GROUP 2

FACHMI ANDRIYANTO

(F14130011)

DATE: 27th APRIL 2015

RIZQI PRASTYO

(F14130014)

LECTURER: YULIANTO

NUR KHAIRIL

(F14130016)

M. ARI PURNAMA ADJI

(F14130027)

A. INTRODUCTION
A head transfer situation in which time is not a factor is design as
steady state. The consideration of heat transfer where time is not considered
affords some simplification in the analysis. The governing equation for
steady-state conduction with internal generation is (Welty, 1978 and Holman,
1989)

2T

Where

q
0...................................................................(1)
k

2T : temperature gradient in vector form

: heat flow vector

: thermal conductivity vector

which is known as the Poisson equation; and for stedy-state

conduction without internal generation of heat, the Laplace equation applies:

2T 0...........................................................................( 2)

Both of the above equations apply to an asotropic medium, that is,

one whose propertise do not vary with direction, physical properties are also
presumed independent of temperature.
The initial consideration is one-dimensional steady-state conduction
without internal generation of energy. As just discussed, the Laplace equation
applies to this case. A general form of the Laplace equation in one dimension
is

d i dT
x
0....................................................................(3)
dx
dx

Where
x

: critical geometry in the direction of heat transfer, m

d
dx

: temperature gradient along x axis

: 0, 1, or 2 in rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates,

respectevely.

Plane Walls
In this case of a plane wall, equation (3) with i = 0 applies.
The equation and boundary conditions to be satisfied are

To
TL
L
x
Figure 1. Steady-state conduction in a plane wall.

d 2T
=0
dx 2

.......(4)

T(x) = T (0) = T0

at x = 0

T(x) = T (L) = TL

at x = L

Where
T0

temperature at x = 0, K

TL

temperature at x = L, K

Equation (4) may be separated and integrated twice to yield

T(x) = c1x+c2

.(5)

And the constant of integration c1 and c2 evaluated, by applying the boundary

equations, to be
c1 =

TL T0
L

and c2 = T0

When c1 and c2 are substituted into equation (5), the final expression for the
temperature profiles becomes
T(x) =

TL T0
x T0
L

T(x) = T0

T0 TL
x
L

.. (6)

According to equation (6), the temperature variation in a plane wall under the
conditions specified is linear.
The Fourier rate equation maybe used to determine the heat flux of
heat flow rate in this case. The rate equation is repeated below, in scalar form,
for reference
qx = -kA

dT
dx

(7)

Where
qx

: heat flux, W/m2

: cross section area m2

: thermal conductivity, W/m K

Since, in the steady state case, q is constant, this equation may be

separated and integrated directly as
L

TL

T0

q x dx kA dT

Giving
qx =

kA
(T0 TL )
L

... (8)

Alternately, the temperature gradient dT/dx could have been evaluated

from equation (6) and substituted into equation (7) to achieve the identical
result. These two alternate means of evaluating heat flux, either by direct
integration of the Fourier rate equation or by solving for the temperature
profile and substituting the temperature gradient expression into the rate
equation, are both employed in subsequent examples. One approach may be
simpler than another in certain case, but no general statement can be made in
this regard.
The quantity kA/L, in equation (8), is the thermal conductance for a
flat plate or wall. The reciprocal of this quantity, L/kA, is designed the
thermal resistance.
B. OBJECTIVES
a. To asses the characteristic of the steady state heat transfer through the
plane walls.
b. To determine the rate of steady heat transfer through the plane walls.
C. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS
Material are plane walls made out of aluminum. The set up of
experiment is illustrated comprises of hybrid Recorder Yokogawa DR 130, a
water bath at 1000C and thermocouples. Eleven observation points are
inserted in to the aluminum block and the distance between two observation
points are 0.01 m.

Water bath
Water 100oC
Hybrid Recorder

Aluminum
Block as
Plane wall
Observation
Point

Fig. 2. Experimental set up for heat transfer through a plane wall.

D. METHODS
a. Record the initial temperature at the observation points located as
described.
b. Pour boiling water at 1000C into the water both until the water surfaces
reaches the height of the aluminum plane wall. Maintain the water at the
constant temperature.
c. Record the temperature development at the observation points in an
interval of two minutes.
E. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Experimental Data
T
Time
(Minute)

Water

10

1'

99,2

92,9

42,9

78,6

71,3

65,2

59,9

54,4

50,8

47,7

46,8

2'

99,2

93,2

46,7

79,5

72,6

66,6

61,5

55,9

52,2

49

48,1

3'

99,2

93,2

91,2

80,5

73,9

68,3

32,6

57,9

54,2

51

50

4'

99,2

93,4

91,3

81,3

75,1

69,7

30,4

59,7

56

52,9

51,9

5'

99,1

92,8

91,3

81,9

76,2

71,3

30

61,6

58

54

53,9

6'

99,2

93,2

91,6

82,5

77,2

72,5

63,3

63,2

59,7

56,6

55,6

7'

99,2

93

91,7

83,1

78,1

73,7

69

64,7

61,3

58,5

57,3

8'

99,2

93

92,1

83,2

78,1

73,8

69

64,7

61,4

58,6

57,4

9'

99,2

93,2

91,9

83,6

78,8

74,8

65,4

66,3

62,9

60,1

59,1

10'

99,2

93,4

92

84,1

79,5

75,7

70,9

67,5

64,5

61,6

60,7

11'

99,2

93,1

92,2

84,5

80,3

76,7

72

68,8

66,3

63,1

62

12'

99,1

93,1

92,1

84,8

80,8

77,4

72,8

69,9

63,1

64,4

63,4

13'

99,2

93,5

92,4

85,1

81,4

78,2

73,6

71

68,1

65,7

64,5

14'

99,2

93,4

92,5

85,5

81,9

78,9

72,6

72

69,1

66,8

65,8

15'

99,2

93,3

92,5

85,7

82,4

79,5

75,1

72,8

45,7

67,9

66,3

T5
73

Calculation Data
x/t
1'

Water
99,2

T1
93,96

T2
88,72

T3
T4
83,48 78,24

T6
T7
T8
T9
67,76 62,52 57,28 52,04

T10
46,8

2'

99,2

94,09

88,98

83,87 78,76 73,65 68,54 63,43 58,32 53,21

48,1

3'

99,2

94,28

89,36

84,44 79,52

4'

99,2

94,47

89,74

85,01 80,28 75,55 70,82 66,09 61,36 56,63

51,9

5'

99,1

94,58

90,06

85,54 81,02

76,5

71,98 67,46 62,94 58,42

53,9

6'

99,2

94,84

90,48

86,12 81,76

77,4

73,04 68,68 64,32 59,96

55,6

7'

99,2

95,01

90,82

86,63 82,44 78,25 74,06 69,87 65,68 61,49

57,3

8'

99,2

95,02

90,84

86,66 82,48

57,4

9'

99,2

95,19

91,18

87,17 83,16 79,15 75,14 71,13 67,12

63,11

59,1

10'

99,2

95,35

91,5

87,65

83,8

79,95

76,1

64,55

60,7

11'

99,2

95,48

91,76

88,04 84,32

80,6

76,88 73,16 69,44 65,72

12'

99,1

95,53

91,96

88,39 84,82 81,25 77,68

74,11 70,54 66,97

63,4

13'

99,2

95,73

92,26

88,79 85,32 81,85 78,38 74,91 71,44 67,97

64,5

14'

99,2

95,86

92,52

89,18 85,84

79,16 75,82 72,48 69,14

65,8

15'

99,2

95,91

92,62

89,33 86,04 82,75 79,46 76,17 72,88 69,59

66,3

SAMPLE OF CALCULATION
Table 2

74,6

78,3

82,5

69,68 64,76 59,84 54,92

74,12 69,94 65,76 61,58

72,25

68,4

50

62

T(x) = T0

T0 TL
x
L

=99,2 0C
=46,8 0C
L=0,1 m
X=0,01
T(1)= T0

T0 TL
x = 99,2 (99,2 - 46,8) 0,01/0,1 = 93,96 0C
L

T(2)= T0

T0 TL
x = 99,2 (99,2 - 46,8) 0,02/0,1 = 88,72 0C
L

T(3)= T0

T0 TL
x = 99,2 (99,2 - 46,8) 0,03/0,1 = 83,48 0C
L

Calculation of Heat Flux

Time
(Minute)

To

TL

qx/A

1'

99,2

46,8

120520

2'

99,2

48,1

117530

3'

99,2

50

113160

4'

99,2

51,9

108790

5'

99,1

53,9

103960

6'

99,2

55,6

100280

7'

99,2

57,3

96370

8'

99,2

57,4

96140

9'

99,2

59,1

92230

10'

99,2

60,7

88550

11'

99,2

62

85560

12'

99,1

63,4

82110

13'

99,2

64,5

79810

14'

99,2

65,8

76820

15'

99,2

66,3

75670

THE CALCULATION OF HEAT FLUX

Table 3

qx
k
(To TL )
A
L

K = 230 W/m K

qx
k
(To TL )
A
L
=

230
(99,2 46,8)
0,1

= 120520 W/m

GRAPH OF TEMPERATURE AND TIME FROM EXPERIMENT

GRAPH OF TEMPERATURE AND TIME FROM CALCULATION

GRAPH OF TIME AND HEAT FLUX FROM CALCULATION

Discussion
Heat transfer is the transition of thermal energy from a hotter mass
to a cooler mass. When an object is at a different temperature than its
surroundings or another object, transfer of thermal energy, also known as
heat flow, or heat exchange, occurs in such a way that the body and the
surroundings reach thermal equilibrium; this means that they are at the same
temperature. Heat transfer always occurs from a higher-temperature object to
a cooler-temperature one as described by the second law of thermodynamics
or the Clausius statement. Where there is a temperature difference between
objects in proximity, heat transfer between them can never be stopped; it can
only be slowed. (www.wikipedia.org)
Conduction involves the transfer of heat by the interaction between
adjacent molecules of a material. Heat transfer by conduction is dependent
upon the driving "force" of temperature difference and the resistance to heat
transfer. The resistance to heat transfer is dependent upon the nature and
dimensions of the heat transfer medium. All heat transfer problems involve
the temperature difference, the geometry, and the physical properties of the
object being studied. (www.engineersedge.com)
Metals (e.g. copper, platinum, gold, iron, etc.) are usually the best
conductors of thermal energy. This is due to the way that metals are
chemically bonded: metallic bonds (as opposed to covalent or ionic bonds)

have free-moving electrons which are able to transfer thermal energy rapidly
through the metal.
As density decreases so does conduction. Therefore, fluids (and
especially gases) are less conductive. This is due to the large distance
between atoms in a gas: fewer collisions between atoms means less
conduction. Conductivity of gases increases with temperature. Conductivity
increases with increasing pressure from vacuum up to a critical point that the
density of the gas is such that molecules of the gas may be expected to collide
with each other before they transfer heat from one surface to another. After
this point in density, conductivity increases only slightly with increasing
pressure and density. (www.wikipedia.org)
From the experiment, there are error datas because of the equipment
error. Because of that the graph from experiment not same with graph from
calculation.

F. CONCLUSION
From this experiment, the practician can dtermine and study the process
of heat transfer in plane walls. Practician can conclude that the heat transfer
is influenced by thickness of material and heating time. The value of material
temperature can determined by Hybrid recorder or by calculation with
formula.

G. REFERENCES
H.

Purwadaria, H.K. and friends. 1990. Termodinamika Teknik. Bogor

Agricultural University: Bogor.

http://www.engineersedge.com/heat_transfer/conduction.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer#Conduction