ENSC3003 Fluid Mechanics

Semester 1, 2015

Week 2 Lecture Notes

Fluid Properties

Dr Jeremy W. Leggoe
February 2015

2.1 Momentum Transport

In chemical engineering, the study of fluid mechanics is often regarded as one of
the three transport phenomena courses (the other two being heat transfer, which
deals with energy transport, and mass transfer, which deals with the transport of
mass across phase interfaces and concentration gradients).
One of the great chemical engineering textbooks, Transport Phenomena, by Bird,
Stewart and Lightfoot (2002), combines the three transport courses into a single text.
That text, which is on of the recommended texts for this unit is divided into three
parts, and the part that deals with fluid mechanics is entitled Momentum Transport.
This distinction is not necessarily intuitively obvious to many students. After all, in
fluid mechanics we are often concerned with the movement of fluid masses, and the
principle of conservation of mass is indeed still essential; the continuity equation,
which derives from the principle of conservation of mass, is one of the fundamental
equations governing fluid motion. To fully understand the way in which flow fields
develop, however, it is essential to understand the manner in which momentum is
transported within a fluid body.

Momentum is transported in a fluid via molecular (or in some

cases atomic) interactions
Consider a solid body, such as a pen. If you hold one end of the pen and start to
move it by moving your fingers, the remainder of the pen translates along with the
portion where your fingers are in contact with the pen. Momentum is transported
with more or less perfect efficiency along the pen, due to the effectively rigid bonds
between the molecules in the materials that make up the pen. In other words, if you
move one end of the pen, the rest of the pen comes along at the same velocity.
Now consider a fluid say, water in a pot or a bowl. If you put a spoon into the
water and move it, the water immediately adjacent to the spoon will move
immediately, but the water further from the spoon will move later (if at all), and with
diminished velocity. In the absence of significant bonding between molecules,
momentum is transported less efficiently than in a solid body, but it is still
transferred as individual molecules interact with those adjacent to them.
Consider two adjacent layers of fluid moving at different velocities (U and U+dU), as
in figure 2.1 overleaf. The faster moving molecules in the upper layer will interact
with the slower molecules in the lower layer, imparting momentum. Thus
momentum is transported from the faster moving fluid to the slower moving fluid. It
can be seen that wherever a velocity gradient exists, momentum will be transported
and it will be transported in the direction of decreasing velocity.

Figure 2.1

The faster moving molecules in the upper layer impart

momentum to the slower moving molecules in the adjacent
layer through molecular interactions. Thus, momentum is
transported from the faster moving fluid to the slower
moving fluid. Momentum is transported in the direction of
decreasing velocity.

2.2 Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid characterizes the efficiency with which a fluid is able to
transport momentum. Naturally, viscosity will depend on the intensity and frequency
of the molecular interactions within a fluid as can be seen from the typical
viscosity values presented in Table 1 below. As you would expect, solids exhibit the
highest viscosity. Liquid viscosities vary widely, depending on the nature of the
molecules in the liquid and the nature of their interactions (entanglement, polarity,
etc). Gas viscosities are relatively low, and are orders of magnitude lower than
those exhibited by liquids, as would be expected given the much wider spacing of
gas molecules.
One intuitive way to think of viscosity is to think of it as characterising the resistance
to flow exhibited by a fluid the more viscous a fluid is, the harder it is to make it
flow. This is a logical alternative way of thinking, given that the slower moving
molecules do draw momentum from the faster moving particles, diminishing their
ability to move freely and reducing flow. It is important, though to remember that
this is just another way of thinking about the momentum transport that is happening.

Phase
Solid

Viscosity
Range
Pa.s
Up to

Liquid

100 10-2
10-3 10-4

Gas

10-4 10-6

Table 2.1

Description
Rigid bonds give virtually perfect momentum transport in
many materials but many glasses (polymer and ceramic)
exhibit high but finite viscosities, and flow slowly
High viscosity liquids polymers such as glycerol (0.9 Pas),
which have long entangled chains, high density fluids such
as Mercury and sulphuric acid (2.5 x 10-2 Pas).
Moderate viscosity low molecular weight liquids, such as
water (10-3 Pas at room temperature) and butanol (2.8 x 10-4
Pas at room temperature)
Low viscosity widely separated molecules, (relatively)
infrequent interactions. Sample values Isobutane: 8 x 10-6
Pas at standard atmospheric conditions (SAC), Air: 1.8 x
10-5 Pas at SAC

Typical viscosity ranges

2.2.1 Velocity gradients, shear stress, and viscous momentum flux

Consider a fluid confined between two flat parallel plates, as depicted in figure 2.2
below. One plate is stationary, the other in motion at constant velocity. Steady state
laminar flow has been achieved, giving rise to a linear velocity profile between the
plates (we will prove that this should be so during Week 4 of the course). Note the
implicit boundary condition imposed on the fluid The fluid immediately adjacent to
the wall moves at the same velocity as the wall itself.

Figure 2.2 Simple shear flow. The bottom plate moves to the right
with velocity U in the x direction, the top plate is stationary.
The plates are separated by a distance of Y in the y
direction.
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Given a linear velocity profile, the velocity gradient, or shear rate is given by:
!!!
!"

= !

(2.1)

Note that the shear rate will normally be a function of position it is only constant
for this simple linear velocity profile.
Since the fluid near the moving bottom plate is moving faster than the fluid near the
stationary top plate, momentum will be transported upwards (in the positive y
direction) in the simple shear flow depicted in figure 2.2. From equation 2.1, it is
apparent that momentum is being transported in the direction of the negative
velocity gradient (ie in the direction of decreasing velocity). In fact, whenever a
non-zero velocity gradient exists, this type of viscous momentum transport
will occur.
Recalling the relationship between impulse and momentum, for momentum to be
transported a force must be exerted. When faster moving molecules interact with
slower moving molecules, they exert a force on those particles, imparting (and
therefore transporting) momentum. Returning once again to our molecule layers in
figure 2.3 (where the molecule layers have been separated for the purpose of
illustration), this force can be thought of as a shear force acting at the interface
between the layers. The faster molecules exert an accelerating force on the slower
particles; the slower particles exert an equal and opposite decelerating force on the
faster particles.

Figure 2.3 Simple shear flow. The faster molecules exert an

accelerating force on the slower particles; the slower
particles exert an equal and opposite decelerating force on
the faster particles.
Given that we have a shearing force, we may think of there being a shear stress
acting between the layers;
!

!" = !

(2.2)

Where A is the area of the interface between the layers, and F is the total force
acting over the interface area. Now, let us consider the dimensions of shear stress,
which are:

!" [=] !! !

(2.3)

Next, consider the dimensions of momentum flux, which is the amount of

momentum transported across a unit area per unit time. Thus
=

!" !
!

. ! . !! [=] !! !

(2.4)

In other words, Momentum Flux and Shear stress are dimensionally equivalent
this means that shear stress is equivalent to a momentum flux.
Hence : yx = the viscous flux in the y direction of x-direction momentum.

2.2.2 Newtons Law of Viscosity

It is intuitive to expect that the magnitude of the shear stress at any point in a fluid
will depend on the shear rate (the velocity gradient); a larger shear rate should
require greater force, meaning a larger shear stress. Newtons law of viscosity is
based on the idea that the shear stress is directly proportional to the shear rate. For
a simple shear flow (we will consider the full, rigorous definition in week 5), it is
written mathematically as
!" =

!!!
!"

(2.5)

The constant of proportionality is the absolute viscosity. As expected, the negative

sign in the equation ensures that the direction of the positive momentum flux
(represented by yx) is from regions of higher velocity to regions of lower velocity (ie
in the direction of the negative velocity gradient).
Fluids that obey this law are referred to as Newtonian Fluids, and have the
characteristic that at constant temperature and pressure, the absolute viscosity is a
constant, independent of the shear rate. All gases, and most simple liquids (such as
water) are Newtonian fluids; Polymers, pastes, concentrated suspensions and
slurries are often non-Newtonian.
Absolute viscosity has dimensions of M/LT, and in SI units has units of Pascal
seconds (Pas), which are equivalent to kg/ms. In CGS units the unit of viscosity is
the Poise, which is equivalent to gm/cms. The viscosity of water at 20C is 0.001
Pas in SI Units; in CGS units it is 1 centipoise.

2.2.3 Kinematic Viscosity

In many equations, the absolute viscosity is divided by the density, leading to the
definition of the kinematic viscosity
!

=!
The dimensions of kinematic viscosity are L2/T, and the SI units are m2/s.

(2.6)

2.2.4 Non-Newtonian Fluids

For most of this course, we will deal with Newtonian fluids, BUT as mentioned
previously there are fluids of practical importance that are not Newtonian. Analysis
of non-Newtonian fluid flow is a matter for advanced courses in transport
phenomena, but it is important to be aware of the various types of non-Newtonian
behaviour.
A generalized definition of viscosity may be written as:
!" =

!!!
!"

(2.7)

Now is not a constant, independent of the shear rate it can be a function of the
shear stress and the shear rate.

Figure 2.4 Schematic plots of shear stress vs shear rate for

Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.

The relationships between shear stress and shear rate for the major types of nonNewtonian fluids are plotted schematically in figure 2.4 above. Bingham fluids
behave as solids until a threshold shear stress is applied; once set in motion, the
fluid will flow, exhibiting pseudo-Newtonian behaviour. The Bingham fluid model can
be written as (Bird et al, 2002):
= !
!

= ! + !"!!

!"

> !

(2.8)
(2.9)

Examples of Bingham fluids include fine suspensions and pastes, such as

toothpaste or tomato sauce.
Pseudoplastic fluids are also referred to as shear-thinning, as decreases with
increasing shear rate. Polymers, and mixtures of clay and water commonly exhibit
pseudoplastic behaviour. The Ostwald-de Waele power law model can be used to
describe the viscosity of pseudoplastic fluids
=

!"! !!!
!"

(2.10)

where m is a fluid constant, and n is measured empirically. If n=1, the fluid is

Newtonian; if n <1, the fluid is pseudo-plastic. Dilatant fluids, in which increases
with increasing shear rate are somewhat rare, but the behaviour is observed in
starch solutions. Dilatant fluids can also be described using the power law model
in dilatant fluids n >1.

2.3 The Effect of Temperature and Pressure on Viscosity

Viscosity data is freely available in handbooks, texts, and analysis packages, so the
models describing the effect of temperature and pressure on viscosity are
sometimes neglected by engineers. This is an unfortunate oversight, as by
understanding these models engineers are better able to understand the manner in
which the behaviour of systems change as conditions change. This can be
particularly important during start-up or shut-down events, and even the annual (and
daily) variation in climate can significantly influence the performance of fluid
transport systems.
Before proceeding to detailed discussion of the models, since viscosity depends on
molecular interactions, it is worthwhile to recall the molecular structure of liquids and
gases, as depicted schematically in figure 2.5. In simple liquids (which tend to be
Newtonian), the molecules adopt a reasonably regular structure, such that individual
molecules are more or less confined within a cage defined by their nearest
neighbours. The molecular spacing is larger than would be the case in a solid
material, as a result intermolecular bonding is weaker, and the molecules are able
to move and flow. In a gas, the molecules are widely spaced, though interactions
still occur as the molecules move at much higher velocity, covering sufficient
distance that there is a significant probability of collision with other molecules.
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Figure 2.5 Schematic plots of molecular arrangements in liquids and

gases. In a liquid, molecules are effectively contained in a
cage by their nearest neighbours; molecules in a gas are
widely spaced and move at higher velocity in random
directions.

2.3.1 The effect of pressure on viscosity

In gases, increasing the pressure will tend to increase the density of the gas,
increasing the probability and thus frequency of molecular interactions. With
increasingly frequent interactions, momentum is transported more effectively, and
viscosity accordingly increases as pressure increases in gases.
With decreasing pressure, the frequency of interactions tends to a lower limit, and
the viscosity approaches a limiting value. This limit is difficult to define precisely, but
for pressures less than approximately 10 times atmospheric pressure the viscosity
of gases can be regarded as approximately constant. For example, for air at 300K:
At P=1 Bar
= 1.857 x 10-5 Pas (Calculation Peace Software)
At P=5 Bar
= 1.861 x 10-5 Pas
At P=10 Bar
= 1.868 x 10-5 Pas
Liquids, in contrast, are typically incompressible, which means their density is
largely unaffected by pressure. This in turn implies approximately constant
intermolecular spacing, so the nature and intensity of molecular interactions in a
liquid will be largely unaffected by pressure. It may therefore be assumed that
pressure has little effect on the viscosity of liquids.

2.3.2 The effect of temperature on viscosity

For gases at low pressure (ie around atmospheric pressure), the viscosity of a gas
will increase with increasing temperature. This can be understood by
considering the effect of temperature on molecular motion. Increasing the
temperature of a gas will increase the velocity of the molecules, increasing the
mean free path travelled by the molecules, and therefore increasing the probability
of molecular interactions. Increasing the incidence of molecular interactions
increases the effectiveness of momentum transport, thereby increasing the viscosity.
The viscosity of gases at low pressure (<10 atm) can be predicted using the
Chapman-Enskog equation (Bird et al, 2002). The equation was derived for
monatomic gases, but works reasonably well for polyatomic gases, and is given by:
= 2.669310!!

!! !

(2.11)

! ! !!

Where
Mw is molecular weight (in gm/mol)
T is the absolute temperature (in K)
is the collision diameter (in Angstroms)
is the collision integral
The last two quantities must be determined from tables in the literature they are
available in Tables E1 and E2 in Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot (2002). Written in this
form, the equation gives an answer in Pas, as long as the correct units are used for
each of the variables. Note that the constant is not dimensionless, so different
values are needed for different unit combinations (the text Transport Phenomena,
for example, uses a different constant that yields viscosity in Poise).
It appears from the equation that the viscosity is roughly proportional to the square
root of the temperature; in fact once the effect of temperature on the other variables
is taken into account it turns out the viscosity is proportional to between T0.6 and T1.0,
depending on the temperature and the gas in question.
Determining the viscosity of mixtures of gases is also of practical importance
for starters, atmospheric air is a mixture of gases. For mixtures of gases at low
pressure (ie around atmospheric pressure) the viscosity of a gas mixture having N
components can be estimated using:
!"# =

!
!

!! !!
!! !
! ! !"

(2.12)

where xi is the mole fraction of component i of the mixture, and the interaction
parameter ij is given by
!" =

!
!

!!

1+!

!!/!

1+

!!
!!

!/!

!! !/!
!!

Mi is the molecular weight of component i of the mixture.

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(2.13)

The effect of temperature on the viscosity of liquids can be estimated using the
Eyring equation [Bird et al, 2002]:
=

!!
!

!!

!.! !

(2.14)

Where
is Avogadros Number (6.023 x 1023)
h is the Planck Constant (6.626 x 10-34 J/s)
is the specific molar volume
Tb is the boiling temperature of the liquid (in K)
T is the temperature of the liquid (in K)
As with the other equations in this section, this is a basic model, which gives a
rough estimate of the viscosity (which may be significantly in error). However, it
does identify the important point that the viscosity of a liquid decreases with
increasing temperature, and the decrease follows an exponential relationship.

2.4 Viscometry
Viscometers are used to measure the viscosity of fluids. The key characteristic of
viscometers is that by establishing a geometrically simple (easily characterised)
laminar flow field, it is possible to analytically relate the shear stress to the shear
rate, and thereby extract the viscosity.
The falling ball viscometer is the simplest type of viscometer. As illustrated in
figure 2.6, a sphere is dropped in a cylinder of fluid (usually liquid spheres
generally fall too quickly in gases for reliable measurement). By determining the
time taken for the sphere to pass between two timing marks, it is possible to
calculate the terminal velocity of the sphere.
For a sphere falling through a fluid, the Reynolds number is given by
=

!"#
!

(2.15)

where the characteristic length D is the diameter of the sphere, and the
characteristic velocity U is the terminal velocity of the sphere. If the Reynolds
Number is less than 0.1, then a creeping flow state exists, and the viscosity is
given by:
=

!! !!! !! !
!"!

(2.16)

where s is the density of the solid sphere, and f is the density of the fluid. It should
be noted that this equation is based on an analysis for a sphere falling in an infinite
medium, and thus slightly overestimates when the tests are done in a finite
cylinder. A correction is available that can correct the value to obtain the true
viscosity [Bohlin, 1960]

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Figure 2.6 Schematic illustration of a falling ball viscometer, where a

solid sphere of diameter D falls in a cylinder of diameter d.
Terminal velocity is determined by measuring the time
taken for the sphere to fall a defined distance L.
A capillary viscometer uses a tube of small diameter, in which it is easier to
maintain a laminar flow, to measure viscosity. For a laminar flow in a tube there are
simple analytical relationships relating the pressure loss to the volume flow rate and
the fluid viscosity. Examples include the Cannon-Fenske (two tube) and Ubbelohde
(3 tube) viscometers, in which the time taken for the fluid to drain out of a capillary
tube is measured. This is then converted into a viscosity using calibration charts
established for the individual viscometer being used (Each viscometer design has
its own calibration).
To design a capillary viscometer, it is essential to ensure a laminar flow. This is
done by ensuring that the Reynolds number for the flow is less than 2000. For a
capillary tube:
=

!"#
!

(2.17)

where the characteristic length D is the diameter of the tube, and the characteristic
velocity U is the average velocity of the flow in the tube. For a vertical tube (the
usual test configuration), the volume flow rate in the tube is given by:
=

!! ! !! !!! ! !"#
!"#!"

(2.18)

where the L is the length of the tube, and Po and PL are the pressures at the inlet
and outlet of the tube.

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A Couette viscometer, illustrated in figure 2.7, is a more complex device belonging

to the class of rheometers. Rheometers are used to measure the properties of
complex liquids and soft solids (such as polymers). A Couette viscometer consists
of two concentric cylinders, with the central cylinder being suspended on a torsion
wire. By measuring the angle that the inner cylinder rotates at steady state, the
torque exerted by the fluid, and thus the shear stress at the interface between the
cylinder and the fluid, can be determined.

Figure 2.7 Schematic illustration of a Couette Viscometer.

Once the Torque T and angular velocity o (in radians per second) of the outer
cylinder are known, the viscosity of the fluid can be determined using the equation
= 4! !

!!
!!! !

(2.19)

where k is the ratio of the radius of the inner cylinder divided by the radius of the
outer cylinder, R is the radius of the outer cylinder, and L is the length of the inner
cylinder (or bob).
The calculation will be valid as long as the system maintains laminar flow. If the
outer cylinder rotates too quickly, then a transition to turbulence will initiate in the
form of the creation of Taylor vortices. This will occur at a critical value of the
Couette viscometer Reynolds number, which is given by
=

!!! ! !

13

(2.20)

The transition point is a function of the geometry of the viscometer typical values
for the critical Reynolds number are provided in Table 2.4.1 below
Radius Ratio
k

Critical Reynolds Number

Recrit

0.975

260

0.9

130

0.5

70

Table 2.4.1 Critical Reynolds Numbers for Couette Viscometers (Bird

et al, 2002);.

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References
R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart & E.N. Lightfoot, Transport phemonena, Second Edition,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2002
T. Bohlin, Terminal velocities of solid spheres in cylindrical enclosures,
Transactions of the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Report #155, 1960

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