiesless space.
after being blown
siderable
(unlessit is of the refillable type) and coninconvenience
often results from not having spare fuses
at hand.
The circuit breaker has a higherfirstcost and requires
On the other hand, it operates an indefinitely
more
great
space.

cost and

378

DIRECT

Fia. 339.

Fig.

340.

"

"

^Two

CURRENTS

pole,2000-ampere

circuit breaker

(Condi t).

circuit breaker
6000-ampere, electrically-operated

(Gondii).

XIV

CHAPTER
TRANSMISSION
238.

Power

Distribution

central

most

that the

transmit

voltage

this power

Much

direct current

at

conditions,

large scale

ing
alternat-

as

as

alternatingcurrent.

in

transmitting the

Thmy

The

by

transmit

does

system

means

power
as

power

is not

high voltage (see Par. 204), but

is

power

is required to transmit

less copper

high voltages. The

modern

raised and lowered

efficiently

be

may

of transformers.
at

on

POWER

OF

Under

"

using alternatingcurrent

for

reason

Systems.

stations generate power

and

current

DISTRIBUTION

AND

used

in

this country.

FiQ.

is

Power

(110, 220,
to

any

current

considerable

use

in the

capacitive

current, and
Another

distance

for commercial

most

be

reserve

can

method

of power

be

of direct

of

are

eddy

current

readily utilized.
distribution.

economically transmitted
voltages. In fact, direct

congested districts

effects,which

are

with

current

is that
341

and

large cities.

of

the absence

present

Fig.

Power
380

voltages

economically transmitted

these conditions

also the absence

advantage

be

can

low

comparatively

these

at

system.

power

ordinarily utilized at
volts),but it cannot

only
advantages under
and

Typical

"

600

distributed
Its

341.

of inductive

alternating

losses in the cables.

a

storage

shows

is generated

battery

the
at the

general
power

TRANSMISSION

AND

DISTRIBUTION

OF

381

POWER

current
at high voltageto
station,is transmitted as alternating
the sub-station (66,000volts is shown; the transmission voltage
is seldom less than 6,600 volts). At the sub-station it is either
to 2,300 volts alternating
current
transformed
by transformers
to 600 volts or 230 volts direct current
or
by motor-generator
shows
341
sets or synchronous converters.
the sub-station
(Fig.
supplying a trolleywith 600 volts direct current; a 2,300-volt
the voltage
circuit supplies
for lighting,
alternating-current
power
being transformed near the consumer's premises to a 230-115volt 3-wire system; a 3-phase 2,300-voltalternating-current
Une suppliesa factory,the voltagebeing transformed to
power
These systems are discussed
550 volts,
3-phase,by transformers.
more
fullyin Chap. XII, Vol. II.) The sub-station receives the
in large amounts
and distributes it to the various consumers
power
in smaller quantities.It bears the same
relation to the
power

system

as

the middleman

or

retailer does to

an

industrial

system.

Voltage and Weight of Conductor." rA6 weightof conwhen the power

ductor varies inversely
as the square of the voUage,
the distance and the loss are fixed.
transmitted,
Let it be requiredto transmit the power P at the voltage Vi
wires having a resistance Ri.
and current /i over
239.

The

current

"-k
The

power

loss

Pi

Ii^Ri

voltageis raised
and the distance remaining fixed.
Assume

The

that the

current

to

V^, the

power,

the loss

382

CURRENTS

DIRECT

as the square
is,the conductor resistance varies directly
the weight of a conductor
of the voltage. But the volume
or
of givenlengthvaries inverselyas the resistance.
Let the weight of copper in the two cases be W\ and 1^2, respectively.

That

the square
the condudor weightvaries inversely
as
of
Therefore,
the voUa^e,when the power,
the loss and the distance are fixed.
If the voltageof a system is doubled,the weight of the copper
is quartered,other conditions being the same.

Exam-pie. 50 kw. are delivered at a distance of 500

feeder, (o) What
is the power loss?
over
a 400,000 CM.
"

ft. at

110

volts

(") Repeat

for

220 volts.

(a) The

current
J
/i

If the

Cable had

454,000

50,000

"f^
CM.

...

454

amp.

(see Par. 69)

the loss would

be

454,000

(454\1,000
"

10-8

400,000

Ans,

5,150 watts.

(5)/2-^^227amp.
=

The

loss is
'

^'^^
(lis)

^'^^^ ^***"'

^'^'

loss in (6)is one-fourth that in (a). Therefore,

a 100,000CM.
feeder,
the
the
the
transmit
feeder
in
one-fourth
of
would
having just
weight
(a),
The

same

power,

240.
power

the

Size

same

distance,with the

of Conductors.

"

In

same

loss.

transmitting

by direct current, four factors

must

or

distributing

be considered

in determining

the size of conductor.

(a) The wires must be able to carry the required current

without overheating.
This is particularly
important with inside wiring where fire
risk exists. Tables of the permissible
ciurrent-carrying
capacity
of wires are given in the Appendix, page 410.
able
(b) The voltagedrop to the load must be kept within reasonwhen
limits. This is particularly
incandescent
important
lamps constitute the load.

TRANSMISSION

DISTRIBUTION

AND

POWER

OF

383

(c) The wires must be of sufficientmechanical strength. This

is important when the wires are strung on poles. It is not advisable
for pole Unes.
to use wires smaller than No. 8 A.W.G.
creasing
(d) The economics of the problem must be considered. Inthe size of conductor
means
higher investment costs
less energy
loss in transmission.
That size of conductor
should be chosen which makes the cost of the energy loss plusthe
be modified
This* may
interest on the investment
a minimum.

but

in view of the considerations stated in

CONSTANT

241.

POTENTIAL

(a),(6)and (c).

DISTRIBUTION

Voltage. About 110 volts has been found

to be the most
convenient
voltage for incandescent Ughting.
It is not so high as to be dangerous to persons.
Incandescent
of 110 volts become
so
lamp filaments for voltages in excess
long and of so small a cross-section that they are fragile.An
lower voltagethan this would be desirable from the standpoint
even
of the filament,but a lower voltage would
be accompanied
fore,
Thereby an increase in the requiredweight of copper.
110-115
volts has been standardized for Ughting and for
domestic use
as
being the most desirable when all factors are
taken
for

Distribution

"

Six hundred

into consideration.

because itis not

trolley
distribution,
difficultiesand it saves

systems of lower voltage.

so

commonly

high as

to

used

giveoperating

considerable copper as compared with

At the present time, 1,200,2,400,and

trolleyin railwayelectrification,
these highervoltagesbeing for trunk line electrification,
not for
municipal traction.

even

3,000 volts

volts is

are

242. Distributed

used at the

Loads.

"

The

load

on

feeder

or

main

may

points,as is generallythe case with

be distributed uniformly or non-uniform
ly
feeders, or may
along the conductors, as when lamp loads are located at various
pointsalong mains.
(SeeFig.342.)
The conductors may
be of uniform cross-section throughout
where
the mains
their entire length,Fig. 342(a). This occurs
short and the voltagedrop is small.
are
Where
the mains
of considerable length,the minimum
are
of copper for a givenvoltage drop is obtained when the
amount
mains are uniformlytapered,Fig.342(6).
be concentrated

at

one

or

two

384

DIRECT

CURRENTS

As it is impracticable
to have
a

conductor

of constant

uniformlytaperingconductor,

cross-section is

run

for

part of the

distance,followed by another uniform conductor of lesser crossmember

section,and so on, as shown in Fig.342(c). A good rule to reis that the current densityin each section should be the
For example, the firstsection may consist of a 250,000
same.
the second secCM.
assume
conductor, carrying200 amperes;
150

tion carries 150 amperes;

CM.

it should be

000
^7)^*250,

Ordinarily4/0 wire would

conductor.

190,000

be used

for this

second section.

(a)

Uniform

Copper

Section

QOOOOQO^
(6) Tapered

(c)Varying
Fig.

342.

"

Copper cross-section

Copper

Conductor

Cross-section

of distributing system or

of mains.

of
Feeding. ^In order to keep a number
lamps at the same
voltagewithout excessive copper, the return
loop or anti-parallel
system shown in Fig. 343(a) is often used.
The
two
feeding wires are connected to oppositeends of the
load. This system allows all the lamps to operate at nearly
the same
voltageand yet the voltagedrop in the feeding wires
be large.
may
The objectionto the return loop system is the extra lengthof
wire required. This objectionis often overcome
by arranging
called the open
shown in Fig. 343 (fe),
the loads in the manner
spiralsystem. Where large groups of lamps are switched off
and on at the same
time, as in theaters and auditoriums,it is
often possible
the lamps in this way.
to arrange
243. Systems

of

"

TRANSMISSION

The

DISTRIBUTION

AND

be closed
spiralmay
closed loop system of Fig.343(c).
open

VMdiag

{d)

Open

its

Return

Loop

(c)

Spiral System
Fig.

343.

"

Systems

Series-Parallel

the

g
Anti-Parallel

or

385

POWER

ends, resultingin

0006660

Point

(6 )

at

OF

System

Closed

Loop

of feeding.

System. Doubling the voltage of a

system results in the weight of requiredcopper being reduced to
its initial value.
If 110-volt lamps be arranged so
one-fourth
that two are always in series,as shown in Fig. 344, the system
be operated at 220 volts. The copper section will then be
may
one-fourth that requiredfor straight110-volt distribution. The
that
obvious
disadvantages of the series-parallel
system are
244.

"

Fig.

"

Series-parallelsystem.

only be switched in groups of two and if one lamp

to operate.
burns out, the lamp to which it is connected ceases
rating.
Also, both of the lamps in series must be of the same

lamps

344.

can

EDISON

THE

246.
may

Advantages.
"

be eliminated
the two

between

lamps
26

at

3-WIRE

SYSTEM

sjrstem
objectionsto the series-parallel
called
neiUral,
a
by running a third wire,
The

outer

wires.

This

approximately 110 volts.

neutral
The

all the

maintains

advantage of

higher

386

DIRECT

CURRENTS

voltagein reducing the weight of

this system. If there were
system would require one-fourth
of

1 10-volt system.

If it be assumed

system is of the

neutral

no

by the

use

wire,the 220-volt
of an
equivalent

the copper
that the neutral of the Edison

cross-section

same

is obtained

copper

the two

as

wires,the

outer

total copper for the Edison system is ^ or 373^ per cent, that
for a 110-volt system of the same
kilowatt capacity. Therefore
the

saving in

is

copper

62)^

the neutral
practice,

In

per cent.

smaller than the

be made

can

wires

outer

two

the

that

so

.10 ^mp.

y.
iio|

saving in
1=0

Amp.

is

copper

greater than 623^

even

cent.

per

general plan of the

system is shown in Fig. 345.
The

"

Amp.

10

wires A

Two
FlQ.

and

345.

"

Edison
balanced

the

difference of
wires.

3-wire

system

loads.

third

negative. A
of
potential
N

Therefore

volts

maintained

them,

wire

side of the system is the

10 Amp

110
"

exist when

Amp.

Ampr"

Amp-"

10

"

Amp.

amperes.

flow from

the load
a

on

and h

"

(o)

takes

and

*.

IsAmp.

Fig.

110

Amp.

to

of the loads

Each

same.

at

of the other two

each

negative with respect

That is,current tends to

positivewith respect to B.
A to Nj and from iV to B.
Fig. 345 shows the conditions which
each

being the positive

be

must

220

between

is maintained

volts from

110

and B have

"

10

sl 10

Amp.

Amp.

(b)
346.

"

The

Unbalanced

10

3-wire systems.

amperes

taken

by load

through to load h and then back through wire B to the source.

This is equivalentto a series-parallel
system as both loads are
equal and are in series. Under these conditions the current in
the neutral wire is

zero

and

the loads

are

said to be balanced.

Fig. 346 (a) shows the conditions existingwhen the load

the positive
side of the system is 10 amperes,
and the load

on

on

388

DIRECT

is now

There

220 volts

CURRENTS

loads in

these two

across

so that
series,

the current
220

^J

voltage Vi

The

voltageV2

The

2"2:92

9.60

9.17

88.0 volts.

load 222

across

Vi

^"'P-

load Ri

across

Vi

^
^'^

13.75

9.60 X

132 volts.

lamp filaments does

not change. It will be observed,however, that the largerbank
of lamps is operatingat a much
reduced voltage,resulting
in a
material decrease of candlepower,and that the smaller bank is
operatingconsiderablyabove rated voltage,which would result
in the lamps burning out in a short time.
This

For

that the resistance of the

assumes

the

above

the neutral

reason

of the

3-wire

system

is

rarely sees circuit breakers in the

neutral wire of power plants.
246. VoltageUnbalancing. The voltageon the two sides of a
become
3-wire system may
if the
considerably unbalanced
loads on the two sides of the system become unequal, as shown
in Fig. 349.

usuallygrounded and

one

"

0.1

eo

amp.

IKOY.
0.2 n

amp.

"90

amp.

"

^ 00

lioV.

io"r.

I-O

11 ov.
0.1

I6,V.
iy

".

"

CO

104 v.

lip V"

i
fOT
r

amp.

(b)

(a)
Fig.

In

348.

Voltage drop in

Fig.348 (a) a load of

system.

Each

neutral has
220 volts

across

3-wire

60 amperes

wire has

outer

system

outer

exists

on

The

loads.

each side of the

resistance of 0.1 ohm

resistance of 0.2 ohm.

the two

having balanced

and

the

generator voltage is

wires.

equal,there is no current in the neutral

Therefore,the voltagedrop per wire for the outers is

As the two
wire.

"

loads

are

60 X

0.1 =6.0

volts.

TRANSMISSION

DISTRIBUTION

AND

OF

389

POWER

voltageacross each load is 104 volts. There is no voltage

drop along the neutral,as it carries no current.
Fig. 348(6)
shows a plot of the voltagedistribution.
The

100

110 V.

m.

_.

0.2

n.t"80fl

0.1

n .e_20a

(")
349.

Fio.

"

Assume

Voltage unbalancing

that the loads

in

3-wire

are

as

in

shown

one

unbalanced

Fig. 349,

100 amperes

the other side.

on

loads.

This

Fig. 348.

drop in the positivewire

The

ei

100

0.1

10

volts.

drop in the neutral

The

6a

Vi
The

drop

in the

Voltage across

now

16 volts.

26

84

volts.

Ans.

negativewire
20 X

0.1

2 volts.

negativeload
7,

is

0.2

110

62

There

80

positiveload

Voltage across

two

having

system

side of the system and 20 amperes

total amperes
in
as
represents the same
on

TW

(6)

40

110

-r

2 +

16

124 volts.

volts difference between

the

Ans.

voltageson

the

sides of the system.

Under
these conditions,
the

the load on
the
voltage across
negative side is greaterthan the voltageon the negativeside of
the system at the power station. This rise in voltagefrom power
of the drop in the neustation to load is obtained at the expense
tral.
Fig.349(6) shows these conditions graphically.
When

they
than

loads

motor

are

to

are

usually connected

between

an

outer

be connected

between

wire and

the two

neutral

3-wire system
outer wires rather

to

so

that

they will

not

panies
comvoltage unbalancing In fact some
power
will not permit motor
loads exceedingone horsepower to be

produce

connected

any

to neutral.

390

DIRECT

METHODS

There

247.

obtaininga

3- wire

system which

Two

"

to

generators

is,the generators

are

"

shunt

Two

generators

may

be

Fig.350. The positiveterminal

the negativeterminal of the other

in

in series as shown

Fig. 350.

that

SYSTEM

8-WIRE

should be connected

one

of

Two-generator Method.

connected
of

OBTAINIKG

various methods

follows

as

are

are

OF

CURRENTS

supplying

3-wire system.

the outers.

in series between

Both

When
prime mover.
in this manner,
connected
each machine
suppliesonly the load
its own
side of the line. The obvious objectionto this method
on
is that two separate machines are required.
be driven

generators may

-*"

FiQ. 351.

248.

"

by the

same

86a

Storage battery giving neutral in

3-wire system.

Storage Battery. A storage batterymay be floated across

the line as shown in Fig.351.
The neutral wire is connected to
the middle pointof the battery. When
the load is unbalanced,
that half of the batteryon the more
heavily loaded side will
dischargeand the other half will be charged. Fig.351 shows an
"

TRANSMISSION

AND

DISTRIBUTION

OF

391

POWER

In this particularcase
the upper
unbalancing of 10 amperes.
half of the batterysupplies5 amperes,
and the other 5 amperes
in
the neutral go to chargethe lower half of the battery. The objections
of obtaininga neutral are the high mainto this method
tenance
of maintaining
cost of a storage batteryand the difficulty
condition of charge.
both halves of the batteryat the same
balancer set is a very common
method
of obtaining the neutral. This set consists of a motor
and
249.

Balancer

Set.

"

generator mechanicallycoupled together. They

in series across

connected

wires and the neutral is broughtto their

the outer

terminal,as shown

common

are

in

Fig.352.

52.2 a

QO.QOp
QOpO"*

"'^-

Fig.

352.

"

-*

S22a

-"

Balancer

set

The

action of this set may

analogy shown in Fig. 353.
useful work
canal

the

in
B

so

and

of the water

Some

in

givingneutral

3-wire system.

by the hydraulic
is suppliedby the canal A.

best be illustrated
Water

be made
to do
weir into canal B and may
doing. All this water is not needed between

falls over

This water

40a

"

the tail race

which

is not

point of utilization D.
at D passes to C through

C at the
needed

figure. This water wheel is belted

to a centrifugal
operating between B and A. In virtue
pump
of the water
of the water passingthrough the water wheel some
where it may
in the canal B is pumped back to A by the pump,
be utilized again. The water
wheel corresponds to the motor
to the generator
or machine
B, Fig.352, and the centrifugal
pump
the water

wheel shown

machine

or

in the

A.

is requiredbetween canals B and C

water
Fig. 353 more
than can be suppliedby the weir at A, the centrifugal
may
pump
If in

act

as

water

wheel

and

the water

wheel

as

pump.

Some

of

392

CURRENTS

DIRECT

requiredin B will be suppliedthrough the upper

operatingas a water wheel and discharginginto B. In

the extra water

machine
so

doing the upper

The

machine

lower machine

drives the lower machine

then pumps

water

from

C back

as

to B.

pump.
This

of load on the negative side

correspondsto an excess
of the system of Fig. 352.
of load on the positiveside
If in Fig. 352 there is an excess
of the system, as representedby 20 amperes
in the neutral,12.2
flows throughthe motor and in dropping
of this 20 amperes
amperes
condition

Waterfall!

Fia. 353.

through

110 volts

"

Water-wheel

analogy of balancer

givesup its energy.

The

set.

motor

the generator to pump

7.8 amperes
back to the
line. This current
distribution is determined

then

causes

side of the
positive
in the

following

manner:

Each

of the machines

A and B isassumed

to have 80

percent,

Let Ji
efficiency.
be the motor
be 0.8 X

0.8

voltagesare

be the generator current in machine A and h

in machine B.
current
The generator output will
0.64 times the motor
input. Assmning that the

equal,actuallythey will

be

slightlyunbalanced,

110/1
IIOJ2 X 0.64
20
/i + /2
7.8 amp.
Zi
12.2 amp.
I2
=

Solving

The

machines

if their fields are

readilyto unbalanced loads

respond more
crossed,that is,if the motor fieldis across the

will

TRANSMISSION

DISTRIBUTION

AND

generator side of the line and

side of the line.

motor

OF

the generator field is

In order that

393

POWER

supply-

generator may

the

across

additional current, its terminal voltagemust

drop or its induced
voltage must rise. In order that a motor may take additional
load,either its terminal voltagemust rise or its induced voltage

drop. The (excess load on the positiveside of the system

(Fig.352) tends to reduce the field of machine A and to increase

must

of machine

that

voltage is

the increased
raise the

not

FiG. 354.

The

"

same

machines.

drop

so

Connections

reverse

the motor

of what
side of the

is

Une,

across

much

of

the

are

the generator field and will

voltage. Therefore, its terminal

now

generator induced

voltage need

two

effects

These

If the generator fieldis across

desired.

rents.

B.

to take

3-wire

system

of unbalanced

care

using

result may
be obtained
The series fieldsshould be

balancer

cur-

set.

by compounding the
so

connected

that the

actingas a generator is cumulativelycompounded, and

is differentially
that actingas a motor
compounded.
Fig. 354 shows standard connections for a balancer set with
series fields. The machines are started in series,
with the neutral
machine

switches open
the machines

and the shunt fieldsin series across

the line.

When

speed the neutral switch S is closed. If

the voltageson the two sides of the system become
ent,
widely differthe currents in the two halves of the differentialrelaybecome
unbalanced.
This relay then closes the tripping coil circuit
of the main generator breaker,resultingin the main generator
circuit opening,even
though its load is not excessive.
are

up

to

394

Generator.

260. Three-wire
method

Dobrowolsky
a

CURRENTS

DIRECT

neutral.

is

three-wire

The

"

very

efficient method

details of the method

The

generator
of

obtaining

be understood

can

or

better

have
alternatingcurrents and the synchronous converter
of the method
The principle
is as follows: Alternating
been studied J
is generated within a direct-current armature
current
as
If slipringsbe employed, alternating
has already been shown.
after

current

iron

be obtained

can

core

which

from

A coil wound

the machine.

has

center

of such

coil is at

355.

^3-wire

generator

the

cen-

(6)

(a)
"

an

high inductance and offers

current
this alternating
is connected
across

therefore

high impedance to
the slip rings. The

Fia.

on

connections

(Dobrowolsky

method).

ter of

gravity of the voltages generated within the armature.

Further, this inductance coil offers very little resistance to
the flow of direct current.
Therefore,if the three-wire neutral
be connected to the center of this coil,
the voltageto either brush
from the neutral will be the same.
ing
Moreover, any current flowback through the neutral can
readilyflow back into the
armature
The connections of such a
through this reactance.
generator are shown in Fig.355 (a). Sometimes, to obtain better
three reactances
are
balancing,two and even
employed. All
have their neutrals tied together,as shown in Fig.355 (6). Occasionall
This
the reactances
are
placed within the armature.
arrangement requiresbut one slipring,but increases the weight
of the armature.
The

Edison

3-wire system may

wire systems.
number

to

4, 5, 6, and 7-

and
(SeeFig.309, page 341.) The complications
sively
of wires prevent these multi-wire systems being exten-

used.
1

be extended

See Vol. II,Chap. XI, page

375.

396

DIRECT

containinga

set of insulated

mains
mains

or

the

CURRENTS

tribution
bus-bars,to which either the dis-

feeders

connected.

are

Distribution

ready
connected,through fuses,to suitable terminals alinstalled in the junction boxes.
A junction box thus
providesa convenient method of connectingthe singlefeeding
wires to the several distribution wires. The mains are always
fused,but only disconnectinglinks are used for the feeders,it
being deemed advisable to allow the feeders to burn themselves
are

clear of any short-circuits.

262, Electric Railway Distribution.

Electric

railway generators
are
generallycompounded, the seriesfieldbeing on the negative
side. The negativeterminal is usuallyconnected directly
to ground or to the rail through a switch.
The positive
terminal
feeds the trolleythrough an ammeter, a switch,and a circuit
"

breaker.
alone may suffice
with lighttraffic,
the trolley
lines,
to carry the current
to the car, as shown in Fig.357 (a). Except
in small installations,
the trolley
is of insufficientcross-section to
tage
time to keep the volsupply the requiredpower and at the same
drop within the necessary limits. As the size of the trolley
wire is limited by the trolleywheel, it cannot
be conveniently
increased.
the size of the trolley
The same
effect as increasing
be obtained by running a feeder in parallel
with the trolley
may
and connecting the feeder to the trolleyat short intervals,
as
shown in Fig.357 (6). This is called the ladder system of feeding.
The trolley
be considered as forming a
and feeder togethermay
singleconductor.
Where
the best
the densityof trafficrequiresseveral feeders,
results are obtained by connecting the feeders in the manner
shown
in Fig.357 (c). Each feeder is protectedby a circuit
On

short

breaker.

objectionsto the precedingmethods of feedingare that

trouble,due to a ground,for example,at any pointon the trolley,
involves the entire system. In cities where trafficis particularly
dense, it is not permissibleto take chances of having the
due to a ground at one
entire system shut down
point only.
357
shown
in
t
he
i
ssectionalized
as
(d) In
Fig.
Therefore, trolley
each of
this method the trolley
is divided into insulated sections,
which is suppliedby a separate feeder. Trouble in one
section
The

TRANSMISSION

is not

OF

DISTRIBUTION

AND

readily communicated
reliabiUtyis obtained

other

the

to

397

POWER

sections.

This

creased
in-

the expense
of a less efficient
the feeders are unable to assist one
another.
at

of the copper, as
In the precedingsystems this mutual

tise

help is obtained.

Trolley

(a)

Simple

Trolley

Feeder.

I I I I I I I

1,,
1,1I

I I I I I I I

Trolley

(b)Ladder

System

Single Feeder

Feeders

(c) Multiple

Feeders

Trolley

(d)

Multiple Feeders

FiQ, 357.

"

Methods

Section^lized Trolley

of feeding

trolley system.

trolleysystems use the track as the

return
The return
conductor for the current taken by the car.
currents
not only pass through the tracks themselves,but seek
the pathsof least resistance by which they may
return to the negative
terminal of the station generator. Such currents in spread263.

Electrolysis.Most
"

398

DIRECT

CURRENTS

as
ing through the earth follow such low resistance conductors
water
pipes,gas pipes,cable sheaths,etc.,as shown in Fig. 358.
The fact that the current enters and flows along these conductors
in itselfdoes no harm.
However, it is obvious that such ciurrents
leave these pipesas at (a),
must
ultimately
Fig.358. In so doing
solution,
they tend to carry the metal of the pipe into electrolytic
which ultimatelyresults in the pipe being eaten away.
To decrease
several expedientshave
the effects of electrolysis
been

devised.

The

(a) Provide
cable.

two

as

This

successful methods

most

good

is done

are

following:

the

path through the track as is pra";tiby good bonding and by using insulated
return

Tfollay
^^

Fig. 358,

"

Electrolysis by earth

currents.

back
that is,heavy copper feeders that are run
negativefeeders,
to the negative bus from various pointsalong the track.
Fig.
358 shows how

track and

poor

enter

rail bonds

the

pipe. In

may
some

cause

the current

cities the total

to leave

the

permissible

drop in the ground return circuit must not exceed from 10 to

15 volts. (6) Discourage the current's entering the pipes by
occasional insulating
jointsin the pipes.
inserting
is to measure
the
In testingfor electrolysis
the usual method
voltageexistingbetween the track and the water pipes(as at a
hydrant). The magnitude of this voltageindicates roughly the
magnitude of the current which must be flowingfrom one to the
is flowing.
the current
other. The polarityshows which way
to the pipe,current
For example, if the track is positive
must
be
flowingfrom the track to the pipe.
situation is stillin an unsettled state both, as
The electrolysis
for
regards its mitigationand as to the ultimate responsibility
the damage resulting.

TRANSMISSION

AND

STORAGE

264. Central
load

curve

Station

of

DISTRIBUTION

BATTERY

Batteries.

central station.

OF

399

POWER

SYSTEMS

"

Fig.

359

Between

shows

11.00

typical

p.m.

and

5.00

the load is

comparatively small,consistingof street lights

conmiercial loads.
and a few all-night
"
This portionof the load curve
is called a
The load
valley.
increases rapidlyfrom 5.00 to 7.00 a.m. due to commercial
power
and
to
the beginning of street car service.
loads,lights
perhaps
The morning peak occurs
about 8.00 a.m.
The load drops ofiF
A.M.

"

graduallyuntil

noon.

6A.M

ISNt.

Fig.

The
of the

359.

"

ISNn.

Battery smoothing

valleybetween
commercial

12.00 and

loads

out

6 P.M.

IS Nt

central station load

1.00 is due to the

because

curve.

shuttingdown

of the luncheon

hour.

The

between 5.00
occurs
evening peak, which is usuallythe largest,
hold up for an hour, after which
This peak may
and 6.00 p.m.
it drops to the evening load, which consists mostly of lighting.
value.
This load graduallydiminishes to the all-night
have
must
sufficient station
Obviously the power
company
and distributing
capacityto carry the peak. Even although this
apparatus is in use only one hour a day, the investment charges
in eflFect24 hours a day.
are
ratio of the average
is called the load factor.
The

load to the maximum

load of

station

400

DIRECT

Example.
is

CURRENTS

20,000 kw.

station delivers 192,000 kw.-hr.

is the daily load factor?
What

The

average

load

The

load factor

"

tlf^

in

day and its peak load

g^ooo kw.

8 000
"

oQliOO

"

^'

^""*'

^^'

Obviously a high load factor is very desirable. In fact

loads that will fill in the
companies welcome
any
power
and are usually prepared to offer attractive
valleysof the curve
rates for such loads in order to improve their load factors
and

thus

to

utilize apparatus at

times

when

it would

wise
other-

be idle.
load

The
of

of

curve

storage battery.

out by the use

station may
be smoothed
The battery may
be charged at night and

earlymorning and so fillin the valleyof the load curve and then
in Fig.
be discharged on the peak of the load curve, as shown
359.
This equalizesthe load on the station and increases its
load factor.
As

rule,batteries

are

not

installed for the purpose

of smoothing

A storage

battery operatingunder the

of complete
best conditions is good for only a limited number
charges and discharges. Therefore, the battery maintenance
than offset the economies
effected by
is usuallyfound to more
be
of the load off the peak. Such batteries may
taking some
useful in office buildingsand other isolated plants,because
very
to shut down
the entire Ughting plantand run
it is often possible
the batteries at night, thus eliminatingconsiderable labor
on
charge.
in large central
Batteries are commonly installed as reserve
the center of
near
station systems. They are placed,therefore,
in the generatingsystem or in
In case of a shut-down
the load.
the transmission system, the battery can
help maintain service.
often used,
For this reason
pasted plate batteries are more
because of their high overload capacity. (Seepage 103, Par. 94.)
Storage batteries are also useful in taking care of unexpected
result in a sudden
loads. For example, a thunder storm
may
out

demand

steam

the load

which

curve.

could

not

be foreseen

and

so

cannot

be met

mediately
im-

by the generatingstation,as it takes time to get up

be put
and put a generator on the lipe. A battery may

TRANSMISSION

immediately and

the line

on

until boilers and

turbines

so

be

can

Resistance

Control.

If the

brought into service.

the line it takes

battery is already floatingacross

automatically.
266.

load increase

the sudden

carry

401

POWER

OF

DISTRIBUTION

AND

the load increase

In order to control the load taken

"

to the

bus-bars,it is necessary to change

It is not
its induced
voltage by adjusting the field current.
possibleto adjustthe voltageof a storage batteryin this manner.
the battery
of controlling
One method
^
load is to have the battery voltage sey-|"
eral volts higherthan the bus-bar voltage
-;L_
by

and

generator connected

insert resistance in series with

to

shown

in

-^-

Fig.
By
battery,as
load
this
the
deresistance,
adjusting
be conliyered by the battery may
trolled.
The
disadvantage of this
the

is the loss of power

the voltage
and

method

,,

.,

sistance

resistance,which depends
with

Even

360.

in the
,

It is desired

"

to

troi of

resistance

the

for the

occasionally to compensate
during discharge.
Example.

'

360

Resistance

"

con-

battery discharge,

the load.

upon

load

constant

-r-

FiQ.

the

~-

1=1

re.1

"

drop

-=-

be

must

drop

adjusted
voltage

of battery

of
dischargea storage battery,consisting

115

ance
having an electromotive force of 2.1 volts and an internal resistbus-bars
that
the
into
220
volt
delivers
100
battery
so
ohm,
the series resistance be adjusted?
To what value must
total battery electromotive force

cells each

of 0.001
amperes.
The

E
The

bus-bar

X2.1

242 volts.

220 volts.

battery resistance
r

Let

115

voltage
V

The

the added

115

external

0.001

0.115 ohm.

resistance
242-220
""

lOOi^

266. Counter

Electromotive

0.115

+i2

22

11.5

0.105

Force

ohm.

10.5
Arts.

Cells.

"

If

an

electric

rent
cur-

in dilute
through two plain lead platesimmersed
sulphuricacid,a simple storage batteryis formed which immedibe

sent

Digitized
by

(^OOgle

402

DIRECT

CURRENTS

atelydevelops a counter electromotive force of about 2.0 volts.

(See page 97, Par. 92.) Neglectingthe small IR drop in such a
the counter electromotive force is practically
independent of
cell,
This principle
is utilized in controlling
the current
the current.
delivered by a battery.
in dilute acid and are connected
Plain lead platesare immersed
charge
in series with the battery. If it is desired to decrease the disof these cells are cut in. To
rate of the battery more
in Fig. 361, is
do this an end cell switch,similar to that shown
advantage of this method

The

used.

is that the

the resistance control

over

opposing or control electromotive force is independent

of the load.
End

267.

number

Cell Control.
of cellsto

"

givean

p.

""^-fl^
T
PT^^

n.a
ciu

^.Bat

cient
battery usually consists of a suffielectromotive force exceedingthat
of the bus-bars
by an ample
margin. To charge such a bat-

tery

"

booster

-^=^\a"tu"y

(See page

"=-

electromotive

-=-

tery, and

oont"ct

out

"="

T
361.

be

used.

111, Par. 102.) The

force of the bat-

hence

its

load, may
be controlled by cutting in or

-S-

Fio.

may

-""

"

End

of the

battery.
It is essential tO do this with-

csellcontrol of storage

battery.

the cells at the end

Opening the circuit. For

this purpose
in Fig. 361 is used.
a switch similar to that shown
is connected
contact
The main
to the auxiliarycontact
by a
When
from one batterycontact to the next
resistance R.
sliding
maintains the circuit connections through
the auxiliarycontact
the resistance R.
and

^^^

Were

there

zero

resistance between

the main

its

auxiliarycontact the individual cells would be

dead short-circuited during the transition period. The* resistance
R is usuallyso chosen as to allow the normal batterycurrent
to flow during the transition period. The
end cell switches
become rather massive in largebatteryinstallations and are often
This also permits remote
operated by a motor-driven worm.
contact

control.
The
to

not being in continuous

cells,
service,are discharged
lesser degree than the others.
Therefore they require individua
attention on charging.
^^^i^

end

404

DIRECT

CURRENTS

In order to reduce the current

flowingthrough Ri and Rt and

the battery,
the change of booster excitation isoften accomplished
whose field is connected in the
through an intermediaryexciter,
same
manner
as the booster of Fig.362.
Batteryat End of Line. ^Very poor voltage regulationmay
at the end of a trolleyUne, due to insufficient copper.
occur
"

Rather

to install a
not

to install more

than

it may

copper,

be

economical

more

storage battery at the end of the line. This battery

only steadies the trolleyvoltagebut tends

to reduce

violent

fluctuation of the power station load as well.

As the voltageat the end of the line requiringa

goes
batteryunderfluctuations of considerable magnitude, the battery is
usually self regulatingboth as regards charge and discharge.
With littleload on the line,
the voltage at the battery should be
high enough to charge it. On the other hand, when a car is near
the battery,the Une voltage should drop to such a value as to
allow the batteryto dischargeand assist the power
station.

Jr
")-Bni-bar

//
X

Bfcttetj

Track

Fig. 363.

Example,
"

constant

at

The
600

Battery floating at end of trolley line.

"

voltage (Fig.363)
A 4/0 trolleyhaving

bus-bar
volts.

mile extends out 4 miles from

The

the station.

at
a

the

station is mwntained

resistanoe of 0.26 ohm

'

per

resistance of ground and track

At the end of the line a storage battery consistingof

per mile.
cell has an
240
cells is ''floated.'' Each
electromotive force of
average
2.0 volts and a resistance of 0.002 ohm.
At what rate will the battery charge

is 0.05 ohm

when

there

is

no

much
amp., how
station supply?

The

load

current

When

the

load

total

trolleyand

track

4(0.26 + 0.05)

240

battery electromotive
^

at the

does the battery supply and how

1.24 ohms.

battery resistance
Ri

The

the line?

total resistance of the

R

The

on

240

0.002

0.48 ohm.

force
2.0

480 volts.

battery
much

is 150

does the

TRANSMISSION

When

is

there

to the

AND

load between

no

the

OF

station and

405

POWER

the battery the

current

battery
600

480

'

find the

division of the

at which

150-amp. load
just "float,"

600

480

"

at the

battery,firstfind

the

120

load of 96.8

^^

^-^""^P'

-r24

1.24

is,with

^^-

^"'P-

battery will

the
,,
^^"

That

^^

0.48^72

1.24 +

current

120
^^

^'
To

DISTRIBUTION

at the

amp.

battery

the line drop from

the

station to the

power

Under

batterywill be 120 volts,making 480 volts at the battery.

conditions
the battery will neither charge nor
discharge but

these

will "float."
The
remaining
battery resistance.

53.2

will be

amp.

Let II be the line current

divided

inverselyas the trolleyand

and Is the battery current.

Ib

1.24
^

II

0.48

Ib +Il

Solving

Ib
Il

53.2
38.4 amp.
14.8 amp.

"

station is already supplying 96.8 amp.

total station current
is then 96.8 + 14.8

The
The

is 38.4 amp.
be checked

current

This may

600
480

269.

Series

by calculatingthe voltage at the battery.

461.6 volts
(111.6 X 1.24)
461.6 volts.
(38.4 X 0.48)
(Check)
=

Distribution.

the loads

are

"

In

all independent of

applied at any one point does

loads, provided the voltage does
same
one

cmrent

are

passes

through each.

opened the

As

this is not

Power

current

affect any

That

another

one

the
so

series

that the

Therefore

if the circuit of any

to allthe other loads will be interrupted.

permissiblein practice,a load

it is desired to

is usuallysuppliedto

is,a

of the other

change. In

not

of distribution

another.

one

not

all in series with

load be

short-circuited when

parallelsystem

the

load

system the loads

and the battery

111.6 amp.

"

Ans,

remove

constant

it from
current

must

be

service.

system by

one

of two

methods; the series generator, of which the Brush arc

machines are examples,and the constant
and Thomson-Houston
current
tranrformer operatingin conjunctionwith the mercury
rectifier. (See Chap. VII, Vol. II.) Both of these methods
arc
tend

to maintain

constant

current

under

all conditions

of load.

406

DIRECT

CURRENTS

Therefore,if the circuit be opened and

thus introduced
and

ja

constant

current

very

is maintained

high resistance
a highreacross
sistance

highvoltageresults. For this reason the lamps

used on a constant current system are protectedby having a thin
disc of paper between the lamp terminals (filmcut-out). If the
this paper punctures it
lamp burns out, the high voltageacross
and so prevents the circuit being opened.
The advantage of the series system is the small amoimt
of
carries
copper required. This is due to the fact that the copper
only the current of any singleload. As the loads are in seriesthe
a

very

rj
Fia.

364.

Open

"

11

station

loop series

circuit.

Fig. 365.

"

Statioa

Parallel loop series circuit.

resultingvoltage is high. Therefore,this system is applicable

narily
because itwould ordionly to outside work, such as street lighting,
be dangerous to have such high voltagesin buildings.
There
two
of connecting such series
are
general methods
loads. In the open loop system, shown in Fig. 364, the circuit
is connected to the loads without reference to the separationof
the two
In

conductors.

the

This system is economical of copper.

parallelloop system the outgoing and return

ductors
con-

always kept near each other,as shown in Fig.365.

This system requiresmore
copper than the other but facilitates
testingfor faults and reduces inductive disturbances.
are

APPENDIX

Relations

of Units

Length
1 inch

"

2.54

1 foot

30.48

1 mile

cm.
cm.

1.609 kilometers

Area
1 circular mil

==

0.7864

1 circular

0.000507

sq.

1 sq. inch

6.452

cm.

1 sq. meter

mil

sq. mil.

sq.

mm.

sq. ft.

10.76

Volume
inch

1 cubic
1 liter

16.39

cm.

1,000 cu. cm.

gallon

gallon

cu.

"

0.2642

231

cu.

in.

W"ight
1 gram
1
1

(av.)
kilogram
ounce

28.35

grams

2.205

lb.

1 ton
1

long

dynes

=981

ton

1 metric

ton

"

2,000 lb.
2,240 lb.
1000 kg.
lb.

2205

W"yrk
1

joule (watt-second)

1 gram
1

1
1

deg. Cent, (gram calorie)

pound deg. Fahr. (B.t.u.)

kilogram-meter
foot-poimd
horse-power-second

10,000,000 ergs
joules

4.183

deg. Cent, (gram calorie)

252.1

777.5ft.-lb.

9.81

gram

joules

7.233

ft.-lb.

1.356

joules
deg. Cent, (gram calorie)
gram
lb. deg. F. (B.t.u.)

178.3

0.7074
550

ft.-lb.

Pressure
1

atmosphere

14.70

lb.

29.92

in. of mercury

1 lb.

on

sq. in.

sq. in.

==

407

760.0
33.94
702.9

on

of mercury

mm.

ft. of water

kg.

at 32** F.

on

at

sq. meter

at 32**

60** F.

F.

408

DIRECT

CURRENTS

APPENDIX

cu.

ft,of water weighs 62.6 Ih.

409

APPENDIX
APPENDIX
Table

of Turns

per

Sq. In. ; Solid Layer Winding*

Wire Co.)

(The Acme
Si"e.
A.W.G.

10

Single-cotton
covered

87.5

Enamel
and

Single-silk
covered

cotton

Enamel
and

silk

84.5

Enamel

92.5

11

109

105

117

12

136

130

147

13

169

161

184

14

210

199

231

15

260

248

292

16

321

304

366

17

396

374

458

18

488

456

572

19

598

556

715

20

772

722

865

807

907

21

1,150
1,425
1,780
2,220

947

890

1,075

22

1,155

23

1,410
1,720

1,075
1,303
1,575

1,330
1,650
2,045

1,010
1,230
1,510
1,860

2,080
2,500
3,020
3,630
4,270

1,910

2,310
2,770
3,300
3,910

2,520
3,090
3,810
4,690
5,650

2,290
2,830
3,460
4,220
5,100

2,800
3,540
4,440
5,570
6,950
8,730
10,650
13,500

24

25
26
27
28
29

30
31
32
33
34

35
36

'

5,100
5,920
6,950
8,120
9,430

4,630

6,950

5,330
6,300
7,300
8,410

8,410
10,000

12,080
14,500

6,200
7,300
8,900
10,650
12,600

10,850
12,350

9,610
10,850

17,300
20,400
23,700
27,800

14,900
17,300
20,400
23,700

37
38

"Standard

Handbook, Sec. 5, Par.

9"

16,900

21,000
26,000
31,900
40,000
49,300

410

DIRECT

CURRENTS

APPENDIX
Table

of

Current-carryingCapacity in Amperes
Under

Various

Conditions

of Wires

and

Cables

412

DIRECT

is magnetic

14. What

the induced

inducing and

CURRENTS

induction?

pole?

does magnetic
How
may

of soft iron to magnetic poles?

attraction

is the

What

of

use

relation between

is the

What

How

"keeper"

induction

the

explain the
become

compass
in connection with

versed?
re-

horseshoe

magnet?
general law

16. What

the

governs

path

taken

by the lines

of induction?

does this law explain the attraction of iron to the poles of a magnet?
is the objectionto the use of the bar magnet in practicalwork?
16. What

How

have

What

advantages
magnet?
is the

17. What

Where

are

means

20.
true

laminated

or

the bar

over

magnet?

magnets

from

stray magnetic

bar

magnetized by

steel bar be

In

magnets?

of

means

practice,how

bar

magnets

may

magnet?
By
magnetized

be

of electric current?
electromagnetsand also by means
needle does not point to the true north and
State why the compass
information
in most
south
places on the earth's surface. What

the

by

magnet

exist in their vicinity?

may

of two

horseshoe

used in practicalwork?
be shielded
instruments
sensitive

may

fields that may

19. How

the

underlying the compound

principle

laminated

18. How

the ring and

use

necessary

of

What

needle?

compass

the

in order to determine

is the

PROBLEMS

CHAPTER

1. Sketch

nets

two

field around

as

uniform

in

Fig. lA,

is inserted

lines of induction

polepointingto

bar mag-

two

field is produced

parallelpolar surfaces

A bar magnet
to the

is

indication of the

the

arranged

2. A
AT

the

the needle?

ON

"

"J

true

dip of

from

north

the

the north

of

between

magnet.

in this field
and

with

pole of

parallel

its north

the magnet.

resultingfield.
problem 2 show the ultimate efifect
the magnetic flux distribution of inupon
creasingthe strength of the field due to the
to the bar
What
occurs
large magnet.
magnet?
Sketch

the

3. In

S
Fig.

I
lA.

4. In

problem 2 sketch the flux distribution when the bar magnet is

perpendicularto the lines of induction.
6. Two
800 and m'
poles of strengthm
1,000 are 2 in. apart in air.
What
force (inlb.)is acting between
them?
6. The
of
horseshoe
two
poles
a
magnet are 4 cm. apart. If each has a
strength of 1,000 units,what force (lb.)is tending to pull them together?
7. A north pole of a bar magnet
has a strength of 2,000 units. When
it is 4 in. from
end of a long soft-iron bar, it induces a pole of 300
one
units on this end of the bar.
With what force is the magnet actingupon the
bar?
Neglectthe effect of the other poles. What pole is induced on the
and
in what
direction does the force act?
Make
bar,
a sketch.
=

pole4

force of 1.2 grams

is the strength of the second pole?

150 units acts with

polestrengthof

8. A

cm.

What

away.

uniform

9. A

413

PROBLEMS

AND

QUESTIONS

magnetic
two parallelpolar surfaces.
of 500 units placed in this

another

upon

field of 50,000 lines per sq. in. exists between

force (grams) is acting upon
What
an
N-pole
field?

Toward

pole will

which

the

tend

N-pole

to be drawn?

160,000 lines and having the shape of a truncated

exists between
two
parallel,
plane surfaces having areas of 25 sq. cm.
cone,
What
and 60 sq. cm.
force is exerted upon
a unit
N-pole if
respectively.
Near the second?
Explain.
placed near the first surface?
11. A
lines of force
N-pole has a strength of 100 units. How many
from this pole?
emanate
is the flux density at a distance of 2 in. from this pole?
12. What
force would
What
exist upon
the
a unit S-poleplaced at this distance from
pole?
13. A pole of 500 units exists at the end of a steel rod of circular crossof 0.8 cm.
section and having a diameter
is the approximate flux
What
in
the
rod?
density
14. A long steel rod has a square cross-section of 0.5 in. per side. The
flux densityin the crossnsection taken at the center of the rod is 15,000 lines
What is the strengthof the polesat the end of the rod.
per sq. in.
10. A

field of

magnetic

QUESTIONS
1. What

is the nature

conductor

carrying an

and

ON

CHAPTER

general shape

electric current?

direction of the current

of the

magnetic field about

What

relation exists between

the direction of the field produced about

and

the

the

conductor?
2. How

the above

may

rules enable

one

direction and
3. The

current

will the north

beneath

relations be shown

to remember

end

the

experimentally? What

relation which

exists between

simple
the

magnetic field?
in a conductor flows from left to right. In
of a compass
needle point if held over
the

what

direction

wire?

If held

the wire?

4. If two

parallelconductors

carry

current

in the

do
direction,

same

wires tend

to separate or come
for the
together? Give two reasons
Repeat for two conductors carrying current in opposite directions.
6. A singleloop of wire lying in the plane of the
paper carries a

in

clockwise direction.

within
a

this

loop?

bar magnet?
6. Show
how

combined
7. Give
be

three

Has

several

to form

What
this

9*

effect will be noticed if a compass

loop any propertiesin

loops similar

long solenoid.
whereby

methods

determined,provided

turns

rent
cur-

the direction of the

the

the

to

the

poles at

the ends

direction of the current

answer.

current

is placed

with those of

common

mentioned

one

these

of

in

through

be

(5) may

solenoid
the

may

solenoid

be known.

What

are

commercial

uses

of the solenoid?

Name

seven

such

uses.

414

DIRECT

9.

CURRENTS

Explain by the fundamental

drawn
10.

into

solenoid when

laws of magnetism why the plunger is

flows in the solenoid winding.

current

Plot the relation between

the

pull on

the

of the plunger in the solenoid.

"
11. What effect does ''iron-cladding
have

upon

of the

plunger?

State

characteristic?
12. Show

Explain

the

the

applicationof
practical

one

of the iron-clad solenoid.

plunger

What

and

the

position

characteristic
pulling
the

effect does the stop have

simple solenoid;
the solenoid

upon

practicaluse of this type of solenoid.

armature.
an
a U-shaped solenoid attracts
of operationof the telegraphrelay;the ordinary electric
principle
State

the principle
whereby

door-bell.
18. Sketch

lifting
magnet, showing its generalconstruction.

Where

are

such

economical
magnets used commercially,and in what way are they more
the magnet itself do
than the older methods
Does
of handling material?
work
is
handle
iron
it
and
steel?
when
used
to
appreciable
being
14. What

dynamos,

as

is the disadvantage of the early types of magnetic circuits of

representedby the Edison bi-polartype? How has the design

of the
the

modem

magnetic circuits of the more

disadvantages of the earlier ones.

ratio of the cross-section

of the field

generators

cores

of

overcome

be

should

What

of

some

the

approximate
multi-polargenerator to the

general rule should be followed in the

yoke? What
a
magnetic circuit? Does
placing of the exciting ampere-turns upon
the
of
between
magnetic leakage
poles a generator representa direct loss of
power?
cross-section of the

ON

PROBLEMS
16. A

portionof

CHAPTER

is shown

direct-current feeder

H
in

Fig. 15A.

isheld above the feeder the needle deflects as shown.

compass
tion does the current

in the feeder

flow,in

Fig.

Fio.

an

in what
instant,

out of the duct?

16A.
of

trolleysystem running upon

direction. If the troUey wire
a

current

direction will these conductors

b the direction of the force actingupon

direc^

15A.

Fig. 16A shows two positivefeeders

a
pole line and carryingcurrent in the same
drops upon the track,causing an enormous
16.

or

When

In what

to flow in the feeders for

tend

the insulators?

to move

and

what

AND

QUESTIONS
17. In
hammer

Fig. 17 A is shown
operates.

the

principleupon

coils C and

Two

415

PROBLEMS

are

which

one

type of electric

in series and

connected

in the

positions shown.
P, a soft-iron plunger running in guides, actuates the
A coil D, encircling
device.
the plunger P, is excited continuously
hammering
direct current.

with

If the terminals

and

h of the coil D

are

of the

B
b

Fio.

17A.

Fio.

18A.

If terminal
of the ends of the plungerP.
polarityshown, indicate the polarity
direction will the plungerP tend to
in what
^
is -f and terminal B is
of terminals A and B is reversed,in what
If the polarity
move?
direction
"

does the plunger tend to move?

^nn- magnetic
^jiDflaD"ie Steel

20 a.

Fig.

18.
these
the

Fig. ISA
coils

so

shows

that

two

they aid

Connect
simple horseshoe magnet.
Sketch
the magnetic fieldbetween
another.

coils
one

on

poles.

Assuming that one of the field coils of Fig. 38, page 27 is reversed,
of
that is,the two coils **buck" each other, sketch the general appearance
by this
the magnetic field. Will the total flux be increased or diminished
19.

method

of connection?

20. Fig. 20A

a

heavy

iron

shows

liftingmagnet about to pick up

"skull cracker" (used in breaking up scrap

in cross-section

sphereknown

as

416

DIRECT

CURRENTS

iron). Sketch the magnetic lines and

conditions.

The

the current

enters

21. Connect

Fig. 21
hand

A,

polea

the

polesexistingunder

in
the coils 06, cdf ef^gh, in the multi-polarmachine shown
the
of
Make
leftis
obtained.
poles
sequence
the

Sketch

paths of the magnetic lines.

21A.

Fig.

22A,

Fio.

Fig. 22A shows the pole face of a generator and an armature

Sketch the paths of the magnetic lines in passingfrom the pole face
22.

tooth

the

from

and

these

horizontal section of the magnet is circular. Assume

that
the coil in the right-hand section of the excitingcoil.

that the proper

north as shown.

so

mark

tooth

the

to

of

rest

the

iron.

armature

tooth.
into the
is

What

"fringing?"
QUESTIONS
is the mechanical

1. What

2. Distinguishbetween

3.

May

conductors,each

two

length and

of the

the

with

its cross-section?

5. If the volume

and

same

material

is

and

how

does

it vary

with

equal volume,

length and
conductivity What

these
of its individual parts when
is the relation of the total conductance
of its individual

parts when
how

these latter

circuit to the

connected

are

of

8. What

this relation show

the

relation of the total resistance of

latter

an

of

What

Distinguishbetween conductance and

generalmeaning of "per cent, conductivity?"
is the

and

affected?

resistance

is conductance

into

What

section?

From

conductors.

homogeneous material vary with its

is specific
resistance or resistivity?
of a substance is fixed,
does its resistance vary with
how
If the volume
its cross-section?
is fixed and the length

length? With
doubled, how is the

7. What

is the unit of

What

Explain.

resistance of

does

its

6. What

of resistance?

insulatingmaterials

different resistances?

4. How

HI

A "microhm?"

"megohm?"
have

analogue

CHAPTER

is it defined?

How

resistance?

ON

are

resistances connected

is the

ances
resist-

in series?

ances
circuitto the conductin

connected
in

cross-

parallel
may

parallel?
be

bined
com-

equivalentresistance.

"mil?"
mil?
is a square
What
A
is the meaning of the term
cirWhere
is the cular
circular mil?
What
relation does one bear to the other?
9. What

mil

usuallychosen

as

the unit of crow-section?

What

are

its advan-

AND

QUESTIONS
such units

tages over

the number

does

as

of

417

PROBLEMS

the square mil and

circular mils in a

the square

inch?

What

relation

circular cross-section bear to its

diameter?
10. What

copper?
length in

is

How

cir.-mil-foot?

may

feet and

11. How

the

is its approximate
wire

be

resistance of most

of the

resistance

determined

a
copper
in cir. mils be known?

its cross^section

is the

unalloyed metals

for
if its

affected by

is the "temperature coefficient of resistance?"

What

temperature?

What

resistance of

How

is it used?
12. At

what

decreased

resistance
of

to

at the

temperature?

How

resistance

and

13. What

same

may

resistance of copper be zero

if the
rate that it decreases within ordinary ranges
this principlebe used to solve problems involving
the

temperature?

relation do the cross-sections of the wires in the A.W.G.

How

another?

one

would

temperature

weight of

of 1,000 ft. of No.

10 wire?

14. What

the

are

any
What

PROBLEMS
A
conductors,

ohms,

what

24. Two

is that

By of

is twice

copper

the

When

conductor?

iron and

are

material,have the

same

is most

advantages

length,

same

If the resistance

that of B,

of

is 30

and

D, of

of C is twice

the

material,have

same

that of D.

the

If the resistance

same

of C is 30

length,
ohms,

is that of D?

what

26. If the resistance of copper

is 1.724 microhms
is the resistance of an inch cube at the same

what

26. A
a

the

are

of B?

conductors,C

but the diameter

what

CHAPTER

ON

and

but the cross-section of A

2 wire?

Which

the metals?

among

with
as

readily

is the resistance

What

weight of 1,000 ft. of No.

is the

best conductors

determine

to

one

given size of wire?

commonly used and why?

Compared
and the disadvantages of aluminum
steel used as conductors?
Explain.

23. Two

enable

does this relation

the resistance and

bear

platehas

rectangularcopper

thickness of 0.5 in.

cube, what

of the

cube

18

of copper

is 1.724 microhms
the 6-in.

plate between

at 20** C,

temperature?
in.,a width of

length of

If the resistance

is the resistance

cm.

per

edges?

6 in. and
per cm.
Between

the 18-in. edges?

27. A

phosphor-bronzestripJ^

of 0.000597
28.
ohms
wire

ohm.

What

1 in. and
cm.

4 ft. long has

cube?

Per

resistance

in. cube?

16 copper wire has a diameter of 51 mils and a resistance of 4.02

What
is the resistance of 5 miles of 000 copper
per 1,000ft. at 20** C.
(diameter is 410 mils)?

No.

conductor
cylindrical
conductor B.
cylindrical

29. A
of

in, X

is its resistivity
per

A has twice the diameter

If the resistance

of B

and

is 5

twice

the

length
is the

ohms, what

resistance oi A?
30.

bars

What

each

of copper

microhms

of

is the resistance

per

cm.

cube.

in,

copper

ui,7

bus-bar
The

40 ft.

long, made

resistance of copper

up

of 4

is 1.724

418

DIRECT

weighs 0.32

81. If copper

of the bus-bar

the cost
82.

in

(a) If aluminum
surfaces?

bus-bars

copper
88. A

be

000

the

the

same

copper?

ft. long and

800

the ends

that

as

the

Specificgravity

having

is 268 mils.

that its diameter

so

the

Neglect

lb. in order

per

were

be the ratio of radiating

bars.

the

as

conductance

is

of

2.70.

"

conductor

down

$0.20 per lb.,what

costs

aluminum

of

cost

shall cost

copper

mils is drawn

between

used

8.89; of aluminum

in. and

cu.

problem 30?
H in. thick and of the same
in problem 31, what
would

Spacers are

radiatingsurfaces.
should
(6) What
aluminum

lb. per

bars

for the copper

substituted

CURRENTS

diameter

of 410

If the resistance of the

is the resistance of the entire

0.05 ohm, what
was
000, 800-ft. conductor
reduced
been
to
258 mils?
has
length when its diameter
of a copper rod, 1 in. diameter and 8 ft.
84. Determine
the conductance
of copper
580,000 mhos per cm. cube.
long. (Conductivity
86. The resistance of a 4-ft.length of No. 8 wire is measured
and found to
What
is its per cent, conductivity?
be 0.00241 ohm at 20** C.
bar ^ in. X 1 in. and 3.5 ft. long rolled from electroljrtic
86. A copper
=

to have

is found

copper

resistance of 0.0000755

its per cent, conductivity?

87. The resistance of 500 ft. of No.
of 25** C. and

to be

3.35 ohms.

resistances of 4.2 ohms

88. Three

"and

found

resistance

of 8.6 ohms

are

ohm

at 20"* C.

18 wire is measured

at

is

What

temperature

is its per cent, conductivity?

each, two resistances of 6.3 ohms each,
What

in series.

all connected

What

is the total

resistance of the combination?

resistances of 8 and

80. Two

4 ohms

connected

are

in

parallel. What

is

the total resistance of the combination?

40.

conductances

Three

parallel. What

is the

are
6,8, and 10 mhos respectively
What
resultingtotal conductance?

of

connected
is the

in
total

resistance?
41. If the three
is the
42.

conductances

individual

resistances

be the

would

what
parallel,

problem

40

are

in

connected

what
series,

Resistance?

resultingconductance?
If the

of

of

problem

38

all connected

were

in

resultingresistance?
820

FiQ.

43. A

43A).
44. A

43il.

Pio.

resistance of 41 ohms

resistances

What

of

60

and

80

ohms

is connected

44A.

in series with

in

respectively,connected

group

of two

parallel(Fig.

is the resultingresistance?

group of two
in series with

(Fig.44A).

Ww^m*vnA^^^"v

120 Q

60 Q

What

of
resistances,

another

is the

120
of

and

140

ohms

and

110

in

is connected
parallel,

ohms

in parallel
82,
total resistance resultingfrom this combination?
group

96

420

CURRENTS

DIRECT

feeder has

A direct-current

68.

in

is its change

the lowest

between

conductance

the maximum

F. and

"20"

resistance of 0.007 ohm

winter

of 100"

temperature

summer

at 20" C.

What
of*

temperature

F.?

What

is the

percentage change?
Without

consultingthe

60. Estimate

No.

the

Table

Wire

resistance

of

solve the

1,000 ft.

followingproblems :
13 bare copper
wire;

of No.

of

16.

60. Estimate

wire; of No.

the resistance and

of

No.

1,000 ft. of

18 bare

copper

8 bare

copper

24.

61. Estimate
wire.

weight

Of 800

the resistance and

ft. of No.

weight

of

2,000 ft. of

No.

Of 500 ft. of 0000.

1.

the weight,resistance and cir. mils of 600 ft. of 0 bare copper

Of 600 ft. of 00.

62.

Estimate

wire.

QUESTIONS
1. What

CHAPTER

ON

and how

is the unit of electric current

electric quantity?
force?

What

What

is the nature
the

are

IV

of

mechanical

is it related to the unit of

motive
potentialdifference and of electroof
electromotive
force
analogies

why?

and

of

Can it be compared to
voltage drop in a line?
have
over
a line and
pressure drop in a pipe? Is it possibleto supply power
of
line?
the voltage at the load equal to the voltageat the sending end
the
in
the
wire
the
Is
loss
there
to
return
a
voltage
generator as well
Explain.
in the outgoing wire?
Can potential exist without
as
a current
flowing?

is the nature

2. What

Illustrate.
is meant

8. What
two

or

by "difference
yet have

emf.'s and

more

no

potential"? Is it possibleto have

potentialbetween certain

of

difference of

points?
should

4. How

in the

connected

ammeter

be connected

never

forms

is the

to use

each

law

same

way
a

as

voltmeter?

Is

circuit?

should

Why

an

an

meter
am-

line?

relation does Ohm's

expressed? Under

Law

express?

conditions

what

In what

is it most

three

convenient

of these?

series-connected

are

resistance?

How

are

the division of current

of each

in

ordinarilybe connected

across

fundamental

5. What

6. How

voltmeter

What

branch?

resistances combined

parallelresistances
in

to

circuit
parallel

two-branch

relation exists among

equal an
What

combined?

bear

the currents

equivalent

relation

does

to the resistance

the circuit

when

has three branches?

7. What
terms

of

is the

unit

volts,amperes

of electrical

power?

and ohms, taken

two

How
at

may

time?

it be

expressed in

Differentiate

fully
care-

and
What
is the unit of electrical energy
and energy.
power
ical
is the unit of mechan?
What
relation does it bear to the unit of power

between

what

horsepower?
8. Discuss
may

appear.

What

relation does it bear to the units of electrical power?

is stored or in which energy
in which
energy

the various forms

Describe the energy

cycleinvolved

in

steam-driven

electrical

QUESTIONS
In what

plant.

power

form

does the energy

ultimately? Approximately
appear
of a modem
efficiency
system?
power
A gram-calorie? What
is the relation bedefined?
tween

is the over-all

what
is

9. How

421

PROBLEMS

AND

B.t.u.

wattnsecond?
a gram-calorieanda
the voltages at the sending
10. What
simple relation exists between
the
of
feeder
of transmission?
and
and
ends
efficiency
a
receiving
power
conditions is the voltage drop in each foot of wire inde11. Under what
pendent
How
of the total current?
is this principleutilized in solving
electrical problems?
be appliedto obtaining the power
Can this method
loss?
Explain.

PROBLEMS

63. A storage cell has

What

and

hot

115-volt

resistance

hot

first switched

to

it has attained

normal

220-volt

66. A

rheostat

has

what

To

reduce
68. A

carbon

mains

what

and

cold resistance of 330 ohms

does it take
does

current

has

it

it is

when

operate?

cold resistance of 40 ohms

does it take

current

what

its terminals ?

across

does

current

field resistance

of 160

when

it take

it is
when

ohms, includingthe

flows in the field?

a

of 350

field resistance
What

to

rheostat
is the

resistance

voltage across

must

the

the

and

the

field take?

adjusted in

order

to

amp.?

1.2

has

ohms

does

current

the resistance of the rheostat be

should

in which

current

What

ohms.

generator has

voltage

oven

At

resistance of 45 ohms.

What

has

2.1 volts at its terminals.

operating conditions?

the field current

of 40 amp.
69. What
electric

value

of 480

current

550-volt

67. A

mains?

generator has

What

rheostat.

lamp

ohms.

110-volt

IV

isconnected

What

tungsten lamp

110-volt,25-watt

66. A
a

to

0.4 ohm

incandescent

resistance of 240

first connected

and

flows when

filament

CHAPTER

difference of
potential

constant

current

64. A carbon

ON

of 0.24 ohm

and

carries

current

the rheostat?

generator develop

heating coils have

to

supply

resistance

25

to

amp.

of 8.5 ohms

an

and

connecting wires a total resistance of 0.25 ohm.

70. A telegraphrelayis wound
for 150 ohms
and operates at 40 millibe
the
circuit
of
the
What
should
battery if it is to operate
voltage
amperes.
the relay over
a line having a resistance of 30 ohms?
ance
71. A series lightingsystem consists of 118 lamps, each having a resistof 7.2 ohms
and
If the line resistance is 100
requiring 6.6 amp.
what
is
the
of
the
ohms,
generator supplying this system?
voltage
is its hot
What
72. An incandescent lamp takes 0.25 amp.
at 110 volts.
the

resistance?
73. When

the

bus-bar carries 1,580 amp.,

a copper
What
is
be 1.26 millivolts.
found
to
ft.-length

the

voltagedrop

is the resistance

across

per ft.of

bus-bar?
74. The
250

voltage drop
amp.

across

is 0.7 volt.

the series field of

What

compound

livering
generator de-

is the resistance of the series field?

422

DIRECT

76. A

direct-current

the drop

CURRENTS
takes 6.0 amp. at 110 volts. If
is the resistance of the '^ballast?"

multiplearc

lamp

is 70

the

arc
across
volts,what
Fig. 76ii shows a lamp bank, having
being supplied from a 115-volt generator over

76.

per wire.

of 0.15 ohm

What

total resistance of 7.5

current

ohms,

sistance
connectingwires having a redoes the lamp bank receive?

0.16J1.

QOQQQ^''^
0.15-n-

FiG.

76A.

electromagnet has four spoolsof 1 ohm

each, all connected in
the magnet
series. Two wires,each having a resistance of 0.05 ohm, connect
77. An

What

ll"-volt mains.

to

''grounded" so

becomes

does

current

the

magnet
half of its resistance is

that

will the magnet current be?

the equivalentresistance of
78. Determine

take?

If

coil

one

what
short-circuited,

circuit having four resistances

of 16, 20, 30 and 40 ohms in parallel.If the current in the 16-ohm

resistance is 2 amp., determine the current in each of the other resistances.
70. The

is shunted

and
the

series field winding of

by

'

voltagedrop across
problem 79 how

will the 400

resistance of 0.004

resistance of 0.012

ohm.

ohm

What

is

delivers 400 amp.?

the diverter
between

the generator

divide

amp.

the series field?

81. A

0000

the series fieldwhen

80. In

and

having

diverter

generator has

000

trolleywire is 6 miles long

hard-drawn

annealed

feeder.

copper

and

is their combined

What

is paralleledby
resistance?

What

is the voltage drop in the feeder when

of 100

current

Four

82.

and

31

divide

total

is flowingin the two?

selective

relays connected

37

ohms

what
respectively,

their terminals
when
voltage across
wire?
^^^
suppliedby the common

82 A.

the

in

wire shown
parallelare suppliedby a common
If their resistances are
in Fig. S2A.
20, 25,

^^o

Fia.

amp.

83.

In

problem

82

how

will the

is the
2

amp.

amp.

four

relays?
84. Two
ammeters, one having a 50-amp. scale and the other a 100-amp.
in parallel so as
to measure
current
scale, are connected
a
greater
If the 50-amp. instrument
than 100 amp.
has a resistance of 0.002 ohm
and the 100-amp. instrument a resistance of 0.0012 ohm, what will each read
among

flows in the circuit?

when

130 amp.
86. To feed

and
When
among

the

other

trolleywire at a given point,two feeders,one

250,000 CM., parallelthe 0000 hard-drawn

the current

demand

the feeders and

upon

trolley?

the system is 600 amp.,

how

350,000 CM.
trolleywire.
does it divide

QUESTIONS

follows:
4

120-volt generator

the mains

mains,
and

shows

Fig. 86A

86.

having
lights,305

6 gem

tungstens, 150 ohms

supplying lamp loads

of 0.3 ohm

resistance

423

PROBLEMS

AND

ohms

each;

each.

What

each.

lamps,

10 tungsten
current

loads

The
290

ohms

over
are

as

each;

does the generator deliver?

0.3 .n.

FiQ.

Fig. S7A

87.

shows

the currents

lamp

is the

What

A.

115- volt generator supplying lamp loads.

cate
Indipart of the system, and the voltage at the various

at each

terminals.

86

a57

voltage at

0.1 -H-

0.2-

0.2 -TV

Lamp

10 -TL

Load

'

0.2 jO.

Lamp

Load

0.2 -fl.

IS-Tl.

O.l-TL

Fig. S7A.

88. A

resistance of 50 ohms

is connected

of 75 and

These

100 ohms.

are

in series with

in turn

group

resistances of 120, 150 and

of three parallel

total

current

of the

How

much

each

resistance?

current

system

when

120 V.

Fig. 89A

89.

shows

generator from

drop

wire ab

is 120

is H

is

zero

12 ohms

volts,what

to its maximum

and

for

The

the distance?

field current

of

total resistance of the

If the line

does the generator fieldtake when

}4

is the
mains?

is the voltageacross

regulatingthe

value.

that of the field is 30 ohms.

to 6?

Gen. Field
80A

drop wire, used

current

the distance from

12A

What

100-volt

across

take and what

sistances
parallelre-

in series with

180 ohms.

it is connected

does each resistance

two

connected

voltage

the contact

^i the distance?

(^oogle

424

DIRECT

CURRENTS

gas-filledlamp takes 6.8

its ratingin watts?
01. A generator delivers 1,670
rating?
90.

resistance

92. The

What

ohm.

98. A

from

amp.

series field of

of the

600

at

amp.

110-volt mains.
volts.

compound

What

What

is

is its kilowatt

generator

is 0.002

islost in this field when

power

has

2,000-amp. shunt

the generator delivers 1,200 amp.?

resistance of 0.000025 ohm.
What
power

carrying its rated current?

94. A tungsten lamp having a hot resistance of 202 ohms
is connected
What
is its watt rating?
110 volt mains.
across
96. Four street car heating units,each having a resistance of 55 ohms,
do
connected in series. If the trolleyvoltage is 600 volts,what
are
power
is lost in this shunt

take?

the heaters
A

96.

when

shunt

takes

motor

75

at

amp.

220

volts and

delivers 20 hp.

is its efficiency?

What

generator delivers

97. A

250

at

amp.

230

volts.

If it has

an

of 92 per cent.,what horsepower engine is requiredto drive it?

bath takes 80 amp.
98. An electroplating
at 20 volts for 2.4
then

50

amp.

At 4 cents

volts for

60

at

per kw.-hr.,what

1.5 hours.

is the cost of the

How

much

hours, and

is consumed?

energy

requiredenergy

efficiency

under

the above

conditions?

joulesare supplied to a 25-watt lamp burning 4 hours?

K the supply voltage is 110, how
ampere-hours are delivered to the
many
lamp?
the cost of heating
100. Energy costs 8 cents per kw.-hr.
Determine
2 quarts of water
at a room
temperature of 25" C. to the boilingpoint
the
of the heater is 80 per cent.
Assume
that
efficiency
(Water
(100"C).
weighs 8.35 lb. per gal.)
101. A water-barrel
rheostat contains 30 gal.of water.
How
long must
How

99.

45
to

many

at 220
amp.
200" F. from

lb.)

Assume

102. A

no

volts flow before

a

the

temperature

room

temperature

of 70" F.?

(1

of the

water

gal.water

is raised

weighs

8.35

losses.

factory,1

mile

from

current
station,takes a maximum
power
feeder.
If the station voltage is maintained

250,000 CM.
at
constant
volts,what is the greatest change of voltage that
What
is the
load to the maximum
load?
at the factory from
no
occurs
maximum
load
and
half
the
at
this load?
of transmission at
efficiency
of 120

over

amp.

600

-S.gMk-

*^/////yi^
Powe^

"

260.000CM.
I

SUtio]^

Fig.

103.
copper.

electric

An
A

250,000

103A.

railway is fed by a 5-mile trolleyline of 0000 hard-drawn

feeder parallels
CM.
for 3 miles,being tapped
this trolley

425

PROBLEMS

AND

QUESTIONS

be
The resistance of the ground return may
half mile (Fig.lOSA).
what
is
the
station
is
If
the
voltage 600,
considered as 0.02 ohm per mile.
in every

voltage
110

the

at

car

is the

What

amp.

when

miles

it is

3K
voltage at

the end

the

from

station and

is taking

of the line at this time?

What

of transmission?
is the efficiency
104.
power
and

from

runs

of 500 amp.
}i mile from the
loads, one
of 200 amp.
1,000ft. farther along. A 1,000,000
in parallel
to the first load; a 750,000 CM.
are
second load. The voltageat the 200-ampere load
of transmission?
station voltageand the efficiency

Fig. 104A shows

and another
station,
cable
500,000 CM.
the first to the

is 220 volts.

What

is the

two

CM.
1,000,000

760,000CM.

500.000 CM.

-)iMi^
Power
Station

BWlAmp.
f

"00

--j

I
I

Amp.

500.000CM.
CM.
1,000,000

Fig.

Solve the followingproblems

not consult

Do

106.

by

104^.

the methods

outlined

in Pars. 68 and

69.

the wire tables.

1,000-ft.
lengthof 200,000 C

M. cable

suppliesa

certain power

load

is the total voltagedrop in the cable if the load is such that the cable
is the power
loss under these
densityf What
operates at the normal
What

conditions?
106.

If,in problem 105, the cable operates at a densitycorrespondingto

is the power
What
is the total voltagedrop?

1,500 cir. mils per amp., what

loss under these conditions?
107.

supplied from the 600-volt bus-bars of a

exceed
The voltage drop cannot
voltage. What size feeder is necessary, and what

200-amp. load is

station at

distance

a
power
10 per cent, of the station

to

be

of 0.5 mile.

of transmission?
efficiency
108. A 40-hp. motor
is to be suppliedwith
230- volt bus-bars.
The voltage drop
from
of 90 per cent.
What
has an efficiency
motor
of transmission?
is the efficiency
is the

QUESTIONS
1. What
a

is the effect upon

ON

power
cannot

exceed

of 500 ft.

15 volts.

size wire is necessary

CHAPTER

the terminal

at a distance

The

and what

voltage of

batteryof applying

Explain. Why does the electromotive force of a

what
conditions are they
the terminal voltage? Under

load to its terminals?

cell differ from

the same?

of the internal voltage of

possibleto make a direct measurement
How
this internal voltage be
it is deliveringcurrent?
a cell when
may
calculated if the battery resistance be known?
8. To what
is the internal resistance of a battery due?
Is this resistance a constant quantity?
4. If the electromotive force and the resistance of a battery be known,
2. Is it

how

may

the current

delivered to

an

external resistance be

calculaf"

^t^^hc^

426

DIRECT

CURRENTS

short-circuited what
the battery becomes
current
does it deliver?
What
that the cell develops under these conditions?
of the energy
6. Under
what
conditions may
to receive electrical
a battery be made

becomes

What

energy?

relation does

the direction of current

flow bear to its direction

the battery delivers energy? If a generator has a voltageequal

battery,what effects are noted when the generator is connected

when

to that of the
to the

battery,terminals

of like

polaritybeing connected together? What

voltageis raised above this value ? What
"
is meant
by the battery floating?
6. Before current
first be
be sent into a battery,what voltage must
can
applied? Explainwhy the voltage in excess of that of the battery alone is
illustration
effective in causing the flow of current.
What is a very common
of a battery receivingenergy?
7. K several cells are connected in series,
motive
what is the resultant electroeffect is noted

when

the generator

"

force of the combination?

How

combination?

the current

may

is the resultant

What

of the

resistance

if the external resistance be

be found

known?
8. Under

conditions

what

conditions?
current

is the

What

in the

batteries

do

is the electromotive

parallel?What

battery resistance

and

relation

cells?

individual

entire

battery be

cell bear

between

in
satisfactorily

external

not equal,how

of the cell?

What

under

cells?

the

the
total

K the resistances

the resistance

may

these

and

current

relation between

relation does the current

What

found?

most

of the individual

the resistances

to the resistance

the

is the

What

of the individual cells are

operate

force of the combination

of the

delivered by each

relation exists among

the terminal

voltagesof individual cells connected in parallel?

is a series-parallel
grouping of cells? What is the voltageof
battery? How may the resistance of the battery be found if

9. What
entire

resistance

individual cells be known?

of the

external circuit be found

if the external

10. In

should

general,how

cells be

may

the
resistance,

cells and

and resistances of the individual

How

the current

electromotive

their arrangement

grouped

in

the
the
an

forces

be known?

to obtain the best

economy?

should cells be arranged to obtain the maximum

output?
power
stated in Kirchhoff's laws?
11. What two fundamental
are
principles

How

several currents
taken

meet

at

junction,how

should

If

their direction of flow be

into account?

potentialbe represented? A drop in potential?

to a + terminal of a battery,what should be the sign
When
passingfrom a
?
When
When
of the potentialchange and why?
passing from -f-to
passingthrough a resistance in the direction of the current does a rise or a
What
then should
b^ the proper sign to use?
drop in potentialoccur?
When
passing along the resistance in oppositionto the current what sign
should be used?
Why?
12. How

should

rise in
"

"

13. If the assumed

direction

of

this fact indicated in the result?

current

in

network

is in error, how

is

428

DIRECT

resistance of 12

what

ohms,

CURRENTS
flows?

current

is the

What

each

voltageacross

cell?
120.

Each

of two

an

internal

has

one

What

0.010 ohm.
two

connected

battery

when

resistance

electromotive force of 6.5 volts;

and the other a resistance
of

an

of 0.008

ohm

is the

in
it

the two

startingbatteries has

equivalentresistance of the batteryconsistingof the

parallel? What is the terminal voltageof the combined
delivers 160 amp.?
tween
How
does this current divide be-

individual batteries?

121. What

is the

cells of

problem

across

the terminals

voltage

of

resistance

batteryobtained by connecting all

parallel? When

119 in

of this

of the

battery,what

battery

how

and

resistance of 0.8 ohm

current

flows?

much

current

the

is connected

What

is the terminal

does

each

cell

deliver?
A

122.
The

battery

of four

consists

internal resistances

storage cells all connected

of these cells

0.006,0.004,0.003 and

are

in

parallel.

0.0026

force of each is 2.2 volts,what

respectively. K the electromotive
the battery deliver when
its terminal voltageis 1.9 volts?
of six in series and
123. Twenty-four dry cells are arranged in rows
electromotive
force of each cell is 1.4 volts
in parallel. The
rows
resistance of each is 0. 1 ohm.
What is the total batteryvoltageand

ohm

current

does

its total

resistance?

If

an

external

resistance

of 2.6 ohms

terminals,what current flows?

Arrange the cells of problem 123 so that the
be suppliedto a load resistance of 0.6 ohm.
power
may
much
how
is absorbed by the resistance
power
in the battery?

and

the

what

is

is connected

its

across

124.

126.
must

the four

not

certain load is such

be

less than

that

6 volts.

force of 2.1 volts and

the

Twelve

maximum

Under
and

how

difference
potential

amount

of

these conditions
much

is lost

at its terminals

each having an electromotive

storage cells,

ohm, are available. How

should
these be connected
that the maximum
is obtained?
so
efficiency
When
the load requires 10 amp.,
what
is the battery terminal voltage?
What
is the load resistance?
is the battery efficiency?
What
126. Arrange the cells in problem 125 so that the maximum
of
amount
is the efficiency
of the
current will be delivered to the load resistance. What
under
these
conditions?
battery
127. A telegraph battery consists of 12 gravity cells,
each having an
electromotive

relay

over

resistance

force of 0.9 volt and

cells be

these

connected

50-ohm

so

as

circuit?

of 0.02

resistance

to

operate

What

is the

of 0.2 ohm.

How

should

20-ohm
a
satisfactorily
u
nder
these
battery efficiency
most

conditions?
128.

batteries A

forces of
(Fig.128A), having electromotive
4 and 3 volts and resistances of 1.2 and 1.0 ohm
connected
are
respectively,
in parallel,
terminal
What
to
flows
terminal.
current
positive
positive
resistance connected
the battery terminals?
What
across
through a 2-ohm
is the battery terminal
how
and
much
each
does
current
voltage
battery
deliver?

Two

and

120.

Two

having
batteries,

429

PROBLEMS

AND

QUESTIONS

sistances
re-

in

positive
are connected
parallel,
respectively,
two
positive terminal (Fig. 129 A). These
supply current
1.0-ohm
resistance to charge a 2-volt battery of a resistance of 0.3

terminal

through

6 volts and

forces of 6 and

electromotive

of 1.0 and 0.5 ohms

to
a

2-rv

128A.

Fio.

battery is so connected that the current flows in at its positive

is the charging current
of the 2-volt battery? What
What
terminal.
is its terminal voltage?
0.2-ohm
130. Across the terminals of a 12-volt,
a resistance wire
battery,
terminal
The
of
ohms
is
connected.
10
6-volt
of
whose
a
negative
battery,
to the
resistance is 0.15-ohm, is connected
negative terminal of the 12-volt battery.
The
positiveterminal of the 6-volt battery
ohm

; the 2-volt

connected

is

to

the

wire

resistance

at

point ?i its length from the negative terthe

minals
(see Fig. IZOA), Determine
and the terminal voltages of each
currents

*i^

8"^.

battery.
the

(a) Determine

131.

terminal

and

currents

voltages of each battery

in

the

if the 6-volt

130

problem

batteryis

reversed.
what

point

resistance wire

that

(6) At
132.
The

Two

so

the

must

current

no

sub-stations

voltage at the bus-bars

and

contact

Fig. 130A,

a.

be

placed upon

the

flows in the 6-volt battery circuit?

B feed into the same
distributingcenter.

of station A is maintained

constant

at 600

volts

-aooo ft.-

400,000CM.

}r^

350,000 CM.

i^

"

"

500

AmpB.

"i"
Fig.

and

that at station B is maintained

350,000CM.

132A.

at 580

volts.

Station A feeds

distance

cable and station B a distance of 1,000ft.

of 2,000 ft. through 400,000 CM.
cable
CM.
the load at the distributing
(see Fig. 132A). When
through 350,000
center

is 500

amp.,

how

much

does

each

station

supply?

How

430

DIRECT

much

does each

power

CURRENTS

station

supply, and

how

much

is received at the

center?
distributing
188.

Fig.
A

133A

shows

is maintained

to each of the
J ft.

distribution system.
The
station
voltage at the subconstant at 240 volts. A radial feeder extends from
a

centers
distributing

The feeder to B is 2,300ft.

B,C and D,
^"^8 aJid 2,000,000 CM.
equivalent; that to C is
ft.
and
long
1,800
equivalent;that to
2,600,000 CM.
D is 2,000 ft. long and 2,000,000CM.
equivalent(per
wire in every case). A tie line 1,100 ft. long and of

"{v,iioo
ft."i

"--^y"-"-"*^

500"000 CM.

133 A

Fi

^"*^

of the

"^

"^

1. What

if two

occurs

and

load

and

and

At

"

is

"".
of

ON

CHAPTER

load

similar
of

D,

VI

in
stripsbe immersed
copper
connected
between them?

voltmeter

dilute

sulphuric

If the two

stripsbe replacedby two zinc strips? By two lead strips? Under

the stripsbe obtained?
conditions may
a voltagebetween
Would
a voltage exist if the sulphuricacid were
replacedby some
Name

type of solution?
2. What is meant
A

If metal

is

of the

is

flow between

current

them

flow between

electrode?

an

copper
what

other

solutions?

to another?
by one metal being electrochemically
positive
what
will
to
metal
be
the direction
electrochemically
positive
B,

direction of the current

What

three other such

1000

and at D
amperes;
the voltage at each

500
Find

amperes.

another
a

centers B, C, and
distributing

QUESTIONS

acid solution

and

at

amperes;

connects

line connects

What

within

them

the cell?

through

is the cathode?

What

the external

will be the

circuit?

anode?

The

form is the energy stored within the cell? What

changes take
Distinguishbetween
placein the electrodes when the cell delivers current?
cell.
and
cell
a secondary
a primary
3. In what

4. What

are

6. What

is the nature

may

the four

this resistance

the elements

of

requirements for

be reduced?

In what

cell increase its current

voltage does

6. What

satisfactory
primary

of the internal resistance of

voltmeter

does

way

capacity?

indicate

cell?

cell?

In what

manner

increasingthe

size of

Its electromotive force?

when

it is connected

If the

to

the

circuit is

open-circuited?
a
suddenly
To what
is the excess
closed,to what is the initialvoltage drop due?
Explain the part*that hydrogen plays in
drop over this initialdrop due?
polarization.Describe two generalmethods of reducingpolarization.
terminals

cell which

of

7. Describe
what

the

8. In what

construction

used?
are
electrolytes

is the electromotive
way

is

For

of the
what

Daniell

cell.

type of work

What

electrodes and

is it designed?

What

force of this cell?

does the gravitycell differ from

the Daniell

cell?

Which

in the other electrode?

electrode requiresreplacing? What
changes occur
What
is the cell electromotive force and for what type of work is the gravity
cell

designed?

AND

QUESTIONS
Edison-Lalaxide

the

9. Describe

In

used?

are

way
is the

What

is its electromotive

What

10. What

what

chief

force and

of this

advantage

what

is its terminal

trodes
elec-

the

cells

type of cell?

voltage when

livering
de-

materials

for the

trodes
positiveand for the negative electhe Le Clanch^ cell?
is the electrolyte? What
is its electromotive
What
When
force?
planning to use the cell commercially,what voltage

in

used

are

be allowed?

cell should

reduce

electrolyteand

What

current?

per

cell.

does its electrolytediffer from

what

already described?

431

PROBLEMS

polarization?

materials

What

introduced

are

is the cell renewed?

How

For

in the

cell to

type of work

what

is

this cell best suited?

11. What

of

Weston

cell?

standard

cell in distinction to the

In practicewhat
How

two

What

way

does

the saturated

uses

quantities

and

is its

how

cell differ from

cell be measured

voltage of the Weston

made

be the characteristics

must

cell constructed

is the Weston

insured?
In what
permanency
cell?
normal
the
Cannot
Why

electrical

common

maintained?

easilyreproduced and

most

are

is the function of

types of cells?

of other

the
with

ordinary voltmeter?

an

12. In what
Is

The
What

does

way

dry cell resemble

type of

common

wet

cell?

dry cell really"dry?" Of what is the positiveelectrode composed?

negative? What is the electrolyteand how is it placed in the cell?
materials
are
placed between the carbon and the zinc and what are

their functions?
13. What

is the electromotive

stood idle for

when

some

and

new

with

compare

is

After it has
dry cell when new?
time?
What is the magnitude of the internal resistance
How
it subject to change?
does the polarizationeffect

the internal

14. To

what

resistance

short

good cell deliver upon

cell delivers current?

force of

How

effect?

circuit?

What

Name

this cell be temporarilyrevived by any means?

16. In what
What

way

condition

dry
is

should

current

voltage when

due?
principally

is the cell's becoming exhausted

cause

of
applications

much

is the terminal

some

of the

a
a

Can

cial
commer-

cells.

storage cell renewed

concerning

functioning of the cell?

it becomes

when

What

two

discharged?

of the cell is necessary

general types of storage

the materials

for proper
cells are in

use?

commercial

lying
a very
elementary experiment which illustrates the undereach
in
State
the
of the
lead
that
of
the
cell.
occurs
change
principle

16. Describe

strips;what voltage
experiment. What
gases

lead

is observed
are

evolved

to

exist

and

from

at

different
which

times

plate

does

in the
each

emanate?
17. Even

although

both

of its

platesare

of

lead,show

that the existence

violate the principle

lead storage cell does not in any way
When
the
cell is approachin
general.
ing
governing the emf. of electric cells
for
the
would
account
the
materials
in
what
approach
change
discharge
of

an

emf

in

voltage to zero?
process of charging?

of the

In what

way

is the 2.6 volts per cellutilized in the

432

CURRENTS

DIRECT

during the charge and the discharge of

change in the electrolyte
the
chemical
equation? Why is a cell composed of
by
a
Describe
plain lead plates not useful in practice? Give two reasons.
and
describe
that
Plants
the
two
formed by this
are
plates
briefly
process
18. What

cell is shown

process.
10. Describe

pasted process for making battery plates.

the
What are the advantages and the disadvantages of pasted plates over
commercial
conditions demand
Plants plates? What
a
pasted plate and
of
that of a Plants
How
does
life
the
with
a
pasted
plate
why?
compare
plate?
of the "Iron-clad"
the construction
Exide cell and
20. Describe briefly
its principaluse in practice.
the two generalclasses into which storage batteries may
be
21. What
are
What
divided?
types of plateare best suited for regulatingduty and for
in
stationarybatteries? Why?
duty
emergency
batteries?
two types of containingtanks are used for stationary
22. What
In what manner
should the
Under what conditions is each used and why?
in lead-lined tanks be made
non-leakable?
How
the
are
jointsand seams
the
tank?
be
lead
in
factors
in
What
considered
must
plates suspended
tank?
a lead-lined wooden
designingand installing
the advanName
23. Whatthreetypesof separators are in generaluse?
tages
and the disadvantagesof each type. For what type of battery is each
used?
What
kind commonly
one
precautionmust be taken in handling
wood
separators? Why?
should be the specific
24. What
gravityof a fully-chargedbatteryhaving
Plants plates? Pasted plates?. What
ing
precautionshould be taken in dilutuse?
for
What
is
used
simple device
storage battery
sulphuric acid
for determining specific
gravity? How is this device adapted for use with
vehicle

and

the

Faure

or

portablebatteries?

during the charging period?

change takes placein the electrolyte
the
is the effect of gassing on
What
specific
gravity?. What
change takes
the
has
ceased?
after
How
the
in
charging
Explain.
gravity
place
specific
does the specific
change during discharge? What
gravityof the electrolyte
of
made
of
is
these
gravity?
specific
use
changes
practical
what specialattention should be given to
26. When
a battery is received,
In
what
should the jarsbe installed?
the wood
How
manner
separators?
should the platesbe placed in position? Why is an initial charge necessary
26.

and

what

27.

idle
cause

What

should be its duration?

happens to the
long periods? In

What

over

be avoided?

active material in
what

way

If it is desired to

cell if it is allowed to stand

injury to the batteryfrom this

may
withdraw
service for an
a battery from

procedure should be followed?

its design
28. What
the requirements of a vehicle battery that make
are
in the
made
different from that of a stationarybattery? What
changes are
tery
plates? Separators? Specificgravity of the electrolyte? How is a batdiffer
does
from
made
In
vehicle
what
a
a stationary
battery
up?
way

indefinite period,what

QUESTIONS

AND

PROBLEMS

433

of shipment?
What
battery in the manner
special attention should be
paid to the electrolyte?
29. In what manner
is the rating of a storage batteryexpressed? What
is meant
Can as many
by the 8-hour rate?
ampere-hours be extracted
from

cell at the 3-hour

If

due?

rate, would
What

rate

as

the 8-hour rate?

at

cell is apparently exhausted

after

it be possible later to extract

To

what

is this difference

dischargingat

any

further current

be said of the overload capacity of a storage battery?

30. What
two
of charging are
general methods
commonly

the 3-hour
from

it?

can

In each method

and

employed?

with

pasted plateswhat value of current should be employed

when
the charging commences?
When
does it become
to
necessary
reduce this current?
What
the
are
objectionsto pronounced gassing in a
cell?
How
does the charging rate with Plants platesdiffer from that with
pasted plates?
31.

Name
What
a

simple

What

charging?
33. When

it,in what

example

common

should be taken

care

test

by

which

of constant-current

in the
the

connecting up

determination

method

of the

of the

of

ing.
chargscribe
battery? De-

correct

terminal

be ascertained.

polaritymay
32.

very

is the
About

method
great advantage of the constant-potential
what voltage per cell is necessary
in this method?

one

battery is justfloatingon
manner
may' the necessary
a

Does

the generator

of

bus-bar and it is desired to charge

tained?
excess
potentialfor charging be oba

employed supply the

entire energy

necessary

for

charging?
in the electromotive force of a cell during the
34. What
change occurs
in the terminal
charging period? What
corresponding changes occur
voltage? To what is the discrepancy between the cell electromotive force
and the terminal voltagedue?
Can it be said that the voltagecharacteristic
of a storage battery is such that its use upon lightingcircuits is practicable?
35. What
is lost by a lead storage battery during its period of service?
What
With what should this loss be replacedexcept in rare instances?
cumstances
cirshould
be
care
justifythe addition of acid to a cell? What
taken

in the selection of water

36. In what

be
of

manner

can

absolutelyprevented?
a

for

with

use

storage batteries?

in
the freezingof the electrolyte
How

does

rise of temperature

storage battery
affect the

rating

storage battery?

Compare roughly the kilowatts per pound of plate for a given cell at
different dischargerates.
Repeat for kilowatts per pound of cell. Compare
three
the above factors for
different types of cell,
statingthe type of service
for which each type is best adapted.
is the positiveplate,the negative plate and the electrolyte
38. Of what
composed, in an Edison cell? In the chemical reaction that takes placeboth
play? How
on
charge and on discharge,what part does the electrolyte
and
does its specific
charge
discharge?
during
gravity change
construction
of the Edison
39. Describe briefly the.mechanical
cell,
them
and
with
the
the
the
of
method
plates
holding
connecting
stating
is used for this cell? What
kind of a tank
is
binding posts. What
37.

434
the

CURRENT"

DIRECT

advantage

of this type of construction?

and

necessary

what

does

care

the

For

valve

what

is the valve

puri"ose

How

require?

is the

battery

mounted?
In what

does the normal rating of an Edison cell differ from that

way
What
is the voltageper cell?
Is it possibleto tell accurately
condition of charge by readings of either voltage or of specific
gravity?

40.
of

the

lead cell?

complete charge be assured?

41. What
should be used to replaceevaporation of the electrolyte? Is
required in the selection of water for the Edison battery
any greater care
than for the lead battery? Explain.
42. State the advantages of the Edison battery over
other types of storage
of the commercial
batteries. What
are
some
applicationsof the battery and
factors limit the applicationsof the battery? Compare the weights
what
with similar weights for the lead cell.
kw.
per
is the efficiency
Is
43. In what terms
of a storage battery expressed?
of
true
the ampere-hour efficiency
indicator
a
efficiency?
44. State the reason
why the ratio of the kilowatt-hours of dischargeat the
3-hour rate to those of charge at the 8-hour rate does not give the true
of the factors which
determine
the efficiencyof a
efficiency.Give some
battery.
45. What
is the order of magnitude of the kilowatt-hour
efficiencyof
In
The
a lead storage battery?
ampere-hour? Why do the two differ?
does the cycle of operation of a storage battery affect the
what manner
efficiency?
46. What
is the approximate kilowatt-hour and the ampere-hour efficiency
of an Edison
battery?
How

can

47. State

some

of the

factors

which

of

selection

the

govern

storage

battery for

any particularpurpose.
State a simple method
of producing

48.

brush

such

as

is used

positiveterminal

with

of the

When
is there

any

generators.

supply and

is used

electrode is connected

is connected

which

in connection

copper
marked
change in the

plating upon

copper

Which

with

to

copper

carbon
to the

the

minal?
negative tersulphate solution,

electrolyte? Explain.

plated from a solution in which neither terminal is

come?
copper? What voltagesin the platingbath must the supply voltage overIs
How
these
are
electroplating
voltages reduced to a minimum?
considered a high voltage or a low voltageprocess? In what way are plating
baths connected, when
possible?
60. Show
how
the gravity cell is an electroplating
bath which
supplies
its own
current.
electroplating
51. Describe briefly
the process
of electrotyping.
49. Can

copper

be

ON

PROBLEMS
134.

A Daniell

resistance

deliver?

cell has

of 0.2 ohm.

The

an

is the

size of the cell is increased

area

is doubled.

the

approximate

(6) What
maximum

force of 1.07 volts and

electromotive

(a) What
is the
current

new

that

VI

CHAPTER

maximum
in such

current
a

the cell

can

force?
now

which
that

manner

electromotive

an

internal
it

can

the plate
(c) What is

deliver V

436

CURRENTS

DIRECT

having

the

and
0.021

For

resistance of 5 ohnis

galvanometer

amp.,
what

much

how

each.

resistance

current

142.

A voltmeter

passes

What

will the

Weston

cell

143.

as

having

voltmeter

through

the

the current

galvanometer?
through

these conditions what

Is this

Weston

ohms

in ^C

will the current

force of the

read?

resistance of 180

When

resistance of 1,000 ohms

electromotive

the

measure

cell has

in the wire AC

value of current

and galvanometer be zero?

Under
each of the 5-ohm
coils?
across

to

The

of 100 ohms.

will be the

is

the cell

voltage

is used

in

cell in

problem 141.
of using the

practicablemethod

an

attempt

standard?

factory
ignitionsystem on an automobile
requires 6 volts for satiscells
should
be
recommended
for
this
operation. How
dry
many
purpose?
144. A dry cell shows
an
open-circuitemf, of 1.2 volts and a short-circuit
The

of

current
test show

What

amp.

is its internal

resistance?

What

does

this

regards the condition of this cell?

146. A certain flashlight
has a 2 candle-power lamp whose
efficiencyis
If this lamp is operated by a singledry cell,in first
1.2 watts per candle.
class condition,approximately what
does it take and what
current
is its
voltage?
146. A storage cell is being charged at the normal
rate as indicated by an
as

voltmeter

ammeter.

part of the

its terminals

across

charging period

is the

cell

indicates 2.2 volts.

operating

at this time?

At

what

(See Fig.

104.)
147.

storage

constant

cell has

an

8-hour

for the 8 hours

the

of

shown

rate

of 40

amp.

This

rate

is maintained

charge. During this period the voltage

in Fig. 104, page
How
113.
many

curve
according
watt-hours?
ampere-hours are delivered to the cell? How
(Note:
many
Mark
several equally spaced points on
the voltage curve
and take
their
average.)
148. If the cell of problem 147 dischargesat the 8-hour rate and its voltage
of Fig. 104, page
follows the 8-hour discharge curve
113, how
many
watt-hours are discharged?
149. It is desired to dilute a quart of concentrated
sulphuricacid,sp. gr.
make
of
1.240.
acid
How much
water
1.84, to
having a specific
gravity

rises

to

is the

is needed

and

State the

procedurethat

what

total volume
should

of acid when

be followed

the solution is mixed?

mixing the liquids.

much
will 5 gallonsof battery

in

gallon of water weighs 8.3 lb. How

1.210)weigh?
161. What
is the percentage by weight of acid (sp.gr.
1.84)in the acid
solution of problem 150?
162. The hydrometer in a pilotcell of a stationarybattery indicates a
How
hours should
the battery be
more
specific
gravity of 1.190.
many
left charging (Fig.98, page
106)?
163. A hydrometer test of the electrolyte
in a vehicle cell shows the specific
gravityto be 1.185. If this cell is one of an electric vehicle battery engaged
in propellirig
a vehicle,how
near
complete dischargeis the battery?
160.

acid (sp.gr.

battery having

164. A

normal

437

PROBLEMS

AND

QUESTIONS

ratingof

40 amp.

at

the 8-hour

rate

is

How
ampere-hours charge should be ^iven it
many
just received new.
before it is ready for active service.
166. The average
chargingvoltage per cell in problem 154 is 2.B volts.
There are 40 cells in series and a 0.5-ohm resistance in series with the battery.
At 5 cents per kw.-hr.,
what is the energy
cost of getting the battery ready
for service?
to be 1.200)what
charge?
How
167. A battery is charged at the 80-amp. rate for 6 hours.
many
If
the
has
it
absorbed?
is
95
ampere-hour
efficiency
ampere-hours
per cent.,
hours can it discharge 60 amp.?
for how
many
168. If the battery of problem 157 is of the pasted platetype,what current
How
will it discharge at the 3-hour rate?
ampere-hours does it
many
this
rate?
at
Par.
101.)
(See
discharge
and how many
current
169. What
lem.
ampere-hourswill the battery of probIf the

166.

would

be

specific
gravityof

deliver

157

at the

vehicle battery is found

of its condition

fair estimate

of

1-hour rate?

rating of 320 ampere-hours. At what value of

should the charging be started if the platesare of the pasted type?
current
Of the Plants type?
(See Pars. 101 and 102.).
161. It is desired to charge a startingbattery from llO^volt d.c. mains.
The battery consists of three cells each having a terminal voltage of 2.5 volts
when
much
How
rate
of 12 amp.
ance
resistbeing charged at the normal
be
in
inserted
series
must
with this battery? What
percentage of the
is
delivered
the
to
supplied
battery?
power
162. If two batteries each similar to that of problem 161 are being charged
in series at the same
rate, what series resistance is necessary? What
centage
perof the power
supplied is delivered to the batteries?
163. A storage batteryof 115 cells is floatingon 230-volt bus-bars.
It is
the bus- bar voltage is
desired that the battery begin to discharge when
On
is
have
230
volts.
it
2.4 volts per cell.
to
charge
exactly
necessary
What
capacity of booster is required if the normal charging current is 60
much
How
is delivered to the battery by the booster?
How
amp.?
power
is supplied directlyby the bus-bars?
much
164. If the booster generator of problem 163 has an efficiency
of 78 per
of 80 per cent.,
which drives it has an efficiency
cent, and the shunt motor
160.

battery

has

does the booster set take from

power
166. A storage battery of 50 cells has

the bus-bars?

what

and

ohm

is

charged from

115- volt d.c. mains.

total internal resistance of 0.6

At

the

beginning

of

charge

its electromotive

does it take?
force is 1.8 volts per cell, (a) What
current
force
rises
hours
2.0
electromotive
volts
After
4
to
the
charging
per cell,
be the electromotive
must
(c)What
(6) What current does it take at this time?

force per cell when the battery ceases

taking current?
of charging is used and is this method
a desirable one?
166.
there

Give

The
any

reasons.

What

method

Is
specificgravity in a vehicle battery is found to be 1.240.
of the United
of its freezing in the climate
States?
possibility

438

DIRECT

It IB desired to install a 110-cell stationarybatteryhaving

167.

of 1.22 kw.

Par.

cell at

weight
106.)

168. What
**

CURRENTS

per
of the

the

a capacity
(a) What will be the approximate
battery? (6)Of the total battery? (See

4-hour
this

platesof

will be

iron-clad"

the

weight

rate,

of

24-cell vehicle

cells,this battery to have

battery composed

total output of 1.28 kw.

of

at the

8-hour rate?
169. Approximately how
volt

Edison

many

cells would

be required for

24-

project?
lighting
It is desired to install a generator to charge a 60-cell Edison battery.
normal
size generator is necessary
What
charging rate is 20 amp.

170.
The

(kilowatts,
amperes,

volts)? (See Fig. 108, page 117.)

the weight in pounds, of a 50-cell Edison
battery
15
Par.
deliver
kw.-hr. at the 8-hour rate?
designed to
108.)
(See
172. What
will be the weight in pounds, per kilowatt of this battery?
173. A lead cell is charged at a 40-amp. rate for 10 hours with an average
of 2.3 volts. It discharges 45
its terminals
potentialdifference across
terminal voltage of 1.95 volts. What
for 8H hours at an average
amp.
is its watt-hour
is its ampere-hour efficiency?What
eflSciency?
174. A storage batteryin its discharged condition is charged at the 100It delivers 105
rate at an average
voltage of 250 volts for 9 hours.
amp.
terminal
at an
voltage of 220 volts for 8 hours before it is
average
amp.
is its kilowatt-hour
condition.
What
in
the
efficiency?
discharged
again
176. An Edison battery of 12 cells is charged for a period of 6 hours at the
terminal
The
voltage per cell is 1.65 volts.
25-amp. rate and the average
terminal
battery discharges 5 hours at the 28-amp. rate with an average
its
is
what
What
its
is
watt-hour
and
ampere-hour
voltage of 1.2 volts.
efficiency?
of copper upon the cathode
176. One ampere-hour will deposit0.843 gram
is 12 volts
If the voltage across
bath.
in an electroplating
a platingbath
171.

and
how

will be

What

kilograms of copper

many

utilized in the

are

and

is 12 amp.

the current

the

coil

this

currents

two

CHAPTER

ON

VH

what
efTect
placed in a magnetic field,
Of what
importance is
explanationsof this effect

carryinga

is the
in the

is the

be

current

3. What

of
principle
D'Arsonval

current

led in

the

poles?

placed between
two

What
may

many

hours,

kilowatt-hours

principle?

2. How

How

how

to flow for 6

process?

Give

is noticed?

is allowed

deposited and

are

QUESTIONS
1. If

current

common

is meant

moving coil adapted to measuring small

is the coil suspended?
galvanometer? How
and out of the coil?
Why is a soft-iron core
the

methods

by

the

are
**

this damping be accomplished?

used

to

damping"

read

of

the

galvanometer

galvanometer?

flection?
deHow

439

PROBLEMS

AND

QUESTIONS

a
galvanometer be protected from
may
What
the connections of two types of shunt.

the

the

was

that

current

the

coil?

two

are

early types

of

What

is

d.c. instrument

an

evolution

is the moving coil pivoted? How

used to oppose the motion
are

How

galvanometer.

led to the coil?

Weston

of electrical

to be inaccurate?

factors caused these instruments

the movement

of the D'Arsonval

the

underlying principleof

What

instruments?

the

advantages of

the

shunt?

Ayrton

6. What

6. Show

currents?

excessive

4. How
Sketch

means

is meant
coil damped?
Explain. What
by a
effect does it have-on the calibration of the instrument

Is the

field " and what

is
of

"radial
s

cale?

oppositedirections? Is it
as a galvanometer?
a
order of magnitude is the current that will give full-scale
7. Of what
deflection in a Weston
Is it possibleto use the instrument for
instrument?
of this value?
Explain.
measuring current in excess
the
of
8. Describe
shunt.
construction
a
briefly
Why are four posts or
is used in
that when
Weston
instrument
terminals necessary? Show
a
connection
with a shunt, it is acting as a voltmeter.
the shunt and
law does the current follow in dividingbetween
9. What
of
and
should
resistance
the
ahunt
the instrument?
the
the resistance
Why
WTiy are the top
possibleto utiUze

of the

way

general,when
11.

remain

of the shunt

In what

Does

is

In

ammeter?

constant?

or

What

be

ammeter

an

may

internal shunt

an

in

instrument

Weston

errors

of

made
An

13.

is connected

used?

voltmeter

differ

materiallyfrom that

across

the value

disadvantagesof

14. Show

voltmeter

the
and

measuring
Show

16.

voltmeter

of the current?

"

that

specialtype

very low resistances?

the connections that

alone.

be measured by

What

is the

this method?

for this work

and

an

the
the

than

an

State

scale?

one

Explain.

electric current
some

of the

be utilized

advantages

measuring resistance with a

precautionshould be taken in connecting

are

What

ammeter.

What

of

hot wire instruments.

connections

an

voltmeter?

the

In

the line?

possiblefor a voltmeter to have more

is meant
by a multiplieror extension coil?
In what manner
the heating effect of
may

the

the

shunt?

important respect does the voltmeter differ from

is the current
in the coil of a voltmeter limited when

to measure

and

by

several scales?

to have

external

12. Is it

What

be caused

may

what

How

voltmeter

of

of the instrument?

the movement

ammeter?

springscoiled

the bottom

the movement

instrument

heating
10.

and

why?

used

in

of voltmeter

should be used in

measuring resistance by a
order of magnitude of resistances that can
sirable
What
specialtype of voltmeter is often deTo what
type of resistances is this method
can

be used

contact

in

applicable?
especially
16.

Sketch

whereby

an

one

of "balance"
that

exists when

a battery and
arrangement of four resistances,

of the resistances
in the

may

bridge detected?

this condition

of balance

be measured.
Prove

How

the law of

has been

reached.

eter,
galvanom-

is the condition

proportionality

440

DIRECT

17. What

types of

two

bridge are in general use?

Compare them
of
ease
manipulation; plug-contact resistance;

standpoint of

the

from

CURRENTS

convenience.

18. Give

brieflythe procedure
balance with a plug bridge.
19. In what

does

way

the

should be followed in obtaining a

slide wire

bridge resemble
the Wheatstone
bridge from

bridge? Compare it with

simplicityand accuracy.
20. Give

which

the connections
in

whereby

the

earth fault in

shde

wire

the

Wheatstone

standpoint of

the

be

bridge may

put

to

a
locatingan
practicaluse
name
method?
Explain why the galvanometer and battery do not occupy the
in the slide wire bridge of Fig. 133 as they do in Fig. 132.
same
positions
21. Sketch the connections used in the Varley loop. Upon what
is
arm

the

obtained?

balance

positionof
factor

the

in the

fault

What

of

error

What

additional factor must

determined?

loop test?
exist?

Murray

sources
possible

be

can

cable.

Was

Which

is the

of this

is the

be known

before

the

it necessary
this
to know
method?
What
simpler

is it desirable in practiceto know

22.

the insulation resistance of

Why
cables?
is
not always practicable?What
Why is the voltmeter method
the generalprinciple
of the method
described in Par. 124?
method
is used to obtain readable
deflections of the galva23. What
nometer
is
it
under
desirable
all conditions of circuit resistance?
to
Why
keep the 0.1 megohm in circuit continuallyand does it introduce any appreciable

error?
24. What

value

factor besides the resistance of the insulation affects the

other

of the current

has been

adopted

resistance?.

flowing in
standard

as

What

do

is the standard

must

be observed

only

one

which

circuit?

be

of insulation

measurements

observed

cell balanced?

What

care

Why

results when
give satisfactory

installation of

in the

potentiometermeasurements

if a balance is to be obtained ?
will

of electrification

time

What

in commercial

precautions should

cable testingapparatus?
25. Upon what
standard

Against what

the

is a

as
"

primarilyrest?
regardspolarity
nul

standard

in
be calibrated and marked
wire may
how
a
Is it possible
cell balance has been obtained.
to

26. Show

standard

electromotive

forces with

in such

this standardized

wire?

What

''

method

the

cell is used?

volts,after
measure

method

the

other
is

ployed
em-

measurements?

Northrup potentiometer whose connections are

in Fig.
in Fig. 138 differ materiallyfrom the simple device sketched
shown
Where
the
one-tenth
137?
What
volt
minor changes are necessary?
are
divisions located and how are they utilized when obtaininga balance?
How
27.

are

Does

the

Leeds

"

the smaller decimal

divisions obtained?

What

resistances
of this

are

used

in

potentiometer?
in
for
the
28. What
the variations
voltages among
provisionis made
standard cells? What
protectionis aiffordedthe galvanometer during the
preliminaryadjustments?
each of these units?

What

is the

working

current

AND

QUESTIONS

441

PROBLEMS

is the maximum

voltage measurable with this potentiometer

of this be accuratelymeavoltagesin excess
sured?
for
the device used
increasingthe voltage range of the potentiometer
in any way complicated?
and how
What is meant by a " drop wire
the supply is at constant volt ate?
it be \ised to vary the voltage when
may
30. Is this potentiometer,as a voltage-measuring
device,adapted to
What
is the p.^ncpleunderlyingthe measurement
of
measuring currents?
What
does it have four posts?
is a standard resistance? Why
current?
In what units of resistance are standard resistances generallymanufactured?
Why is it desirable that their temperature remain normal and what means
are
adopted to accomplish this?
instruments
31. What
are
generallyused in measuring the power in a
What

29.

alone?

By
Is

what

means

can

"

circuit?

direct-current

when

the

delivered to

power

delivered to

that

32. Describe

are

take

high

resistance

is

In what

wattmeter.

In their

deflections

instrument

do

way

is it based?
To

armature?

themselves?

power

being

and

the

ammeter

When

measured?

of the

function

From

what

what

the fixed and

of connection

manner

when
using this type of instrument
necessary
measure?
meter
33. What
does a watthour

device

any

low resistance is being measured?

differ in construction?
the

instruments

these

be the relative positionsof the voltmeter

should

What

Do

source

with

moving coils
circuit?
Why

to the

What

power?

direct currents?

Upon

what

familiar electrical

its field coils supplied?

are

is the torquieacting upon

is

care

Its

the armature

proportional?
retardingdevice necessary and what must be the law of
retardation?
Upon what principledoes this device operate?
load does friction produce the greatest error?
36. At what values of meter
friction
is
How
this
error
practicallyeliminated?
Explain.
34. Why

is

methods

36. What

What
dial of

are

of the

are

some

meter

used
of

causes

to

reduce

friction in

running slow?

meter

watthour

How

meter?

is the recording

actuated?

usually very important that a watthour meter

Why
register
accurately? What load and measuring devices are necessary in testinga
is it

37.

meter?
38. What

is the fundamental

relation between

the energy registered

by the meter?
checking the meter?

and

What

the revolutions of the disc

measurements

are

made

in

adjustments are made to change the meter speed? What

the center of the disc?
Nearer
is the effect of moving the magnets nearer
the periphery? At what loads is this adjustment made?
40. What
at light
adjustment is made to correct the meter registration
this
at
rather
is
than
made
loads?
at
adjustment
light
Why
heavy
39. What

two

loads?
41. In what

generalrespect does

three-wire meter

differfrom

two-wire

meter?
42.
meter

Describe in

generalway

practicallyastatic

and

the construction
therefore

of

meter

which makes

enables it to be used

near

the

bus-bars

442

DIRECT

What
carrying heavy currents.
be affected by stray fields?

to

CURRENTS
elements

two

How

in

meter

these elements

are

likely
safeguarded from
most

are

these effects?
PROBLEMS

ON

CHAPTER

VH

A galvanometer has a resistance of 351 ohms.

What should be the
this
if
it be desired that
for
with
shunt
use
a
galvanometer
the total current
of the line pass through the galvanometer? If it

177.

resistance of

Ko

be desired that

through the galvanometer?

178. The
resistance of a certain galvanometer is 495 ohms.
Design a
shunt which
the
line
allow
and
current
to
will
Ho" Koo,
Hooo
pass through
the galvanometer.
179. An Ayrton shunt (Fig.179A) has a resistance from A to B of 10,000
It is used to shunt a galohms.
vanometer
resistance
of
a
having
2000A
shunt
ohms.
When
the
is
2,000
0.001
set
at the
sistance
point (the reAC
10 ohms),
termine
dethe current
through the
when
1
milliampere
^ iA/WW\^^VVV\A'VVVVAVVWVVV% galvanometer
Koo

of the line current

pass

flows in the line.

180.
HiUiamperv-

the

line

to the 0.01

moved

Line
1

If

the line current

what

those

it

measure

be the resistance
flows

through

(Fig.
being

of the shunt

has

under
and

the instrument

milliampere.
toB,
Compare

If the shunt

180.

resistance

of 2 ohms.

conditions?

these
it be

How

neglected

as

much

does

It is desired

at full-scale deflection.

can

removed

were

through
galvanometer? How
of the galvanometer?
sensitivity

of 75 amp.

current

is 1

is moved

the

50-scale millivoltmeter

182.

now
pass
the ultimate

reduce

the line contact

of problems 179 and

would

current

the shunt

that

ISO when

Repeat problem

181.

point at

179o), the resistance AD

100 ohms, determine
the current
the
through
galvanometer when

FlO. 179A.

this result with

be

contact

What

should

much

current

compared with

the

in the shunt?

current

Find

183.

the resistances

necessary
with
deflection,

fuUnscale

and 500 amp.,

150 amp.

of shunts

for

measuring

the instrument

currents
of

of

problem

182.
184.

An

current

of 60 amp.

much

current

is the

ratingof

185.

passes

What

The

to

measure

has

be

the

resistance of 0.00075

the instrument?

Through

measure

ohm.

How

the shunt?

What

in millivolts?
a

alone is available.

should

It is used to

resistance of 25 ohms.

shunt

through

the instrument

It is desired

5-scale ammeter
ohm.

has

instrument

of 50 amp.

current

This

resistance

instrument
of

shunt

An

has
to

be

internal
resistance
used

shunt,
of 0.01

with

instrument?

Googk

this

444

CURRENTS

DIRECT

is the resistance in

What

In

197.

Wheatstone

connected

128, page
ohms; P

at X

bridge

between

"

balance

What

connected
are

to

199.

unknown

An

wire bridge. A

bridge

the

and
Af

resistance is
P.

arm

ohms;

10

read when

to be between

at

and N

as

shown

in

resistance?

10 and

20 ohms

Fig. 128, page

If the unknown

to use?

(See Fig.
1,000
is

141.

resistance is

balance isobtained?

resistance

known

unknown

is the value of the unknown

the best values of M

ohms, what will P

16.72

arm

is obtained

value is known

Wheatstone

the

measurement

end of the

one

141.) When
1,426 ohms.

198. A resistance whose

What

of the insulation of the field circuit to

megohms

of the machine?

the frame

is measured

by

resistance of 100 ohms

of

means

slide

100-cm.

is inserted at the

lOO^m.

end of the bridge. (See Fig. 132, page 146.) A balance is obtained when
the slider reads 32.4 cm.
What is the value of the unknown
resistance?
200. If

will be the

199, what
201.

A cable

insulation.
used

1,200ft.long,wound
in

to locate the fault.

The

the known

as

resistance

the slide wire when

reading on

It is immersed

when

cm.

resistance be used

10-ohm

on

is known
reel,

tank

of water

slide wire

the balance is obtained.

balance

What

and

to have

the

bridge,100

in

problem

is obtained?
a

fault in its

Murray looptest is

cm.

long,reads

is the distance from

one

end

18.4
of the

cable to the fault?

202.

Due
same

installed

An

to a bum-out

two-conductor

both

conductors

To locate the fault

point.

the faulty one

parallels

cable of 4/0 copper

is 3,200 ft. long.
short-circuited and grounded at the
are

is

single00

looped to

one

conductor

of another

cable which

conductor of the faultycable

00

at the

Cables,

"^L-qr

x-^'-vI

"^ Fault
St-0000 Condi

I
Fig.

far end, as shown

low
cm.

readingend
end.

conductor

in

The

of the slide wire and

balance

Fig. 202^4.
is obtained

is the bum-out

at

202^.

perfectconductor is connected to the

of the faultyconductors to the 100one
89.4

cm.

How

far out

on

the

faulty

located?

Varley loop test for a fault in a 1/0 conductor, 3,600 ft. long,
is looped back through a perfect00 conductor.
this conductor
The ratio
and
N
M
10
ohms.
ance
are
arms
(See Fig. 134, page 149.) A bal1,000
is obtained
when
P
58.5 ohms.
The
of the
bridge measurement
far
How
the
shows
be
ohm.
its
out
entire loop
resistance to
0.70
is
fault?
204. One
in a cable containing two No. 14 wires a and
conductor
6,
each 8,000 ft. long, is known
be
The
two
to
are
looped at the
grounded.
203.

In

far end

the Varley loop test made.

and

The

o.

two

A balance

ohms.

to deflect the

arms

same

in series with

is connected

ductor
con-

with P

way

(Fig.134, page 149) are each set at 100

obtained with P, as the galvanometer is found

and

be

cannot

445

PROBLEMS

AND

QUESTIONS

0 and P

P is then

"

shifted

in

over

series with 6, the other conductor, and a balance obtained when P

In which conductor is the fault and how far is it from the home
ohms.

12.6

end

of the cable?
In

206.

insulation test of

an

When

cable

the connections

made

are

as

the cable is short-circuited and

in

Fig.

is
the A3ni"n
135, page
The short circuit is then
set at 0.0001,the galvanometer deflects 12.8 cm.
the
the
cable
in
and
removed, putting
galvanometer deflects 19.8
circuit,
with the shunt set at 1.0 after the cable has been charged for 1 minute.
cm.
150.

What

shunt

is the insulation resistance of the cable?

206.

The

cable in problem 205

is its insulation

What

is 1,100 ft. long.

resistance in megohms per mile?

207. It is desired to measure
the terminal voltage of a storage batteryby
of
of a Wheatstone
cell. The ratio and rheostat arms
means
a standard

bridge (Fig.207A)
and

standard

across

at

coil

1 , 000-ohm

an

The
.

galvanometer

1,050 additional ohms

when

zero

the terminals of the storage battery

across
electromotive force of 1.0176 volts is connected

connected

are

cellhaving

voltage of

the storage

are

in the standard

cellcircuit stands

unplugged in P.

What

is the terminal

battery?

20-0.
"

Storage

nt

Batter7

D.C. Snpplj

2266-0.

FiQ.

208.

the

its electromotive

that

capacity

ohms.

2,050
not
capable

To

comparatively large
voltage are sensibly
required by the resistance of

terminal

current

of another

force

electromotive

cell which

is

deliveringany appreciablecurrent, its negative terminal is

point a and its positiveterminal to the point h through a
207 A). P is then adjusted until this galvanometer
galvanometer (Fig..
of

to the

connected

key and

reads
the

the

measure

209^.

is of such

force and

deliveringthe small

when

same

Fia.

207^.

storage battery of problem 207

The

J-

Zi

zero.

to be 890

found

and

is then read

ohms.

What

is

electromotive force of this cell?

is

It

209.

desired

calibrate

to

potentiometeris available.
arms

of

circuit.
1.0180

box

bridge

standard

The

(Fig. 209
cell,which

volts,is connected

across

voltmeter

voltmeter

A)

and

is known
the two

at the

is connected
115

volts

to have

ratio

arms

is
an

115-volt

point.

No

in

with the
parallel
impressed upon this

electromotive

in series with

force of

key and

446

DIRECT

galvanometer, the
in these two

arms.

2,266 ohms

are

210. The

unplugged in
to

25"watt

The

ammeter.

an

ohms,

is connected

reads

0,23

taken

by

What

P.

the

directlyacross

used.

are

is connected

which

value

the

true

the

voltmeter

zero

correction

voltmeter,which

the voltmeter reads

amp.
the lamp?
What
per cent,

ohms

unplugged
key depressedwhen
should be applied to the
are

tungsten lamp is beingmeasured

the

When

resistance?

current?

What

and

the

low
a

When

meter
volt-

of

12,000

the ammeter

is the true

power
if the instrument

resistance rheostat,an

voltmeter
reads

70

meter
am-

resistance of

having a
the

voltmeter,
amp.
2. 1 volts. What
is

reads
resistance,

What

cent,

per

is introduced

error

is introduced

error

is introduced

ammeter

directlyacross

of the

with

resistance

What

volts.

error

by

has

terminals.

lamp
117

be neglected?
power
211. In measuring the power
taken
having a resistance of 0.0008 ohm
120

20 ohms

with the

point?

power

and

polaritybeing observed and

proper

The galvanometer reads

at this

voltmeter

CURRENTS

by connecting the

by
meter
volt-

outside the ammeter?

In

212.

reading is

test

revolutions

of

counted

are

is

constant

What

adjustment
The

should

voltage is still 118 volts.

revolutions.

is the

What

What

adjustment should
registration?

the average voltmeter

reading is 21.4 amp.
Thirty
meter

be

to

is

(problem 212)
It takes

62.6

cent,

in order

for the

of the

accuracy

per
be made

to

to

registration?

1.0 amp.

but

disc to make
at this

meter

bring it

If the

at this load?

the correct

dropped

seconds

42.6 seconds.

of the meter

is the per cent, accuracy

be made
to bring it nearer

load

meter

watthour

the average ammeter

and the time is found

1.0,what

meter

213.

direct- current

volts and

118

nearer

the

the
two

point?
correct

232 V.

h-a

^
-ffi
'^"

A/yv
Fig.

214.

In

order

astatic watthour
coils

to

make

laboratory

test

of

a
2,000-amp., 220- volt,
Fig. 148,page 167, its current
a 4-volt storage battery and
its armature
the 2322,200 ohms, is connected
across

meter, of the type shown

suppliedwith current from

which
has a resistance of
circuit,
volt mains, as shown
in Fig. 214A.
are

214^.

in

A calibrated voltmeter

is connected

in

AND

QUESTIONS
the

parallelwith

the

in series with
The

is 150.

reads

The

required
current

of the meter

much

How

QUESTIONS
1. In what
what

In

meter

this load?

at

would

power

be

How

stant
con-

the ammeter

much

What
is

power

required if the

meter

ON

CHAPTER

VHI

does the magnetic circuit resemble the electric circuit?

do they differ from each other?
Why cannot magnetic

way

two

The

volts and

nected
con-

volts?

supplied at 232

were

reading is 232

is

ammeter

of the meter.

40 revolutions in 45.8 seconds.

makes

meter

cent, accuracy
for this test?

external shunt

an

terminals

current

corrected voltmeter

1,980 amp.

is the per

circuit and

armature

447

PROBLEMS

ways

readilyconfined to definite paths? In a generalway how does the

with that obtainable
precisionobtainable in magnetic calculations compare
flux be

in electrical calculations?
2. Are

dependent

ampere-turns

relation

is the numerical

What

alone?

current

on

On

turns

alone?

magnetomotive force and ampereturns?

largerunit,the gilbertor the ampere-turn? To what
quantity in the electric circuit does magnetomotive force correspond?
is reluctance and to what
does it correspondin the electric circuit?
What
Which

is the

What

and
What
To

3. How
its

basic unit of reluctance?

In

in the electric circuit does

reluctance

is the

combined?

related

tance
to reluc-

a magnetic path
permeability? How

flux

magnetic
related

to

its

correspond?
length? To

reluctances

are

in series

parallel?

is it usually necessary to represent the relation between magnetizing

curves?
What
force, and flux,in iron and steel,
by
generalshape does

Why

lower part of such

saturation?
How may
does

the

5. State

as

To

is

of

is due

what
method

law

a
Why
magnetic problems?
7. Upon
three
what
How
circuit dependent?

The

upper

is meant

from

B-H

with

permeabilitycompare

heating?
governing the

What

part?

be obtained

permeabilitycurve

the simple law

reluctance.

have?

curves

variation

electric resistance

6.

of

its

To

the

How

is permeance

by permeability?

quantity

cross-section?

4.

How

to conductance?

is meant

what

between

is the

such

by

curve?

variation

of

to

in the

relation

between

electric circuit does

of trial and

error

is the

sometimes

magnetomotive

flux,mmf. and
this law correspond?
in solving
necessary
force

acting upon a
computations
centimeter
How
inch
units?
In
units?
in
are
magnetization curves
plotted
in order to reduce computations to the simplest basis?
8. If the magnetomotive force acting upon
a sample of iron be increased
and the
definite value and then decreased again to zero
to some
from
zero
be
the
and
does
force
flux
curve
plotted,
relation between
magnetomotive
for increasingvalues of magnetomotive force differ from that for decreasing
to zero, does the magnetic flux return
If the excitation be decreased
values?
What
is a
How
the magnetic flux be brought back to zero?
to zero?
may
What
Coercive
force?
does
cycle? A hysteresis loop? Remanence?
of
in
Digitized
by
terms
energy?
vjOOglC
represent
hysteresis
factors
may

the

0.4ir be

eliminated

from

448

DIRECT

CURRENTS

is the

9. How

How
the
hysteresisloss related to the loop area?
may
under
How
loss be calculated
is the loss related to
practicalconditions?
flux density? What
is the Steinmetz
the maximum
Law?
10. How
is the geometricalpositionof the lines of induction related to the
**
this relation suggest the term
in a circuit? Does
current
linkages?
these linkages be calculated?
relation does inductance
What
How
may
bear to the total linkages?
11. Is it possibleto produce an electromotive force in a circuit which
is
insulated from
else?
in
is
motive
electrothis
everything
How,
a
general way,
force produced?
If an induced current
is allowed to flow in a coil,
what
reaction will exist
and the inducing agent?
this current
between
If the inducing agent as,
will the induced
for example, a bar magnet, be withdrawn
from a coil,
motive
electro"

force have
in the
and

coil?

Is it

when

as

the bar magnet

reaction will be produced between

What

inducing agent?
Upon what two factors
possibleto determine the

these factors

inserted

was

the induced

current

induced

electromotive

of this electromotive

force depend?
force in volts if

known?

are

13. If the

flux
in

current

What

does
value

is Lenz's Law?

What

linkinga coil be made

the coil itself,
show
that

to
an

change by alteringthe value

electromotive

of

force is induced.

is the relation of this electromotive

flowing in

the

the current

it be

may

How

coil?

builds up

14. What

the

direction

same

the

12.

the

the

to its Ohm's

is the "time

expressed?

circuit?

Does

does

force to the direction of the current

this relation affect the rapidity
with which

the

Law

circuit and by what two

general way, what does it indicate

constant"
In

time

value?

of

lag of

current

in

circuit have

any

quantities
regards

as

practical

importance?
16. If
not

inductive circuit carrying a current

the current
to

What
To

an

what
How

die out

immediately?

To

what

be

short-circuited,
why

is this

tendency

of the

does
rent
cur-

persistdue?
is the nature

of inductance

mechanical

property does

as

does the effect of inductance

circuit is

How

it

regardsits effect upon

correspond?
manifest

it be

itselfwhen

circuit changes?
the current

of

is not
can
interrupted?
To what is this arc due?
Under what conproduced by the current alone?
ditions
in practice may
it become
How
this menace
a menace?
be
may
partiallyor wholly removed?
What
personaldangers may result from opening inductive circuits?
force of self induction
16. Upon what three factors does the electromotive
depend?
of a magnetic flux require an
the establishment
Does
expenditure of
lished?
estabenergy? Is energy expended in maintaining this flux after it is once
field
coils?
What
of the power
becomes
requiredby electromagnet
Give examples of electromagneticenergy manifesting itself.
Is it possibleto calculate thi.-energy? Upon what
two factors does it
shown

that

this condition

How

depend?

449

PROBLEMS

AND

QUESTIONS
the

may

before opening

of generator fields be very

energy
the circuit?

duced,
materiallyre-

gas-lighting
spark coil utilize the electromotive force of
self induction in its operation? How
is it connected in the circuit? Show
that the spark coil can be considered
as a reservoir in which magnetic energy
is stored and later liberated. Explain why the coil produces a hot spark.
18. Is it possiblefor a magnetic flux produced by one
coil to induce an
17. How

does the

electromotive
this in any

correspondto the

way
of

insertion

bar

magnet

direction of the induced

is closed

the first is insulated?

production of electromotive force by

coil?

What

voltage in the secondary

to its direction when

Does

primary

the

the

is the relation of the

when

the

primary circuit
Upon what

circuit is opened?

force depend?

Is it possiblefor all the flux produced by one

coil to hnk another?
"
"
is the definition of the
coefficient of coupling of two circuits?

19.
What
How

is mutual

induced
How

inductance

defined?

How

it be utilized to determine

may

voltage?
the mutual

may

Explain

20.

induction?

how

How

inductance

the

of two

be

circuits be materially increased?

action of the induction

is the primary current

this current

that

which

in the second

factors does this electromotive

three

the

coil from

force in another

coil

depends

mutual

upon

interruptedand why is it necessary

interrupted?

21.

Upon what two factors does the pull between magnetized

depend? How does this pullvary with the flux density?
PROBLEMS
A

215.

ON

CHAPTER

certain electromagnet has

surfaces

Vm

excitingcoils,each of which has

these two coils are connected
in series,
what
is the
2,200 turns,
(o) When
total niunber of ampere-turns acting on the magnet if 3 amp. are supplied
the line?
from
and the total current
(6)If the coils are connected in parallel
is
3
what
is
the
number
of
supplied
ampere-turns?
amp.,
216. If one of the coils in problem 215 has a resistance of 80 ohms
and the
other a resistance of 60 ohms, what is the line voltage in (a)? What
is the
line voltage in (6) and
what are the ampereper coil and
certain

turns

217. A
and
the

has

120-volt

when

the

across

218.

(")?

What
In

219.

act

is the

problem

In

the

series with
What

pere-turns
am-

Fig.

219A.

circuit?
force in

gilbertsin problem

215

(a)and

217?

certain

iron-cladsolenoid,Fig.219A, the reluctance

is negligiblecompared
inserted the lines of
20

in

magnetic
magnetomotive

on

are

coil in every
the same
on

120-volt mains.

same

now

Another

connected

What

coil is connected

is placed

one

and

ohms.

this

mains?

similar to this

magnetic circuit

ampere-turns?
1,400 turns

exciting coil has

ampere-turns

way

total

resistance of 160

across

it

the

two

with

that

of

the

plunger. When
induction passingthrough the central

of the

the
core

are

yoke
plunger is
observed

450
to increase from
at this flux

350

to

of

carries

permeabilityof

plunger, of
200,000 lines.

magnet
flux of

is 4 in. in diameter

dynamo

flux of 1,280,000lines.
and per sq. cm.?
221.

is the

What

52,000.

the

plunger

density?

A steel field core

220.

and

CURRENTS

DIRECT

is the

What

circular
What

flux

carries

netic
mag-

density in lines per sq. in.

cross-section
is the flux

and

and

1.5 in.

density in

diameter,

lines per sq. in.

per sq. cm.?

Fig.

The

222.

80,000

field core

of

dynamo

per sq. in. it has

lines

is 3 in.

long and 4 in. in diameter.

is the
permeabilityof 700. What
this field core
at this flux density?

oppositeends of
pole piecesof an
and are
spaced K in. apart, forming
of this gap?
Neglect fringing.
luctahce
223.

between

The

two

iron

226A.

6 in. in diameter

electromagnet are
the

At
re-

is the reluctance

air-gap. What

yt^sMO

At-900-

Fig. 226 a.
224.

If the iron

pole piecesof problem

223

are

and have axial

cylindrical
is 1,200?
permeability

lengthsof 1 in.,what is their reluctance if their

226. Fig. 225A
shows
three portions of a magnetic circuit. Compute
the reluctance of each portion and the total reluctance of the combination.
Each portion is circular in cross-section.
in Fig. 226A.
226. Compute the reluctance of the magnetic circuit shown
of
two
227. Fig. 227 A shows
branches,
a
magnetic circuit composed
of
in parallel.Compute the reluctance
which are similar and which
are
each

half and
of 6Q0

the total reluctance

throughout.

of the circuit.

The

iron has

bility
permea-

452

CURRENTS

DIRECT

Fig. 237A has a yoke of cast steel and pole

of Fig. 154. page
177,
piecesof cast iron. Using the magnetization curves
determine the ampere-turns necessary to send 120,000lines through the airNeglect fringing.
gap.
The

237.

magnet

shown

in

ClrcnUr
CroM-

FiG.

Fig.

238.
field

cores

of cast

are

steel and

sheet

of cast

iron

the

shows

238A

has

has

and

238A.

magnetic

circuit of

4 in. square.
are
axial length of 3.6 in.

steel and
net

cross-section

of 2 X

The
over

6 in.

2-pole d3mamo.
armature

The

is of O.H.

the iron;the yoke is

Using the magnetization

Fig.154,page 177, determine the necessary field ampere-turns

flux density of 30,000 lines per sq. in. in the air-gap.
for an average
that
239. Repeat problem 238 assuming the air-gapto be 0.075 in. and
field
the
and
enters
in
armature.
the
flux
cores
of
the
yoke
only 80 per cent,
curves

of

(Leakage factor
^'

240.

iron

Determine

-^
the

1-25.

hysteresisloss

operatingat densities between

(Use data

of Par.

143.)

in ergs

per

cu.

cm.

30,000 lines per sq. in.

per

cyclefor

positiveand

cast

tive.
nega-

241.

transformer

yoke

of silicon steel has

is the hysteresis
loss in ergs per
density is 40,000 lines per sq. in.?
What

In

242.

cu.

produces 1,200,000lines of induction.

of 12 amp.
of
lines
induction
turns, 2,000,000
243.

When

Assuming

244.

remains

243

Determine

that

in

the total

constant, determine
when

in.
flux

linkages?

What

of the circuit?

certain excitingcoil of 2,000

the linkages?
coil. What
are

link the

its inductance
the turns

cu.

of 5 amp.

henrys?
permeability of the magnetic circuit

the

the inductance

In

of 600

current

turns, a

are

flows in

current

is the inductance

What

are

of

problem

is doubled.

the current

when

doubled.

closed magnetic circuit of cast steel the net ampere-turns per in.
The
cross-section of the magnetic path is 12 sq. in. and its net

246.
20.

are

volume

is the inductance

What

linkagesper ampere?

the

are

What

cycleif the maximum

in. per

certain electromagnet having 800

453

PROBLEMS

AND

QUESTIONS

length is

in. If 1 amp.
flows in
of the circuit using the curve

30

inductance

exciting coil, determine

Fig. 154, page 177.

the
of

the

Repeat problem 245 for an excitingcurrent of 2 amp., or double the

in problem 245.
To what is the change of inductance
due?
the excitingcurrent
247. When
of an electromagnet is flowing,there are
1,800,000lines of induction linkingthe circuit. The excitingcoil has 2,400
If the exciting current
turns.
is interrupted,requiring 0.5 second
to
is
the
what
the
induced
completely rupture
voltage across
arc,
average
the ends of the excitingcoil?
248. Re-compute problem 247,assuming that the circuit is interruptedin
246.

value

of that

0.2 second.
249.

certain electromagnet has

of 5 ohms

and

is connected

of the magnet?
cent, of its ultimate

How

constant

per
this

instant?

values

If the

250.
what
the

in the

the time

current

to

ultimate

value?

In which

problem

of the

63

per

Illustrate by

henrys and
What

current

will be the value

by

current

ance
resist-

is the time
reach

to

of the

current

sketch, marking

63
at

the

electromagnet of problem
cent,
a

of

sketch

its ultimate
and

compare

How

249 be doubled,
long does it take

value?
with

is the

What

problem

249.

given value of current first reached?

261. Six amperes
flow in the excitingcircuit of problem 247.
Compute
the induced
the circuit is opened in 0.5 .second,
electromotive force when
using equation (75),page 191.
262. If the excitingcurrent
of problem 245 is reversed
in 0.1 second,
the ends of the excitingcoil.
the voltage induced across
determine
V
of 2 henrys and
253. A certain generator field circuit has an inductance
the
field
The
terminals must
carries 100 amp.
induced
voltage across
time which
exceed
is the minimum
be allowed
not
can
1,000 volts. What
in
for opening the field? How
much
this field?
is
liberated
opening
energy
the
What
is the average
during
opening period?
power
864. Repeat problem 253 with the total field resistance doubled
by
means

is

the

of the circuit become?

constant

reach

What

rise of the

it take

of 2.8
mains.

problem.

resistance

does

110-volt

long will

value?

Illustrate the

involved

inductance

an

across

of the field rheostat.

454

DIRECT

255.

coils A

Two

placed that

and

but are
B, Fig.255A, are insulated electrically
of the flux produced by one
of the coils links

80 per cent,
has 120 turns

Coil A

other.

CURRENTS

and

coil B

has

200

turns.

When

the

amp.

flow in coil A,

What

the

lineslink B?
220,000 lines link the coil. How many
coefficient of coupling of the two
in
circuits? If the current
in }^iosecond, what induced voltage results in 5?
In A?

so

is

terrupted
is in-

Fig. 255 a.

The

256.

by
of 5

flux that

same

problems

and

in A

by

2.0 amp.

voltage is induced in A upon

What
voltage is induced in 5?
in henrys
the mutual
inductance

Determine
255

produced

is produced

interruptingthe

What
1.2 amp.
in 0.1 second?

257.

was

256.

What

is the self inductance

of coils A

of A?

1.2

and

in B
amp.

B,

in

Of B?

.1

Fig. 258^.
268.
iron

with

Coils A

core

the

as

and

shown

other.

B
in

of

problem
Fig.258^4,so

0.1 amp.

in A

255
that
now

are

now

linked

magnetically by

all the flux of

practically

one

produces 200,000 lines in the

an

links

joint

magnetic circuit.
269.
what

what

rate

If the

in B

the current

must

be

in B is 0.05 amp.,

current

interruptedin

is
In

self inductance

The

of the circuits?

produce this

will

same

flux?

Oi B?

of A ?

in A of problem 258
0.1 amp.
in A?
force is induced
electromotive
If the

inductance
At

in B

amperes

many

is the self inductance

What

A?

How

455

PROBLEMS

AND

QUESTIONS

5?

Of B?

interruptedto

in what

second,

is the mutual

What

of A?

0.05

induce

10 volts in

the circuit be

time should

opened?
and

other

flat pole

The

260.

electromagnet are in contact with each

2,000,000 lines passes from one to the other. If
in. X 5 in.,
what force in pounds is necessary to pull

piecesof

an

total flux of

each

cross-section is 4

these

pole piecesapart?

ON

QUESTIONS
1. If two

each

insulated ellipsoids
near

CHAPTER

other

IX

are

connected

to

the terminals

will the
what
electrostatic machine, upon
portions of the ellipsoids
an
density of charge be greatest? Would any considerable change be observed

of

charges if the wires

shown that charges are

be

were

disconnected?

How

can

it

"bound.'*

force exists between

What

machine

to the

in these

two

charges of unlike sign?

What

is its direction?

charges of like

sign?
positivecharge is brought into the neighborhood of an insulated
is the
What
and uncharged ellipsoid
or sphere,what
phenomenon occurs?
relation of the induced charge to the inducing charge? Distinguishbetween
it be shown experimentallythat free and
free and bound charges. How
may
bound
charges behave differently?
3. How
does a small positiveelectrostatic charge act when placed near
two
conducting bodies between which a difference of potentialexists? Can
For

2. If

the distribution of electrical stress

by lines in
Where
them

do

manner

is the effect in

electrostatic lines beyond

magnetic circuit and

5. If

needle

or

such

bodies be sented
reprebution?
showing magnetic distri-

electrostatic lines originateand

with lines of induction

4. What

in the air between

similar to that used in

a
a

and

terminate?

Compare

lines of force in this respect.

dielectric medium
certain

value?

of increasingthe density of
Is this

same

effect noted

in the

in the electric circuit?

other sharp projectionbe raised to

what
high potential,

at this projection? What

is the condition of the air in this
region? What is the effect of a further increase of potentisd?
Distinguishbetween an insulator and a dielectric. Name two substances
that are good insulators but poor dielectrics;
sulators.
good dielectrics but poor inis dielectric strengthexpressed?
In what terms
6. What
is the effect of applying a voltage to an electric condenser?
is the order of magnitude of the time requiredby a current
What
to charge
such a condenser?
To what hydraulic
Why does the current cease to flow?
this
be
can
compared?
phenomenon

effect is noted

456

DIRECT

7. How

How

it be shown

can

that electricity
is actuallystored in a condenser?
quantitywhich can be stored in a condenser vary with the

the

does

CURRENTS

What

simple

voltage?
and voltage?

relation does

this give between

is the usual effect of insertingsome

8. What

air between

condenser

plates?

What

to what

charge,capacitance

dielectricmedium

other

than

is "specificinductive capacity" and

What
is the dielectric constant

magnetic property is it analogous?

Of rubber?
of glass? Of mica?
is the

9. How

determined?

condensers

equivalentcapacitance of

To

connected

electric circuit condition is this

what

is the equivalentcapacitance of condensers connected

the electric charges on
What
is the relation among
determined?
connected

of condensers

in series?

equationrelatingto

circuit is the

the

parallel

analogous?

10. How

number

in

in

series

each

of

To what

equation in the electric

of condensers
capacitance
equivalent

in series similar?
in series be
each of a number
of condensers
the voltageacross
if the line voltage and the individual capacitancesbe known?

11. How

can

calculated

voltage relations dependent at all upon the insulatingproperties

of leaky condensers, upon
what
the
does
of the dielectrics? In the case
ultimate voltage distribution depend?
Are

these

12.

How

it be shown

may

Upon
Upon what

13.

that

electric energy

be

can

stored

in

denser?
con-

factors does this energy depend?

factors does the capacitanceof a parallel
plate condenser

what

of
depend? What is the effect upon the capacitance of changing the area
them?
Of substituting
the plates? Of decreasing the distance between
hard

rubber

or

glassfor

air?

employed in the measurement

capacitance? Upon what fact does the ballistic galvanometer method
What
relation exists between the quantity passingthrough the
14. What

two

and
Should

methods

are

commonly

pend?
de-

vanomete
gal-

ballistic throw?

its m'aximum

be made

the measurement

of

upon

"charge"

or

upon

"discharge?

"

galvanometer calibrated?
bridge method of capacitancemeasurement.
Compare
of resistance measurement.
How
it with the Wheatstone
bridge method
the
from
formula
differ
for
formula
does the bridge
capacitance
employed
of power
and what simple
What is the source
resistance is measured?
when
detector is used in the capacitancebridge?
16. How
Upon what principle
a disconnection in a cable be located ?
may
this
Is
method
of measurement
does this method
applicable if
depend?
the fault is grounded?
Explain. How
16. Describe

is the

the

ON

PROBLEMS
261.
the

condenser

capacitance of
its platesis (a) 220

has

potentialbetween
flowing at a uniform
be charged in 0.2 second

current
may

12 m.f
volts?

is necessary
in each case?

rate

IX

CHAPTER

What

is its charge when

(h)440 volts?
in order

that

the

(c) What
condenser

QUESTIONS

of 760

volts.

What

What

is the

263.

is 0.002

coulomb?

found

be

potentialacross
How

long

in

capacitance of

be the

should

457

PROBLEMS

70 microcoulombs

It is desired to store

262.

AND

condenser

potential

the condenser?

condenser

40-m.f

at

in which

the charge

of 1

milliampereflow in
order to charge this condenser to the above potential?
264. A certain condenser
consisting of two parallel
plates,with air as
has
A
0.00012
m.f.
of
slab
of
tween
dielectric,
a capacitance
glass is placed beThe
the plates occupying the entire space.
capacitance is now
to

0.00072

m.f.

condenser

of

must

current

is the specificinductive

What

capacity of

the

glass?
problem 264 is charged to a potentialof 300 volts
between
Glass is then inserted
plates and the supply then disconnected.
between
the space.
This insertion of the glass
the platescompletely filling
in no way changes the value of the electric quantity on the plates. What
is
after
the
of
the condenser
the
insertion
voltage
glass?
266. A plate condenser,with air as dielectric,
has a capacitance of 0.0012
The

266.

ni.f. and

300

immersed

in

its terminals.

volts is impressed across

bath

of transformer

oil having

the voltage supply remaining connected.

before

267. Four

condensers

and

each

in

what

must

condenser

is then

dielectric constant

is the charge

What

on

of 2.5,

this

denser
con-

in the oil?

after immersion

connected

are
on

and

The

having capacitances 12, 16, 20

220-volt mains.

across
parallel

be the capacitance of

and

What

30 m.f. tively
respecis the charge

singlecondenser

to

replace

the four?
268.

Three

connected

condensers

in

parallelacross

400-volt mains

have

is the capacitance of
What
charges of 600, 800 and 1,000 microcoulombs.
the
and
three?
each
what
singlecapacitance would replace
of problem 267 are connected
in series across
269. The four condensers
each
is the voltage across
of them
and what single
these same
What
mains.
What
is the charge on each condenser?
condenser
would replace the four?
270. Four
condensers
connected in series. The voltages of the condensers
are
densers
are
50, 70, 80 and 100 volts respectively. This combination of conof
be replaced by a singlecondenser
6 m.f.
having a capacitance
can
What
is the capacitance of each condenser?
What
is the stored energy
271. A condenser
has a capacitance of 20 m.f.
In
it is 100 volts?
the voltage across
in the condenser
when
200 volts?
what
ratio is the energy
increased if the voltage is doubled?
condensers
272. Three
having capacitances of 20, 40 and 60 m.f. respectively
in series across
connected
is the
are
a 600-volt
supply, (o) What
is the
of each?
each?
is the energy
(c) What
(6) What
voltage across
energy

of the system ?

273. Determine
of

the three condensers

energy of the system when
the same
connected in parallelacross
voltage.

the stored

problem

272

274.

air condenser

An

connected

are

consists

together as one
plate between

terminal

intermediate
are

12 in. X

12 in. and

capacitance of this

of three

the

condenser?

the two

and

the other

outers.

plates are

plates.
The

spaced Ke

The

outer

two

terminal

ones

is formed

dimensions

in. apart.

are

the

of each

by
plate

What

is the

Digitized
by CjOOQ

Ic

458

DIRECT

275.

If the space

filledwith

CURRENTS

the

between

having
paraffin,

platesof

the

condenser

dielectric constant

of

of 2,\,what

problem

Is

274

does the capacitance

become?
is to be made
of alternate layersof glass
high voltage condenser
of 8.
the glasshaving a dielectric constant
and tin foil,
The
glass is ^4
276.

in. thick and

How

plates and sheets of tin foil are

many

having

the tin foil is 2 mils thick and its dimensions

capacitanceof 0.02

m.f.?

3 in. X

to make

necessary

If the glass platesare

is the siae of the completed condenser?

277. In a bridge measurement
of condenser

are

4 in.

condenser

5 in. X

in.,

what

connected

shown

as

100, Rt
capacitance?
Ri

In

278.

in

Fig. 183

1,242,Cj

test for

(6),page

0.4 m.f.

capacitance the bridge is

When

213.

What

balance

is obtained

is the value of C", the unknown

cable fault the apparatus is connected

in
shown
as
In the capacitance measurement
of the part x the

Fig. 184, page 213.

In the measurement
of the
galvanometer has a ballistic throw of 4.2 cm.
capacitance of the perfect cable plus the looped end of the faulty cable
If the length of each conductor is 1,800
the deflection isfound to be 16.4 cm.

ft.,how

the

far from

point of

test is the cable broken?

ON

QUESTIONS
1. In what
How

flux?

The

varied?
linkingthe coil of a generator armature
does this voltage vary with the speed?
induce voltage? How
is the flux

way

does this

CHAPTER

The

number

of turns

in the coil?

2. If instead of

regarding this voltage as due to the change of flux linking

it is considered as being due to the individual conductors
a coil,
cutting
in
If
is
the
the
result
affected?
considered
ultimate
is
voltage
flux,
any way
how
does this
to the cutting of lines by individual conductors
as being due
?
flux
The
density The velocity
voltagevary with the length of conductor?
of the conductor?

definite

3. What
emf
.,

flux?

relation exists among

the conductor

direction in which

the

What

simple rule enables

of the

one

emf.

direction

the

and

moves

to determine

induced

these

in

the

of

induced

the

direction of the

relations?

rotating coil,(a) when

its plane lies
the coil is in the plane perpendicular to the flux?
(6) When
its sign? Explain.
parallelto the flux? Does the voltage ever reverse
in
5. How
current
the
a coil be
alternating
produced
changed to
may
is the effect of adding coils to the rotatingmember?
direct current?
What
what
due?
the "ripples" in a voltage wave
To
are
4. What

6. In what
coil

type?

is the value

is the open

way

number

of coils and

7. Name

two

turns

serious

be the

(Fig.192)?
types,

even

fasten conductors

the surfaces

Show

that

though the

same.

objections to the ring winding. How

the drum
winding? What two methods

in
on

armature

force is different in the two

objectionsovercome
and

different from* the closed

coil type of armature

type is the gramme-ring

Which

the resultant electromotive

of armatures?

Which

are
are

these
used

to

is the better method

why?

8. What

is meant

by

"coil

pitch" and what

is its relat^^Si"CP^l"
pitch?

460

CURRENTS

DIRECT
Is it always

20.

possibleto

fit a

winding

wave

of slots if all the slots

fixed number

to

utilized?

are

having

armature

an

What

Explain?

shift
make-

accomplish the desired result?

may
21. If the number
of pairsof poles is even, is the number
of commutator
of
of
is odd?
if
Answer
the
odd?
number
even
or
pairs
poles
segments
be used to

is the minimum

22. What

winding?

What

would

sets be used

two

of brush sets that

number

is the maximum
and

why?

be used in

can

that it is possible
to use?

number

is the maximum

Why

wave

When

number

usually

desirable?

winding? In what
of poles? How
paths
way
winding?
paths in a duplex wave
winding? A triplexwave
many
is
it
A lap winding?
and
24. When
desirable to use a wave
winding
why?
Give specific
reasons.
other
26. In addition to forming a part of the magnetic circuit,
what
function does the yoke of a generator perform? Of what two materials is it
made
Describe a process whereby the yoke is made
without
and why?
casting.
26. Of what
The pole shoes?
materials are the field cores made?
What
the
of
Where
each
is
the
sections?
used?
two
are
core
generalshapes
If not, how isit built up?
27. Is the armature
a solid casting?
By what
in
How
the
held
methods
two
are
are
stampings produced?
they
position
of the ventilating
when
What
is the purpose
placed upon the armature?
How

many

is the

number

23.

paths

there in

are

of such

simplex wave

affected

by the number

ducts?
28. Sketch
methods

general types

two

used

are

of slot.

Where

to prevent the conductors

from

is each used?

What

being affected by

two

ugal
centrif-

forces?
29. Of what

is the commutator

segments?

How

connections

made?

What

usuallymade?
What
the

is the purpose

made?

of the

pressure

brushes?

is used

insulation is used

Of what

the brush?

on

between

are

material

to hold the brush

of the plating on

are

the

coil

brushes

the commutator?

is the purpose

What

of

pig-tail?
PROBLEMS
A coil 20

279.
in

What

clamped together? How

the segments

is the purpose

What

30.

are

uniform
is the

What

(") If

the

ON

CHAPTER

having 50 turns, rotates at a speed of 600 r.p.m.

magnetic field having a density of 200 lines per sq. cm.
(a)
in
the
coil?
induced
voltage
average
flux and the speed are both doubled, what average
voltage is
cm.

square,

obtained?
280.
a

A wire 40

magnetic

volts

are

281.

field

induced

at a speed of 2,000 cm.

long moves
having an intensityof 6,000 lines per
cm.

between

the ends

A uniform
magnetic field
perpendicularlythrough a coil 40

per second
sq.

cm.

through

How

many

of this conductor?
is

just sufficient

in. X

12 in.

The

in cross-section to
coil has

80 turns.

pass
If

QUESTIONS
the coil slides out
what

AND

461

PROBLEMS

from

this field in 0.001 second

voltage is induced

due to the change in flux

and

at

uniform

linkingthe coil?

rate,
What

voltage is generatedby the cuttingof the flux by the individual conductors?

to the 12-in.
one
parallel
(Work with the coil slidingin the two directions,
side and one parallel
to the 40-in. side.)
282. An
has 40 slots. Design a 2-layer,
armature
4-pole,simplexlap
a
winding, in which the back pitchis 21 and the front pitchis 19. Make
winding table.
283. Repeat problem 282 making the front pitch21 and the back pitch 19.
Which
winding is progressiveand which is retrogressive?
284. Design a 2-layer,
40-slot machine,
simplexlap winding for a 6-pole,
choosing the proper pitches.
285. An 8-polearmature
has 128 slots and 6 winding elements per slot.
Determine a correct value of back and front pitchfor a simplexlap winding.
Sketch a few slots with their winding elements
and connections.
How
commutator
are
necessary?
segments
many
286. Repeat problem 286 for a winding with 8 elements per slot.
delivers a total current of
287. A 6-pole,
simplex,lap-wound armature
How
220
volts.
228 amp.
at
ture?
many
amperes
per path through the armaWhat
is
the
How
of
the
volts
kilowatt
rating
path?
many
per
machine?
288.

If the machine

of

problem

287 had

Per brush?
be the amperes
per path?
289. Repeat problems 287 and 288

duplex lapwinding,what would

for

an

8-pole,200-kw.,

220-volt

generator.

4-polearmature, the winding to

winding table for a 60-slot,
There
2 winding elements per
re-entrant
are
winding.
duplex,doubly

290. Make
be

slot.
291.

Repeat problem

290

using 61 slots and making

the

winding singly

re-entrant.

has 33 slots and 2 elements per slot. Design a

4-polearmature
winding for this armature, having a back pitchof 17 and a
simplex wave
Make
front pitch of 17.
a winding table.
(Check the pitch,using equation
100.)
16.
293. Repeat problem 292 making yi,
19, and y/
294. Attempt to place a similar winding upon a 34-slot armature.
Then
omit one slot,using a dummy
coil,and repeat.
295. An
8-pole,660-volt,60-kw. generator has a simplex wave-wound
How
armature.
amperes
per path?
many
296. Repeat problem 296 using a duplex wave
winding.
292.

ON

QUESTIONS
1. A
What

certain armature
are

has

the separate effects

CHAPTER

of conductors

fixed number
on

the induced
the

is doubled?

on

its surface.

voltage of (1) doubling the

enteringthe armature; (3)
of pathsthrough the armature

fiux

armature;
(2) doubling
speed
reconnectingthe armature so that the number
of the

XI

462

DIRECT

2. In

CURRENTS

given generator, upon what two factors does the induced voltage
depend? If the speed of the generator be maintained
constant, upon what
factor does the induced voltagedepend?
3. Show
that a similarityshould exist between
two
curves
plotted as
follows

1. The

field ampere-turns of

of its north

one

2. The

generator

abscissas

as

and the flux leaving

polesas ordinates.

field current

of the

generator

same

as

abscissas and

the induced

voltage at constant speed as ordinates.

curve
relatingampere-turns of the fieldand the flux of one north
Why is the first part of the
pole,why does not the flux start at zero value?
line?
the
At
curve
a straight
practically
higher values of field current whydoes the induced voltage increase less and less rapidlyfor any given increase
armature

4. In the

in fieldcurrent?
5. Is there any

difference between

increasing values of field current

Explainany
6. Sketch

the saturation

obtained

curve

with

with decreasing
values?

and that obtained

difference.
the

connections

used in determining a saturation

the

connections

of

curve.
(1)
simple fieldrheostat. (2)Using a drop wire with the field. Give
two reasons
why the generator should be separatelyexcited.
7. Show
that Ohm^s Law can be expressedgraphically. What
two quantities
in
when
Ohm's
Law
this
manner?
are
expressing
plotted

Using

8. Sketch

low resistance

or

Explain in detail
voltageto which a

9.

shunt generator.

of high resistance?
how

Is the fieldof comparatively

Explain.

generator "builds up."

ashunt

What

limits

build up?
can
Give three causes, each of which
10. What
is the criticalfield resistance?
What
tests and remedies should be
the
generator buildingup.
prevent
may

the

machine

used for each?

in
is the generaldirection of the flux produced by the current
effect does this have upon
the resultant
What
the armature
conductors?
11. What

What

does it affect the positionof the neutral plane?

effect does the change in positionof the neutral plane have upon the

brush

position?

flux in

12. What
When

axis?

How

machine?

is the relation of the direction of the armature

brushes

the

moved

are

resultingdirection

of the armature

this be resolved?

What

13. Which

Which

conductors

produce

forward

field?

in

fieldto the brush

generator what is the

Into what two components can
a

is the effect of each

on

an

component?
produce a demagnetizing effect?

armature

cross-magnetizingeffect?

the armature, togetherwith the poles,for

the current
ous
directions in the variindicating
multi-polarmachine,
a
conductors.
Sketch a curve
showing the values of armature
motive
magnetosurface.
Show
the flux produced by this
force along the armature
magnetomotive force when acting alone.
14. Sketch

the conductors

on

loaded

15. Show

the effect of the above

flux

on

the distribution of the total flux

is the neutral
surface. How
along the armature
made
in
the
brush
be
must
position?
change

zone

affected?

What

AND

QUESTIONS

or

16. Name

four methods

reduced.

State the

17. Sketch
over

an

463

PROBLEMS

reaction is either eliminated

by which armature
each
method.
of
principle
ideal commutation
tribution
curve
assuming uniform current dis-

the brush.

effect of having voltagesinduced in a coil during the

What limits the current
time that it is being short-circuited by the brush?
is the

18. What

coil?

in such

current

over

20.

too

Why

do these currents

curves

far; (6)brush

too far

does

armature

an

is the

undergoing short
objectionable?
22.

23.

during the commutation

evidence

the

what

is "high mica"

24. In

should any

wide.

upon

What

is the effect

period? What

effect does

the relation of the brush positionto

is the advantage of copper brushes

brushes used almost universally?

two

too

order of magnitude of the voltages induced

circuit? If the voltages are low what
makes

from

Name

back; (c)brush

What
What

distribution of

followingconditions: (a) Brush

coil have self inductance?

the voltage of self induction have

the neutral zone?

carbon

for the

commutation

of this self inductance

21. What

affect the uniform

the brush?

19. Sketch
advanced

How

commutator

points to the fact that

by the brushes is not
due?

How

may

over

the

carbon?

taking

Why
of

or

even

coil

them

so

are

current

conduction?

pure

it be reduced

in

To

eliminated?

methods.

general,what

is the
of

effect of arcing on
for

the commutator?

eliminatingthe

Why

of the
cause
arcingbe a reason
appearance
arcing as soon as possible? Why is it not desirable to use emery paper or
cloth in grindingbrushes or smoothing the commutator?
26. What
changes occur in the flux at the geometricalneutral of a generator
What
is the effect of these changes upon the brush
as load is applied?
position? Why do the brushes have to be moved ahead of the load neutral
plane?
26. Show
in order to obtain
that instead of moving the brushes forward
the proper
result may
be obtained by the use
commutating flux,the same
of a commutating pole.
27. Why is the commutating pole connected in series with the armature?
Why has it an unusually long air-gap?
28. What
is the relation of the polarities
of the main polesand of the
the
of
direction
to
commutating poles
rotation,in a generator? In practice
the commutating polesadjusted to the proper strength?
how
are
29. Sketch the connections used in obtaining the shunt characteristic.
Sketch the characteristic. Why does the machine
finally"break down?"
follow
the
from
short-circuit
the curve
does
return
obtained
not
curve
Why
current?
with increasingvalues of armature
30. Give three reasons
the
voltage of a shunt generator drops as
why
these three reactions cumulative?
load is applied. Why
What
are
vents
preload
is
from
"unbuilding" as
a generator
applied?
'

464

DIRECT
effect does

31. What

CURRENTS

runninga generator

at

higherthan

its characteristic,
provided that the field current

upon

the no-load volts

the

are

is meant

32. What

lamp loads?

is its relation to the shunt

within
How

characteristic?

an

the

How

of

36. Show

may

total power

objectionabledrooping characteristic

improved?

is the

What

generator? What
the

How

the

are

additional

veloped
de-

effect of the

Sketch the characteristics of

connection

"short
the

upon

and

shunt"

nection.
con-

characteristic?

flat-compounded and an
is each used and why?
imder-compounded generator. Where
36. How
is the degree of compounding in a generator adjusted? When
do
generators have

over-compounded,

of the shunt

connected

turns

do they differfrom the shunt field turns?

the difference between
"long shunt" and

way

largevalue of the
for supplying
one

be determined?

armature

may

generator be
in what

adjusted that

so

generator is a desirable

Explain.
is meant
by the "total characteristic"

83. What

is

case?

by generator regulation? Does

regulationindicate that

per cent,

34.

in each

same

rated speed have

an

separate series fields?

two

is the effect of speed upon

the degree of compounding, if the
What
in each case?
no-load voltage is the same
Compare this with the effect
37.

of

speed

38. Show

may
39.

the shunt

upon

how

explain.

characteristic and

of series turns

the number

isthe armature

What

be determined.
may
it be utilized?

for

desired degree of compounding

characteristic and how

does the series generator differ fundamentally from the shunt

In the type of load that it supplies?
generator in construction?
40. Describe the external characteristic of the series generator and show
How

its relation to the saturation

41. In what

curve.

does the machine

way

"build

up?"

What

is meant

Why is it desirable to operate upon

side of the external characteristic?

criticalexternal resistance?
hand
42.

Name

very

common

types of machines.
43.

is the

What

"

use

of the seriesgenerator.

Name

two

Why are specialcommutators

necessary?
of
transmission?
Thury system
power
"

the

by the
right-

common

Where

is it

used?
44.
of

How

series generators be used to control the voltage at the end

Upon what portion of the characteristic does such a generator

may

feeder?

operate? Sketch the connections.

installation and operation of such
46.

How

may

Is such
taken
46.

What
a

precautionsmust

be taken

in the

booster?

affect the generator tic?

characterisit be
drop in speed chargeableto the generator? How
may
the

speed of

prime mover

into consideration?
State

one

essential difference between

unipolar generator and

the

to prevent the armature

being
ordinary type. What design is necessary
is the advantage of this type of machine
short-circuited on itself? What
over
are

the

ordinary type and

its disadvantages?

for what

type of work

is it best

What
adapted?.a^

the Tirrill regulator? What

is the

Of the relaymagnet?
Why cannot
control magnet?
of
fields
of
machines
the
to
largecapacity?
applieddirectly

of the main

function

this regulatorbe
How

of
principle

is the basic

47. What

465

PROBLEMS

AND

QUESTIONS

it be

may

appliedto

these machines?

XI

CHAPTER

ON

PROBLEMS

pole faces of a shunt generator are 8 in. square and the average
has
machine
flux density under the pole is 45,000 lines per sq. in. The
The
surface
conductors on the armature.
there
300
4 poles and
are
wound
is wave
machine
making two parallelpaths through the armature.
rotates
the armature
at 800 r.p.m.?
What
is the induced voltage when
1,000 r.p.m.?
298. If the current per path in problem 297 is 20 amp., what is the rating
The

297.

of the machine

in kilowatts?

Repeat problems 297 and 298 for a simplex lap winding, the number
of conductors,the speed, etc. remaining the same.
300. In an
8-pole,220-volt generator, the pole faces are 12 in. square.
the poles at no load is 47,600 lines per sq. in.
The
flux density under
is
The speed of the machine
16
There are
slots per pole on the machine.
conductors
If the armature
is lap wound, how many
750 r.p.m.
per slot
the
rated
load?
at
to give
no
are
voltage
necessary
of a 20-kw.,
taken for the saturation curve
301. The followingdata were
299.

220-volt generator, running at 600 r.p.m.

Plot this saturation

The

302.
has

per

and then replotit for 550 r.p.m.

generator of problem 301 is

conductors

440

turns

curve

the

on

pole. Plot

curve

4-pole,lap-wound machine

surface.

armature

between

flux per

There

400

are

and
field

shunt

pole and ampere-turns

per

pole.
303.
the

Determine

gap

operatingat
304.

the

approximate

of ampere-turns

number

and for the iron at 220 volts,when

the generator of

550 r.p.m.
the criticalfieldresistance for both

Determine

Determine

the field resistance necessary

volts at each
305. When

required for

problem 301

speeds in problem

is

301.

for the generator to build up to 220

speed.
the

generator of problem 301 is operatingat 600 r.p.m. and

field resistance is adjusted so that the machine

builds up to 220 volts,
what
flows through the fielddue to the residual magnetism?
current
What

the

induced
from

voltage results from

this last voltage?

306.
across

generator

the armature,

this field current?

fails to build up.

a

voltmeter

across

this fieldcircuit is opened the voltmeter

reason

that

the machine

When

What

field current

the shunt

the armature
reads 7 volts.

does not build up and what

results

field is connected

shows
What

4 volts.
is the

When

probable
remedy is suggested?

466

DIRECT

no-load

807. The

the generator is
neutral

flux of

Repeat problem 307

809.

There

The

and

cross

on

If the brushes

advanced

are

50
are

making
how
15**,

amp.,

advanced

magnetizing ampere-conductors are

and cross-magnetizing
ampere-turns
310. The

are

When

no-load
glecting
Ne-

30**.

bi-polar
flowing
amp.
izing
demagnetmany

the surface of the armature

generator deUvers

conductor.

in the

flux of 1,000,000lines.

the brushes

when

240 conductors

the brushes

is the resultant flux?

s"turation,what

308.

are

itselfproduces

armature

the effect of

in each

bi-polargenerator is 3,000,000lines.

carryingits rated load and

plane, the

generator.

CURRENTS

are

of

25

How

there?

many

magnetizin
de-

there?

10 space
grees.
de4-pole generator are advanced
The armature
How
is lap wound
and has 496 surface conductors.
demagnetizing and cross-magnetizingajnpeTe-tums are there on the
many
when
the generator delivers 120 amp.?
armature
311. Repeat problem 310 for a generator having the same
of poles
number
and armature
conductors and deUvering the same
but
with
a wavecurrent,
wound
is the ratio of the kilowatt capacities
of the two
What
armature.
brushes

of

machines?
312.

circuithas
conmiutating-pole

resistance of 0.08 ohm.

The

rated

of the generator is 80 amp.

The most
dition
satisfactoryconis obtained when 60 amp. flow in the commutatingof commutation

full-load current

pole circuit. What

this

across

the

be

must

shunt

to be connected

commutating-polecircuit?
terminal

313. The

voltage of

voltage is being induced

shunt

If the

delivers 100 amp.

armature

resistance of

generator is 550

armature

resistance

volts when
is 0.3

the

ohm, what

in the armature?

ture
314. A 75-kw.,220-volt shunt generator has 228 volts induced in its armatime
12
when it is deliveringits rated load at 220 volts. At the same
resistance?
is the armature
taken by the shimt field. What
are
amp.

316.
What
not

The

no-load

voltage of the generator of problem 314 is 234 volts.

regulation? Why is the induced voltageat rated load

is its per cent,

equal to the no-load volts?

It is specified
no-load voltageof 119 volts.
should be the terminal
What
that it shall regulateto within 6 per cent.
voltagewhen it delivers its rated load?
A shunt

316.

of the geneis the total power being developedin the armature

rator
in
and
is
lost
the
armature
this
much
of
How
in problem 314?
power
much is available for deliveryto the
is lost in the field? How
much

317.

how

generator has

What

external circuit?

delivering50
terminal voltage of a generatoris 600 volts when
resistance
field
shunt
the
ohm
and
is
0.8
resistance
The
armature
amp.
What
is the
What power is being generatedin the armature?
is 250 ohms.
armature?
of the
electricalefficiency
319. A compound generator has a no-load voltage of 230 volts. It supplies
318.

The

200-kw.

It is desired to

cable.
load,situated 800 ft. distant,over a 1,000,000CM.
maintain the voltage at the load constant at 230 volts from

468

CURRENTS

DIRECT

4. State

convenient

rule

by which

the relation among

the current, the direction of the field and

What

determined.

other

simple

the direction

the direction of the force

enables

method

to

one

of
be

can

determine

this

relation?
6. What

In what

is torque?

In the metric
6. Show

that

units is it expressed?

In the British

system?

coil carrying current

when
placed in a magnetic
develops a torque. In what positionof the coil is the torque a maximum
What
to the armature
When
is it zero?
change in the connection
7.

Why

are

the torque reaches its

when

large number

of conductors

upon

the armature

desirable?

three factors is the torque of an armature

proportional?
factors
two
what
b
the
machine,to
torque proportional?

one

d. How

it be

can

shown

resistance alone does not

that

taken

?
coil

value?

zero

In

what

To

field

should be made

tem?
sys-

armature?

determine

any

the

of
a
Why
by a
necessitybe generatinga voltage when it is rotating? What is the relation
To the direction of the
of this voltage to the direction of the current?
appliedvoltage?
tage?
electromotive force greater or less than the applied vol9. Is the coimter
Why?
By what quantity do the two voltages differ from, each
of current

amount

motor

must

motor

other?

Fundamentally,upon
depend?
10.

What

generaleffect

of

direction of rotation
for

one

case

of

motor?

applied
of the

interpolesand

does this relation compare

How

with

The

current

flowinginto

characteristics
for commercial

motor

what

motor

is its firsttendency?

does this tendency affect the back

motor, how

shunt

two

the load is

tion?
reac-

the
the

generator?

force?
14. What

load is appUed to

13. When
of the

as

is the relation between

12. What

motor

the fieldflux does this movement

on

is the effect upon

the speed?
the main poles,the

What

brushes have?

the speed of

distorted by armature

motor

direction should the brushes be moved

In what

similar

does
quantities

two

direction is the flux of

11. In what

to a motor?

what

are

very

In the
motive
electro-

the armature?

important in consideringthe

ability
suit-

work?

does the torque of the shunt motor vary with the load?
Why?
Demonstrate.
does the speed vary with the load?
Ordinarily is its

16. How
How

change
have
per

of

upon
cent,

effect does armature

What
reaction
speed with load excessive?
the speed?
is meant
What
by "speed regulation?" Does the
have
as
regards a motor's perspeed regulation
any significance
formance?
To what general type of work is a shunt motor
adapted and

why?
16. How

does the flux in

series motor

this affect the variation of torque with

17. To
of
taken

what

load?

when

extent

By

is the

the

speed

removal

the series motor

is

of
of

vary

with the load?

How

does

load?
series motor

load?

What

being installed

affected by the application

should
be
precautions

for industrial

purposes?

QUESTIONS
18. To

PROBLEMS

469

what

general types of load is a series motor

adapted and why?
is it especially
to
street
adapted
-railwaywork?
19. What
factors are
plotted in giving the characteristics of a street
motor?
Why?
20. In what way
do the windings of a compound motor
differ from those

For

car

AND

of

what

reasons

shunt motor?

shunt

In what

A series motor?

two

with

ways,

respect to the

the series winding be connected?

winding, may

speed characteristic of the cumulative

compound motor?
What
has
it
the series motor?
over
advantage
For what
general type of work is it best adapted?
22. What
is the nature
of the speed and torque characteristics
of the differentially
21.

The

is the

What

torque characteristic?

motor?
What
23.

How

Is this type of motor

in general use?
plain.
Exin startingthis type of motor?
is the effect of reversingthe
be reversed?
What

precaution is necessary
may

motor

line terminals?
24.

Why

is

starting rheostat

for

necessary

direct-current

In what

circuit is the startingresistance connected?

connected
in the line?

motors?

should it not be

Why

26. What
two
additions to the startingresistance of Fig. 299, page 330,
Sketch the connections
incorporatedin a 3-pointstartingbox?
of a
Why?
Show that the startingresistance which is in series with the
3-point box.
shunt field when the arm
is in the running positionhas little effect upon the
field current.
26. Under

what

conditions

Show

Why?

Sketch

point box.
advantage

that

of motor

the connections

having

operation is

this objectionis
of

sirable?
3-point box undethe
of
use
a 4by
What
is the principle

overcome

4-pointbox.

hold-up magnet in series with the shunt field?

27. Sketch the connections of a starting
box containingthe fieldresistance.
is
to short-circuit this resistance on starting? How
Why is it necessary
this accomplished?
28. How
is the
should a shunt motor be stopped? Give reasons.
What
of
the
back
the
arm?
effect
motor
stopping
by throwing
starting
of

29. Sketch

the connections

of the no-load
30. When

the

are

release

of series motor
the

over

controllers used

no-

and

What

starters.

is the advantage

voltage release?
why?

What

two

functions

controller perform outside actual startingduty?

31. What
two
are
advantages of automatic starters in medium
motors?
out

In

resistance

the

largersizes

of motors?

in the type shown

in

What

may

sizes of

limits the rate of cutting

Fig.304, page 335?

How

is this starter

operated?
32. Upon what

do the plungers and solenoids of the E.G. " M.

principle
the current
when
controller operate? Why do the plungers remain down
is large?

Why

do

they rise and

close the

contacts

when

the

current

decreases?
When
is it used?
is the principleof the magnetic blow-out?
34. Of what material are resistance units for the smaller types of starting

33. What

boxes made?

The

largertypes?

470

CURRENTS

DIRECT

36. What

two

factors

only

In the armature

motor?
What

be varied in obtainingspeed control

can

which
resistance control,

of

of these factors is varied?

the

of control?
Name
two
serious
advantages of this method
disadvantages.
36. What
is the principleof the multi-voltagesystem?
How
are
coarse
Fine adjustments?
What
is the objecadjustments of speed obtained?
tion
are

to this

system ?
factor in the

87. What

speed equation is varied in the Ward-Leonard

How many
machines are necessary in this system ?
speed control?
is its chief advantage and where has it been used extensively? Name

system of
What

disadvantages.

two

38.

What

factor

method?

in

speed equation is varied in the field control

the

What
limits the
two distinct advantages of this method.
is especially
of speed obtainable?
What
adapted to
type of motor

range

Name

this type of speed control?

39. What
principleis involved

Why

can

wide

of

range

in the

speed, w^ith

speed control of
good commutation,

the

Stow

motor?

be obtained

with

this motor?

principledoes the Lincoln

Upon what
advantages?
40.

41. What

motor

operate?

What

control of railway motors?

by series-parallel
Sketch the half speed and the maximum

is meant

Why
speed

is such control desirable?

connections
42. Give
on

these

are

in

2-motor

In

car.

4-motor

its

are

car.

objectionableto place the main

troller
conwhy
the platform in the largersizes of electric car equipment.
How
Give
other reasons
two
why automatic
objectionsovercome?
three

it is

reasons

control is desirable.
43.

general principleunderlying the multiple-unitcontrol?

is the

What

is the train line?

What
44.

brieflythe

Name

sequence

of

closingof

the contactors

in

starting

train.

Can
by "dynamic braking?" Where is it used?
a
of braking?
be brought to a standstill by this method
motor
armature
Explain. What is regenerative braking and where is it used?
the efficiencyof a
it is desirable to know
occasions where
46. Give two
Does
this
motors?
is
for
often
used
What
loading
motor.
type of brake
output of the
type lend itself to ready calculation of torque and power
brake
the
and
arm
motor?
by the dead weight of
Explain. What is meant
46. What

how

can

is meant

Describe

47.

in this

simple type
What

type?

48. In what
what

and

it be determined

way

principleis the

is

correction be made?

of rope

A bundle

is 800

How

balances

coolingprony

are

sary
neces-

brakes?

ON

sq. cm.

That

XH

CHAPTER

of 16 wires lies perpendicularto

lines per

many

of

Upon
speed counter differ from a tachometer?
method
of
based?
speed
measuring
magneto-voltmeter

does

PROBLEMS
328.

brake.

method

common

part of the

magnetic fieldwhose

bundle

of wires

which

sity
den-

lies

in this fieldis 25
bundle

when

being

force in
flows

of 12 amp.

current

the

long. What

cm.

471

PROBLEMS

AND

QUESTIONS

kilograms is actingon the entire

in each wire,the direction of current

in each?

same

329. A gear having 130 teeth drives another having 60 teeth. The distance
from the center of the first gear to the point of contact of the teeth is
6.5

in.,the pitch circle having

the

teeth

at the

point

diameter

of 13 in.

is 400 lb.

of contact

What

The

pressure

between

is the torque in pound-

feet

developedby each of the gears?

330. A pulleyhaving a diameter

of 14 in. drives

50-in.

pulley with
respectivetensions in the tight and loose sides of the
belt are 1,500 and 300 lb. respectively. What
net torque in poimd-feet is
developed by each pulley?
331. A coil consistingof 16 turns of wire lies parallelto a magnetic field
having a strength of 30,000 lines per sq. in. (See Fig. 286(o),page 313.)
The distance across
and 14 in. of active
this coil parallel
to the field is 12 in.,
in
conductor lie in the magnetic field. What
veloped
kilogram-meters is detorque
the current
is 5 amp.?
Sketch
by the coil when
per conductor
the coil and the magnetic field,
of
the
forces
the
directions
indicating
acting.
332. Repeat problem 331 for a similar coil in which the current
in each
conductor
is 8 amp.
and the strength of field is 40,000 lines per sq. in.
Obtain the result in pound-feet.
333. When
the flux density in the air-gapof a shunt motor
is 45,000 lines
current is 60 amp., the motor
develops 80 lb.-ft.
per sq. in. and the armature
when
the
takes 30 amp.,
is the torque developed
motor
torque. What
the flux remaining constant?
50 amp.?
334. When
of problem 333,
removed from the armature
the load is entirely
the motor
What
it
8
to
armature
keep
running.
requires amp.
torque is
is the torque available at
What
losses?
the motor
required to overcome
the pulleyin each case of problem 333, assuming that the no-load torque remains
6-in. belt.

The

constant?
336.

When

the

also halved.
336.

What

The

this motor

of

armature

is connected

force of 105

shunt

across

volts.

it take

would

current

(60 amp.) of problem

torque is developed?

current

motor

has

333

is

halved,the

resistance of 0.04 ohm.

flux is

When

motive
electro110-volt mains, it develops a counter
the
What
armature
take?
What
current does

if it

connected

were

across

the

mains

same

while

stationary?
337. What

counter

it is taking 80

when

running

as

the armature
338.

and

is

50

amp.

back

What

is 0.2 ohm.
from

If this

the mains?

the line?

The

What

electromotive

420

same

machine

surface

were

force when

conductors

force does it develop when

flux is 2,500,000lines per

is its terminal

develop

armature

be its internal electromotive

delivering80 amp. at 110 volts?

motor
of a 4-pole shunt
has

rotatingat 1,400r.p.m. ?
resistance

would

what

force does this motor

armature

wound.

wave

from

amp.

generator
is

The

electromotive

pole.

voltage when

Its armature

the motor

takes

472

CURRENTS

DIRECT

339. What
from

the hne

remain

1,360 r.p.m. if the terminal

is

its speed

when

problem

in

of the motor

does the armature

current

voltage

take

338
and

flux

constant?

340. A shimt

speed will it

it takes

and

5 amp.

its armature

when

nm

When

resistance of 0.1 ohm.

armature

an

220-volt mains

across

what

has

motor

at

runs

is 40

current

nected
con-

At
1,100 r.p-m.
amp.? Neglect

reaction.

armature

compoimd winding having a resistance of 0.05 ohm is added to the

flux 20 per cent, between
This increases the motor
problem 340.
and 40 amp.
current
zero
Assuming that the increase of flux is proportional
When
the
find
the
40
to
running at 5
speed at
current,
amp.
reaction.
the speed is adjusted to 1,100 r.p.m.
Neglect armature
amp.
342. By what
flux
of
problem 340 be decreased in
percentage should the
it is at 6 amp?
order that the speed at 40 amp.
be the same
as
Neglect
A

341.

of

motor

reaction.

armature

343.

560-volt series motor

its speed is 480

line?

series field resistance of 0.05 ohm

resistance of 0.2 ohm.

armature

an

has

Assume

When

90

taking

from

amp.

and
line

the

it takes 40 amp.
from
the
isits speed when
r.p.m.
that the saturation curve
is a straightline and neglect armature
What

reaction.
344.

220-volt shunt

has

armature

is the back

What

346. The

has

motor

The

total line current

and

is 50

its

amp.

force of the armature?

electromotive
of

field resistance of 100 ohms

of 0.15 ohm.

resistance

develops 65-lb.-ft.internal torque when

internal torque does it develop when
taking
reaction.
taking 15 amp. from the line? Neglect armature
the motor
of problem 344 is running without
346. When
load it takes 7.0
from
is its speed when
the hne
What
and runs
at
1,000 r.p.m.
amp.
is its speed
the
50
when
from
line?
What
and
15
taking
taking
amp.
amp.
What
is the torque at the pulleyin problem 345?
regulationin each case?
347. A motor
800
at
when
runs
running light. It has a speed
r.p.m.
What
is its speed at its rated load?
regulationof 3.5 per cent.
from
the line it develops 220
takes
348. When
40 amp.
a series motor
Ib.-ft. torque. What
torque does it develop at 60 amp.? At 90 amp.?
that the saturation curve
Assume
of the iron is a straightline.
349. The motor
of problem 348 has an armature
resistance of 0.2 ohm and
motor

from

50 amp.

problem

344

the line.

What

series field resistance of 0.04

at

runs

90

700

when

r.p.m.

If it

ohm.

taking

40

amp.,

600-volt

from

runs

mains

is its speed at 60

what

and

and

at

amp.?
350.

from

is the

What

speed

motor

of

problem

it takes

349

when

230

volts.

10

amp.

the line?

351.

shimt

is 1.0 amp.

and

motor

with

start

is rated at 44 amp.

motor

resistance

its armature
125

per

cent,

rated

at

It is desired that

is 0.2 ohm.

current.

Its field current

What

should

be

the

the initial

starting resistance?
352.
before

The

motor

the second

of

problem

contact

351

reaches

25

per

of the starting resistance

cent,

of its rated

is reached.

When

speed
this

AND

QUESTIONS
contact

should

reached

IB

it is desired that the armature

be the resistance between

473

PROBLEMS

the first two

be 43 amp.

current

What

contacts?

reaches half speed when the startingarm

problem
Find the resistance between the second and third
reaches the third contact.
363.

The

of

motor

The

contacts.

351

should

current

again be

43 amp.

when

the

touches

arm

the

third contact.
354.

When

220-volt

shunt
takes

the armature

is desired to obtain

r.p.m. at 44
in the armature

speed will the motor

takes 22 amp.?
armature
366. Repeat problem 354
is delivered

367.

600

at

the

by
is

when
of
What

kept constant?
368.

control

for 300

at 44

connected

the

r.p.m.

in

amp.

the

across

if the shunt

Neglect

the laRa

field

drop

in

armature.

In

Ward

Leonard

system of speed

the efficiencies of the machines

follows: Afi (Fig.310, page

as

It

Fig. 309, page 341 runs

speeds can be obtained

r.p.m.
of this system
use

the motor

1,000 r.p.m.

355?

and

motor

mains

110-volt

ohm.

amp.
cuit.
cir-

when

run

the armature

to

354

at

percentage of the line power

What

problems

runs

in circuit,at

resistance

what

366.

the line it

from

resistance of 0.15

external resistance is necessary?

What

this external

With

4 amp.

armature

an

600

insertingresistance

by

has

motor

are

342), 85

per

The
cent. ; (r,83 per cent. ; M2, 80 per cent.
Af 2 delivers
line voltage is 220 volts.
When
7

hp. how

much

the

line?

the

system?
369.

In

is being suppliedby

current

is the over-all

What

of
eflBciency

PiQ. 362A.

brake

similar to that shown

in

Fig. 317, page 349, the length L is 2 ft. The

is 2.8 lb.; the speedof the
balance reading is 32 lb.; the dead weight of the arm
is 1,120 r.p.m.
armature
(o) What
horsepower does this motor develop?
at this
input is 49 amp. at 220 volts. What is its efficiency
(6) The motor
load?
360. Repeat

1,130 r.p.m.
weight of the
361" In

problem
The

arm

brake

359

motor

remains

for

input is

balance
now

amp.

23 lb. and

at 220

volts.

speed of
The

dead

unchanged.

similar to that shown

is 10 in.

reading of

36.2

in

Fig.319, page 352, the diameter

The

One balance reads 19.8 lb.

speed is 1,400 r.p.m.
does
the motor
and the other reads 4.3 lb. (a)What
torque
develop at this
is
the
If
the
is 18 amp.
What
load?
at
horsepower
(c)
output?
input
(6)
is its efficiency
at this load?
110 volts,what
362. Calculate the horsepower output developed by the rope brake shown
It is running at 1,500 r.p.m.
in Fig. 362A.
^-^^-^^^^^^
^^
of the drum

CjOOgle

474

CURRENTS

DIRECT

QUESTIONS
L

Is it useful

otherwise?

or

2. Into what

on

the apparatus.

motor

the first group,

or

gejierator

they

indicatinghow

they readilydeterminable?
constitutes the losses of the second group?

3. What

Are

or mechanically?
supplied,electrically
loss made
small?
is the eddy current

is it due?

to what

is lost within electrical apparatus?

in detail its effect

groups can
the losses under

Name

determined.

are

Explain

Xm

the losses in either

three

classified?

be

which

of the energy

becomes

What

CHAPTER

ON

How

the

are

losses

what

How
do they depend?
is meant
by pole face loss and

Upon
What

is it reduced?

How

all the losses except the copper loss grouped as one?

Why
Upon
If it is desired to duplicate stray power
do they all depend?
what
losses
under two different conditions of load,what two factors must be maintained
4.

are

constant?
that if the losses in

6. Show

be calculated.

its efficiency
can
from

of

that

6. How

of
efficiency

conditions
practical
in the

7. How

value?

particularload

at any

for

generator be measured

have

the

upon

difficult?

ent
generator differ-

directly? What

What

effect do

precisionof the results?

there to direct measurements

is

of

how

stray power

measurements,

How

speed adjusted?

is the

What

curve?

one

10. For
method

determining
the

over

are

errors

of the flux and

measure

other

efficiency?

its stray
ordinarilyoperated in order to measure
made?
To wliat is the stray power
measurements
are
is the flux adjusted to the

Does

is

how

losses

stray power

introduced

one

of these

what

is the

method?

proper

flux adjustm^it have

the

the speed and if so how

effect upon
are
any readjustments made?
is a set of stray power
desirable?
9. For what
curves
purpose
entire
the
the stray power
of
the machine
over
operatingrange

with

errors

What

machine

power? What
then equal?
8. In

such measurements

make

measurements

objectionsare

known

are

is the formula

Why

motor?

the

may

machine

Why

any

not
can-

be shown

by using the fieldcurrent as a

errors
partiallyneutralized?
advantage of the opposition

Upon

what

principledoes

this

method

depend?
in the oppositionmethod?
to make
assumption is it necessary
error?
this assumption introduce
In this method
how
appreciable
then adjusted? What
the two machines
started and
instruments
are
and what measurements
State
the
are
disadvantages of
necessary?

11. What
Does
are

used

this method.
12. What
A

gas

determines

engine?

13. State

the

An

electric machine?

effects of excessive

electric

machinery.
temperatures?
14. What

the rating of

is the

its measurement

What

"hot
?

hot spot temperature may

engine?

steam

Give

reasons

temperatures

insulatingmaterials

can

upon

turbine?

steam

in each

case.

the insulation

withstand

the

of

highest

pany
spot" temperature and what difficultiesaccomName
method by which an approximation of the
one

be reached.

476

DIRECT

CURRENTS

PROBLEMS
363. The
800

at

eddy

r.p.m.

loss in

current

and

ON

with

generator is 300

unchanged?
(")
1,200,000 lines? (c) With this
364. If the hysteresisloss in
what

is the loss when

The

1,200r.p.m.?
shimt

366.

flux is the

with

r.p.m.
is the loss at

flux what

are

motor

180

ohms, its

armature

400

watts.

in each

same

takes

is
maining
re-

flux

of

case.

35 amp.

volts.

220

at

resistance is 0.3 ohm

The

losses

total

Its field resistance

its stray power

and

is its output in horsepower and

What

running

1,000 r.p.m.?
is
600
a generator
watts with a speed of
the speed is increased to 1,000r.p.m. ?
To
same

delivers 100 amp. at 115 volts.

What
is its efficiency?
1,200 watts.

shunt

it is

is the loss at 800

generator

in the machine
366.

when

watts

1,000,000 lines per pole, (a) What

the speed is raised to 1,000 r.p.m., the flux

What

800 r.p.m.,

Xm

flux of

loss when

the eddy current

CHAPTER

is

loss is

is its efldciency at

what

this load?
367. Assiune
per cent.
368. A

the stray power loss of problem 366 is in

does this introduce into the efficiency
?

that

What

error

shunt

generator delivers 250

field current

is 5 amp., the
loss is 1,800 watts,

power

(b) What

resistance 0.035

armature

appliedto

running light takes

motor

and

shunt

field resistance is 12 ohms

What

is the stray power

371. It is desired

and

Its armature

motor.

372.

resistance is 0.08 ohm.

loss in the

the stray power

measure

of
generator
values should the
of connections

in
220-volt generators are connected
shown
as
When
366, for the purpose of having their losses measured.

similar 10-kw.

/ is found

is

motor

taking its rated

The

to be 75

of 48 amp.

current

the

373.
24

motor

When

amp.

Why

are

374.
measured

the

is

now

in the

current

(half load)

field current
Determine

field current

the

2.2

line

amp.

of

generator armature
current

and the

is

motor

The

amp.

field current

armature

and

after the machine

field resistances of
had

been

550-volt

standingidle for

this

at

problem

and the efficiency

of each machine
the stray power
in
the
the fieldcurrents
different
two machines?

The

the

generator fieldcurrent is 2.4 amp.

Each machine
has an armature

amp.
is 1.8 amp.
What
is the stray power
of each machine
resistance of 0.2 ohm.
of each machine
at this load?
What
is the efficiency
load?

and

Its
ohm.

loss in this motor?

to

Fig. 330, page

the machine
operating as
line current

Ih

What

from
110-volt mains.
25 amp.
its armature
resistance is 0.016

368

Two

takes

these conditions?

To what
by running it lightas a motor.
be
and
terminal volts
a
adjusted? Make
diagram
speed
and
of
instruments
methods
the
adjustment.
showing

problem

shunt

the

its shaft?

The
armature
from
220-volt mains.
amp.
loss of the machine under
is the stray power
370.

ohm

The

(a) What

generator is running lightas

A shunt

369.

volts.

220

at

stray
is the horsepower input to the generator?
is its efficiency? (c)If the generator speed is 400 r.p.m.

is the torque

what

amp.

10

by

error

372

is

1.8

amp.

at this load.

shunt generator

some

time

is

generator

in

an

are

engine

whose

room

temperature is 30" C.

of the rheostat is found

resistance

Xhe

armature

ixients

is found

load

for

these

marked

two

After the machine

measurements

same

commutator

seg-

been running under

had

repeated.

were

The

now

460

resistance

is now

0.225 ohm.
What
is the temperature rise of each?
temperatures safe for untreated cotton insulation?

maximum

60-kw.

376. Two
both

are

No.
it

what

field current

the

Assume

Are

load to full load and in No.

no

aggregate load

on

the

system

is 360

straightline in each

amp.,

kilowatt load does each

What

voltagedrops in

that the

field

armature

are

generator deliver?

does each

current

deliver?

When

The

4.8 amp.

operating in parallel.They
load and are then paralleled. In generator

generators

adjusted to 230 volts at no

1 the voltagedrops 8 volts from

12 volts.

drops

220-volt

the

clusive
ex-

4.8 amp.

voltage is
these

volts and

the field wmding

volts and the fieldcurrent

420

between

to be 0.21 ohm.

hours

voltage across

The

to be

477

PROBLEMS

AND

QUESTIONS

case.

an
Repeat problem
aggregate load of 400 amp.
377. It is desired to operate a 100-kw.
220-volt shunt generator and a 60220-volt shunt generator in parallel.The voltage of the first drops 8
kw.

376.

375

volts from
should
take

no-load

voltage of 230 when

follow

deliver when

378.

rating

Two

straightline

of 100 kw.

and

generators
the other

series fieldof the second

machine

cannot

considerable
current

most

case.

How

current

operating in parallel. One

ratingof 75 kw.

much

does

is 700 amp.?
are

ohm.

What

for proper

QUESTIONS
Why

in each

the system demand

compound

series field of the first is 0.002

1.

its rated load is applied. What

the voltage drop of the second generator in order that each may
its proportionate share of the load at all times?
Assume
that the
be

voltage drops
each

for

ON

should

The

has

resistance of the

be the resistance of the

division of load?

CHAPTER

XIV

the ordinary direct-current voltagesbe used for transmitting

amounts

commonly

of power

utilized?

over

What

Where
is direct
long distances?
these
its advantages under
are

conditions?
of power
transmittinglarge amounts
the
consumers' premises? What
station to
from a remotely situated power
of transmission voltages? Of distribution voltages? What
the ranges
are
part does the sub-station play in the system?
does the weight of conductor vary with the transmission voltage?
3. How
doubled how would the weight of copper be
If the transmission voltagewere
affected the other factors remaining unchanged?
4. What
five conditions in general determine the size of conductor to be
For what conditions does the question of heatingparticularly
used ?
apply ?
size
of
the
the
How
determine
conductor?
economics
the
of
problem
may
Too small a
What
is the disadvantage of having too large a conductor?
2. What

is the

general scheme

for

conductor?

Why is 110 volts most convenient

is a highervoltageundesirable ? What are
of a lower voltage for this purpose?
6.

for incandescent
the

lighting? Why
advantages and disadvantages

478

DIRECT

6. What

the

are

CURRENTS

trolleyvoltages? Why

common

are

these voltages so

chosen?

is meant

7. What
Where

by distributed loads?
of uniform

conductors

are

Where

do

loads occur?

such

cross-section throughout most

commonly

used?
8.

what
Theoretically,
distributed

loads?

is most

of conductor

type

is the

What

economical

practicalcondition

nearly approaches this theoretical condition?

9. Why
is the "return loop" system of distribution

used?

for uniformly

that

most

is its

What

disadvantage?

one

10. What

Make

system

sketch and

stillmore

the disadvantage of the return

overeomes

show

this system may

how

be further

loop system?

modified

to form

efficientsystem.

11. What

advantage is gained by connecting llQ-volt loads in series

and utilizing
22("-volt supply?
What
the disadvantages
are

groups of two
of so grouping the loads?
12. How
What

are

the

are

the

objections to

relations existing among

the

series-parallel
system overcome?
the voltages of the Edison

3-

wire system?
If the

13.

neutral wire be of the

size

same

the two

as

outers, what

are

in the 3-wire system with 220 volts across

relative weights of copper
outers and in the simple llQ-volt system, other conditions being the same?

the

14. What

loads?

by balanced

is meant

much

flows through the neutral?

direction does the neutral current

current

flow if the positiveload

relation does the neutral current

16. In what

negativeload?

is the greater? The

bear

this condition how

Under

to

the

in the

current

outer

wires?

What

is the commercial

What

used in the neutral?

What

should be

type of ammeter

limit of unbalancing?

opening the neutral with (a)balanced loads

Why is the neutral usually grounded?
in general is the effect of putting too heavy a load on one side
17. What
the voltage on that side of the system?
of a 3-wire system upon
Upon
the voltage on the other side of the system?
method
18. Sketch
of obtaining a neutral by the use of two shunt
a
generators? What is the principal
disadvantage of this method?
In
19. How
a
storage battery be used for obtaining a neutral?
may
generalhow does the current in the neutral wire divide when it reaches the
center
of the battery?
mines
deter20. Upon
does the balancer set operate? What
what principle
As a generator? What
which machine
shall operate as a motor?
16. State

two

brieflythe

(6) unbalanced

and

methods

21.

Upon

are

what

effect of

loads.

used

to accentuate

principledoes

does the alternatingcurrent flow?

neutral?
is the direct current
How

the motor
the

3-wire

and the generator actions?

generator operate? Where

returning direct current from

able to pass so readilyback into

The

the
the

armature?
22. How

in

general is power

congested districts?

What

supplied to direct-current loads

is the

function

of the

feeders?

in the
The

more

mains?

QUESTIONS
Where

junctionboxes?

The

AND

are

479

PROBLEMS

the house

services connected?

How

are

voltagesat feedingpointsgenerallydetermined?
23. What
for
type of generator is most conmionly used to supply power
to the system?
railways? How are such generators connected
24. Under
what
conditions does a singletrolleysuffice for transmitting
If a singletrolley
the power to the car?
of the ordinary size is of insufficient
what means
be taken to assist it in supplying the required
can
cross-section,
the
of
is
size
power?
Why
trolleynot increased?
26. Under
what
conditions are
What
is
multiple feeders employed?
How
be
the disadvantage of their use?
this
overcome?
disadvantage
may
26. Why
does the return
from
current
a
trolleycar leave the track?
What
determines the paths which it follows?
What damage, if any, occurs
at the point where the current enters a pipe? Where
it leaves the pipe?
27. Name
two
methods
be reduced.
What
by which electrolysis
may
of
of
idea
the
measurements
give a good
magnitude
stray currents between
pipes and track?
Show how the habits of
28. Sketch a typicalcentral station load curve.
determine the generalshape of such a curve.
Why is such a
a community
load curve
load curve
undesirable than a uniform
far more
having the same

the

total kilowatt-hours?
is meant

29. What

Is

by load factor?

high

or

low

sirable?
load factor de-

Why?
30. How

may

storage battery smooth

out

station load curve?

When

the battery be charged? Discharged? ,Why are storage batteries

not more
generallyused for this purpose?
to carry the load
31. Where
can
storage batteries be used efficiently

should

For

in off-peaktimes?

Where

stations?

central

what

are

purposes

they

commonty

now

Under

should they be located?

what

used

by

conditions

battery very useful to a central station?

32. What
is met when
an
difficulty
attempt is made to operate storage
be
batteries in conjunctionwith a power plant? What simplemethod
may
is the objectionto this method?
What
used to control the battery load?
force cells
33. Upon what simple principledo the counter-electromotive
of
of
chief
this
is the
method
control over
the
advantage
operate? What
is

resistance

method?
end cell control?

How

is such

a battery charged?
changed from one cellto the next without
opening the circuit or dead-short circuitingthe batteries?
36. What
is meant
by a "floating" battery? What is the purpose of
is it often necessary
to install auxiliarymeans
for
such a battery? Why
and
load
?
of
the
with
Sketch
discharge
change
accentuating
battery charge
the connections of one
simple method for accomplishingthis purpose.
36. Why will a battery placed at the end of a long feeder tend to equalize
the station load without auxiliaryapparatus for charging and discharging?
Under what conditions does such a battery "float?

34. What

In what

is meant

by

is the connection

manner

"

37.

What

is the

system
parallel

essential difference

of distribution?

between

the series system

In the series system

what

and

the

is the effect of

480

attemptingto
out

in

remove

CURRENTS

load by

opening the

circuit?

is a load cut

How

series system 7
devices is

By what

38.

DIRECT

of the series system ?

the advanseries system supplied? What

tages
are
Where does itsfieldof applicationlie? Sketch

the layout of two different systems of series

advantagesof each.

ON

PROBLEMS
879. 140 kw.

transmitted

are

size that there is

distribution.

Name

the

XIV

CHAPTER

distance of 1,000 ft. over

cable of such

potentialdifference of 215 volts at the load with

bus-bars,

volts at the

arc

(a)What

225

size of feeder is used,assuming that a

(h)What is the weight

mil-foot of copper has a resistance of 10 ohms?

of copper if a"subic inch weighs 0.32 lb.?

880. Repeat problem 379 with the same

the same
loss,
power, the same
distance and the same
percentage line drop, but with 550 volts at the
with the respective
How do the weights of copper compare
load.
voltages
cases?

in the two
881. A
maintained
the

115 volts.

at

switchboard

terminals when

(a) Of

and

the

motor

switchboard

the bus-bars of which

is located at

it is desired to have

the motor

copper

are

distance of 500 ft. from

voltage of 110 at the motor

is carryingits fullload of 10 hp. What must be

wire used

temperature

The

(mils)?

the diameter

Assume

is fed from

10-hp.motor

is 86 per cent.
If
weighs 0.32
(6)
copper
wire in (a)?

the motor

to connect

of 50" C.

hp.

to

The

746 watts.

the switchboard?
of
efficiency

the

motor

(c) Repeat (a)and (h)for

cent, drop to the motor.
(d) Repeat (a)and (6)for
cent, drop to the motor.

cu.

in.,what will

be the

weight

of the

switchboard

voltageof

230 and

the

same

per

switchboard

voltage of

550 and the

same

per

certain street is 2,000 ft. long. It is illuminated by eleven

multiple-connectedlamps placed 200 ft. apart. No. 4 A.W.G.

20O-

882.
watt

lb. per

ductors
con-

are
supplythis system. The voltage at the feedingend of
each two adjacent
is the voltagedrop between
the street is 120 volts. What

used to

lamps?

What

is the voltage at

the last

lamp?

Assume

that

each

lamp

takes

2.0 amp.
883. If the lamps of

problem 382 are fed by the anti-parallel

system (see
Fig. 343 (a),page 386), No. 4 wire stillbeing used, determine the voltage
the two
at the lamps on
ends of the street.
Compare their absolute
voltageand their difference of voltagewith the results of problem 382.
884. A load of 100 amps, issituated 800 ft. from 600-volt bus-bars.
1,000
ft;farther on a second load of 65 amps, is located. A 4/0 annealed copper
feeder
amp.

from

runs

to the first load.

load,
65 amp.
(a) What
is the weight of copper used?

load

(6)What

the bus-bars

to the

No. 1 wires

run

from

is the voltage at each

the 100

load?

AND

QUESTIONS
(a) Determine

386.

weight

uniform

feeder which

will have the

same

feeders of problem 384.

(6)Determine the voltageat each
this uniform
feeder, (c)Under which condition is the copper

the two

as

with

load

the size of

481

PROBLEMS

utilized?
effectively

most

It is desired to operate 40 75-watt

386.

lamps on

one

circuit.

Compare

the sizes of wire necessary to feed these lamps when all are connected
in
volts
and
when
110
the
connected
in series groups
lamps are
parallelacross
of two

220 volts.

across

(Use Table

Appendix D,

page

410.)

8a5

ii" V.

*lBa

^-^
1:5 v.

Fig. 388 a.

Repeat problem

387.

the neutral is the

386

size

same

shows

for
as

an

Edison

the outer

3-wire

system, assuming that

wires.

Edison 3-wire system with various loads.

the current and its direction at each of the pointsa-k inclusive.

388.

Fig.388A

389.

If the neutral is cut at point X, Fig.388A, find the voltagesacross

sides of the system, assuming that the load resistances do

the two

an

change. Neglect the drop in the mains themselves.

loads A and B, Fig.390 A,

not

390. Find the voltagesacross

each 40 amp.
are

cate
Indi-

if loads A and

1 5 v.

z:

jg-0.2

llfiV.

"

7?=0.lO

FlQ. 390 A.

391. Repeat problem 390

when

load

is 60 amp.

and

load B

is 20

amp.

892. Find the voltage across

if the neutral

each

load,problem 391, which

would

occur

opened.
and BCj Fig.
each of the loads AB
voltage across
the motor.
393 A, and also the voltageacross
the neutral
connected between
394. Repeat problem 393 with the motor
and the negative conductor.
Owing to the fact that the voltageis halved
the motor
take
must
now
approximately200 amp. to develop its former
were

393. Determine

power.
31

the

482

DIRECT

895.

Find

the current

indicate which

machine

volts

each

110

across

How

cent.

much

in each

CURRENTS

machine

is the motor

machine

and

and

does

current

of the balancer

the

which

set of

is the generator.

of each
efficiency

the main

and

Fig. 395^
There

ia

is 80 per

machine

generator deliver?
I

-3000 ttr-

"-300ftr"-

"h 500.000P.M.

la

150a;

V.

Z 2BO.00OO.M.

Motor

121

100a:
500.0000. M.

Fig. 393A.

896. Solve
between

there is a total load of 100 amp.

connected
negative main and there is no load on the positive

problem 395

the neutral and

when

side.
897. A
to

4/0 hard-drawn

station 6 miles out.

feeds it every

which

wire has

is 0.05

return

taking 60

quarter mile.

(See Fig. 357(6),page 397.) The 4/0

feeder has a
per mile and the 350,000 CM.
The resistance of the track and
ground
per mile.
mile.
Find the voltage at a car 5 miles out and
is the voltage at the end of the line?

resistance of 0.26 ohm

of 0.163

resistance

trolleywire runs from 600-volt bus-bais

copper
For 4 miles it is paralleled
feeder
by a 350,000 CM.

ohm

amp.

ohm

per
What

c.M.-N^
^aoo.ooo

Fig. 395 a.

898.

(a) Find

the

voltage

at the car

in

the

problem 397, when

car

is 4

the car is 2 miles from the station.

the power station,
(b)When
4/0 copper trolley
899. Fig. 399A shows a 5-mile length of hard-drawn
This is fed by three 300,000 CM.
wire.
multiplefeeders each feedingat
miles from

points l}^ miles apart.

the

Find

equivalentresistance

of the

trolleyand

feeders to the end of the line.

400.

Find the voltage at

and

taking

and

track

401.
from

amp.

The

car,

voltage at the
station and taking 100
the

Fig.399A,

when

it is at the end

station voltage is 600

resistance is 0.04 ohm

Find

the

100

of the line
the

ground

mile.

per
car

volts and

of problem 400 when

amp.

the

car

is 3 mile?

INDEX
startingbox, 335
Cutler-Hammer, 335
Electric Controller and Mfg. Co.,

Automatic

Absolute

potential,52
Accumulator
(seeStorage Battery),

336

Ayrton shunt, 128

96

Alloys,43

conductors,47
Wire Gage (A.W.G.),44

Aluminum
American

Back

electromotive

pitch of windings,225, 239

hot-wire tjrpe,136

Back

shunts, 131

Balancer

solenoid type, 128

Bar

Weston, 129
Ampere, definition of,48
Ampere-turn, definition of, 170
determination of, 176
Annealed Copper Standard, 45
Anode, definition of,85
feeder system, 384
Anti-parallel
300
Armature, characteristic,
225
coils,
construction of,251
electromotive force of,257, 316
paths through, 230
reaction,267
calculations of,271
components of,270
compensation of,274
laminated pole cores, 274
slotted pole faces,275
method,
Thompson-Ryan

magnet, effect of breaking

a, 3

Battery,84

anode,definition of,85
cathode, definition of,85
73
in parallel,
cells,
7
3
series,
75
series-parallel,
charging,71, 111
Clark

93
cell,

89
Daniell cell,

definition

of,86

dry cell,94
cell,91
definition of,85
electrodes,
definition of, 85
electrolyte,
electromotive force of,68
403
floating,
gravitycell,90
grouping,for best economy,
Edison-Lalande

for maximum

76

current,76

internal,resistance of, 69,

voltage of,68
97
lead cell,
Le Clanch^ cell,
91
115
nickel-iron-alkaline,
of,88
polarization
remedies for,89

in multipolar machines, 272

motor, 319

355
resistance,
measurement

of,355

losses due to, 355

windings (seeWindings), 222

Astatic watt-hour

set, 391

for quick action,76

275

of motor

armature, 316

Ammeter, definition of, 128

of

force

meter, 168
485

87

486

INDEX

Capacitiesof storage batteries,115

Cathode, definition of,85

Battery, primary cell,86

of,84
principles
86
secondary cell,
storage (see Storage Battery),

Characteristics of generators, 257

electromotive
armature
force,
257

96

terminal

voltagedrop

armature

in,68

Standard

Weston

reaction,267
commutation, 276
compound (seeCompound

voltageof,68
Cell,92

tery
of storage batBoosters,regulation

discharge with,

403

series generators as, 304

Brakes, cradle dynamometer, 360

effect of speed on, 305

292
regulation,
saturation
series

Prony, 348
Braking, dynamic,
British Thermal

shimt

347

(B.t.u.),
62,

Unit

258

(see Series

Generator),

(see Shimt

Generator),

264

total,293

407

and

Gage,

Wire

44

Sharpe
machine, 303, 405
Brush, construction,255
position,in a dynamo, 221,228,
Brush

curve,

301

rope, 351

Browne

erator),
Gen-

295

Arc

244

in

generator, 281

in

motor, 319

Characteristics of motors, 309

compoimd,
324
series,

328

shunt,321
198
Charge, electrostatic,
Charging of storage batteries,71,
111

booster method, 112

rocker ring for holding,256

Building up of generator, 264

method. 111
constant
potentialmethod, 112
Chemical
reaction,of lead cell,99
constant

current

of nickel-iron-alkaline battery,
Cable

testing,147
Murray loop for

116

locating

ground, 147
total disconnecion,location of,
213

for

loop
ground, 148

Varley
Calibration

locating

of ammeter,
Capacitance,calculation of,209
curve

of co-axial
of

cylinders,211

parallelplates,209

definition of,202
measurement

ballistic

of, 211
galvanometer

method, 211
bridge method, 213
of parallel
condensers,205
of series condensers,206

159

Circuit

breakers,377

Circular mil, definition of,38

foot,definition of, 39
Clark cell,
93
loop feeder system, 385
Coefficient of coupling,195
Closed

Coercive

force,181

Coils,dummy,

242

formed, 225
Commutating,

of

motor,

321

poles,285
Commutation, 276
high mica, 283
sparking due to, 281
undercut mica, 283
with commutating poles,285
(Commutator
construction,253

487

INDEX

Compass, magnetic, 8
Compensation of amature

dynamometer, 360
reaction, Creeping in winding,243
Cradle

Critical field resistance,265

274

motor, 328
Current,decay in inductive circuit,

characteristics of,296
efifect of

189

on, 299
compounding, 297

over

under

speed

compounding, 297

shunt,

long

for,

connection

measurement, 53
with potentiometer,168
rise in inductive
circuit, 187
unit

296

shunt, connection

of,48

Cutler-Hammer

operation of,374
parallel
series field diverter for,298
short

compound

Cumulative

generator, 295

Compound

automatic

starter,

335

for,

296

motor, 328

Compound

Damping of galvanometers,125
89.
Daniell cell,
D'Arsonval
galvanometer,123
Decade bridge,144
Development of a winding,227
Dielectric,
constants,204
table of,205
202
materials,

characteristics of,328

cumulative,328
328
differential,
Condensers,charge of,202
definition of,202
stored in,208
energy
of,205
series connection
of,206
Conductance, definition of,36
parallelconnection

strength,202
Differential compound

36
specific,
definition of,36
Conductivity,

Direct

Conductors,32, 46
aluminum, 47

Distribution

copper, 46
field around, 17

112

system, 384

Copper, Standaid Annealed,

Corkscrew
rule,19
Coiona, 201

45

Coulomb, definition of,48

force,

motor, 316

of,318
Coupling,coefficient of, 195
demonstration

voltage,383
electric railway,396
405
series,
storage battery,399
385
three-wire,
Thury System of,303, 380
298
Diverter,series field,
Dobrowolsky method,

distribution system, 383

electromotive

systems, 380

constant

iron,47
46
silver,
4
steel,7
Consequent poles,5
Constant
ing,
battery chargpotential,

Counter

current, definition of,

productionof,220
Disc dynamo, 305
Discharge switch,190

per cent., 36

feeder

motor, 328

of

394

*Doubly re-entrant winding,235

Drop-wire,157
Drum
winding,223
94
Dry cell,
242
Dummy
coil,
Duplex winding,235
Dynamic, braking,347
198
electricity,
Dynamo

construction,249

220

488

INDEX

249
Dynamo, construction,

armature, 251

Edison-Lalande

cell,91
Efficiencyof dynamos,
Electric

brushes,255

84
batteries,

Electric railway distribution system,

253

commutator,
cores, 249

396

field coils,
254

Electric

cores, 250
frame, 249

Electrical

in,355
355

armature, 355
determination

of,365

358
friction,
iron,356

eddy currents,356
357
hysteresis,
358
pole face,
series field,
355
355
shunt field,
359

stray power,
measurement

of,361

magnetic calculations in,179

rating of,368
windings (seeWindings),222

Dynamometer, cradle,360

Earth's

of,

48

48

watt, 58

watt-second,60, 407
Electrode,definition of,85
397
Electrolysis,
defintion
Electrolyte,
of,85, 105
Electromagnet,plunger type, 23
Electromagnetism,17
Electromotive

force,48

generated in armature, 215,

induced, 184
in motor

257

armature, 316

battery,68

of self induction,186
calculation

magnetism, 15

of,190

intensityof, 16
Eddy current losses,356
Edison
battery, 115
applicationsof, 118
charging of, 117
chemical reaction of, 116

120
Electroplating,
Electrostatic,
charges,198
field,200
induction,199
200
lines,

Edison

advantages of, 385

121
Electrotyping,
End cells,
402

neutral on, 387

effect of open
methods
of obtaining neutral

Energy, efficiencyof conversion.

of magnetic field,
191

three-wire system, 375

force,210

61

condenser,208

60
units of electrical,

set, 391

storage battery,390
three-wire generator, 394
two-generator, 390

Toltage unbalancing

of

stored in

for,390
balancer

CJo.

Mfg.

starter,336

coulomb, 48
farad,204
henry, 184
joule,60, 407
kilowatt,59
60
kilowatt-hour,
ohm, 32
volt,48

of
E

and

units, definition

ampere,

efficiency
of,359
heating of,369
copper,

Controller

automatic

shoes,250

losses

359

in,388

Equalizingconnections

in

236
Exide

Vehicle battery, 109

Extension

coils,135

windings,

489

INDEX

Generator, characteristics of,257

effect of speed on, 305

Farad, definition of,204

commutation, 276
compound (seeCompound

Faraday disc dynamo, 305

Feeders, 395
estimation of, 65
potentialdiop in,63
loss in,67
power
systems of, 384
Field, around a conductor, 17
coil construction,254
control of speed by, 342
discharge switch,190
unit of,7
intensity,
resistance

definition of,215
electromotive

force

of,257

homopolar, 305
regulationof,292
saturation

of,258
of,261
field resistance line,262
260
hysteresis,
series (see Series Generator),
curve

determination

line,262

301

Fleming's Left Hand Rule, 311

Right Hand Rule, 218
Floating battery,403
Flux

erator),
Gen-

295

shunt

(see Shunt

Generator),

264

total characteristic of, 293

density,7, 171

Force, acting on a conductor, 309

coercive,181
lines of,6
magnetic, 5

winding,243
box, 332
Four-pointstarting
Fractional pitchwinding, 224
358
Friction losses,
171
o
f
electromagnetic
lines,
Fringing,
Forced

unipolar,305
windings (seeWindings), 222
definition of, 170
Gilbert,
Gould

ploughed plates,100
Gradient,potential,202
Gram-calorie,62, 407
Gramme-ring winding, 222
Gravity cell,90
H

of electrostatic lines,210
.

Hand

pitch,226, 239

Front

G
Wire
(A.W.G.), 44
Gage, American
123
Galvanometer,
Ayrton shunt for,128
damping of, 125
D'Arsonval, 123
of reading, 124
methods
shunts, 126
Weston

Generated

electromotive

171

force,215

equationof, 216
in

Heat, mechanical
equivalentof, 62
of
Heating
dynamos, 369
measurement
of,370
Standardization
Rules for,368
Henry, definition of, 184
High mica, 283
Homopolar generator, 305

Horseshoe,magnet,

13

solenoid,24
instruments, 136
Hydrometer, 105
Hysteresis,181, 260
183
coefficients,
losses due to, 182, 357
Hot-wire

portable,130

Gauss, definition of,7,

rule,19

armature, 215, 257

lighthand rule for,218
characteristic
Generator, armature
of,300
reaction of,267
armature

Induced

electromotive

force,184

in generator armature, 215

490

INDEX

Induced

electromotive
motor

force, in

armature, 316

rule for direction

applicationsof,78, 82

of,218

Inductance, 183
mutual, 193
self,183
Induction,coil,196
electromotive

Kirchhoff's Laws, 77

Ladder

force

of self,186

calculation of, 190

199
electrostatic,
lines of,2, 171, 200
magnetic, 11
186
Inductive circuit,
of
current
decay
!n, 189
rise of current
in, 187
Instruments, 122
ammeters
(seeAmmeter),

galvanometers,123
damping of, 125
shunts for,126
hot-wire,136
voltmeters,134

128

396
sjrstem of distribution,

Laminated, magnets, 14
pole cores, 250, 274
224
winding,
Lap
development of,227
equalizingconnections in, 236
number
of paths in,233
requirementsof,228
simplex, 226
uses
of,246
Lead
cell,97
chemical reaction of, 99
Leakage, magnetic, 27
LeClanch6
cell,91
Leeds
" Northrup, dial bridge, 145
resistance
low
potentiometer,
155
Left hand

Insulation testing,150

rule,Fleming's,311
Law, 186
Liftingmagnet, 26

Insulators,32

Lincoln

International ohm, 49

Linkages, definition of, 183

Load, curve, 399
factor,399
Lodestone, 1
Losses,dynamo, 355

wattmeter, 161

volt,48
Interpoles,285
Iron,as a conductor, 256
losses,356
eddy current, 356
357
hysteresis,
358
pole face,
Iron-clad,Exide battery, 102
solenoid,22

Jagabi tachoscope,353
Joule,60, 407
Joule's Law, 62
Junction boxes, 395
K

Kapp oppositiontest,365
Kilowatt, definition of, 69
Kilowatt-hour,definition of,60

Lenz's

motor, 343

armature, 355

of,365

determination

358
friction,
iron,356
eddy current, 356
hysteresis,357
pole face,358
356
series field,

shunt

356
field,

stray power,

359

of,361

measurement
182
hysteresis,
M

1
Magnet, artificial,
2
3
electro-,
explorationof field around

6,

INDEX

492

MuUi-voltage speed control,341

Murray loop, 147
Mutual
inductance, 193
coefficient of coupling,195
effect of iion on, 196

Neutral

of magnets, 3

zone

Nickei-iron-alkaline battery, 115

applicationsof, 118
charging of, 117
chemical reaction of, 116
O

Pole,commutating, 285, 321

consequent, 5
-face losses,358
interpole,
285, 321
magnetic, 2
strength,definition of,5
Potential,absolute,52
difference,
48, 51
in
drop
feeders,63
measurement
of, 53
Potentiometer, 153
current measurement
with, 158
standard resistances,
158
" Northrup low resistLeeds
ance,
155

Oersted, definition of, 170

Ohm, definition of,32
Ohm's Law, 53
Open loop series distribution,406
spiral feeder system, 384
Open

Oppositiontest,365

voltage measurement
with, 157
157
wire,
drop
volt box, 157
Power, distribution systems, 380
constant

Edison

383
potential,

three-wire,385

electric railway,396
feeder systems, 384
384
anti-parallel,
closed loop,385
open loop,406
384
open spiral,
loop,406
parallel
return loop,384
385
series-parallel,

73
batteries,
Parallel,
55
circuits,
due to, 19
conductors, fielii

loop feeder system, 406

operation,372
compound generators,374
generators,372
Pasted plate,101
Per cent, conductivity,36
for cast steel,
Permeability, curve
shunt

174

definition of, 171

of iron and

Permeance,

steel,173

definition of, 170

405
series,

size of conductor

three-wire,385
Thury, 303, 380
voltage of, 381
weight of conductor
381

Permittivity,205
Pilot

106
cell,

Pitch of winding, 225

back, 225, 239

front,226, 239
Plants

plate,100

Plunger electromagnet,23
Poggendorf method, 155
88
Polarization,
remedies for,89

for,382

storage battery, 399

electrical imit of, 58

loss,in dynamos,
in feeders,67
measurement,

355

160

Primary cell,definition of,86

requirements of,86
Weston, 92
Production

of direct current, 220

winding, 226,
Pfeogressive

239

for,

493

INDEX

218
Right hand rule,Fleming's,
222
Ring winding,
Rocker ring,256
Rope brake,351

Prony brake, 348

coolingof, 350
of, 350
power
zero
reading of, 350
197
Pull due to magnetic field,
Q

Saturation

Quantity

of

definition of,
electricity,

48

determination

field resistance

Screens,magnetic,

Railway
345
multipleunit control,
345
speed control,
of
368
dynamos,
Rating,
motors, 328

Reaction,armature, 267,
chemical,99, 116
Regulation,speed,323
voltage,292
306
Regulator, Tirrill,
24
Relay, telegraph,

line,262
14

86
Secondary cell,

(seeStorage Battery), 96
electromotive
Self-induction,

of storage battery, 110

force

of, 186
calculation of,190

319

104
Separator,in batteries,

magnetic, 27
Series,batteries in, 73
54
circuits,

condensers,206

Reluctance, definition of, 170

405
distribution,
field,calculation

of,171

Remanence

of, 261

effect of hysteresison, 260

R

unit

258

curve,

(magnetic induction)

^^

of turns

300

diverter for,298

181

loss in, 356

Resistance, definition of,31, 40

150
insulation,

International

Standard

of,

49

method,

139

voltmeter-ammeter

method,

137

Wheatstone
Bridge, 141
parallelconnection
of, 37
relation to direction of current,
32

series connection

of,295

generator, 301
Brush

of, 137

measurement

voltmeter

uses

of, 37

standard,158
temperature coefiicient of, 41
table of, 43
unit of,32, 40
units for startingboxes,338
34
Resistivity,

table of, 40

volume, 35
Retrogressivewinding,227, 239, 240
Return
loop feeder system, 384

Arc

machine, 303
characteristics of,302
Thompson-Houston, 303
Thury system, 303
used as booster,304
motor, 324
characteristics of, 325

railway,328
speed equation of,325
startingboxes for,334
no

load

334
release,

voltage release,334
torque of, 324
uses
of, 326
parallelsystem, 385
37
resistances,
determination
of,300
turns,
Shunt, ammeter, 131
Ayrton, 128
no

for,

494

INDEX

loss in, 366

Shunt, field,
resistance line,
262
for

galvanometer,

Speed, control of motors, railway,345

126

reaction of,267

buildingup of,265
characteristics of,288

oi,276
critical field resistance,
265
failure to build up, 266

paralleloperation,372
regulation,292
motor, 321

Weston

regulation,323
startingtorque, 324
uses
of, 324
Silver conductors,46
Simplex winding, 226

Cutler-Hammer,
Co.,

Mfg.

336

series motor, 334

load release,
334
no

128

voltage release,334
speed adjustment, 333
three-point,331
Static electricity,
198
Stationary battery, 103
Steel conductors, 47
Storage battery, 96
capacity of, 116
charging. 111
no

iron-clad,22

magnetic field of, 20

plunger, 22
Spark coil,192
281

positionon,

282

283

high mica,
undercut mica, 283
conductance, 36
Specific,
gravity,106

booster

method,

constant

current

constant

112

method, 111
potential method,

112

distribution systems, 399

electromotive
counter

of,408
capacity,204

table of, 205

force,

control of, 401

34
resistance,
Speed, control of motors,
.

armature

"

magnetic blowouts for, 338

resistance units for,338

commercial, 22
definition of,21
horseshoe,24

table

335

Controller

332
four-point,

Slotted pole faces,275

inductive

92
cell,

Electric

bridge,144

effect of brush

339

resistance

339
342
field,

Lincoln method, 343

multi-voltage,341

'

219

Sparking at commutator,

system, 341

Startingboxes, 329
automatic, 335

speed, 322

Solenoid,ammeter,

343

tachometer, 353
regulation,323
Standard, Annealed Copper, 45
Clark cell,
93
158
resistances,

characteristics of, 323

Sine wave,

Leonard

revolution counter, 353

commutation

Slide wire

method,

Ward

equation for determining,319

measurement
of, 353
Jagabi tachoscope,353
magneto and voltmeter,353

generator, 264
armature

Stow

method,

floatingbattery, 403
resistance control,401
Edison, 115
118
efficiency,
105
electrolytes,
Gould ploughed plates,100
installation,
107, 114

495

INDEX

units,62, 407
Thompson-Houston
generator, 303,

Storagebattery,Iron-clad Exide, 102

Thermal

97
lead cell,

chemical
Manchester

reaction of, 99

405

-Ryan method,

plate,100

watthour

Thomson

115
nickel-iron-alkaline,
pasted plate,101
pilotcell,106

meter, 163
Three-pointstartingbox,332
-wire generator,394
-wire system, Edison, 385

Plants plate,100
rating,110

advantages,386
effect of open neutral on, 387
methods of obtainingneutral,

separators, 104

gravity,106
specific
stationary,103
tanks, 103

390

balancer set,391

storage battery,380
three-wire generator, 394

temperature, 114

vehicle,108
Stow

motor, 343
Stray power, 369
curves
of, 363

two

-wire watt-hour

.384
anti-parallel,
closed loop,385

three-wire,385

loop,406
384
open spiral,
parallelloop,406
open

return

Total

current
capacity of
layer windings,409
relations of units,407

Gage, 44
wires, 410

40
resistivity,

Undercut

408
specific
gravities,

temperature

coefficients of

mica, 283

Unipolar generator, 305

Units,magnetic, 170
relations of,407

sistance,
re-

43

Tachometer,

353

Tachoscope,Jagabi,353
for batteries,
103
Telegraphrelay,24
Tanks

Temperature

coefficient of
41

table of,43

of

generator,

Types of generators, 263

compound, 295
series,301
shunt, 264
Typical magnetization curves,

385
series-parallel,

Wire

characteristic
293

loop, 384

Tables, American

meter, 167

Thury system, 303, 380

Time
constant, 187
Tirrill voltage regulator,
306
Torque, definition of,312
developed by motor, 313
series motor, 324
shunt motor
324
starting,
imits of, 312

190
Switch,discharge,
Syringe hydrometer, 106
Systems of feeders,384

Edison

"

generator, 390

voltage unbalancing,388
of,361

measurement

276

ance,
resist-

Varley loop, 148

Vehicle battery,108

Exide,109

177

496

INDEX

Volt,box,

157

definition

Winding, comparisons
of,48

wave,

48
International,
Voltage,generatedby rotatingcoil,

lap

and

245

creeping,243
development of,227
drum, 223

219

242
dummy coil,
243
forced,

gradient,202
measurement,

of

52

formed

with potentiometer,157

coils for,225

fractional

regulationof generator, 202

pitch,224
Gramme-dng, 222
lap,224
development of,227

306
regulator,Tirrill,

Voltmeter,134
135
extension coils,
135
multipliers,

equalizerconnection,236
233
multiplex,

W
Ward-Leonard

paths through armature,

requirement for,228

system, 341

simplex,226

Watt, definition of,58

-hour

230

uses

of,246

233
multiplex,
doubly re-entrant,235
duplex,235
singlyre-entrant,236

meter, 162

astatic,168
Thomson, 163
adjustments of, 165
three-wire,167

numbering slots for,226

221
circuit,
open
pitch of,225
226
progressive,
table,228

meter, 161

-second,definition of, 60
Weber's theory of magnets, 3
Weston, ammeter, 129
portablegalvanometer, 130
Standard Cell,92
normal, 94
secondary, 94
Wheatstone
bridge,141
method
of using, 143
223
Winding, closed circuit,

wave,

238

brushes

for,244
requiried
paths through armature,
239
progressive,

239
retrogressive,
uses, 246

Wire

gage,

American,

44

X.

244