QUADRATURE MODULATION:

DEFINITION:
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is a modulation scheme used for both
digital and analog signals. QAM doubles the effective bandwidth by combining two
amplitude-modulated signals into a single channel. This allows multiple analog
signals to be placed on a single carrier.

Comparison of 8-QAM, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM 128QAM, 256-QAM, Types

- comparison between 8 QAM (8QAM), 16 QAM (16QAM), 32 QAM
(32QAM), 64 QAM (64QAM), 128 QAM (128QAM), and 256 QAM
(256QAM), types of Quadrature Amplitude Modulation.
QAM, Quadrature amplitude modulation is widely used in many
digital data radio communications and data communications
applications . A variety of forms of QAM are available and some of
the more common forms include 16 QAM, 32 QAM, 64 QAM, 128
QAM, and 256 QAM. Here the figures refer to the number of points
on the constellation, i.e. the number of distinct states that can
exist.
The various flavours of QAM may be used when data-rates beyond those offered
by 8-PSK are required by a radio communications system. This is because QAM
achieves a greater distance between adjacent points in the I-Q plane by distributing

the points more evenly. And in this way the points on the constellation are more
distinct and data errors are reduced. While it is possible to transmit more bits per
symbol, if the energy of the constellation is to remain the same, the points on the
constellation must be closer together and the transmission becomes more
susceptible to noise. This results in a higher bit error rate than for the lower order
QAM variants. In this way there is a balance between obtaining the higher data
rates and maintaining an acceptable bit error rate for any radio communications
system.
QAM applications
QAM is in many radio communications and data delivery applications. However
some specific variants of QAM are used in some specific applications and
standards.
For domestic broadcast applications for example, 64 QAM and 256 QAM are often
used in digital cable television and cable modem applications. In the UK, 16 QAM
and 64 QAM are currently used for digital terrestrial television using DVB Digital Video Broadcasting. In the US, 64 QAM and 256 QAM are the mandated
modulation schemes for digital cable as standardised by the SCTE in the standard
ANSI/SCTE 07 2000.
In addition to this, variants of QAM are also used for many wireless and cellular
technology applications.
Constellation diagrams for QAM
The constellation diagrams show the different positions for the states within
different forms of QAM, quadrature amplitude modulation. As the order of the

modulation increases, so does the number of points on the QAM constellation

diagram.
The diagrams below show constellation diagrams for a variety of formats of
modulation:

QAM bits per symbol

The advantage of using QAM is that it is a higher order form of modulation and as
a result it is able to carry more bits of information per symbol. By selecting a
higher order format of QAM, the data rate of a link can be increased.
The table below gives a summary of the bit rates of different forms of QAM and
PSK.

Modulation
BPSK
QPSK
8PSK
16QAM
32QAM
64QAM

Bits per symbol

1
2
3
4
5
6

Symbol Rate
1 x bit rate
1/2 bit rate
1/3 bit rate
1/4 bit rate
1/5 bit rate
1/6 bit rate

QAM noise margin

While higher order modulation rates are able to offer much faster data rates and
higher levels of spectral efficiency for the radio communications system, this
comes at a price. The higher order modulation schemes are considerably less
resilient to noise and interference.
As a result of this, many radio communications systems now use dynamic adaptive
modulation techniques. They sense the channel conditions and adapt the
modulation scheme to obtain the highest data rate for the given conditions. As
signal to noise ratios decrease errors will increase along with re-sends of the data,
thereby slowing throughput. By reverting to a lower order modulation scheme the
link can be made more reliable with fewer data errors and re-set.

QAM modulator basics

The QAM modulator essentially follows the idea that can be seen from the basic QAM theory
where there are two carrier signals with a phase shift of 90 between them. These are then
amplitude modulated with the two data streams known as the I or In-phase and the Q or
quadrature data streams. These are generated in the baseband processing area.

Basic QAM modulator diagram

The two resultant signals are summed and then processed as required in the RF signal chain,
typically converting them in frequency to the required final frequency and amplifying them as
required.
It is worth noting that as the amplitude of the signal varies any RF amplifiers must be linear to
preserve the integrity of the signal. Any non-linearities will alter the relative levels of the signals
and alter the phase difference, thereby distorting he signal and introducing the possibility of data
errors.

QAM demodulator basics

The QAM demodulator is very much the reverse of the QAM modulator.
The signals enter the system, they are split and each side is applied to a mixer. One half has the
in-phase local oscillator applied and the other half has the quadrature oscillator signal applied.

Basic QAM demodulator diagram

The basic modulator assumes that the two quadrature signals remain exactly in quadrature.
A further requirement is to derive a local oscillator signal for the demodulation that is exactly on
the required frequency for the signal. Any frequency offset will be a change in the phase of the
local oscillator signal with respect to the two double sideband suppressed carrier constituents of
the overall signal.
Systems include circuitry for carrier recovery that often utilises a phase locked loop - some even
have an inner and outer loop. Recovering the phase of the carrier is important otherwise the bit
error rate for the data will be compromised.
Mode S Uplink interrogations use into the P6 pulse Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) to
modulate the data in the uplink format. It is a type of phase modulation that conveys data by
changing the phase of the carrier wave. All subsequent information in the P6 pulse is coded as
180 phase reversals of the carrier frequency. DPSK is a kind of phase shift keying which avoids
the need for a coherent reference signal at the receiver. Each reversal must have a duration of
0.08 s. Each received phase section has a duration of 0.25 s and is known as a chip The
DPSK decoder compares the phase between two consecutive chips and verify what the data must
have been.
In ICAO Annex 10 Volume 4 is the interrogation data format described as follows: The
interrogation data block shall consist of the sequence of 56 or 112 data chips positioned after the
data phase reversals within P6. A 180-degree carrier phase reversal preceding a chip shall
characterize that chip as a binary ONE. The absence of a preceding phase reversal shall denote a
binary ZERO.
After the sync phase reversal all subsequent phase reversals indicate the 56 or 112 bit P6
information. All subsequent timing is taken from the point of the first phase reversal. The series

of chips starts 0.5 s after the sync reversal. At the end of P6 pulse there is a guard interval of
0.5 s to ensure that distinct transmissions do not interfere with one another.

Figure 2: Block diagram of DPSK receiver

Whether the interrogation is short or a long pulse, the total duration of the P6 pulse is either
16.25 s (56 data chips) or 30.25 s (112 data chips). The P6 begins with an initial phase reversal
at the start of the P6 pulse with a length of 1.25 s. This is known as the sync phase reversal. To
supress antenna sidelobes the pulse P5 is transmitted by an omnidirectional antenna. This pulse
overlays the sync phase reversal and the transponder cannot decode the interrogation.
Figure 2 shows an evident option method of demodulation. At this DPSK decoder, the original
sequence is recovered from the demodulated differentially encoded signal through a
complementary process. The whole received signal is delayed for exact 0.25 microseconds. The
origin and the delayed part will be compared. If the signals are in phase to each other, there is a
lower output than if the phases (and the maximum amplitudes) have a contrary magnitude. From
this output signal, the original serial bit pattern can be restored, which is indicated only by a low
pass filter with the following threshold device.

Figure 3: Decoder wave analysis

In Figure 3 the signal (C) at the output of the mixer is shown, formed by superposition of the
delayed signal (B) and the undelayed original (A). An allocation of the output level to a bit can
only be done, if by the synchronous phase reversal at the beginning of the P6 pulse triggers a
counter to clock a shift register.