UNIT 1

Nothing great was ever achieved

without enthusiasm.
~ Ralph Waldo Emerson
1.1 Reading Comprehension!
REQUISITES OF ENGINEERS IN THE NEXT MILLENNIUM
Engineering technology is the profession in which knowledge of mathematics and
natural sciences gained by higher education, experience, and practice is devoted
primarily to the implementation and extension of existing technology for the benefit
of humanity.
Engineering technology education focuses primarily on the applied aspects of
science and engineering aimed at preparing graduates for practice in that portion of
the technological spectrum closest to product improvement, manufacturing,
construction, and engineering operational functions. Thus engineering technology is
the application of engineering principles and modern technology to help solve or
prevent technical problems.
The 21st century will be a period of knowledge based business. Engineering is a
discipline based on knowledge of not only the latest state-of-the-art technologies,
but concurrently, on a solid foundation of classical theories. As engineering
graduates, you will undoubtedly be well-versed with both the classical theories and
state-of-the-art technologies. However, in order to face the challenges of the coming
millennium, this is not enough. In order to be competitive on an individual,
organizational and international level, engineers need to be value-adders. Efforts
must be made not only to improve ourselves as engineers, but also to increase the
accomplishments of engineers as a whole, in adapting technology to local
conditions as well as competing internationally.
Engineering is the driver of development. Engineers play a vital role in our effort to
achieve the type of industrialization in line with Vision 2020. Engineers, by virtue
of the scheme of things, are leaders of engineering teams. However, engineers also
have not only the potential, but the opportunity to be leaders of industries. We have
to work with our fellow men and women, to guide, motivate, and if necessary,
educate them. Being graduates, we have the responsibility to provide training to our
fellow men and women. Therefore, in order to be successful, an engineer must also
develop and master interpersonal skills, the ability to project ideas across, and a feel
for socio-economic realities.
Engineers need to equip themselves with integrity, creativity and innovative
thinking, in order to carry out their roles more effectively. Prepare to be more
enthusiastic, assertive and pro-active. Live by a "We can, We will, We must"
attitude.
Questions!
1. What is engineering technology?
2. What does engineering technology primarily focuses on?
3. Is the engineering technology a part of social sciences study?
4. What should the engineering graduates have?
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5. Why do engineers play a vital role in industrial development?

6. Being successful engineers, what should they do?
7. What should the engineers equip themselves?
8. What does we (in the second paragraph line 4) refer to?
9. Rewrite some sentences from the reading text (if it is necessary, you may change to
the other tenses) into positive statement, negative, and interrogative.
1. 2 SUBJECTS AND VERBS
Example: _____________ was ringing continuously for hours
A. Loudly
B. In the morning
C. The phone
D. The bells
In this example, you should notice immediately that there is a verb (was
ringing), but there is no subject. Answer (C) is the best answer because it is a singular
subject that agrees with the singular verb (was ringing). Answer (A) loudly, and answer
(B) in the morning, are not the subjects, so they are not correct because (bells) is plural
and it does not agree with the singular verb (was ringing).
Exercise 1: Underline the subjects once and the verbs twice in each of the following
sentences. Then, indicate if the sentences are correct (C ) or incorrect (I).
1. _______ My best friend always helpful with problems.
2. _______ The bus schedule has changed since last week.
3._________ Accidentally dropped the glass on the floor.
4. ________ The customer paying the clerk for the clothes.
5 _________ The professor handed the syllabus to the students.
6. ________ Each day practiced the piano for hours.
7. ________ The basketball player tossed the ball into the hoop.
8. ________ The new student in the class very talkative and friendly.
9. ________ Walking with the children to school.
10. _______The whales headed south for the winter.
Exercise 2- Choose the best answer.
1. __________ was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the
photoelectric effect.
A. That Einstein
B. It was Einstein
C. Einstein who
D. Einstein
2. ________ of Willa Catha present an unadorned picture of life on the
prairies of the Midwestern United States during the 19th century.

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A. The stories who

B. That the novels
C. The novels which
D. The novels

3. Unlike the climate of the other islands of Hawaii, ________ Kona contains
54 different temperate zones.
A. that of
B. this is
C. these those that
4. With few exceptions, ________ are warm-blooded, have live births, and are
suckled with milk from their mothers body.
A. which mammals
B. mammals
C. mammals that
D. mammals, they
5. Among all the scientists of the 1930s, ________ was so suited to carry out
the Manhattan project as J. Robert Oppenheimer.
A. no scientists
B. not who was a scientist
C. none
D. a scientist never he
6. By the time of the appearance of "Paulus", __________ was widely
recognized as the most famous living composer.
A. it was Felix Mendelssohn
B. Felix Mendelssohn who
C. Felix Mendelssohn
D. Felix Mendelssohn whom
7. __________ is as widespread in the U.S. as the grey squirrel, an animal
actually classified as a rodent.
A. No mammal

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B. Not a mammal which

C. None mammal
D. Not a mammal that
8. In the quiet of the woods, __________ sometimes hears the thrush breaking
snail shells.
A. the one
B. one
C. ones
D. those ones
9. __________ is a growing practice in cooperative farming associations to
pool and sell the fruit as a common commodity under the brands of the
association rather than to sell the fruit of each grower separately.
A. It
B. One
C. Which
D. Why
10. The __________ the forest reached their highest price in the 1980s.
A. products of
B. productions by
C. producers to
D. productibilities with

1.5 Review: Pronouns

Pronouns as
SUBJECTS

Pronouns as
OBJECTS

Possessive
ADJECTIVES

I
You
He
She
It
We
They

me
you
him
her
It
Us
them

my
your
his
her
it
our
their

Possessive PRONOUNS
(subject, object &
complement)
Mine
Yours
His
Hers
Its
Ours
Theirs

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences.

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1. I dont know that man. Do you know ...?

2. We want to see them but . dont want to see .
3. She wants to see him but .. doesnt want to see .
4. They want to see me but . dont want to see .
5. Where is George? She wants to talk to
6. My brother has a new job. But doesnt like very much.
7. She wants the key. Can you give . to .
8. Julia lives with parents.
9. I saw Liz and Philip with son, Bill.
10.Thats not .. umbrella. .. is black.
Exercise 2. Substitute pronouns
Example : This cake is delicious ( It is delicious)
1. Where did you get those apples?
2. Jim and Betty are going to the play with us.
3. My watch needs repairing.
4. Have you met Johns sister?
5. The bridges face was radiant at the wedding.
6. My nephew is in high school.
7. The children have gone to bed.
8. Did you enjoy Bettys letter?
9. Mrs. Johnson is a good friend of mine.
10. Mathematics is easy for me.
1. 3 What Do You Think?
1. People attend college or university for many different reasons (for
example, new experiences, career preparation, increased knowledge).
Why do you think people attend college or university? Use specific
reasons and examples to support your answer.
2. Many people visit museums when they travel to new places. Why
do you think people visit museums? Use specific reasons and
examples to support your answer.
3. In some countries, teenagers have jobs while they are still students. Do
you think this is a good idea? Support your opinion by using specific
reasons and details.
4. Some people believe that the Earth is being harmed (damaged) by human
activity. Others feel that human activity makes the Earth a better place to
live. What is your opinion? Use specific reasons and examples to support
your answer.
UNIT 2
We change, whether we like it or not
~ Ralph Waldo Emerson
2.1 Reading Comprehension
Education and Training
Electronics engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in
electronic engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three or four

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years and the completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Engineering,

Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Applied Science, or Bachelor of Technology
depending upon the university. Many UK universities also offer Master of
Engineering (MEng) degrees at undergraduate level.
The degree generally includes units covering physics, chemistry, mathematics,
project management and specific topics in electrical engineering. Initially such topics
cover most, if not all, of the subfields of electronic engineering. Students then choose
to specialize in one or more subfields towards the end of the degree.
Some electronics engineers also choose to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a
Master of Science (MSc), Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering (PhD), or an
Engineering Doctorate (EngD). The Master degree is being introduced in some
European and American Universities as a first degree and the differentiation of an
engineer with graduate and postgraduate studies is often difficult. In these cases,
experience is taken into account. The Master's degree may consist of either research,
coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy consists of a
significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to academia.
In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards
certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After
completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of
requirements (including work experience requirements) before being certified.

Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics and mathematics as

these help to obtain both a qualitative and quantitative description of how
such systems will work. Today most engineering work involves the use of
computers and it is commonplace to use computer-aided design programs
when designing electronic systems. Although most electronic engineers will
understand basic circuit theory, the theories employed by engineers generally
depend upon the work they do.
Questions!
1. What is bachelor of engineering?
2. How many years do the students of engineering get the certificate of bachelor
degree?
3. What are the fundamental disciplines for the students of engineering?
4. Nowadays, most engineering work involves the use of computer. Why?
5. Make a summary from the reading text!
2.2 - OBJECTS OF PREPOSITION
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Example: To Mike ________ was a big surprise.

A. really
B. the party
C. funny
D. when
In this example, you should look first for the subject and the verb. You should
notice the verb (was) and should also notice that there is no subject. Do not think that
(Mike) is the subject; Mike is the object of the preposition (to) and one cannot be both a
subject and an object at the same time. Because a subject is needed in this sentence,
answer (B) the party is the best answer. Answers (A), (C), and (D) are not correct
because they cannot be subjects.
Exercise 1: Underline the subjects once and the verbs twice. Circle the prepositional
phrases that come before the verb. Then, indicate if the sentences are correct (C ) or
incorrect (I).
1. _____ During the meeting in the office discussed the schedule.
2. _____ The doctor gave the patient a prescription.
3. _____ The tall evergreen trees along the road.
4. _____ The watch in the jewelry box needs a new battery.
5. _____ Pleasantly greets everyone in all the offices every morning.
6. _____ In the office of the building across the street from the park on the corner.
7. _____ The dishes in the sink really need to be washed as soon as possible.
8. _____ In a moment of worry about the problem with the cash in the account.
9. _____ The plane from New York circling the airport.
10. ____ On a regular basis the plants in the boxes under the window in the kitchen are
watered and fed.

Exercise 2: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best complete the
sentences.
1. Mark Twain ___ the years after the Civil War the Gilded Age.
A. called
B. calling
C. he called
D. his calls
2. Early ___ toes instead of hooves on their feet.
A. horses
B. had horses
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C. horse had
D. horses living
3. ___ grow close to the ground in the short Arctic summer.
A. Above tundra plants
B. Tundra plants
C. Tundra plants are found
D. For tundra plants
4. In 1867,___ Alaska from the Russians for $7.2 million.
A. purchased the United States
B. to purchase the United States
C. the United States purchase of
D. the United States purchased
5. Between 1725 and 1750, New England witnessed an increase in the specialization of
___
A. occupations
B. occupies
C. they occupied
D. it occupied them
6. The large carotid artery ___ to the main parts of the brain.
A. carrying blood
B. blood is carried
C. carries blood
D. blood carries
7.___ radio as the first practical system of wireless telegraphy.
A. Marconis development
B. The development by Marconi
C. Developing Marconi
D. Marconi developed
8. In 1975, the first successful space probe to ___ beginning to send information back to
Earth.
A. Venus
B. Venus the
C. Venus was
D. Venus it was
9. The two biggest resort ___ Alabama are Hot Springs and Eureka Springs.
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A. in
B. towns in
C. towns are
D. towns are in
10. Nasas Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center ___ control center for the Mercury, Gemini,
and Apollo space flights.
A. it was at the
B. it was the
C. was the
D. the
2.3 PRESENT PARTICIPLES
Present participles can cause confusion because a present participle can be either an
adjective or a part of the verb. a present participle is the ing form of the verb. It is a part
of the verb when it is preceded by some form of the verb be.
The train is arriving at the station now
Verb
In this sentence, arriving is part of the verb because it is accompanied by is.
The train arriving at the station now is an hour late.
adjective
In this sentence, arriving is an adjective and not part of the verb because it is not
accompanied by some form of be. The verb in this sentence is is.
Exercise 1: Each of the following sentences contains one or more present participles.
Underline the subjects once and the verbs twice. Circle the present participles and label
them as adjectives or verbs. Then, indicate if the sentences are correct (C ) or incorrect
(I).
1. ___ The crying baby needs to be picked up.
2. ___ The clothes are lying on the floor should go into the washing machine.
3. ___ The waitress bringing the steaming soup to the waiting dinners.
4. ___ Most of the striking workers are walking the picket line.
5. ___For her birthday, the child is getting a talking doll.
6. ___ The setting sun creating a rainbow of colors in the sky.
7. ___ The ship is sailing to Mexico is leaving tonight.
8. ___ The letters needing immediately answers are on the desk.
9. ___ The boring class just ending a few minutes ago.
10. ___ The fast moving clouds are bringing freezing rain to the area.

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2.4 PAST PARTICIPLES

Past participle can cause confusion because a past participle can be either an adjective or
a part of the verb. The past participle is the form of the verb that appears with have or be.
It often ends in ed, but there are also many irregular past participles in English.
The mailman has left a letter in the mailbox.
Verb
The classes were taught by Professor Smith.
Verb
A past participle is an adjective when it is not accompanied by some form of be or have.
The letter left in the mailbox was for me.
Adjective
The classes taught by Professor Smith were very interesting.
adjective
Exercise (Skills 3-4): Each of the following sentences contains one or more participles.
Underline the subjects once and the verbs twice. Circle the participles and label them as
adjectives or verbs. Then, indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I).
1. ___ Our hosts are serving drinks on the tiled patio.
2. ___ The tired woman taking a much needed nap.
3. ___ The letters were sent on Monday arrived on Wednesday.
4. ___ The winners deserved the big prize.
5. ___ The plants are growing in the garden need a lot of water.
6. ___ The shining stars lit up the darkened sky.
7. ___ The driver rapidly increased the speed of the racing car.
8. ___ The excited children trying to build a snowman in the falling snow.
9. ___ The students are completing the course will graduate in June.
10. ___ The dissatisfied customer is returning the broken toaster to the store.
Exercise 2: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the
sentence.
1. The first ___ appeared during the last period of the dinosaurs reign.
A. flowers are plants
B. plants have flowers
C. plants flowers
D. flowering plants
2. The earliest medicines ___ from plants of various sorts.
A. obtaining
B. they obtained
C. were obtained
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D. they were obtained

3. Simple sails were made from canvas ___ over a frame.
A. a stretch
B. stretched
C. was stretched
D. it was stretched
4. Plutos moon Charon ___ in a slightly elliptical path around the planet.
A. moving
B. is moving
C. it was moving
D. in its movement
5. Techniques of breath control form an essential part of any ___ program to improve the
voice.
A. it trains
B. trains
C. train
D. training
6. Robert E.Lee ___ the Confederate army to General Grants in 1865 at the Appomattox
Corthouse.
A. surrendered
B. he surrendered
C. surrendering
D. surrender
7. The pituitary gland, ___ the brain, releases hormones to control other glands.
A. found below
B. it is found below
C. its foundation below
D. finds itself below
8. At around two years of age, many children regularly produce sentences ___ three or
four words.
A. are containing
B. containing
C. contain
D. contains
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9. Multinational companies ___ it increasingly important to employ internationally

acceptable brand names.
A. finding
B. are finding
C. they find
D. they are finding
10. The cornea is located under the conjunctiva, on ___ of the eye.
A. the part is exposed
B. exposed the part
C. the exposed part
D. exposes the part
2.5 Adverbials at the Beginning of a sentence
Hardly does Juan remember the accident that took his sisters life.
(Juan hardly remembers the accident that took his sisters life.)
Seldom does the man drive the car by himself.
(The man seldom drives the car by himself)
Exercise 1- Change each of the following sentences so that the adverbial is at the
beginning of a sentence.
1. Jorge rarely forgets to do his homework.
2. Henry had hardly started working when he realized that he needed to go to the library.
3. We have never heard the negative impacts of mobile phone.
4. Maria seldom missed a football game when she was in the United States.
5. We rarely watch television during the week.
6. He has never played a better game than he has today.
7. This professor seldom lets his students leave class early.
8. Jennifer had hardly entered the English classroom when she felt the presence of her
ex-boy friend.
9. We have rarely seen such an effective actor as he has proven.
10. Math class seldom gives an additional assignment.
Exercise 2- Sentence Completion and Error Recognition
1. Not until ___________ the gold mining completely finished in California in 1882
a. did
b. had
c. was
d. were
2. Very seldom __________ to be a place of interest for the young generations.
a. does museum considered
b. museum considered
c. museum is considered
d. is museum considered
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3.

Never again ____________ some domestic animals in this area neglected to leave
home.
a. do
b. are
c. have
d. is
4.
Not once before the year 1990 ________ electric lamps come into widespread
use and replaced other types of fat, gas or oil for almost every purpose.
a. did
b. are
c. have
d. the
5.
Only rarely flight 811 for Tokyo is now ready for boarding at the airport.
6.
Not one file have the journal editor who works in some publication companies
previously handed to me late.
7.
Never again have the use of pesticides in agriculture been debated primarily in
developed countries.
8.
Not once before the twentieth century Washington D.C. has a problem with air
pollution during the summer although there is no industry there.
9.
Very seldom does art critics in western countries consider movies to be a form of
fine art.
10.
Not until is a company which advertises extensively on TV experience a little bit
increase in revenues.

UNIT 3
Education is the most powerful weapon
which you can use to change the world.
~Nelson Mandela (1918- ), former President of
South Africa,
anti-apartheid activist, Nobel Peace Prize winner

3.1 Reading Comprehension

Engineering Technicians

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Civil engineering technicians help civil engineers plan and oversee the construction
of highways, buildings, bridges, dams, wastewater treatment systems, and other
structures. Some estimate construction costs and specify materials to be used, and
some may even prepare drawings or perform land-surveying duties. Others may set
up and monitor instruments used to study traffic conditions. (Cost estimators;
construction and building inspectors; drafters; and surveyors, cartographers,
photogrammetrists, and surveying and mapping technicians
Electrical and electronic engineering technicians help design, develop, test, and
manufacture electrical and electronic equipment such as communication equipment,
medical monitoring devices, navigational equipment, and computers. They may work
in product evaluation and testing, using measuring and diagnostic devices to adjust,
test, and repair equipment. (Workers whose jobs primarily involve repairing electrical
and electronic equipment are often are referred to as electronics technicians, but they
are included with electrical and electronics installers and repairers.
Electro-mechanical engineering technicians combine knowledge of mechanical
engineering technology with knowledge of electrical and electronic circuits to design,
develop, test, and manufacture electronic and computer-controlled mechanical
systems, such as robotic assembly machines. They also operate these machines in
factories and other worksites. Their work often overlaps that of both electrical and
electronic engineering technicians and mechanical engineering technicians.
Environmental engineering technicians work closely with environmental engineers
and scientists in developing methods and devices used in the prevention, control, or
remediation of environmental hazards. They inspect and maintain equipment related
to air pollution and recycling. Some inspect water and wastewater treatment systems
to ensure that pollution control requirements are met.
Industrial engineering technicians study the efficient use of personnel, materials, and
machines in factories, stores, repair shops, and offices. Working under the direction of
industrial engineers, they prepare layouts of machinery and equipment, plan the flow
of work, conduct statistical studies of production time or quality, and analyze
production costs.
Mechanical engineering technicians help engineers design, develop, test, and
manufacture industrial machinery, consumer products, and other equipment. They
may assist in product tests by, for example, setting up instrumentation for auto crash
tests. They may make sketches and rough layouts, record and analyze data, make
calculations and estimates, and report on their findings. When planning production,
mechanical engineering technicians prepare layouts and drawings of the assembly
process and of parts to be manufactured. They estimate labor costs, equipment life,
and plant space. Some test and inspect machines and equipment or work with
engineers to eliminate production problems.
Work environment. Most engineering technicians work 40 hours a week in
laboratories, in offices, in manufacturing or industrial plants, or on construction sites.
Some may be exposed to hazards from equipment, chemicals, or toxic materials, but
incidents are rare as long as proper procedures are followed.

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Questions!
1. Who is engineer?
2. Who is engineer technician?
3. What do civil engineering technicians help?
4. What do mechanical engineering technicians help?
5. What do electrical and electronic engineering technicians help?
6. What does they refer to? (In the second paragraph line 3)
7. How many hours do the engineering technicians work in a week?
8. Underline the subjects with one line and the verbs with two lines in each paragraph!
9. Rewrite some sentences from the reading text, and then change into the passive form!
3.2 Grammar Review: The Simple Past and the Present Perfect Tense
The Simple Past
a.
b.

Mary walked downtown yesterday.

I slept for eight hours last night.

The simple past is used to talk about

activities or situations that began and ended
in the past (e.g. yesterday, last night, two
days ago, in 1990).

c.

Most simple past verbs are formed by

adding ed to a verb, as in (a), (c), and (d).

d.

Bob stayed home yesterday

morning.
Our plane arrived on time.

e.
f.

I ate breakfast this morning.

Sue took a taxi to the airport.

Some verbs have irregular past forms, as in

(b), (e), and (f). *

STATEMENT

NEGATIVE*

QUESTION*
SHORT
ANSWER

Did
Yes
,
No,

{
{

I-You-She-He-It-WeThey
I-You-She-He-It-WeThey
I-You-She-He-It-WeThey
I-You-She-He-It-WeThey

} worked yesterday.
ate breakfast.
} did not (didnt) work
yesterday.
did not (didnt) eat breakfast.
} work yesterday?
eat breakfast?
} did.
didnt.

To make a 'wh' question, of course, put the question word at the beginning of the
sentence:
'Wh' Questions
Where did I go?
When did it rain?
What did you play?
Where did we eat?
Why did she listen?
How did they travel?
The Present Perfect Tense
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STATEMENT: HAVE/HAS + PAST PARTICIPLE

(a) I have finished my work.
(b) The students have finished Chapter 1.
(c) Julie has eaten lunch.
(d)
(e)
(f)

Ive/Youve/Weve/Theyve eaten lunch.

Shes/Hes eaten lunch.
Its been cold for the last three days.

NEGATIVE: HAVE/HAS + NOT + PAST

PARTICIPLE
(g) I have not (havent) finished my work.
(h) Ann has not (hasnt) eaten lunch.
QUESTION: HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT + PAST
PARTICIPLE
(i)
Have you finished your work?
(j)
Has Jim eaten lunch?
(k) How long have you lived here?
(l)
(m)

A: Have you seen that movie?

B: Yes, I have. OR: No, I havent.
A: Has Nadia eaten lunch?
B: Yes, she has. OR: No, she hasnt.

The basic form of the present

perfect: have or has + the
past participle. Use have
with I, you, we, they, or a
plural noun (e.g. students).
Use has with she, he, it, or a
singular noun (e.g. Jim). With
pronouns, have is contracted
to apostrophe + ve (ve) and
has to apostrophe + s (s).
have + not = havent
has + not = hasnt

In a question, the helping

verb (have or has) precedes
the subject.

The helping verb is used in a

short answer to a yes/no
question. The helping verb in
the short answer is not
contracted with the pronoun.

Exercise 1 Mixed forms

Make the simple past for no. 1-7 and present perfect for no. 8-15. Choose positive,
negative or question.
1. (I / go / to the library today)
2. (it / rain all day?)
3. (who / we / forgot to invite?)
4. (we / not / hear that song already)
5. (she / steal all the chocolate!)
6. (I / explain it well?)
7. (how / we / finish already?)
8. (he / study English)
9. (I / know him for three months)
10. (where / you / study Arabic?)
11. (what countries / they / visit in Europe?)
12. (he / hurt his leg)
13. (she / leave her phone in a taxi)
14. (we / not / lose our tickets)
15. (she / call her mother?)
Exercise 2 Past simple, or present perfect?
Choose the past simple or the present perfect:
1. Last night I ______ (lose) my keys I had to call my flatmate to let me in.
2. I ______ (lose) my keys can you help me look for them?
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

I ______ (visit) Jakarta three times.

Last year I ______ (visit) Jakarta.
I ______ (know) my great grandmother for a few years - she died when I was eight.
I ______ (know) Julie for three years we still meet once a month.
Last month I ______ (go) to Surabaya.
Im sorry, John isnt here now. He ______ (go) to the shops.
We ______ (finish) this room last week.
I ______ (finish) my exams finally Im so happy!
Yesterday, I ______ (go) to the library, the post office and the supermarket.
I ______ (go) to the supermarket three times this week!
She ______ (live) in Glenmore since 1994.
She ______ (live) in Glenmore when she was a child.
I ______ (drink) three cups of coffee this morning.
I ______ (drink) seven cups of coffee yesterday.
Murphy, Raymond. 2001. Essential Grammar in Use (2nd Ed.). p. 38
Azar, Betty Schrampfer. 1993. Fundamentals of English Grammar: p. 160-162
2008 www.perfect-english-grammar.com.

Exercise 3- Writing: What have you done so far in improving your English ability?
Have you practiced your English intensively? Have you ever taken the English
courses/training? (Write down your task in a paragraph at least 10 sentences).
3.3 CONNECTORS
COORDINATE CONNECTORS
Many sentences in English have more than one clause. (A clause is a group of words
containing a subject and a verb) when you have two clauses in an English sentence, you
must connect the two clauses correctly. One way to connect two clauses is to use and,
but, or, so between the clauses.
The sun was shining, and the sky was blue.
The sky was blue, but it was very cold.
It may rain tonight, or it may be clear.
It was raining outside, so I took my umbrella.
Exercise 1: Each of the following sentences contains more than one clause. Underline
the subjects once and the verbs twice. Circle the connectors. Then, indicate if the
sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I).
1. ___ The lawn needs water every day, or it will turn brown.
2. ___The book was not long, but it difficult to read.
3. ___ It was raining, so decided to go camping.
4. ___ The materials has been cut, and the pieces have been sewn together.
5. ___ The patient took all the medicine, he did not feel much better.
6. ___ The bill must be paid immediately, or the electricity will be turned off.
7. ___ The furnace broke so the house got quite cold.
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8. ___ The dress did no cost too much, but the quality it seemed excellent.
9. ___ The leaves kept falling off the trees, and the boys kept raking them up, but the
yard was still covered.
10. ___ The postman has already delivered the mail, so the letter is not going to arrive
today, it probably will arrive tomorrow.
ADVERB CLAUSE CONECTORS
Sentences with adverb clauses have two basic patterns in English. Study the clauses and
connectors in the following sentences.
He is tired because he has been working so hard.
Because he has been working so hard, he is tired.
The following chart lists common adverb connectors.
TIME
After
As
Before
Since
Until
When
while

CAUSE
Because

CONDITION
If

CONTRAST
Although

Since

Whether

Even though
Though
while

Exercise 1: Each of the following sentences contains more than one clause. Underline
the subjects once and the verbs twice. Circle the connectors. Then, indicate if the
sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I).
1. ___ After the plane circled the airport, it landed on the main runway.
2. ___ The registration process took many hours since the lines so long.
3. ___ This type of medicine can be helpful, it can also have some bad side effects.
4. ___ The waves were amazingly high when the storm hit the coastal town.
5. ___ We need to get a new car whether is on sale or not.
6. ___ Just as the bread came out of the oven, while a wonderful aroma filled the kitchen.
7. ___ Everyone has spent time unpacking boxes since the family moved into the new
house.
8 ___ Although the area is a desert many plants bloom there in the springtime.
9. ___ The drivers on the freeway drove slowly and carefully while the rain was falling
heavily because they did not want to have an accident.
10. If you plan carefully before you take a trip, will have a much better time because the
small details will not cause problems.

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Exercise 2: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the
sentence.
1. A spacecraft is freed from friction ___ launched into space.
A. it
B. it is
C. after is
D. after it is
2. ___ with their surroundings, or they hide in crevices for protection.
A. Lobsters
B. Lobsters blend
C. Lobsters blending
D. Because lobsters blend
3. ___ a ball-and-socket joint, the elbow is a simple hinge joint.
A. While the shoulder
B. While the shoulder is
C. The shoulder is
D. The shoulder
4. A car has several sections with moving parts, ___ of those parts is essential.
A. good lubrication
B. well lubricated
C. and good lubrication
D. and well lubricated
5. Bears cannot see well ____ small eyes.
A. bears have
B. because having
C. because they have
D. because of bears
6. ___ at the Isthmus of Panama, so animals were able to migrate between North and
South America.
A. A land bridge existed
B. When a land bridge existed
C. A land bridge
D. With a land bridge
7. ___ mostly made of granite, it also contains some human-made materials.
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A. The Empire State Building

B. The Empire State Building is
C. Although the Empire State Building is
D. Although the Empire State Building is built.
8. Pressure differences make the eardrum vibrate ___ the ear.
A. enters the sound waves
B. as sound waves
C. sound waves enter
D. as sound waves enter
9. An optical microscope magnifies as much a 2,000 times, but an electron microscope
___ as much as a million times.
A. magnifying
B. it magnifies
C. can magnify
D. magnify it
10. If scientific estimates are accurate, ___ with the Earth about 20,000 years ago.
A. the Canon Diablo meteorite collided
B. the collision of the Canon Diablo meteorite
C. the Canon Diablo meteorite colliding
D. colliding the Canon Diablo meteorite

NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTORS

A noun clause is a clause that functions as a noun; because the noun clause functions as a
noun, it is used in a sentence as an object of a verb (if it follows a verb) or an object of a
preposition (if it follows a preposition). Study the clauses and connectors in the
following sentences.
I dont know why he said such things.
Noun clause as object of verb
I am thinking about why he said such things.
Noun clause as object of preposition
The following chart lists the noun clause connectors and the sentence patterns used with
them
What, when, where, why, how
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Whether, if
That
Sally explained why she did it
Exercise 1: Each of the following sentences contains more than one clause. Underline
the subjects once and the verb twice. Circle the connectors. Then, indicate if the
sentences are correct (C) or Incorrect (I).
1. ___ It doubtful whether he will pass the test or not.
2. ___ The group discussed who he should receive the prize.
3. ___ It is not certain why the class was cancelled.
4. ___ I will do what does it need to be done.
5. ___ We forgot when did the movie start.
6. ___ I would like to ask if you could come over for dinner this weekend.
7. ___ The children knew which the best game to play.
8. ___ The advisor informed her that needed to add another class.
9. ___ He saw who took the money.
10. ___It is unclear how the window got broken.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTORS
An adjective clause describes a noun. Because the clause is an adjective, it is positioned
directly after the noun that it describes.
This is the house that I want to buy.
adjective clause
The house that I want to buy is quite expensive.
adjective clause
The following chart lists the adjective clause connectors and the sentence patterns used
with them.
Whom (for people)

Which (for things)

That (for people or things)
I like the dress that you are wearing.
The dress that you are wearing is beautiful.

Exercise 1: Each of the following sentences contains more than one clause. Underline
the subjects once and the verbs twice. Circle the connectors. Then, indicate if the
sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I).
1. ___ My sisters prefer to eat food that have cooked themselves.
2. ___ The boat that hit the underwater rock sank.
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3. ___ The car which he was driving could not possible be his.
4. ___ The children built a house in the tree that in the backyard.
5. ___ The cost of the trip which we wanted to take.
6. ___ The children are playing with the toys which their mother told them to put away.
7. ___ The guests who were seated around the dinner table.
8. ___ The students have to read all the chapters which are n the test.
9. ___ I really do not like the artists which you like.
10. ___ The stones that they were set in the ring were quite valuable.
3.4 Passive Voice
Sentences are passive when the subject does not perform the action. Instead, the subject
receives an action or is the result of an action. The person or thing that performed the
action may be unimportant or unknown in a passive sentence.
The passive voice is formed with a form of be and the past participle of the main verb.
For example:
Dinner is served from 5:00 to 8:00.
many people were injured by the tornado last night.
The letter was mailed by Nick.
Passive sentences focus on the noun that is the receiver or result of an action rather than
the noun that is performing the action (the agent). In fact passive sentence very often do
not mention the agent at all. For example:
Super computers were developed in order to solve complex problems.
The mail is delivered at noon.
Passive sentences are used to make sentence sound more impersonal. For example:
Passengers are requested to remain seated.
An errors was made in this months payroll.
Overview
Tense or Model

Passive Sentence

Simple Present

The TOEFL exam is given every six months

Simple past

The TOEFL exam was given last month

Simple Future

The TOEFL exam will be given every year

Present
Continuous

The TOEFL exam is being given every year

Present perfect

The TOEFL exam has been given every year since 1950

Past perfect

The TOEFL exam had been given before the Vietnam War
occurred

Simple Modal

The TOEFL exam should be given to every Foreign student

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Past Modal

The TOEFL exam should have been given to all entering US

colleges.

Exercise 1-Write down passive forms of the sentences.

1. The fire has caused considerable damage.
2. Somebody calls the president every day.
3. Martha was delivering the documents to the departments.
4. Brian will meet you at the airport.
5. The delegates had received the information before the recess.
6. Amanda upset me by what she said.
7. Bob is going to inform Brian later.
8. The Lawrence police arrested 12 students last night.
Exercise 2- Write down passive forms of the sentences! Some sentences have no
passive forms.
1. The president canceled the meeting.
2. Mother has served the coffee to the guests.
3. The teacher announces the final exam.
4. Someone is building a new house in this village.
5. Reza was repairing my computer.
6. All the students must do the assignment.
7. They have seen the accident.
8. The train was twenty minutes late.
9. The boy should send the flowers soon.
10. Dicks walks to his office.
Exercise 3- Rewrite the following sentences into active or passive voice.
1. Engineers learn natural science and engineering.
2. The technician solved the technical problems.
3. Civil engineering has constructed the buildings and bridges.
4. Electronics repairers are testing the communication equipments and computers.
5. Many workers will be needed by the company.
6. They inspect the air pollution and recycling.
7. The mechanical engineer should develop the consumer products.
8. Engineers need integrity, creativity, and innovative thinking.
9. The professor gave him a final project.
10. The buildings have been painted by the painter.
3.5 Parallel Structure
When a structure consists of two or more parts, those parts should be parallel (similar in
form).
Example: I like skiing and skating.
In the above example, the two objects of the verb like are skiing and skating. Notice how
they are parallel (or similar) in form.
It would sound very awkward to say I like skiing and to skate or I like to ski and
skating. These structures sound awkward because they are not parallel.
It is common for students to make errors in parallel structure with items in a series.
Examples:
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(a) Gerry and his wife have lived in France, Italy, and in Switzerland.
This series is not parallel. There are two ways to correct the error:
Gerry and his wife have lived in France, Italy, and Switzerland.
(A series of three nouns sharing the preposition in)
Gerry and his wife have lived in France, in Italy, and in Switzerland.
(A series of three prepositional phrases)
(b) I love to dance, to read, and watch movies.
Again, the series is not parallel; there are two ways to correct the error:
I love to dance, read, and watch movies.
(A series of three verbs sharing the word to)
I love to dance, to read, and to watch movies.
(A series of three infinitives)
(c) Sue has trouble doing algebra, physics, and understanding grammar.
Again, there are two ways to correct this non-parallel structure:
Sue has trouble doing algebra, learning physics, and understanding grammar.
(A series of ing word groups)
Sue has trouble with algebra, physics, and grammar.
(A series of nouns sharing the preposition with)
It is important also to use parallel structure with correlative conjunctions. Correlative
conjunctions are two-part conjunctions:
both . . . and . . .
either . . . or . . .
neither . . . nor . . .
not only . . . but also
whether . . . or
Examples:
I like both skiing and skating.
(Two ing words)
We will travel either by car or by bus.
(Two prepositional phrases)
Many people in the world can neither read nor write.
(Two main verbs sharing the helper can)
The boys have not only cut the grass but also weeded the garden.
(Two main verbs sharing the helper have)
I cant decide whether to read a book or to watch television.
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(Two infinitive word groups)

Exercise 1- Correct any errors in parallel structure in the following sentences.
1. Peter is rich, handsome, and may people like him.
2. Mr. Henry is a lawyer, a politician, and he teaches.
3. The soldiers approached the enemy camp slowly and silent.
4. She likes to fish, swim, and surfing.
5. When teenagers finish high school, they have several choices: going to college, getting
a job, or the army.
6. Enrique entered the room, sat down, and is opening his book.
7. Although we enjoyed the article on Seven Years in Tibet, we have neither seen the
movie nor read the book.
8. Matt is either studying in the library, or he is working in the computer lab.
Exercise 2- Correct any errors in parallel structure in the following sentences.
1. The puppy stood slowly, wagged its tail, blinking its eyes, and barked.
2. Ecologists are trying to preserve our environment for future generations by protecting
the ozone layer, purifying the air, and have replanted the trees that have been cut
down.
3. The chief of police demanded from his assistants an orderly investigation, a wellwritten report, and that they work hard.
4. Marcia is a scholar, an athlete, and artistic.
5. Slowly and with care, the museum director removed the Ming vase from the shelf and
placed it on the display pedestal.
6. The farmer plows the fields, plants the seeds, and will harvest the crop.
7. Abraham Lincoln was a good president and was self-educated, hard working, and
always told the truth.
8. Children love playing in the mud, running through puddles, and they get very dirty.
9. Collecting stamps, playing chess, and to mount beautiful butterflies are Derricks
hobbies.
10. Despite Americas affluence, many people are without jobs, on welfare, and have a
lot of debts.
3.6 Speaking Practices
The following are the Possible Questions from the Interviewer of the IELTS
Speaking Test:
1. We are becoming increasingly dependent on computers. They are used in
businesses, hospitals, crime detection and even to fly planes. What things will
they be used for in future? Is this dependence on computers a good thing or
should we be more suspicious of their benefits?
2. In what ways has information technology changed work and working practices
in the past 10 years?
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3. Technology is making communication easier in today's world, but at the expense

of personal contact as many people choose to work at home in front of a
computer screen. What dangers are there for a society which depends on
computer screens rather than face-to-face contact for its main means of
communication?
4. Some businesses now say that no one can smoke cigarettes in any of their
offices. Some governments have banned smoking in all public places. Do you
agree or disagree? Give reasons.
5. Should the same laws which prohibit the sale and consumption of heroin be
applied to tobacco?
6. To what extent is the use of animals in scientific research acceptable?
7. Human beings do not need to eat meat in order to maintain good health because
they can get all their food needs from meatless products and meatless
substances. A vegetarian diet is as healthy as a diet containing meat. Argue for or
against the opinion above.
8. Forests are the lungs of the earth. Destruction of the world's forests amounts to
death of the world we currently know. To what extent do you agree or disagree?
9. Are our zoos cruel to wild animals? Discuss.
10. Zoos are sometimes seen as necessary but not poor alternatives to a natural
environment. Discuss some of the arguments for and/or against keeping animals
in zoos.
11. To what extent should economic planning be influenced by the need of
environmental conservation?
12. Damage of the environment is an inevitable consequence of worldwide
improvements in the standard of living. Discuss.
13. The rising levels of congestion and air pollution found in most of the world cities
can be attributed directly to the rapidly increasing number of private cars in use.
In order to reverse this decline in the quality of life in cities, attempts must be
made to encourage people to use their cars less and public transport more.
Discuss possible ways to encourage the use of public transport.
14. Education is the single most important factor in the development of a country.
Do you agree?
15. What are factors which are related to academic success in high-school students?
16. Do the benefits of study abroad justify the difficulties? What advice would you
offer to a prospective student?
17. The idea of going overseas for university study is an exciting prospect for many
people. But while it may offer some advantages, it is probably better to stay
home because of the difficulties a student inevitably encounters living and
studying in a different culture. To what extent do you agree or disagree this
statement? Give reasons for your answer.
18. What kind of listening challenges do overseas students face in tertiary
education? What recommendations would you offer?
19. Write a report to your sponsoring agency describing the accommodation
problems faced by foreign students in Britain/US/Australia, etc. Make any
necessary recommendations.
20. Education is recognized as vital to the future of any society in today's world.
Governments throughout the world should make education compulsory for all
children between the ages of 5 and 15. To what extent do you agree or disagree
with this statement?
21. Foreign language instruction should begin in kindergarten. Discuss.
22. Children should never be educated at home by their parents. Do you agree or
disagree?
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23. Children learn best by observing behavior of adults and copying it. To what
extent do you agree or disagree with this statement?
24. To what extent should universities function as training grounds for employment?
25. To what extent should university courses be geared to the economic needs of
society?
26. Should wealthy nations be required to share their wealth among poorer nations
by providing such things as food and education? Or is it a responsibility of the
governments of poorer nations to look after their citizens themselves?
27. To what extent will migration from the developing world to the developed world
become a social and political issue in the 21st century?
28. The dominance of black people in US sport is due to sociological rather than
physiological factors. Discuss.
29. In Britain, when someone gets old, they often go to live in a home with other old
people where there are nurses to look after them. Sometimes the government has
to pay for this care. Who should be responsible for our old people? Give reasons.
30. In some countries the average worker is obliged to retire at the age of 50, while
in others people can work until they are 65 or 70. Until what age do you think
people should be encouraged to remain in paid employment? Give reasons for
your answer.
31. In your opinion should government intervene in the rights of the individual with
regard to family planning?
32. To what extent has the traditional male role changed in the last 20 years?
33. Many people believe that women make better parents than men and that this is
why they have the greater role in raising children in most societies. Others claim
that men are just as good as women at parenting Write an essay expressing your
point of view. Give reasons for your answer.
34. The first car appeared on British roads in 1888. By the year 2000 there may be
as many as 29 million vehicles on British roads. Alternative forms of transport
should be encouraged and international laws introduced to control car ownership
and use. What do you think?
35. The best way to reduce the number of traffic accidents is to make all young
drivers complete a safe driving education course before being licensed to drive.
36. The rising levels of congestion and air pollution found in most of the world
cities can be attributed directly to the rapidly increasing number of private cars
in use. Discuss possible ways to encourage the use of public transport.
37. News editors decide what to broadcast on TV and what to print in newspapers.
What factors do you think influence their decisions?
38. Do we become used to bad news? Would it be better if more good news was
reported?
39. TV: could you be without it? Discuss.
40. The mass media, including TV, radio and newspapers, have great influence in
shaping people's ideas. To what extent do you agree or disagree this statement?
Give reasons for your answer.
41. Tourism is becoming increasingly important as a source of revenue to many
countries but its disadvantages should not be overlooked. What are some of the
problems of tourism?
42. Are women better parents than men?
43. Should children should be taught sex education in schools?
44. Should rich countries forgive all debts for poor countries?
45. Will the Internet bring people of the world closer together?
46. Does foreign aid helps donor countries more than the recipients?
47. Are zoos necessary for education?
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48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.

Is animal testing necessary?

Should rich countries pay more for environmental damage?
Should retirement be compulsory at 65 years of age?
Most high level jobs are done by men. Should the government encourage a
certain percentage of these jobs to be reserved for women?
Are famous people treated unfairly by the media? Should they be given more
privacy, or is the price of their fame an invasion into their private lives?
Should developing countries concentrate on improving industrial skills or should
they promote education first?
Safety standards are important when building people's homes. Who should be
responsible for enforcing strict building codes - the government or the people
who build the homes?
Does modern technology make life more convenient, or was life better when
technology was simpler?
In your opinion what factors contribute to a good movie?
Does modern technology make life more convenient, or was life better when
technology was simpler?
Does travel help to promote understanding and communication between
countries?
If children behave badly, should their parents accept responsibility and also be
punished?
What should a government do for a country to become successful?
Should sports classes be sacrificed in High School so students can concentrate
on Academic subjects?
Nowadays doctors can become very rich. Maybe they should not focus on
profitable activities such as plastic surgery or looking after rich patients and
concentrate more on patients health, no matter how rich they are?
Will modern technology, such as the internet ever replace the book or the written
word as the main source of information?
Discuss the advantage and disadvantage of giving international Aid to poor
countries.
Computers can translate all kinds of languages well. Do our children need to
learn more languages in the future?

3.7 Idioms in Daily Conversations

Instruction: Make your own words based on the following idioms!
1. catch a cold ( to become ill with a cold)
2. cheer up (make someone feel happier)
3. bring up (mention, raise an issue or
question)
4. all along ( from the beginning, all the
time)
5. call on (visit, ask to participate)
6. call off (cancel)
7. drop off ( leave)
8. drop out (stop going to school)
9. figure out (understand)
10. do over (do again)
11. find out (discover)
12. get rid of (eliminate, discard)
13. get through (finish)

16. point out (mention, explain)

17. run out of (exhaust the supply of)
18. take part in (participate)
19. turn up ( increase volume/intensity)
20. take off (remove)
21. put on (get dressed in)
22. pick out (select, choose)
23. turn down (decrease volume)
24. take place ( happen, occur)
25. time off ( period of vacation)
26. think of (have an opinion about
something)
27. take it easy (relax, dont worry)
28. show up (appear)
29. put off (delay, postpone)
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14. get over ( recover, overcome)

15. drop by/in (visit informally)

30. so far (until now)

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UNIT 4
Energy and persistence
conquer all things.
~ Benjamin Franklin
4.1 Technology in Use
Before you begin
Hold a short introductory discussion to kick off the course as a whole. Use the
following questions to cue the discussion. In larger groups, students could work in
pairs, or in groups of three or four.
l. What field of engineering are you in / would you like to go into?
Branches of engineering include: mechanical, electrical, civil, structural, process/
manufacturing, automotive, aeronautical, highway, coastal.
2. How would you describe your branch of engineering to a non-specialist?
3. What kind of work do you do / would you like to do within your field?
Possibilities include: design, technical management/supervision/project
management, product/process development, research, investigation/analysis/
trouble-shooting.
4. In what kinds of situation do you / other people in your field need to use English at
work?
Read the text!
The branches of engineering. The three main branches are:
mechanical engineering related with the design and production of machines, for
example engines, pumps, vehicle chassis, automated production lines
electrical engineering related with the design and assembly of electrical circuits
and components, for example power supply networks, electrical controls for
automated machines, electrical systems in vehicles
civil/structural engineering related with the design and construction of large
structures, for example skyscrapers, bridges, dams, tunnels.
There are also many more specialized branches of engineering, for instance,
manufacturing/process engineering (production lines / manufacturing plants),
automotive engineering (vehicles), aeronautical engineering (aircraft).
The specialized disciplines of engineering, and specific engineering projects,
often draw on two or more of the main branches. For example, cars and planes
contain both mechanical and electrical systems requiring mechanical and
electrical engineers to collaborate closely. Similarly, the design and construction
of new power stations requires intricate coordination between mechanical
installations, for example turbines, electrical equipment, for example generators
and the civil engineering structures that support and house them.
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The fact that there is so much interfacing between engineering specializations

means that, beyond the highly specific terminology of their own field, all
engineers need to speak the same general technical language, and possess the
language skills commonly used in technical conversations.
4.2 Conditional Sentences
Conditional sentences are used to express that the action in the main clause (without if)
can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. There are 3
types conditional type 1, 2, and 3.
Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses.
Conditional Sentences Type 1 refer to the future.
An action in the future will only happen if a certain condition is fulfilled by that time.
We don't know for sure whether the condition actually will be fulfilled or not, but the
conditions seems rather realistic so we think it is likely to happen.
Form: if + Simple Present, will-Future
Example: If I find her address, I will send her an invitation.
I want to send an invitation to a friend. I just have to find her address. I am quite
sure, however, that I will find it.
Example: If John has the money, he will buy a Ferrari.
I know John very well and I know that he earns a lot of money and that he loves
Ferraris. So I think it is very likely that sooner or later he will have the money to buy a
Ferrari.
Conditional Sentences Type 2 refer to situations in the present.
An action could happen if the present situation were different.
We don't really expect the situation to change, however. We just imagine what would
happen if . . .
Form: if + Simple Past, Conditional I (= would + Infinitive)
Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.
I would like to send an invitation to a friend. I have looked everywhere for her
address, but I cannot find it. So now I think it is rather unlikely that I will eventually find
her address.
Example: If John had the money, he would buy a Ferrari.

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I know John very well and I know that he doesn't have much money, but he
loves Ferrari. He would like to own a Ferrari (in his dreams). But I think it is very
unlikely that he will have the money to buy one in the near future.
Conditional Sentences Type 3 refer to situations in the past.
An action could have happened in the past if a certain condition had been fulfilled.
Things were different then, however. We just imagine, what would have happened if
the situation had been fulfilled.
Form: if + Past Perfect, Conditional II (= would + have + Past Participle)
Example : If I had found her address, I would have sent her an
invitation
Sometime in the past, I wanted to send an invitation to a friend. I didn't find her
address, however. So in the end I didn't send her an invitation.
Example : If he had had the money, he would have bought a Ferrari.
I knew John very well and I know that he never had much money, but he loved
Ferraris. He would have loved to own a Ferrari, but he never had the money to buy one.
Exercise 1-Supply the correct form of the verb in parentheses for each of the
following sentences.
1. If they had left the house earlier, they ________ (be; negative) so late getting to the
airport that they could not check their baggage.
2. If I finish the dress before Saturday, I ________ (give) it to my sister for her birthday.
3. If I had seen the movie, I _________ (tell) you about it last night.
4. He would give you the money if he _________ (have) it.
5. She would call you immediately if she ________ (need) help.
6. If you have enough time, please ________ (paint) the chair before you leave.
7. We could go for a drive if today __________(be) Saturday.
8. If he had left already, he _________ (call) us.
9. He would understand it if you _______ (explain) it to him more slowly.
10. I could understand the French and Malagasy teachers if they ________(speak) more
slowly.
Exercise 2 Sentence Completion and Error Recognition
1. If Jane _____________ with us, she would have had a good time.
a. would have
b. had come
c. would have come
d. came
2. __________ two waves pass a given point simultaneously, they will have no effect
on each others subsequent
a. So that
b. They are
c. That
d. If
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3. If the customer ___________ not satisfied, please have call the manager.
a. am
b. is
c. are
d. be
4. If the waiter cannot handle your request, the captain _____ assist you.
a. will
b. has
c. did
d. is
5.___________ a reservation, it will be impossible to get a hotel room this weekend
because of the jazz festival.
a. without you have
b. If you have
c. Unless you have
d. Unless having
6. She will have to go as soon as possible if she wanted to catch the last flight.
7. If potatoes are cultivated in every state, Idaho produced the largest crop of all.
8. If the Democratic party would reorganize on a more moderate platform, it could win
the next election.
9. The proposal would be submitted last week, if the resignation of the director had not
made necessary to revise the entire set of options.
10. If the company appreciated Janes success in increasing the market share, he would
not have thought of leaving the company.
4.3 Kinds of Sentences
Experienced writers use a variety of sentences to make their writing interesting and
lively. Too many simple sentences, for example, will sound choppy and immature while
too many long sentences will be difficult to read and hard to understand.
SIMPLE SENTENCE
A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and
it expresses a complete thought. In the following simple sentences, subjects are in
yellow, and verbs are in green.

A. Some students like to study in the mornings.

B. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon.
C. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.
The three examples above are all simple sentences. Note that sentence B contains a
compound subject, and sentence C contains a compound verb. Simple sentences,
therefore, contain a subject and verb and express a complete thought, but they can also
contain a compound subjects or verbs.
COMPOUND SENTENCE
A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The
coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter of
each of the coordinators spells FANBOYS.) Except for very short sentences, coordinators
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are always preceded by a comma. In the following compound sentences, subjects are in
yellow, verbs are in green, and the coordinators and the commas that precede them are in
red.

A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.

B. Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping.
C. Alejandro played football, for Maria went shopping.
The above three sentences are compound sentences. Each sentence contains two
independent clauses, and they are joined by a coordinator with a comma preceding it.
Note how the conscious use of coordinators can change the relationship between the
clauses. Sentences B and C, for example, are identical except for the coordinators. In
sentence B, which action occurred first? Obviously, "Alejandro played football" first,
and as a consequence, "Maria went shopping. In sentence C, "Maria went shopping"
first. In sentence C, "Alejandro played football" because, possibly, he didn't have
anything else to do, for or because "Maria went shopping." How can the use of other
coordinators change the relationship between the two clauses? What implications would
the use of "yet" or "but" have on the meaning of the sentence?
COMPLEX SENTENCE
A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses.
A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or
when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which. In the following complex
sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the subordinators and their
commas (when required) are in red.

A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last
page.
B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.
C. The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow.
D. After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies.
E. Juan and Maria went to the movies after they finished studying.
When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator such as sentences A and D, a
comma is required at the end of the dependent clause. When the independent clause
begins the sentence with subordinators in the middle as in sentences B, C, and E, no
comma is required. If a comma is placed before the subordinators in sentences B, C, and
E, it is wrong.
Note that sentences D and E are the same except sentence D begins with the dependent
clause which is followed by a comma, and sentence E begins with the independent
clause which contains no comma. The comma after the dependent clause in sentence D
is required, and experienced listeners of English will often hear a slight pause there. In
sentence E, however, there will be no pause when the independent clause begins the
sentence.

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COMPLEX SENTENCES / ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Finally, sentences containing adjective clauses (or dependent clauses) are also complex
because they contain an independent clause and a dependent clause. The subjects, verbs,
and subordinators are marked the same as in the previous sentences, and in these
sentences, the independent clauses are also underlined.

A. The woman who(m) my mom talked to sells cosmetics.

B. The book that Jonathan read is on the shelf.
C. The house which AbrahAM Lincoln was born in is still standing.
D. The town where I grew up is in the United States.
Adjective Clauses are studied in this site separately, but for now it is important to know
that sentences containing adjective clauses are complex.
Exercise- Write down 10 simple sentences, 10 compound sentences, as well as 10
complex sentences.
4.4 Active Writing: Transitional words
Transitional devices or words are like bridges between parts of your paper. They are cues
that help the reader to interpret ideas a paper develops. Transitional devices are words or
phrases that help carry a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to another,
or from one paragraph to another. And finally, transitional devices link sentences and
paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas.
Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue readers in
a given way. Each section will include example(s) of how the words can be used.
CATEGORY

TRANSITION
WORDS / PHRASES

EXAMPLE

ADDITION
- These words are used
to add information to
other ideas, concepts
and items on a list.

additionally, again, also,

and then, as well, by the
way, besides, equally
important, finally, first
(second, etc), furthermore,
in addition, lastly, moreover,
next, what is more

CONTRAST
- These words are used
to introduce
contrasting or
opposing ideas,
concepts or theories.

although, but, by contrast,

conversely, despite, even,
however, in contrast, in
reality, in spite of this,
instead, nevertheless,
nonetheless, on the
contrary, on the other hand,
though, unfortunately,
whereas, yet

SIMILARITIES
- These words are used
to introduce ideas,
theories and concepts

also, comparably, in like

manner, in the same way,
likewise, similarly

I have a degree in Early

Childhood Education;
furthermore, I have six years'
experience working with young
children; or,
In addition to my degree in Early
Childhood Education,
I have six years experience
working with young children.
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
may be used to treat depression.
However, there are many
difficulties with this method.
There are benefits of ECT in
severe cases, although more
research is required.

Stress levels can be reduced by

relaxation techniques, which
operate on the principle that one
cannot be tense and relaxed at the

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that are similar to

each other.

same time. In the same way,

exercise has a similar effect on
stress levels.

LOGICAL
REASONING
- These words are used
to indicate where
your ideas are going
and the logical
relationship between
concepts, theories and
facts.

accordingly, as a
consequence, as a result,
because of this,
consequently, hence, so,
subsequently, therefore, thus

Stress can lead to an increase in

muscular tension. Therefore,
stress reduction involves opposing
this state of tension; namely by
using relaxation techniques.

CAUSE AND EFFECT

- These words are used
to indicate the
relationship between
and action and the
result of that action.

accordingly, after all, as a

result, consequently, for this
reason, hence, in this way,
then, therefore, thus, with
this in mind

Stress can cause an increase in

muscular tension, especially in the
muscles around the shoulders and
neck. As a result, an individual
may experience headaches.

TIME
- These words indicate
an association
between ideas,
theories or concepts
that are time
dependent.

again, already, at first, at

that time, during this time,
earlier, finally, firstly
(secondly, etc), formerly,
gradually, immediately, in
future, in the meantime, in
the past, lately, meanwhile,
next, never, once, presently,
recently, shortly,
simultaneously, so far,
sometimes, soon, suddenly,
then, until then, until now

They will write their exams from

4-6:00 p.m., and immediately
afterward, they will proceed to
the banquet.
Biological research led to a
greater understanding of how cells
grow into a variety of other cells.
At the same time, medical
research into transplant therapy
examined the viability of neutral
cell transplants.

SUMMARY
- These words
summarize ideas,
concepts or theories.

altogether, finally, in brief,

in conclusion, in other
words, in summary, to
summarize, to conclude

To summarize, this essay has

shown that treatment of
depression should involve a
combination of therapies.

EXAMPLES
- These words are used
to introduce examples
and illustrations in
your writing.

by way of illustration, for

example, for instance,
namely, specifically, such as,
that is, to illustrate, to
demonstrate, thus

Newfoundland offers many

amenities unavailable in most of
North America; for example, we
have very little air pollution.

ORDER OF
IMPORTANCE
- These words are used
to rate information in
an importance
hierarchy

Least, least important, more

importantly, most important

While there are many ways to

relieve stress, most importantly, it
must be sustainable by the patient.

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/574/02; Transition%20words%2 0and%20phrases.pdf

www.massey.ac.nz/.../Brochures/Assignment%20Writing/ Paragraphs%20-%20

Example:
In the following paragraph, we can see how reference words are used not only to tie
sentences and paragraphs together, but also to emphasize the main idea.
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Writing a paper is often difficult and many times rewarding. First, I don't always know what
to write about, so I often need to research, talk to people, and think about what I know before
I come up with a strong topic. In addition, writing a paper takes time and energy. Time is
needed to select and narrow a topic, to generate information and structure ideas, to knock out
draft after draft, and to edit for my usual typos and mechanical errors. Besides the time
involved, energy (and lots of food to produce it) is needed so I can produce my best work.
Although writing a paper is sometimes difficult, it can be very rewarding. I enjoy seeing
words which say exactly what I want them to. I also feel proud when everything "clicks."
Finally, knowing that I've done my best work and earned a good grade too are strong
personal rewards.
http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/style/cohesion.html

Exercise 3.4 Sentence completion

Use the transitions at the right in the sentences at the left. In each group, use a transition
only once. Read each sentence carefully so that you can choose an appropriate transition.
1. I would like to see you tomorrow, ______ lets have lunch
together.
2. My sister loves to eat, ______ I dont care much about food.
3. When you begin an exercise program, you must be careful not
to overdo it. My father, ______ hurt his back by exercising too
hard without warming up first.
4. She had looked everywhere for a job; ______ she was called
for beyond an interview.

for example
finally
but
so
still
beyond
to the left

5. She had been studying for hours. ______ she hoped to do third
well on the test.
6. First, Mary went to the store. ______, she went to visit her
mother.
7. I would like to read many books; ______, I dont seem to have
as a result enough time to read.
8. John ate and ate; ______, he never gained weight.
9. Joe ate too fast. ______ he had indigestion.

similarly
third
nevertheless
however
as a result
then
for instance
therefore

10. He stayed up too late last night; ______, he slept until noon.
11. I want you to buy milk, eggs, and fruit juice; ______, I want
you to be sure to get cereal and ice cream.
12. I was concentrating on my homework. ______, the soup boiled
over.
13. ______, I will boil the water. Second, I will brew the tea, and
______, I will serve it.
14. Joe, ______, happens to be my best friend.
15. Jane studies all the time; ______, Billy never studies.

meanwhile
furthermore
first
third
in fact
until then
consequently
in contrast

Exercise 3.5 Sentence building

Make one sentence from the two below, using the word(s) in brackets.
Example:
- It was raining. We played football. (even though) => Even though it was raining, we
played football.
1. He wanted to ask her name. He was too shy. (but)
2. She wasn't very rich. She gave money to the beggar. (although)
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

He was taking a shower. She was in the kitchen cooking. (meanwhile)

We left early. We wanted to arrive on time. (so that)
The weather was bad. They enjoyed the trip. (even though)
I'm not tired at all. I'm feeling full of energy. (on the contrary)
He didnt have his watch on. He couldnt tell her what time it was. (therefore)
They work fast. They finish early. (consequently)
He needed an education. His parents decided to send him to school. (because)
The school doesn't have money for books. The building is old. (furthermore)
He worked seven days a week, twenty hours a day. He got sick. (as a result)
I am too busy to help you. I think you can do it by yourself. (moreover)
He loved her very much. She didn't ask her to marry him. (however)
He had dinner and did his homework. He watched TV for a while. (afterwards)
She was very hungry. She didnt touch anything on his plate. (nevertheless)

http://www.learn-english-today.com/free-english-lessons/; free-english-lesson_contents/linking-words-x.htm
http://eslprof.com/handouts/; eslprof.com/handouts/Comp/RelatingIdeas.doc

4.5 Writing
Part 1- Writing Paragraphs
Writing a paragraph is not a natural skill, but learned skill. Anyone can learn! Simply
follow the structure below.
WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH?
A paragraph usually contains a general idea in one sentence, and 4 - 5 supporting
sentences which expand this idea by giving explanation, details and/or examples to
support the main idea. Length can vary.
On the page, the paragraph is a solid block of writing (like this!) To start a new
paragraph, you should leave a whole line and start at the beginning of the line after. You
can indent - if handwriting (start about 2 cm from the left), but this is not necessary if
you have left a line.
WHY USE PARAGRAPHS?
Paragraphs are used to separate main ideas. A new paragraph signals to the reader that a
new idea is about to be discussed. The break between paragraphs gives the reader time to
take in each idea.
HOW IS A PARAGRAPH STRUCTURED?
There is no one correct structure. However, a useful structure is:
1. Topic Sentence
This is the first sentence and it expresses the main idea.
2. Supporting Sentences
Details that expand your main idea.
3. Concluding Sentence
a rounding off, possibly by summarizing what has been said or drawing a
logical conclusion from it.

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(Note that in a piece of writing which is longer than one paragraphed you
should leave your conclusion to the very end!)
HOW DO YOU WRITE A PARAGRAPH?
Planning is essential. Even in situations where time is limited, you should plan by
briefly noting your points.
A plan can look like this:

When you are planning, Jot down just enough to remind you of your points.
Number your points so that when you write you know what order you are going to
write them in.
WRITING...
Sample of the finished paragraph:
There are three levels of government in Australia. The Commonwealth looks
after areas of national importance such as postal services, foreign affairs, and
collecting and distributing taxes. It also supervises the armed forces. The State
Governments' responsibilities include hospitals, schools and the state police
forces. Local concerns, such as suburban streets and garbage services, are
looked after by Local Government. So, in general, the responsibilities of each
level of government are appropriate to the geographical area it serves.

HOW DO YOU MAKE YOUR PARAGRAPHS FLOW?

Sometimes writing sounds jerky when read. You can make your paragraph more flowing
by:
Using linking words and phrases such as: also, as well as, firstly, next,
1. then, finally, so thus, as a result, because, therefore, for example, for
instance, in contrast, on the other hand.
Using pronouns: Once mentioned, Jack Smith can become he, Dr. Susan
2. Brown can be she, and the community can be called it, - as long as the
meaning is clear.
3. Starting sentences in different ways. For example:

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Draft sentence:
"In Australia, there are three levels of government"
Instead, you could write...
"Government in Australia is on three different levels"
or...
"There are three different levels of government in Australia."
Topic Sentence and Controlling Ideas
1. The Topic Sentence
A topic sentence tells what a paragraph is going to be about. It introduces a topic
or subject of a paragraph. As a sentence, it is a complete sentence of at least a
subject and a verb; generally it also has a complement. A topic sentence is not
only a statement simply telling a fact, but it gives a kind of judgment or evaluation
of a writers attitude, feeling or idea upon the fact that is stated as a controlling
idea.
2. Controlling Idea (s)
Controlling idea (s) control the information that is going to be written in a
paragraph; a controlling idea needs further explanation. In consequence, there are
two important elements of a good topic sentence; a subject and a controlling idea.
These are the examples of good topic sentences;
1. Bali is well known for its many tourist attractions.
a topic/subject
the controlling idea
Moreover, a controlling idea determines or controls the information that will be
discussed in all supporting sentences; it leads the direction of the discussion.
Therefore, those supporting sentences of the paragraph relate one to others and
explain the controlling idea as a focus. To emphasize, controlling idea should be clear
and focus on a particular aspect.
Exercise 1 Rewrite and underline the Topic/Subject and Controlling Idea (CI) for
the topic sentences below.
1. Gold is prized for two important characteristics.
2. Although wealthy, she is not an arrogant girl.
3. Spectacular beaches make Puerto Rico as a tourist paradise.
4. Participation in class discussion in English is a problem for foreign students
5. Educating the public can slow the spread of AIDS.
Exercise 2 Select among these topic sentences for writing a good paragraph.
1. Sports are great to watch as well as to play.
2. Many things make learning English difficult.
3. The Honda Jazz is an excellent automobile.
4. Malang is an ideal place to live.
Exercise 3 Descriptive Writing. Read the examples of descriptive writing below, and
then make your own paragraph to describe your favorite place or favorite public figure.
Example 1
Our airport is an interesting and busy place. It located several miles from the city.
You approach it by a curving high way from the city, and the first thing you see is
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the passenger building. On top of it is the control tower. It dominates the skyline.
Alongside the passenger building are several low buildings used for storage and
repair of airplanes. Beyond these buildings, is the airfield itself, a maze of
cementing runways. On these runways, resting like giant birds, are the airplanes.
Everywhere there is a rush of people, buses and airplanes.
Example 2
Abraham Lincoln was a strong man, both physically and mentally. He was 1.90
meters tall. He was thin, but weighed 81 kilos. He was physically powerful, and he
could lift over 180 kilos easily. His mind and body worked steadily, and he never
seemed to tire mentally or physically. He was not handsome by any means nor was
he ugly. He was very pain looking and plain acting. Although his physical
appearances and dress made him common looking, his actions and decisions were
anything but common.
Part 2- Writing Essays
1. HOW DO I INTERPRET THE TOPIC?
To write an effective essay you must follow the directions you find in the assignment.
A perfectly written essay that doesn't answer the question/ task will lose marks. Essays
show how well you understand a topic and allow you to share your thought and opinions
(supported by experts).
Think clearly about your task.
What information do I need?
Information on the main topic and the specific areas of the topic.
What do I do with that information? The essay topic is directed by an action word.
The action word tells you what must be done with the topic in the essay.
Do you know your action words?
ACTION WORDS:
discuss
contrast
review, interpret, examine,
critically evaluate or analyse

analyse
evaluate

compare
argue

2. HOW DO I PLAN THE ESSAY AND ORGANISE MY IDEAS?

You have gathered your information and begun to organize it during your note taking.
Now you need to sort the material again - brainstorm, make connections between ideas
by mind mapping, or by a list of headings. Next, you order the material into a logical
sequence for how you want to present the ideas.
First: What is your answer to the question?
What is the answer to your question?

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What points do you need to make to support or give evidence to prove your answer?
What is the best order to arrange these points? Are they relevant to the topic? These
points become your paragraphs in the body of your essay. Remember you are arguing
your point of view, showing you are aware of their views, but maintaining your stance.
These questions can be answered by using:
Mind Map

Imagine that you are in the kitchen debating your assignment with one or more people.
What stand do you take and what points do you make to support it? Role play other
points of view. Challenge your own! Tape your debate if you wish!
3. How to Write an Essay
There are many ways to write an essay. However, the standard essay form follows the
same basic patterns as discussed in this 'how to'.
Here's How:
1. Select the topic of your essay.
2. Choose the central idea, or thesis, of your essay. For example: Information
technology has revolutionized the way we work.
3. Outline your essay into introductory, body and summary paragraphs.
4. The introductory paragraph begins with an interesting sentence. For example:
Home workers have grown from 150,000 to over 12 million in the past 5 years
thanks to the wonders of the computer.
5. After this first sentence, add your thesis statement from above.
6. Use one sentence to introduce every body paragraph to follow. For example: The
Internet has made this possible by extending the office into the home.
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7. Finish the introductory paragraph with a short summary or goal statement. For
example: Technological innovation has thus made the traditional workplace
obsolete.
8. In each of the body paragraphs (usually two or three) the ideas first presented in
the introductory paragraph are developed.
9. Develop your body paragraphs by giving detailed information and examples. For
example: When the Internet was first introduced it was used primarily by
scientists, now it is common in every classroom.
10. Body paragraphs should develop the central idea and finish with a summary of
that idea. There should be at least two examples or facts in each body paragraph
to support the central idea.
11. The summary paragraph summarizes your essay and is often a reverse of the
introductory paragraph.
12. Begin the summary paragraph by quickly restating the principal ideas of your
body paragraphs. For example: The Internet in the home, benefits and ease of
use of modern computer systems...
13. The penultimate sentence should restate your basic thesis of the essay. For
example: We have now passed from the industrial revolution to the information
revolution.
14. Your final statement can be a future prediction based on what you have shown in
the essay. For example: The next step: The complete disappearance of the
workplace.
Tips:
1. Use strong verbs and avoid modals to state your opinion. It is better to write: The
workplace has evolved than The workplace seems to have evolved
2. Do not apologize for what you are saying. An essay is about your opinion.
3. Do not translate from your mother tongue. It will quickly get you into trouble!
What You Need:
Computer or Typewriter
Dictionary
4. Use this Sample Basic Essay as a Model
The essay below demonstrates the principles of writing a basic essay. The
different parts of the essay have been labeled. The thesis statement is in bold, the
topic sentences are in italics, and each main point is underlined. When you write
your own essay, of course, you will not need to mark these parts of the essay
unless your teacher has asked you to do so. They are marked here just so that
you can more easily identify them.
"A dog is man's best friend." That common saying may contain some truth, but
dogs are not the only animal friend whose companionship people enjoy. For
many people, a cat is their best friend. Despite what dog lovers may believe,
cats make excellent house pets as they are good companions, they are
civilized members of the household, and they are easy to care for.
In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many cats are
affectionate. They will snuggle up and ask to be petted, or scratched under the
chin. Who can resist a purring cat? If they're not feeling affectionate, cats are
generally quite playful. They love to chase balls and feathers, or just about
anything dangling from a string. They especially enjoy playing when their
owners are participating in the game. Contrary to popular opinion, cats can be

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trained. Using rewards and punishments, just like with a dog, a cat can be trained
to avoid unwanted behavior or perform tricks. Cats will even fetch!
In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household. Unlike dogs,
cats do not bark or make other loud noises. Most cats don't even meow very
often. They generally lead a quiet existence. Cats also don't often have
"accidents." Mother cats train their kittens to use the litter box, and most cats
will use it without fail from that time on. Even stray cats usually understand the
concept when shown the box and will use it regularly. Cats do have claws, and
owners must make provision for this. A tall scratching post in a favorite cat area
of the house will often keep the cat content to leave the furniture alone. As a last
resort, of course, cats can be declawed.
Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as house pets is their ease of
care. Cats do not have to be walked. They get plenty of exercise in the house as
they play, and they do their business in the litter box. Cleaning a litter box is a
quick, painless procedure. Cats also take care of their own grooming. Bathing a
cat is almost never necessary because under ordinary circumstances cats clean
themselves. Cats are more particular about personal cleanliness than people are.
In addition, cats can be left home alone for a few hours without fear. Unlike
some pets, most cats will not destroy the furnishings when left alone. They are
content to go about their usual activities until their owners return.
Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who have small living
quarters or less time for pet care should appreciate these characteristics of cats.
However, many people who have plenty of space and time still opt to have a cat
because they love the cat personality. In many ways, cats are the ideal house pet.
Exercise: Choose one of the topics from IELTS speaking test on page 25 to write down
your essay writing.
Success is not final, failure is not fatal:
it is the courage to continue that counts.
~Winston Churchill (1874-1965), former Prime Minister of the UK
(1940-1945, 1951- 1955), and a Nobel Prize-winning writer

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