POS 130

Internal Relations
- (Stanley Hoffman)- an area of study that
is concerned with the factors and activities
which affect the external policies of the
basic units into which the world is
divided.
Basic Units:
1. State Actors
2. Non State Actors
International Politics
- (Hans Morgenthau)- it involves struggle
for power. It is a process in which national
interests are adjusted.
- (Richard Synder, H.W. Bruck and Burton
Sapin)- it is a process of state interaction
at the governmental level.
3 areas of study under international
relations:
1. International Politics
2. International Law
3. International Organization
International Relations as an area of
study rests on the following
assumptions:
1. The nation- state is the basic political
unit in the world today, but there are non
state actors that exert influence in
international affairs.
2. There are interactions between and
among these units that form the basis of
international relation.
State Actors- Governments
Non State Actors
- NGOs
- Multinational corporations
- violent non state actors
1. Territorial
non
state
actorsMNCs/TNCs/Religious groups
2. Non
territorial
transnational
organizations
3. Intergovernmental
organizations
(INGOs)

State Actors vs Non State Actors

- Nation states- command obedience
within the people
- Nation states- enjoy sovereignty
- They have the capabilities to employ the
ultimate threat/war
* Nation-states, unlike non state actors,
are concerned with the full range welfare
and security issues.
Sovereignty- the supreme power of
the state to command and enforce
obedience to its will within the
jurisdiction and corollarily, to have
freedom from foreign control.
The Nation Of International Relations/
Inter-State Relations
- based on the principles of sovereignty
and territoriality
- the state is viewed as a secular and
territorial [state]
- the principles of sovereignty and
territoriality
are
the
foundations/cornerstones of interstate
relations
territorial
frontiers/boundaries
correspond to any of the following:
A. Geographic distinction
B. Ethno-linguistic identity
Intervention
- (Hedley Bull)- a dictatorial or coercive
interference by an outside party or parties
in the sphere of jurisdiction of a sovereign
state, or more broadly, of an independent
political community.
- (Peter Schraeder)- the calculated use of
political,
economic
and
military
instruments of one country to influence
the domestic or foreign policies of another
country.

* comprehensive because it is not only

limited to coercion because of subtle
means of influence.
Internal- power of the state to rule
within its territory
External- freedom of the state to carry
out its activities without subjection to
or control by the states. "independence"
Philippine Sovereignty- are more
viable to influences
- not absolute because of the
influences,
the
governments'
decisions are affected by other
organizations.
* Sovereignty today is no longer absolute,
in practice, because of the development of
international relations and consequently of
international law.
* Sovereignty is not absolute. Absolute
sovereignty is a myth.
- as long as a country is a member of an
organization
The Philippines having an interdependent
relationships:
Be a member- investing something in
terms of commitment, contributions,
financial, cause
- To get benefits or some
protection
Proof:
Self-determination
- (Alfred Cobban) The right of
a nation to constitute an
independent
state
and
determine its own government
for itself.
- (United Nations documents)
All people have the right to
self-determination; by virtue of
that right they may freely
determine their political status
and freely pursue their
economic, social and cultural
development.
- (1981
Draft
International

Covenant on the Rights of

Indigenous
People)
All
indigenous people have the
right to self-determination; by
virtue of that right they may
freely determine their political
status and freely pursue their
economic, social and cultural
development. Indigenous
people are the focus.
Intervention- an anathema to
sovereignty
The sovereignty of concerned
state is diminish.
- As much as possible, no
sovereign state would allow
intervention in its domestic
place.
ODAOfficial
Development
Assistance
- The interest is lower/softer
than commercial bank.
- Loan term is longer.

Conditions that intervention may be

legitimated/justified:
* Intervention under international law are
allowed but on a certain condition.
1. When it is authorized by the
international community such as the
United Nations.
- through a security council that will adopt
a resolution.
- will send peace keeping forces
2. Upon invitation by the requesting
government/state.
- if there are civil war, lot of distractions
happen that affect the government, people,
so they need help of other states.
- if there is invitation, it is already
justified.
3. When there is acquiescence on the part
of the host state/government

OIC- Organization of Islamic Conference

- Primary a guiding principle is
the national interest.
Ministerial form of government

The government of the Bangsamoro shall

have a ministerial form.
-

The parties agree to entrench

an electoral system suitable to
a
ministerial
form
of
government, the electoral
system shall allow democratic
participation,
ensure
accountability
of
public
officers primarily to their
constituents and encourage
participation of genuinely.
International System- (George
Modelski)- a social system having
structural
and
functional
requirements.
- it contains patterns of action and
interaction between collectivities
and between individuals acting in
their behalf.
Systems Theory- is based on the
assumption that over time human
behaviour appears to follow
discernible patterns that can be
identified and studies.
Unipolarity (unipolar system)- an
international
system
which
contains a single dominant power
center.
Bipolarity (bipolar system)- an
international
system
which
contains two dominant power
centers.
Multipolarity (multipolar system)an international system which
contains more than two dominant
power centers.
Anarchy (anarchical system)- an
international system which there

exists horizontal combination

among the member-states of the
international system.
Hierarchy (hierarchical system)an international system in which
the entities (nation-states) are
divided into ordered ranks. There
exists
vertical
super
and
subordination among the memberstates of the international system.
Balance Of Power System- an
international system in which all
essential actors pressure their
identity
integrity
and
independence
through
the
balancing process.
Balance of Power (as a policy
guide)- prescribes to statesmen
who would act rationally that
they should maintain eternal
vigilance and be prepared to
organize a countervailing coalition
against the disrupter of the
equilibrium.
Hegemonic
Systeman
international system in which
power
and
influence
are
concentrated in the possession of a
single dominant state.
Foreign Policy
(Jack Plano and Roy Olton)a strategy or planned course of
action developed by the decision
makers of a state vis--vis other
states or international entities
aimed at achieving specific goals
defined in terms of national
interests.
- (Ferdinand
Marcos)the
articulation
of
a
nations
profoundest needs and aspirations,
and in, international affairs, it is
the sole weapon for the promotion
of national interest.
(De Leon)- a reflection and
an instrument if domestic policy,

the former being related and

dictated by the latter. They are not
mutually
consistent
and
complementary.
National
Interest
(Frederick
Hartman)- it refers to the
primordial
consideration
in
determining the foreign policy of a
state. It deals with issues of selfpreservation, national security and
national well-being.

Foreign Policy Making

Decision-making(Richard
Snyder, H.W. Bruck and Burton
Sapin)- a process which results in
the selection from a socially
defined limited number of
problematical alternative projects
of one project intended to bring
about the particular future state of
affairs envisaged by the decisionmakers.
State X- it stands for all states or
for any other state.
Setting- it refers to the factors and
conditions which exist outside of
the decision-makers and the
governmental organization of
which they are part.
Situation- it is an analytical
concept which points to a pattern
of relationships among events,
conditions and other actors
organized around a focus which is
the center of interest of the
decision-makers.
It
is
compromised of a combination of
selectively relevant factors in the
external and internal setting as
interpreted by the decision-makers.
Action- it arises from the necessity
to establish, to maintain, and to
regulate
satisfying,
optional
contracts between states and to
exert some control over unwanted

yet inescapable contracts.

Basic Assumptions of DecisionMaking Theory:
1. The State is defined as its official
decision-makers- those whose
authoritative acts are, to all intents
and purposes, the acts of the state.
State action is the action taken by
those acting in the name of state.
2. Action exists analytically when the
following components can be
ascertained: actor(s), goals, means
and situation.
3. Action is planful, not a random
behaviour.
As
such,
state
interaction is characterized by
patterns, that is, recognizable
repetitions of action and reaction.
Aims or objectives
persist.
Some kinds of action
become typical.
Some reactions become
uniforms.
Relationships become
regularized.
4. Action-Reaction-Counteraction
(A-R-C) and Action-ReactionInteraction (A-R-I)- formulations
suggest that sequences of state
action are symmetrical, which
implies reciprocal relationship.
However, not all sequences of
state action are symmetrical (i.e.,
they are asymmetrical).

5. As action unfolds, purposes,

objectives may change due to
resistances
or
altered
circumstances and hence, often,
head-on conflicts are avoided or
reduced in impact.
6. Emphasis on state action suggests
process analysis, that is, the
passage of time plus continuous
changes
in
relationships
including
the
conditions
underlying
change
and
its
consequences.

The State as Actor in a Situation

The Path of Action Concept

(shift in objective)
[Direction of Action]

(shift in means)
[Strategy of Action]

(shift in time expectation)

[when and by when calculations]
The nation of action-hypothesis (A-H)
reflects the fact that decision-making
involves (1) prediction of consequences
and (2) testing of assumptions.
Unfolding of action, in effect, the
execution of a decision is not an automatic
process. It requires:
(1) Implementation
(2) Continual
adjustment
to
consequences; and
(3) Interpretation by the decision-

makers of what they decided and

what the unfolding action means.
Between Time 1 (T1) and Time 2 (T2)
and so forth, several things may have
been made:
1.) Program reports may have been
made;
2.) Discrepancy between what was
expected and what happened may
have been discovered;
3.) New conditions of the original AH may have been considered.
Problem of Simultaneity and of
Successive, Overlapping Definition of
the Situation

Shaded Area- it indicates that each

new definition of the situation is

not an isolated operation. There
will always be a substantial carryover from to another.
Two-Way Arrow Linking Action
A, Action B, and Action C- it
suggests analytical and empirical
relationships. Multiple paths of
action create sequences which, in
turn, become relevant conditions
for any one action system.

Linkage Theory
Linkage Theory- (James Rosenau)in general terms, it says that the
stability,
functionality,
institutions, and goals of political
systems are linked to variables in
their external environment.
- In specific terms, it says that
some outputs (foreign policy)
originating from either the
polity (nation-state) or the
international environment will
bring about responses in other
system.
- Puts forward the view that
there is convergence between
national and international
systems.
The linkage framework does not
limit to foreign policy activities of
the polity. It also includes the
recurrent activities undertaken by
private individuals or groups
within the polity with the intent of
preserving or altering one or more
aspects of the politys external
environment.
Linkage, as an analytical concept,
is defined as any recurrent
sequence of behaviour that
originates in one system and is
reacted to in another.
Output- is the initial stage of
linkage. It is conventionally called

foreign policy. Outputs can either

be polity outputs or environmental
outputs.
Input- is the terminal stage of
linkage. Inputs can either be polity
inputs or environmental inputs.
Direct polity outputs and direct
environmental
outputsare
patterns of behaviour that are
designed to bring about responses
in other systems.
Indirect polity outputs and indirect
environmental
outputsare
patterns of behaviour that are not
designed to evoke boundarycrossing responses but that
nevertheless do so perceptual or
emulative processes.

Three Types of Linkage Process

1. Penetrative linkage process- This
occurs when members of one
polity serve as participants in the
political processes of another, i.e.,
they share with those in the
penetrated polity the authority to
allocate its values.
2. Reactive linkage process- This is
brought about by recurrent and
similar
boundary-crossing
reactions rather than by sharing of
authority. The actors who initiate
the output do not participate in the
allocative activities of those who
experience the input but the
behaviour of the latter is
nevertheless a response to
behaviour undertaken by the
former.
3. Emulative linkage process- This
occurs when the input is not only a
response to the output but takes
essentially the same form as the
output.
Hegemonic

System,

Hegemonic

Stability Theory
Change Theory

and

Hegemonic

Hegemonic System
Hegemony- refers to a condition in
which power and influence
become concentrated in the
possession of a single dominant
state (Charles Kindleberger).
Two Contending Views of Hegemony
1. Benign View of Hegemony- The
leadership of the hegemon is
positive and its preponderance/
hegemony is benevolent.
2. Malign View of Hegemony- It
suggests
an
oppressive,
exploitative,
and
sometimes
coercive relationship between a
hegemon and its leads.
Dual Character of Hegemony
1. On
one
hand,
hegemony
contributes to order and stability.
2. On other hand, a hegemon is a
dominance-seeking
state
that
victimizes others to enhance its
own power.

Free Riders- Those who enjoy the

benefit of collective goods but pay
little or nothing at all.

Role of Hegemon
1. Is able to promote rule for the
system as a whole that protect its
own interests.
2. Confers benefits (public or
collective
goods)
such
as
international order, international
security, and open international
economic system.
3. Has special responsibilities.
Two Concepts of Hegemony

1. Realist Concept of Hegemony

o Locks at nation-states as
the main actors and unit of
analysis.
o Is
based
upon
the
distribution
and
mobilization of material
power resources among
states. If these are so
unequally distributed such
that the hegemon has
preponderance, especially
in military power, it can
exert power over other
states.
o Assumes that states make a
rational calculus of the
costs and benefits of
alternative policies. In this
context, subordinate states
may effectively avoid
actions
which
might
antagonize the hegemon. In
this sense, the hegemon
often will not need openly
to exert its power over
other
states.
The
anticipation of subordinate
states of what the hegemon
might do will cause them to
modify their behaviour.
2. Gramscian Concept of Hegemony
(Antonio Gramsci)
o Highlights the role of ideas
and culture, in that they
serve to shape preferences
and constrain perceptions
of what is possible.
o Gives
weight
to
transnational social forces.
o Hegemony is not just that
of one nation-state (or
group of nation-states in
the core) relative to
others but also of one class
or class fraction relative to

others.
Example: Capitalist Hegemony
The most skilful use of direct,
coercive power requires a vision of
a self-producing structural power,
both economic and political.
With time, the coercive use of
power may become less necessary
and less obvious as consensus
builds up on the basis of shared
values, ideas and material interests
on the part of both the ruling and
subordinate classes.
- What is important in the
process is that such ideas and
institutions come to be seen as
natural and legitimate, and
they become embedded in the
framework of thought of the
politically and economically
significant parts of the
population. In this way, a
hegemonic structure of thought
and action emerges.
Hegemonic Stability Theory
Charles Kindleberger- father of
hegemonic stability theory
Hegemonic Stability Theory- This
theory examines what happens
when a clearly predominant state,
a hegemon, exercises leadership
and control of the international
system.
- Maintains that hegemony is a
necessary, but not a sufficient,
condition for the creation of an
open economic order.
- This theory argues that
hegemons, such as Great
Britain after World War I and
the United States after World
War II, will seldom engage in
abuse.
- Maintains that when they

obtain
top-dog
status,
hegemons promote regimes
that
benefit
not
only
themselves but also others.
This theory argues that, if it is
willing and able to lead, the
hegemon can set and enforce
the
rules
governing
international trade, finance and
investment (and other issues
such
as
environmental
regulation).
This theory says that, when
hegemon is achieved, it is
believed to contribute to
peaceful
and
cooperative
interstate relations, provided
the preeminent state does not
ruthlessly exploit its power
through
domination
and
imperialism.
This theory says that peace,
accordingly, will result from a
leading states capacity to
manage world affairs.
This theory predicts that the
post-World War II global order
will eventually collapse and a
new period of conflict and
order will commence. It, thus,
speaks directly to the potential
dangers of a post-Cold War
future.

Hegemonic Change Theory (Robert

Gilpin)
Hegemonic Change Theory- This
theory postulates that international
politics is cyclical and that a cycle
is characterized by five different
systemic:
Phase 1. An international system is
stable (i.e., in a state of
equilibrium) if no state believes it
is profitable to attempt to change
the system.

Phase 2. A state will attempt to

change the international system if
the expected benefits, exceed the
expected costs (i.e., if there is an
expected net gain)
Phase 3. A state will seek to
change the international system
through territorial, political and
economic expansion until the
marginal costs of further change
are equal to or greater than the
marginal benefits.
Phase 4. Once equilibrium
between the costs and benefits of
further change and expansion is
reached, the tendency is for the
economic costs of maintaining the
status quo to rise faster than the
economic capacity to support the
status quo.
If the disequilibrium in the
international system will be
changes, a new equilibrium in
international system reflecting the
redistribution of power will be
established.

History shows that in modern

times the most stable systems
have been hegemonic. But
even
hegemonies
are
eventually challenged and
although peaceful change is
not possible, the principal
mechanism
of
change
throughout history has been
war, and what we call
hegemonic war.
Hegemonic War (Robert Gilipin)is a war that determines which
state or states will be dominant and
will govern the system.
Hegemonic Wars- are a contest
between the dominant power and
the rising challenger, and the issue
at stake is the nature and

government of the system.

Hegemonic War- represents the
end of one full cycle and at the
same time the beginning of another
cycle of growth, expansion and
eventual decline.
The Law Of Uneven Growth
continues to redistribute power,
thus undermining the status quo
established by the past hegemonic
struggle.
Disequilibrium
replaces
equilibrium, and the world moves
toward a new round of hegemonic
conflict.
Gilpins theory- is a war-centered
theory. The rationality of war is at
the center of his theory.
War is intimately related to
change: it produces it. War is
an expression of the law of the
strongest, hence, the strongest
state emerges from it. War
produces hegemons.
War is at the heart of hierarchic
realism. Hegemony is the rule,
equilibrium the exception.
In balance power theory,
equilibrium is the rule,
hegemony the exception.
Hedley Bulls Distinction of Dominance,
Hegemony and Primacy
Dominance- is crude imperialism
characterized by habitual use of
force.
Hegemony- is imperialism with
good manners. Ex: British
hegemony in the 19th century.
Primacy- is leadership freely
conceded by the lesser states. Ex:
US primacy during the cold war
when European states sought
protection under its wings.

Kondratieff cycles or waves (K-cycles/Kwaves)

Nikolai Kondratieff- Russian
Agriculturist
Kondratieff
cycle
theorypostulates that the world economy
has long cycles of 50-60 years (a
cycle of boom and bust)
K-cycles
or
K-wavesis
remembered
during
long
downsides, when hopes for return
of economic growth fail for
several years.