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HomogeneousChargeCompressionIgnition
(HCCI)Technology
AReporttotheU.S.Congress
April2001
U.S.DepartmentofEnergy
EnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy
OfficeofTransportationTechnologies
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TableofContents
ExecutiveSummary.........................................................1
I.INTRODUCTION........................................................6
A.WhatisHCCI?....................................................6
B.WhataretheAdvantagesofHCCI?....................................7
C.WhyisR&DImportantforHCCI?....................................8
II.BENEFITSANDCHALLENGES..........................................10
A.Benefits........................................................10
B.Challenges......................................................11
1.ControllingIgnitionTimingoveraRangeofSpeedsandLoads.......11
2.ExtendingtheOperatingRangetoHighLoads....................12
3.ColdStartCapability........................................12
4.HydrocarbonandCarbonMonoxideEmissions....................12
III.RECENTDEVELOPMENTSINHCCI.....................................14
A.FundamentalUnderstanding........................................15
B.AdvancementsinSpeedandLoadControl.............................16
C.ResultsUsingDifferentFuels.......................................18
D.EarlyApplicationsofHCCITechnology...............................19
IV.RELATEDRESEARCHBEINGPERFORMEDWITHFEDERALSUPPORT.....22
A.SandiaNationalLaboratoriesHCCIEngineLaboratory..................22
1.HCCIResearchEnginesandCapabilities..........................22
2.ChemicalKineticRateComputations............................23
3.ResearchDirections..........................................25
4.IndustrialInteractions.........................................26
B.SandiaNationalLaboratoriesFundamentalModeling...................26
1.AdvancedModelingTools.....................................27
2.ResearchObjectivesofFundamentalModelingResearch.............27
C.LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory(LLNL)AppliedModelingandValidation29
1.AnalysisofHCCICombustion.................................29
2.HCCIEngineExperiments.....................................31
3.ChemicalKineticModelforHCCIGasolineCombustion............31
D.StanfordUniversityVariableValveTiming..........................32
E.SolicitationforHCCIResearch......................................34
1.UniversityConsortiumtoConductHCCIR&D....................34
2.CARATTopicforHomogeneousChargeCompressionIgnitionEnabling
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Technology.............................................35
V.POTENTIALFUTUREDIRECTIONSFORRESEARCHANDDEVELOPMENT..36
A.IgnitionTimingControl............................................36

B.CombustionRateControlforHighLoadOperation......................37
C.ColdStart.......................................................37
D.EmissionControl.................................................38
E.TransientOperation...............................................39
F.ControlSystems..................................................39
G.FuelSystemDevelopment..........................................40
H.MultiCylinderEffects.............................................41
I.CombustionModeling..............................................41
VI.CONCLUDINGREMARKS.............................................43
References...............................................................44
ListofAcronyms..........................................................46
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HCCITechnology
AReporttotheUnitedStatesCongress
ExecutiveSummary
ConferenceReport106914,whichaccompaniedtheDepartmentofInteriorandRelatedAgencies
AppropriationsAct,2001,P.L.106291,requestedthattheDepartmentofEnergysOfficeof
EnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy(EERE)submitareportonHomogeneousCharge
CompressionIgnition(HCCI)technology.TheConferencereportalsourgedtheDepartmentof
EnergytoworkwiththeNationalResearchCouncil(NRC)toaddressthepotentialofHCCI
engines.TheNRCStandingCommitteetoReviewtheResearchProgramforthePartnershipfora
NewGenerationofVehicles(PNGV)isconductingitsseventhreviewofthePNGVprogram.On
December7,2000,theFourStroke,DirectInjection(4SDI)TechnicalTeambriefedtheNRC
committeeontheentirePNGVprogram.The4SDITechnicalTeamincludedapresentationthat
summarizedtheongoingHCCIprogramandmanyoftheissuesdiscussedinthisreport.The
NRCpublicationofitsexaminationofthePNGVprogramisexpectedinJune2001.
InresponsetotheCongressionalrequest,thisreportprovidesacomprehensiveoverviewofthe
currentstateoftheartinHCCItechnology.Thereportsummarizes:
thebenefitsofHCCIcombustionandthemainchallengestothedevelopmentofcommercially
viableengines;
recentdevelopmentsinHCCItechnologyandthecharacteristicsoftwocommercialengines
thatuseHCCIcombustionduringaportionoftheiroperatingrange;
relatedresearchcurrentlybeingperformedwithsupportfromDOE;and
potentialfuturedirectionsforHCCIR&Dactivities.
HCCIcombustionhasthepotentialtobehighlyefficientandtoproducelowemissions.HCCI
enginescanhaveefficienciesashighascompressionignition,directinjection(CIDI)engines(an
advancedversionofthecommonlyknowndieselengine),whileproducingultralowoxidesof
nitrogen(NO)andparticulatematter(PM)emissions.HCCIenginescanoperateongasoline,
x
dieselfuel,andmostalternativefuels.WhileHCCIhasbeendemonstratedandknownforquite
sometime,onlytherecentadventofelectronicsensorsandcontrolshasmadeHCCIenginesa
potentialpracticalreality.
HCCIrepresentsthenextmajorstepbeyondhighefficiencyCIDIandsparkignition,
directinjection(SIDI)enginesforuseintransportationvehicles.Insomeregards,HCCIengines
incorporatethebestfeaturesofbothsparkignition(SI)gasolineenginesandCIDIengines.Likean
SIengine,thechargeiswellmixedwhichminimizesparticulateemissions,andlikeaCIDIengineit
iscompressionignitedandhasnothrottlinglosses,whichleadstohighefficiency.However,unlike
eitheroftheseconventionalengines,combustionoccurssimultaneouslythroughoutthecylinder
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volumeratherthaninaflamefront.HCCIengineshavethepotentialtobelowercostthanCIDI
enginesbecausetheywouldlikelyusealowerpressurefuelinjectionsystem.Theemissioncontrol
systemsforHCCIengineshavethepotentialtobelesscostlyandlessdependentonscarce
preciousmetalsthaneitherSIorCIDIengines.WithsuccessfulR&D,HCCIenginesmightbe

commercializedinlightdutypassengervehiclesby2010,andby2015asmuchasahalfmillion
barrelsofprimaryoilperdaymaybesaved.
HCCIispotentiallyapplicabletobothlightandheavydutyengines.LightdutyHCCIenginescan
runongasolineandhavethepotentialtomatchorexceedtheefficiencyofdieselfueledCIDI
engines,withoutthemajorchallengeofNOandPMemissioncontrolorimpactingfuelrefining
x
capability.Forheavydutyvehicles,successfuldevelopmentofthedieselfueledHCCIengineisan
importantalternativestrategyintheeventthatCIDIenginescannotachievefutureNOxandPM
emissionsstandards.
Infact,HCCItechnologycouldbescaledtovirtuallyeverysizeclassoftransportationengines
fromsmallmotorcycletolargeshipengines.HCCIisalsoapplicabletopistonenginesusedoutside
thetransportationsectorsuchasthoseusedforelectricalpowergenerationandpipelinepumping.
HCCIenginesareparticularlywellsuitedtoserieshybridvehicleapplicationsbecausetheengine
canbeoptimizedforoperationoveramorelimitedrangeofspeedsandloadscomparedtoprimary
enginesusedwithconventionalvehicles.UseofHCCIenginesinserieshybridvehiclescould
furtherleveragethebenefitsofHCCItocreatehighlyfuelefficientvehicles.
JapanandEuropeancountrieshaveaggressiveresearchanddevelopment(R&D)programsin
HCCI,includingbothpublicandprivatesectorcomponents.ManyoftheleadingHCCI
developmentstodatehavecomefromthesecountries.Infact,twoenginesarealreadyin
productioninJapanthatuseHCCIduringaportionoftheiroperatingrange:Nissanisproducinga
lighttruckenginethatusesintermittentHCCIoperationanddieselfuel,andHondaisproducinga
2strokecyclegasolineengineusingHCCIformotorcycles.WhileHCCIresearchisongoingin
severalpublicandprivateorganizationsintheU.S.,arealpossibilityexiststhattheU.S.lagsinthe
developmentandimplementationofenginesusingHCCIcombustion.FortheU.S.automotiveand
engineindustriestomaintaintheirinternationalcompetitiveness,R&Deffortstodeveloppractical
HCCIenginescannotbeignored.
HCCIcombustionisachievedbycontrollingthetemperature,pressure,andcompositionofthefuel
andairmixturesothatitspontaneouslyignitesintheengine.Thiscontrolsystemisfundamentally
morechallengingthanusingasparkplugorfuelinjectortodetermineignitiontimingasusedinSI
andCIDIengines,respectively.Therecentadventofelectronicenginecontrolshasenabled
considerationofHCCIcombustionforapplicationtocommercialengines.Evenso,several
technicalbarriersmustbeovercometomakeHCCIenginesapplicabletoawiderangeofvehicles
andviableforhighvolumeproduction.Significantchallengesinclude:
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ControllingIgnitionTimingandBurnRateOveraRangeofEngineSpeedsandLoads
ExtendingtheOperatingRangeofHCCItoHighEngineLoads
ColdStartsandtransientresponsewithHCCIEngines
MinimizingHydrocarbonandCarbonMonoxideEmissions
ControllingtheoperationofanHCCIengineoverawiderangeofspeedsandloadsisprobablythe
mostdifficulthurdlefacingHCCIengines.HCCIignitionisdeterminedbythechargemixture
composition,itstimetemperaturehistory,andtoalesserextentpressure.Severalpotentialcontrol
methodshavebeenproposedtocontrolHCCIcombustion:varyingtheamountofexhaustgas
recirculation(EGR),usingavariablecompressionratio(VCR),andusingvariablevalvetiming
(VVT)tochangetheeffectivecompressionratioand/ortheamountofhotexhaustgasesretainedin
thecylinder.VCRandVVTtechnologiesareparticularlyattractivebecausetheirtimeresponse
couldbemadesufficientlyfasttohandlerapidtransients(i.e.,accelerations/decelerations).
Althoughthesetechnologieshaveshownstrongpotential,performanceisnotyetfullyproven,and
costandreliabilityissuesmustbeaddressed.
AlthoughHCCIengineshavebeendemonstratedtooperatewellatlowtomediumloads,
difficultieshavebeenencounteredathighloadconditions.Thecombustionprocesscanbecome
veryrapidandintensecausingunacceptablenoise,potentialenginedamage,andeventually,
unacceptablelevelsofNOemissions.Preliminaryresearchindicatestheoperatingrangecanbe
x
extendedsignificantlybypartiallystratifyingthefuel/air/residualchargeathighloads(mixtureand/or
temperaturestratification).Severalpotentialmechanismsexistforachievingpartialcharge

stratification,including:incylinderfuelinjection,waterinjection,varyingtheintakeandincylinder
mixingprocesses,andalteringincylinderflowstovaryheattransfer.Theextenttowhichthese
techniquescanextendtheoperatingrange,whilepreservingHCCIbenefits,iscurrentlyunknown.
Becauseofthedifficultyofhighloadoperation,mostinitialconceptsinvolveswitchingtotraditional
SIorCIDIcombustionforoperatingconditionswhereHCCIoperationismoredifficult.This
configurationallowsthebenefitsofHCCItoberealizedoverasignificantportionofthedriving
cyclebutaddsthecomplexityofswitchingtheenginebetweenoperatingmodes.
ThefundamentalprocessesofHCCIcombustionmakecoldstartsdifficultwithoutsome
compensatingmechanism.VariousmechanismsforcoldstartinginHCCImodehavebeen
proposedsuchasusingglowplugs,usingadifferentfuelorfueladditive,andincreasingthe
compressionratiousingVCRorVVT.Sparkignitionmaybethemostviableapproachto
coldstart,thoughitaddscostandcomplexity.
HCCIengineshaveinherentlylowemissionsofNOandPMbutrelativelyhighemissionsof
x
hydrocarbons(HC)andcarbonmonoxide(CO).Somepotentialexiststomitigatetheseemissions
atlightloadbyusingdirectincylinderfuelinjection.However,regardlessoftheabilitytominimize
engineoutHCandCOemissions,controllingHCandCOemissionsfromHCCIengineswilllikely
requireuseofanexhaustemissioncontroldevice.CatalysttechnologyforHCandCOremovalis
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wellunderstoodandhasbeenstandardequipmentongasolinefueledautomobilesfor25years.In
addition,reducingHCandCOemissionsfromHCCIenginesismucheasierthanreducingNOx
andPMemissionsfromCIDIengines.However,thecoolerexhausttemperaturesofHCCI
enginesmayincreasecatalystlightofftimeanddecreaseaverageeffectiveness.Consequently,
achievingstringentfutureemissionstandardsforHCandCOwilllikelyrequiresomefurther
developmentofoxidationcatalystsforusewithHCCIengines.
TheU.S.DOEcurrentlyhasHCCIresearchactivitiesattwonationallaboratoriesandatStanford
University.Inaddition,DOEincludedHCCIresearchaimedatuniversitiesasatopicina
solicitationthathasrecentlyclosed.Althoughselectionsandawardshaveyettobemade,DOE
receivedanumberofproposalsforHCCItechnologyR&D.Theexistingactivitiesaredesignedto
becomplementaryandconsistofthefollowing:1)anexperimentalprogramatSandiaNational
Laboratories'CombustionResearchFacility(SNL/CRF)targetedatunderstandingthefundamental
controllingphysicsofHCCIwithafocusonliquidfuels;2)afundamentalcombustionmodeling
effortatSNL/CRF;3)anappliedmodelingactivityatLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory
(LLNL)withexperimentalvalidationinHCCIenginesattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley
(UCB)focusingongaseousfuels;and4)researchatStanfordUniversityaimedatinvestigatingthe
potentialofVVTtoallowtypicalSIenginestooperateusingHCCIundersomeoperating
conditions.AllfourcurrentprojectsarebeingconductedinclosecooperationwiththeU.S.
automotiveand/orheavyenginemanufacturers,withtheresultspresentedatregularlyscheduled
workinggroupmeetings.
ThePNGVhasidentifiedHCCIasahighrisk,longrangealternativetechnologythatisdeserving
ofincreasedR&Defforts.ThePNGVhasperformedanexhaustiveliteraturesearchofworldwide
R&DonHCCI.Inaddition,Ford,GeneralMotors(GM),andCumminsEngineCompanyhave
performedsomeresearchonHCCI.Recentresearchactivitieshavegreatlyexpandedthe
understandingofHCCI,itscontrollingmechanisms,andHCCIengineoperationstrategies.
However,substantiallymoreworkisrequiredbeforeheavyandlightdutyHCCIengineswillbe
readyforproductionandabletoachievetheirpotentialforlowemissionsandhighfueleconomy.
ThemainareasstillrequiringR&Dtoovercomethechallengesidentifiedinclude:
IgnitionTimingControl:ResearchisneededtodevelopcontrolmethodsforHCCIenginesin
ordertoovercomethechallengeofmaintainingproperignitiontimingasloadandspeedare
varied.
CombustionRateControlforHighLoadEngineOperation:Researchisneededtodevelop
methodsthatslowtheheatreleaserateinHCCIenginesathighloadoperationtoprevent
excessivenoiseorenginedamage.
EngineColdStart:R&Disneededtodevelopanadvancedcoldstartconcepttoovercome
thechallengeofachievingignitionatlowtemperatureswithoutcompromisingwarmengine

performance.
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DevelopmentofEmissionControlSystems:R&Disneededtodevelopemissioncontrol
systemsandcontrolstrategiestoovercomethechallengeofexcessiveHCandCOemissions,
particularlyatlowloads.
AchievingSatisfactoryEngineTransientOperation:R&Disneededtodevelopafastresponse
controlsystemtoovercomethechallengeofmaintainingproperignitiontimingduringrapid
variationsinenginespeedandload.
DevelopmentofEngineControlStrategiesandSystems:Researchisneededtodevelopa
methodologyforfeedbackandclosedloopcontrolofthefuelandairsystemstokeepthe
combustionoptimizedovertheloadspeedrangeinaproductionvehicle.Newsensorsmaybe
neededtoachievethislevelofcontrol.
DevelopmentofAppropriateFuelSystems:Researchisnecessarytodevelopafueldelivery
systembecauseitisakeyenablingtechnologytoovercomethechallengesofmaintaining
properignitiontiming,smoothheatreleaserates,andlowHCemissionsovertheoperating
range.
OvercomingMultiCylinderEngineEffects:R&Disneededtodevelopintakeandexhaust
manifolddesignsformulticylinderenginestoovercomethechallengeofmaintainingstrict
uniformityoftheinletandexhaustflowsoneachcylinder.
DevelopingandValidatingRepresentativeCombustionModels:R&Disneededtodevelop
computationalfluiddynamics(CFD)andcombustionmodelsforHCCIenginestoovercome
thechallengeofrapidlyandinexpensivelyevaluatingenginegeometryandcombustionsystem
designs.
TheDOEbelievesthatuniversityandindustryinvolvementisessentialtocarryingoutfutureHCCI
R&Dactivities.TheDepartmentanticipatesthisinvolvementwillincludeindustryreviewof
governmentfundedprojectsandcostsharedfundingofnewprojects.DOEwillreduceitsroleas
thefundamentalsofHCCIbecomeclearandasindustrynearsthepointofcommercializingthis
promisingtechnology.Intheinterim,thefundingDOEhasrequestedforHCCIengineresearch
anddevelopmentwillassistinonlyresolvingthehighestrisktechnicalissues,andultimatelyR&D
willacceleratetheintroductionofHCCIenginesandrealizationoftheirpotentialtoreduce
petroleumuseinthetransportationsector.
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Figure1.HCCI(asmosttypicallyenvisioned)woulduselowpressurefuelinjectionoutsidethe
cylinder,andnoignitionsystem.Ifchargestratificationisdesired,itmaybenecessarytousein
cylinderinjection.
I.INTRODUCTION
ConferenceReport106914,whichaccompaniedtheDepartmentofInteriorandRelatedAgencies
AppropriationsAct,2001,P.L.106291,requestedthattheDepartmentofEnergysOfficeof
EnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy(EERE)submitareportonHomogeneousCharge
CompressionIgnition(HCCI)technology.Thisreportprovidesacomprehensiveoverviewofthe
currentstateoftheartinHCCItechnology.SectionIIsummarizesthebenefitsofHCCIand
someofthemainchallengesremainingtothedevelopmentofcommerciallyviableengines.Section
IIIpresentsrecentdevelopmentsinHCCItechnologyanddiscussestwocommercialenginesthat
useHCCIduringaportionoftheiroperatingrange.SectionIVdescribestherelatedresearch
currentlybeingperformedwithsupportfromDOE.SectionVlistsanddescribesthepotential
futuredirectionsforHCCIR&Dactivities.ConcludingremarksareprovidedinSectionVI.
A.WhatisHCCI?
HCCIisanalternativepistonenginecombustionprocessthatcanprovideefficienciesashighas
compressionignition,directinjection(CIDI)engines(anadvancedversionofthecommonlyknown
dieselengine)while,unlikeCIDIengines,producingultralowoxidesofnitrogen(NO)and
x
particulatematter(PM)emissions.HCCIenginesoperateontheprincipleofhavingadilute,
premixedchargethatreactsandburnsvolumetricallythroughoutthecylinderasitiscompressedby

thepiston.Insomeregards,HCCIincorporatesthebestfeaturesofbothsparkignition(SI)and
compressionignition(CI),asshowninFigure1.AsinanSIengine,thechargeiswellmixed,
whichminimizesparticulateemissions,andasinaCIDIengine,thechargeiscompressionignited
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andhasnothrottlinglosses,whichleadstohighefficiency.However,unlikeeitherofthese
conventionalengines,thecombustionoccurssimultaneouslythroughoutthevolumeratherthanina
flamefront.ThisimportantattributeofHCCIallowscombustiontooccuratmuchlower
temperatures,dramaticallyreducingengineoutemissionsofNO.x
MostenginesemployingHCCItodatehavedualmodecombustionsystemsinwhichtraditionalSI
orCIcombustionisusedforoperatingconditionswhereHCCIoperationismoredifficult.
Typically,theengineiscoldstartedasanSIorCIDIengine,thenswitchedtoHCCImodeforidle
andlowtomidloadoperationtoobtainthebenefitsofHCCIinthisregime,whichcomprisesa
largeportionoftypicalautomotivedrivingcycles.Forhighloadoperation,theenginewouldagain
beswitchedtoSIorCIDIoperation.ResearcheffortsareunderwaytoextendtherangeofHCCI
operation,asdiscussedinthebodyofthisreport.
B.WhataretheAdvantagesofHCCI?
TheadvantagesofHCCIarenumerousanddependonthecombustionsystemtowhichitis
compared.RelativetoSIgasolineengines,HCCIenginesaremoreefficient,approachingthe
efficiencyofaCIDIengine.Thisimprovedefficiencyresultsfromthreesources:theeliminationof
throttlinglosses,theuseofhighcompressionratios(similartoaCIDIengine),andashorter
combustionduration(sinceitisnotnecessaryforaflametopropagateacrossthecylinder).HCCI
enginesalsohavelowerengineoutNOthanSIengines.Althoughthreewaycatalystsare
x
adequateforremovingNOxfromcurrenttechnologySIengineexhaust,lowNOisanimportant
x
advantagerelativetosparkignition,directinjection(SIDI)technology,whichisbeingconsidered
forfutureSIengines.
RelativetoCIDIengines,HCCIengineshavesubstantiallyloweremissionsofPMandNO.x
(EmissionsofPMandNOarethemajorimpedimentstoCIDIenginesmeetingfutureemissions
x
standardsandarethefocusofextensivecurrentresearch.)ThelowemissionsofPMandNOin
x
HCCIenginesarearesultofthedilutehomogeneousairandfuelmixtureinadditiontolow
combustiontemperatures.ThechargeinanHCCIenginemaybemadedilutebybeingverylean,
bystratification,byusingexhaustgasrecirculation(EGR),orsomecombinationofthese.Because
flamepropagationisnotrequired,dilutionlevelscanbemuchhigherthanthelevelstoleratedby
eitherSIorCIDIengines.Combustionisinducedthroughoutthechargevolumebycompression
heatingduetothepistonmotion,anditwilloccurinalmostanyfuel/air/exhaustgasmixtureonce
the800to1100Kignitiontemperature(dependingonthetypeoffuel)isreached.Incontrast,in
typicalCIengines,minimumflametemperaturesare1900to2100K,highenoughtomake
unacceptablelevelsofNO.Additionally,thecombustiondurationinHCCIenginesismuch
x
shorterthaninCIDIenginessinceitisnotlimitedbytherateoffuel/airmixing.Thisshorter
combustiondurationgivestheHCCIengineanefficiencyadvantage.Finally,HCCIenginesmay
belowercostthanCIDIenginessincetheywouldlikelyuselowerpressurefuelinjection
equipment.
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AnotheradvantageofHCCIcombustionisitsfuelflexibility.HCCIoperationhasbeenshown
usingawiderangeoffuels.GasolineisparticularlywellsuitedforHCCIoperation.Highlyefficient
CIDIengines,ontheotherhand,cannotrunongasolineduetoitslowcetanenumber.With
successfulR&D,HCCIenginesmightbecommercializedinlightdutypassengervehiclesby2010,
andby2015asmuchasahalfmillionbarrelsofoilperdaymaybesaved.
TestshavealsoshownthatunderoptimizedconditionsHCCIcombustioncanbeveryrepeatable,

resultinginsmoothengineoperation.TheemissioncontrolsystemsforHCCIengineshavethe
potentialtobelesscostlyandlessdependentonscarcepreciousmetalsthaneitherSIorCIDI
engines.
HCCIispotentiallyapplicabletobothautomobileandheavytruckengines.Infact,itcouldbe
scaledtovirtuallyeverysizeclassoftransportationenginesfromsmallmotorcycletolargeship
engines.HCCIisalsoapplicabletopistonenginesusedoutsidethetransportationsectorsuchas
thoseusedforelectricalpowergenerationandpipelinepumping.
C.WhyisR&DImportantforHCCI?
AlthoughstableHCCIoperationanditssubstantialbenefitshavebeendemonstratedatselected
steadystateconditions,severaltechnicalbarriersmustbeovercomebeforeHCCIcanbewidely
appliedtoproductionautomobileandheavytruckengines.R&Dwillberequiredinseveralareas,
including:controllingignitiontimingoverawiderangeofspeedsandloads,limitingtherateof
combustionheatreleaseathighloadoperation,providingsmoothoperationthroughrapid
transients,achievingcoldstart,andmeetingemissionsstandards.Overcomingthesetechnical
challengestopracticalHCCIenginesrequiresanimprovedunderstandingoftheincylinder
processes,anunderstandingofhowtheseprocessescanbefavorablyalteredbyvariouscontrol
techniques,andthedevelopmentandtestingofappropriatecontrolmechanisms.
Asaresultofrecentresearch(seeSectionIIIA),thebasicprinciplesofHCCIarereasonablywell
understood.However,inpracticalenginestheair/fuelchargeisnevercompletelyhomogeneous,
andcreatingachargewithanevengreaterdegreeofstratification(temperatureand/ormixture
stratification)appearstohaveastrongpotentialforcontrollingcombustionratestoenablehighload
operationandforreducinghydrocarbonemissions.(Fortheremainderofthisreport,theterm
HCCIwillalsobeusedtorefertovariantsofHCCI,e.g.,partiallystratified(i.e.,notfully
homogeneous)chargecompressionignitionorSCCI).Researchisrequiredtounderstandhow
variousfuelinjectiontechniques,methodsforintroducingEGR,andchargemixingtechniquesalter
HCCIcombustionthroughpartialchargestratification.R&Deffortsarealsoneededforthe
developmentoffuelinjectionhardwareandothermixingcontroltechniquesthatmayberequiredto
achievethedesiredchangestotheincylinderprocesses(e.g.,partialstratification).Inaddition,
R&Deffortsareneededtoinvestigatecontrolsystemssuchasvariablevalvetiming(VVT)and
variablecompressionratio(VCR).ThesecontrolshaveastrongpotentialforcontrollingHCCI
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timing,assistingwithcoldstart,controllingtheenginethroughtransients,andswitchingintoandout
ofHCCImodeasmaybenecessaryforsomeapplications(seeSectionIIIBandSectionV).
Finally,R&Deffortsareneededforthedevelopmentofsensorsandcontrolalgorithmsfor
closedloopcontrol(SeeSectionVF.).
Becauseoftheneedtoreduceworldwidefuelconsumption,greenhousegasemissions,andcriteria
airemissions(FederalTier2standardsaretobeimplementedin2004),thereisstronginterestin
HCCIworldwide.Thiscombustionprocessstandsoutasastrongcandidateforfutureautomotive
andtruckenginesthatconsumelessfuelwhileproducingsubstantiallylowerlevelsofsmogforming
emissions.JapanandseveralEuropeancountrieshaveaggressiveR&DprogramsinHCCI
includingpublicandprivatesectorcomponents.Manyoftheleadingdevelopmentstodatehave
comefromthesecountries.WhileHCCIresearchisongoingwithinseveralpublicandprivate
organizationsintheU.S.,thereisarealpossibilitythattheU.S.willlaginthedevelopmentof
HCCI,ifU.S.researchisnotexpanded.FortheU.S.automobileandtruckengineindustriesto
maintaintheirinternationalcompetitiveness,R&DeffortsareneededtodeveloppracticalHCCI
engines.
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SECTIONII.BENEFITSANDCHALLENGES
A.Benefits
AmajoradvantageofHCCIcombustionisitsfuelflexibility.BecauseHCCIenginescanbefueled
withgasoline,implementationofHCCIenginesshouldnotadverselyaffectfuelavailabilityor
infrastructure.(CIDIenginescannotbeoperatedwithgasolineduetoitslowcetanenumber.)
WithsuccessfulR&D,HCCIenginesmightbecommercializedinlightdutypassengervehiclesby

2010,andby2015asmuchasahalfmillionbarrelsofprimaryoilperdaymaybesaved.
AdditionalsavingsmayaccruefromreducedrefiningrequirementsforfuelsforHCCIengines
relativetogasolineforconventionalSItechnology.Inadditiontogasoline,HCCIoperationhas
beenshownforawiderangeofotherfuels.Duetothisfuelflexibility,someHCCIapplications
(e.g.,lightdutyvehicles)couldusegasoline,whileotherHCCIapplications(e.g.,heavyduty
trucks)couldusedieselfuel.
HCCIalsohasadvantagesasapotentiallowemissionsalternativetoCIDIenginesinlight,
mediumandheavydutyapplications.Evenwiththeadventofeffectiveexhaustemissioncontrol
devices,CIDIengineswillbeseriouslychallengedtomeettheU.S.EnvironmentalProtection
Agency(EPA)2004Tier2lightdutyemissionstandardsorthenewlyenacted20072010
standardsfortrucks.ThischallengeisdifficulttoovercomebecauseNOandparticulatematter
x
emissioncontrolsoftencounteracteachother.Moreover,CIDIemissioncontroltechnologiesare
unproven,expensive,requiretheinjectionoffuelorotherreductantsintotheexhauststreamfor
NOreduction,andcurrentlydonotlastthelifeoftheengine.Theseemissioncontrolsystems
x
wouldalsorequiretheuseofmoreexpensiveultralowsulfurfuels(lessthan15ppm).Inaddition
toemissioncontroldevices,expensivefuelinjectionequipmentwillbenecessarytocontrol
emissions(someestimatefuelinjectionequipmentwillaccountforonethirdofenginecosts).
AlthoughtheactualcostandfuelconsumptionpenaltiesofCIDIemissioncontrolsareuncertain,
theuseofHCCIenginesorenginesoperatinginHCCImodeforasignificantportionofthedriving
cyclecouldsignificantlyreducetheoverallcostofoperation,thussavingfuelandreducingthe
economicburdenofloweringemissions.
Asanalternativehighefficiencyengineforlightdutyvehicles,HCCIhasthepotentialtobealow
emissionsalternativetoCIDIandSIDIengines.IntensiveeffortsareunderwaytodevelopCIDI
andSIDIenginesforautomotiveapplicationstoimproveoverallvehiclefuelefficiency;however,
bothCIDIandSIDIenginesfaceseveralhurdles.Asdiscussedintheprecedingparagraph,the
emissioncontroldevicestoreduceNOfromCIDIengineshaveseveralproblems.Asimilar
x
situationexistsforSIDIenginesbecauseachievingmoreefficientoperationrequiresthemto
operatelean.Consequently,NOemissioncontroldevicessimilartothosebeingdevelopedfor
x
CIDIenginesarerequired.Inaddition,thesulfurcontentofgasolinewillbe30ppmaverageand
80ppmmaximumasspecifiedbytheEPATier2lightdutyvehicleemissionstandards,alevelthat
Page 15
11
maybetoohighforthelongtermdurabilityofleanNOemissioncontrolsystems.Itremainstobe
x
seenwhetherSIDIengineswillbedevelopedthatcanmeettheTier2emissionstandards.
WhileHCCIengineshaveseveralinherentbenefitsasreplacementsforSIandCIDIenginesin
vehicleswithconventionalpowertrains,theyareparticularlywellsuitedforuseininternal
combustion(IC)engine/electricserieshybridvehicles.Inthesehybrids,enginescanbeoptimized
foroperationoverafairlylimitedrangeofspeedsandloads,thuseliminatingmanyofthecontrol
issuesnormallyassociatedwithHCCI,creatingahighlyfuelefficientvehicle.Inadditiontothe
onhighwayapplicationsdiscussedabove,itshouldbenotedthatthebenefitsofHCCIengines
couldberealizedinmostotherinternalcombustionengineapplicationssuchasoffroadvehicles,
marineapplications,andstationarypowerapplications.Theresultingbenefitswouldbesimilarto
thosediscussedabove.
B.Challenges
HCCIcombustionisachievedbycontrollingthetemperature,pressureandcompositionofthe
air/fuelmixturesothatitautoignitesneartopdeadcenter(TDC)asitiscompressedbythepiston.
Thismodeofignitionisfundamentallymorechallengingthanusingadirectcontrolmechanismsuch
asasparkplugorfuelinjectortodictateignitiontimingasinSIandCIDIengines,respectively.
WhileHCCIhasbeenknownforsometwentyyears,itisonlywiththerecentadventofelectronic
enginecontrolsthatHCCIcombustioncanbeconsideredforapplicationtocommercialengines.
Evenso,severaltechnicalbarriersmustbeovercomebeforeHCCIengineswillbeviablefor

highvolumeproductionandapplicationtoawiderangeofvehicles.Thefollowingdescribesthe
moresignificantchallengesfordevelopingpracticalHCCIenginesfortransportation.Greaterdetail
regardingthesetechnicalbarriers,potentialsolutions,andtheR&Dneededtoovercomethemare
providedinSectionV.SomeoftheseissuescouldbemitigatedoreliminatediftheHCCIengine
wasusedinaserieshybridelectricapplication,asdiscussedabove.
1.ControllingIgnitionTimingoveraRangeofSpeedsandLoads
ExpandingthecontrolledoperationofanHCCIengineoverawiderangeofspeedsandloadsis
probablythemostdifficulthurdlefacingHCCIengines.HCCIignitionisdeterminedbythecharge
mixturecompositionanditstemperaturehistory(andtoalesserextent,itspressurehistory).
ChangingthepoweroutputofanHCCIenginerequiresachangeinthefuelingrateand,hence,the
chargemixture.Asaresult,thetemperaturehistorymustbeadjustedtomaintainproper
combustiontiming.Similarly,changingtheenginespeedchangestheamountoftimeforthe
autoignitionchemistrytooccurrelativetothepistonmotion.Again,thetemperaturehistoryofthe
mixturemustbeadjustedtocompensate.Thesecontrolissuesbecomeparticularlychallenging
duringrapidtransients.
Severalpotentialcontrolmethodshavebeenproposedtoprovidethecompensationrequiredfor
changesinspeedandload.SomeofthemostpromisingincludevaryingtheamountofhotEGR
Page 16
12
introducedintotheincomingcharge,usingaVCRmechanismtoalterTDCtemperatures,andusing
VVTtochangetheeffectivecompressionratioand/ortheamountofhotresidualretainedinthe
cylinder.VCRandVVTareparticularlyattractivebecausetheirtimeresponsecouldbemade
sufficientlyfasttohandlerapidtransients.Althoughthesetechniqueshaveshownstrongpotential
(seeSectionIIIB),theyarenotyetfullyproven,andcostandreliabilityissuesmustbeaddressed.
2.ExtendingtheOperatingRangetoHighLoads
AlthoughHCCIengineshavebeendemonstratedtooperatewellatlowtomediumloads,
difficultieshavebeenencounteredathighloads.Combustioncanbecomeveryrapidandintense,
causingunacceptablenoise,potentialenginedamage,andeventuallyunacceptablelevelsofNOx
emissions.Preliminaryresearchindicatestheoperatingrangecanbeextendedsignificantlyby
partiallystratifyingthecharge(temperatureandmixturestratification)athighloadstostretchoutthe
heatreleaseevent.Severalpotentialmechanismsexistforachievingpartialchargestratification,
includingvaryingincylinderfuelinjection,injectingwater,varyingtheintakeandincylindermixing
processestoobtainnonuniformfuel/air/residualmixtures,andalteringcylinderflowstovaryheat
transfer.Theextenttowhichthesetechniquescanextendtheoperatingrangeiscurrentlyunknown,
andR&Dwillberequired.Becauseofthedifficultyofhighloadoperation,mostinitialconcepts
involveswitchingtotraditionalSIorCIcombustionforoperatingconditionswhereHCCI
operationismoredifficult.ThisdualmodeoperationprovidesthebenefitsofHCCIovera
significantportionofthedrivingcyclebutaddstothecomplexitybyswitchingtheenginebetween
operatingmodes.
3.ColdStartCapability
Atcoldstart,thecompressedgastemperatureinanHCCIenginewillbereducedbecausethe
chargereceivesnopreheatingfromtheintakemanifoldandthecompressedchargeisrapidly
cooledbyheattransferredtothecoldcombustionchamberwalls.Withoutsomecompensating
mechanism,thelowcompressedchargetemperaturescouldpreventanHCCIenginefromfiring.
VariousmechanismsforcoldstartinginHCCImodehavebeenproposed,suchasusingglow
plugs,usingadifferentfuelorfueladditive,andincreasingthecompressionratiousingVCRor
VVT.Perhapsthemostpracticalapproachwouldbetostarttheengineinsparkignitionmodeand
transitiontoHCCImodeafterwarmup.ForenginesequippedwithVVT,itmaybepossibleto
makethiswarmupperiodasshortasafewfiredcycles,sincehighlevelsofhotresidualgases
couldberetainedfromprevioussparkignitedcyclestoinduceHCCIcombustion.Although
solutionsappearfeasible,significantR&Dwillberequiredtoadvancetheseconceptsandprepare
themforproductionengines.
4.HydrocarbonandCarbonMonoxideEmissions
HCCIengineshaveinherentlylowemissionsofNOandPM,butrelativelyhighemissionsof
x
hydrocarbons(HC)andcarbonmonoxide(CO).Somepotentialexiststomitigatetheseemissions

atlightloadbyusingdirectincylinderfuelinjectiontoachieveappropriatepartialcharge
stratification.However,inmostcases,controllingHCandCOemissionsfromHCCIengineswill
Page 17
13
requireexhaustemissioncontroldevices.CatalysttechnologyforHCandCOremovaliswell
understoodandhasbeenstandardequipmentonautomobilesformanyyears.However,thecooler
exhausttemperaturesofHCCIenginesmayincreasecatalystlightofftimeanddecreaseaverage
effectiveness.Asaresult,meetingfutureemissionstandardsforHCandCOwilllikelyrequire
furtherdevelopmentofoxidationcatalystsforlowtemperatureexhauststreams.However,HC
andCOemissioncontroldevicesaresimpler,moredurable,andlessdependentonscarce,
expensivepreciousmetalsthanareNOxandPMemissioncontroldevices.Thus,simultaneous
chemicaloxidationofHCandCO(inanHCCIengine)ismucheasierthansimultaneouschemical
reductionofNOandoxidationofPM(inaCIDIengine).Inaddition,HCandCOemission
x
controldevicesaresimpler,moredurable,andlessdependentonscarce,expensiveprecious
metals.
Page 18
14
Categories
Total
Publications
PublicationsbyRegion
Fundamentalunderstandingandbenefit
demonstration
33
Japan
20
U.S.
8
Europe
5
GasolineHCCIControl
8
Japan
4
Europe
4
DieselHCCIControl
3
Japan
3
AlternativeFuelHCCIControl
6
Japan
4
Europe
2
LoadExtension
5
Japan
3
Europe
2
CatalystsforHCandCOEmissionsControl
2

Japan
1
Europe
1
MixturePreparationforDiesel
9
Japan
9
NissanMK
10
Japan
NewACE
12
Japan
LundInstituteofTechnology
11
Europe
KeioUniversity
8
Japan
LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory
5
U.S.
Table1.SummaryofRecentHCCIR&DActivities(19982000)
SECTIONIII.RECENTDEVELOPMENTSINHCCI
ThePNGVhasperformedanexhaustiveliteraturesearchofworldwideR&DonHCCI.Table1
showsasummaryofrecentdevelopmentsinHCCItechnology.Inaddition,Ford,GeneralMotors
(GM),andCumminsEngineCompanyhavebeenperformingresearchonHCCIcombustion.
FordmotorcompanyhasanactiveresearchprograminHCCIcombustion.Researchersareusing
opticaldiagnosticsinsinglecylinderenginestoexploreviableHCCIoperatingregimesandto
investigatemethodsofcombustioncontrol.Inaddition,chemicalkineticandcyclesimulation
modelsarebeingappliedtobetterunderstandthefundamentalsoftheHCCIprocessandto
exploremethodsofimplementingHCCItechnology.
GM,ataresearchlevel,isevaluatingthepotentialforincorporatingHCCIcombustionintoengine
systems.ThisworkincludesassessingthestrengthsandweaknessesofHCCIoperationrelativeto
otheradvancedconcepts,assessinghowbesttointegrateHCCIcombustionintoaviable
Page 19
Numbersinbracketsrefertoreferenceslistedattheendofthisreport.
*
15
powertrain,andthedevelopmentofappropriatemodelingtools.Workisfocusedonfuels,
combustioncontrol,combustionmodeling,andmodetransitioningbetweenHCCIandtraditionalSI
orCIcombustion.GMisalsosupportingHCCIworkattheuniversitylevel.
CumminshasbeenresearchingHCCIforalmost15years.Industrialenginesruninhouseusing
HCCIcombustionofnaturalgashaveachievedremarkableemissionandefficiencyresults.
However,Cumminshasfoundthatitisquitechallengingtocontrolthecombustionphasingovera
realworldoperatingenvelopeincludingvariationsinambientconditions,fuelqualityvariation,
speedandload.Becausethenewdieselemissionstargetsarebeyondthecapabilityof
conventionaldieselengines,Cumminsisinvestigatingalloptions,includingHCCI,aspartoftheir
designpaletteandfutureenginestrategy.
A.FundamentalUnderstanding
Overthelastfewyears,aconsensushasdevelopedastothenatureofHCCIcombustion.Itis
nowgenerallyagreedthatHCCIcombustionisdominatedbylocalchemicalkineticreactionrates
[1],withnorequirementforflamepropagation.Thisnotionhasbeensupportedbyspectroscopic
*
dataindicatingthattheorderofradicalformationinHCCIcombustioncorrespondstoselfignition

ratherthanflamepropagation[2,3].Recentanalyticaldevelopmentsalsosupporttheviewthat
HCCIcombustionisdominatedbychemicalkinetics,andananalysismethodbasedonthispremise
hashadconsiderablesuccessinpredictingHCCIcombustionandemissions[4].Ifatruly
homogeneousmixtureexistsatthetimeofcombustion,turbulencehaslittledirecteffectonHCCI
combustion,butitmayhaveanindirecteffectbyalteringthetemperaturedistributionandthe
boundarylayerthicknesswithinthecylinder.Smalltemperaturedifferencesinsidethecylinderhave
aconsiderableeffectoncombustionduetothesensitivityofchemicalkineticstotemperature.Asa
result,heattransferandmixingareimportantinformingtheconditionofthechargepriortoignition.
However,theyplayasecondaryroleduringtheHCCIcombustionprocessitselfbecauseHCCI
combustionisveryrapid.
ThechemicalkineticsmodelingofHCCIcombustionhasconcludedthatHCCIignitionis
controlledbyhydrogenperoxide(HO)decomposition.Hydrogenperoxidedecomposesintotwo
22
OHradicals,whichareveryefficientatattackingthefuelandreleasingenergy.Hydrogenperoxide

decompositionoccursatatemperaturerangebetween1050and1100K.Thisfundamental
chemistryofHCCIautoignitionandcombustionisidenticaltothechemistryofknockin
sparkignitionengines.Withhighoctanefuels,littleheatisreleasedpriortothismainignitionevent
at10501100K;however,withlowoctanefuels(e.g.,dieselfuel)significantheatproducing
reactionsbeginattemperaturesofabout800K[5].Althoughtheamountofenergyliberatedistoo
smalltobeconsideredignition,theselowtemperaturereactionsquicklydrivethemixtureuptothe
Page 20
16
10501100KtemperaturenecessaryforHOdecompositionandmainignition.Itisthiseffect
22
thatcausesHCCItobesensitivetofueltype[5].Activeradicals(i.e.,reactivechemical
compounds,suchasH,OH,HO)presentintheexhaustgasesdonotsurvivetheexhaustand
2
intakestrokesandplayaveryminorroleinstartingHCCIcombustion.
TurbulenceintroducesgreatcomplexitytotheanalysisofstratifiedchargeSIandCIDIengines.
TheinsensitivityofHCCIcombustiontoturbulencemakesitpossibletodevelopathorough,
accuratemethodofanalysisofHCCIcombustion.Thispowerfulanalyticaltoolconstitutesagreat
advantageforHCCIengines.
B.AdvancementsinSpeedandLoadControl
CombustioncontrolisthebiggestchallengetoHCCIenginesbecomingacommercialsuccess.For
thisreason,severalmethodshavebeenproposedforachievingHCCIenginecontroloverthewide
rangeofoperatingconditionsrequiredfortypicaltransportationengineapplications.Control
technologiesreportedintheliteraturehavedemonstratedsomedegreeofsuccess,butfurtherR&D
effortsarerequired(seeSectionV).Someoftheproposedmethodsinclude:
Variablecompressionratio(VCR):HCCIcombustionisstronglyaffectedbythecompression
ratiooftheengine.Therefore,aVCRenginehasthepotentialtoachievesatisfactoryoperation
inHCCImodeoverawiderangeofconditionsbecausethecompressionratiocanbeadjusted
astheoperatingconditionschange.Conditionschangequicklyinvehicularapplications;
consequently,afastcontrolsystemthatmodifiesthecompressionratioinfractionsofasecond
isnecessary.SeveraloptionshavebeenstudiedtoobtainVCRengines.Oneoptionisto
mountaplungerinthecylinderheadwhosepositioncanbevariedtochangethecompression
ratio[6].Thecompressionratiocouldalsobevariedbyusinganopposedpistonenginedesign
havingvariablephaseshiftingbetweenthetwocrankshafts[7].SAABhasrecentlyannounced
thedevelopmentofanothermethodthatisbasedonahinged,tiltingcylinderarrangement[8].
TheDOEhassponsoredauniqueVCRenginedesign,whichisbeingdevelopedbyEnvera
andtestedatArgonneNationalLaboratory.SimilartotheSAABapproach,theEnvera
approachvariesthedistancebetweenthecylinderheadandthecrankshaft.However,unlike
theSAABapproach,theVCRmechanismfitsinsidethecrankcaseandisexpectedtoprovide
afasterresponseandrequirelessenergy.TheEnveradesignwillbetestedthissummerwith
publicationofresultstofollow.Whileanyofthesesystemsorsomeothermechanismmight
succeed,onlythevariablepositionplungersystemhasbeendemonstratedinanHCCIengine

[6].Forthesetests,theplungerwascontrolledbyahydraulicsystemallowingitspositiontobe
variedduringengineoperation.ThedatashowthattheVCRsystemiscapableofcontrolling
HCCIignitiontimingtomaintainoptimalcombustionphasingacrossaverywiderangeofintake
temperaturesandfueltypesofvaryingoctanenumber.Althoughtransientoperationand
variationsinspeedandloadwerenotreported,theresultssuggestthataVCRsystemwith
sufficientlyfastresponsetimeisastrongcandidateforHCCIenginespeedandloadcontrol.
Page 21
17
VCRwouldaddsomecostandcomplexitytotheengine.SAABhasannouncedplanstogo
intoproductionwithitsVCRsystemonaconventionalSIengine[8].
Variablevalvetiming(VVT):VVTcanbeusedtochangethetrappedcompressionratioofthe
engine(i.e.,theamountofcompressionafterthegasesaretrappedbyintakevalveclosure),
andthereforeVVTcanachieveasimilareffectonHCCIcombustionasvaryingthegeometric
compressionratiooftheengine.Anenginecouldbebuiltwithahighgeometriccompression
ratio,withlowertrappedcompressionratiosbeingobtainedbydelayingtheclosingofthe
intakevalveduringthecompressionstroke.EngineswithVVThavetheaddedbenefitof
allowingchangesinthetemperatureandcompositionoftheincomingchargebyretaininghot
residualgasesfromthepreviouscycleinthecylinder.Byvaryingtheamountofhotresidual,
thetemperatureandmixtureofthenewchargecanbeadjusted.Increasingthetemperatureof
thechargeinthismannercanbeusedtoinduceHCCIcombustionevenwithrelativelylow
geometriccompressionratiosorundercoldengineconditions.Inaddition,alteringthecharge
compositionwithpartialmixingoftheresidualcouldbenefitcombustionratecontrolaswillbe
discussedinSectionV.VVTcouldbeimplementedinanenginewithmechanical,magnetic,or
hydraulicvalveactuators[9].Recently,researchersatStanfordUniversity,usingan
electrohydraulicVVTsystem,haveshownthatHCCIcombustioncanbeinducedinanengine
witharelativelylow(10:1)compressionratio[10].StanfordalsoshowedthattheVVTsystem
couldbeusedtocontrolcombustiontimingandtoswitchbetweenSIandHCCIoperation
fromonecycletothenext(seeinSectionIVD).LikeVCR,aVVTsystemwouldaddcost
totheengine;however,severalmanufacturersalreadyhaveVVTsystemsinproductionorare
planningtogointoproductionwithinthenextyearortwo.
Ignitionenhancingadditives:HCCIenginecontrolcouldbeachievedbyusingtwofuelswith
differentoctaneratings.Thesystemcouldbedesignedtohaveamainfuelwithahighoctane
number,whilethesecondaryfuel,withalowoctanenumber,isinjectedasneededtoadvance
combustion.Thisprocedurehasrecentlybeenstudiedforacombinationofmethaneand
dimethylether(DME)[11].However,thismethodtypicallyrequirescarryingandrefillingtwo
fueltanks.Ideally,theamountofthesecondaryfuelbeingconsumedwouldbeminimal,and
thetankcouldberefueledonlyatthemaintenanceintervals.Alternatively,theadditionof
ozonetotheintakehasbeenshowntobeanexcellentHCCIignitionimprover[7],substantially
advancingHCCIcombustionevenatverylowconcentrations.Thesystemforproducingthe
ozoneisinexpensiveandhasafastresponse,butdoesrequireelectricalpower.
Thermalcontrol:ThepossibilityalsoexiststocontrolHCCIcombustionbycontrollingthe
temperature,pressure,andcompositionofthemixtureatthebeginningofthecompression
stroke.Inthismethodology,thermalenergyfromexhaustgasrecirculation(EGR)and
compressionworkfromasuperchargerareeitherrecycledorrejectedtoobtainsatisfactory
combustion[12].Themainadvantageofthismethodisitssimplicity,sinceitdoesnotrequire
majorenginemodificationsoruseoffueladditives.Thedisadvantageofthismethodisthatit
Page 22
18
maybetooslowtoreacttotherapidlychangingconditionsthattypicallyexistintransportation
applications.Afulltransientresponseanalysisofthistypeofsystemhasyettobeperformed
andwoulddependonthespecificsystemused.
C.ResultsUsingDifferentFuels
OneoftheadvantagesofHCCIcombustionisitsintrinsicfuelflexibility.HCCIcombustionhas
littlesensitivitytofuelcharacteristicssuchaslubricityandlaminarflamespeed.Fuelswithany
octaneorcetanenumbercanbeburned,althoughtheoperatingconditionsmustbeadjustedto

accommodatedifferentfuels,whichcanimpactefficiency,asdiscussedbelow.AnHCCIengine
withVCRorVVTcould,inprinciple,operateonanyhydrocarbonoralcoholliquidfuel,aslongas
thefuelisvaporizedandmixedwiththeairbeforeignition.
TheliteratureshowsthatHCCIhasbeenachievedwithmultiplefuels.Themainfuelsthathave
beenusedaregasoline,dieselfuel,propane,naturalgas,andsingleanddualcomponentmixtures
ofthegasolineanddieselprimaryreferencefuels(isooctaneandnheptane,respectively).The
applicabilityofthesefuelstoHCCIenginesisdiscussedbelow.Otherfuels(methanol,ethanol,
acetone)havealsobeentriedinexperiments,butwithinconclusiveresults.
Gasoline:GasolinehasmultipleadvantagesasanHCCIfuel.Gasolinealsohasahighoctane
number(87to92intheU.S.andupto98inEurope),whichallowstheuseofreasonablyhigh
compressionratiosinHCCIengines.ActualcompressionratiosforgasolinefueledHCCI
enginedatavaryfrom12:1to21:1dependingonthefueloctanenumber,intakeair
temperature,andthespecificengineused(whichmayaffecttheamountofhotresidualnaturally
retained).ThiscompressionratiorangeallowsgasolinefueledHCCIenginestoachieve
relativelyhighthermalefficiencies(intherangeofdieselfueledCIDIengineefficiencies).A
potentialdrawbacktohighercompressionratiosisthattheenginedesignmustaccommodate
therelativelyhighcylinderpressuresthatcanresult,particularlyathighengineloads(see
discussioninSectionVB).Additionaladvantagesofgasolineincludeeasyevaporation,simple
mixturepreparation,andaubiquitousrefuelinginfrastructure.
DieselFuel:Dieselfuelautoignitesrapidlyatrelativelylowtemperaturesbutisdifficultto
evaporate.ToobtaindieselfuelHCCIcombustion,theairfuelmixturemustbeheated
considerablytoevaporatethefuel.Thecompressionratiooftheenginemustbeverylow(8:1
orlower)toobtainsatisfactorycombustion,whichresultsinalowengineefficiency.
Alternatively,thefuelcanbeinjectedincylinder,butwithoutairpreheating,temperaturesare
notsufficientlyhighfordieselfuelvaporizationuntilwellupthecompressionstroke.This
strategyoftenresultsinincompletefuelvaporizationandpoormixturepreparation,whichcan
leadtoparticulatematterandNOemissions.However,oneconceptfordirectinjectionof
x
dieselfuel,involvinglateinjection(afterTDC)withhighswirl,hasbeensuccessfulatthoroughly
vaporizingandmixingthefuelbeforeignitionatlightloads.Thismodeofoperationisusedin
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19
theNissanMKengine,tobediscussedinthenextsubsection.Inaddition,dieselfuelhasan
extensiverefuelinginfrastructure.
Propane:PropaneisanexcellentfuelforHCCI.Highefficienciescanbeachievedwith
propanefueledHCCIenginesbecausepropanehasahighoctanenumber(105).Because
propaneisagaseousfuel,itcanbeeasilymixedwithair.Someinfrastructurealsoexistsfor
propane.Becauseitcanbemaintainedasaliquidatmoderatepressures,theamountoffuel
thatcanbestoredonboardavehicleiscomparabletowhatcanbestoredfortypicalliquid
fuels.
NaturalGas:Becausenaturalgashasanextremelyhighoctanerating(about110),naturalgas
HCCIenginescanbeoperatedatveryhighcompressionratios(15:1to21:1),resultinginhigh
efficiency.However,similartogasolineorpropane,theenginedesignmustaccommodatethe
relativelyhighcylinderpressuresthatcanresult.Naturalgasiswidelyavailablethroughoutthe
U.S.
D.EarlyApplicationsofHCCITechnology
Currently,twocommerciallyavailableenginesruninHCCImodeoverpartoftheirdutycycles.In
bothcases,HCCIoperationislimitedtolightloadconditions,withtheenginesrevertingto
conventionalcombustionsystemsathighloads,asdiscussedbelow.
Nissan"MK"CombustionSystem
The"ModulatedKinetics"(MK)system,developedbyNissan[13],incorporatesinaregularCIDI
engineusingdieselfuel.Atlightload,theengineoperateswithhighswirl,highEGR,andretarded
injectiontiming.Undertheseconditions,thetimerequiredtoachievenearlycompletemixingis
shorterthanthetimerequiredforfuelautoignition.Therefore,nearhomogeneouscombustion
occurs.Attheselowloads,theequivalenceratioislow;therefore,thehomogeneouscombustion
resultsinextremelylowNOandparticulatematteremissions.Retardedfuelinjectiongenerally

x
resultsinlowefficiency.However,reducedheattransferlossesmitigatethisproblem.
Consequently,theoriginalefficiencyoftheCIDIengineismaintainedorslightlyimproved.
TheenginerunsinMKmodeatlowloadandswitchestoregulardieseloperationathighloads.
CurrentresearcheffortsaredirectedatextendingtherangeofoperationoftheengineinMKmode.
TheplanistoextendtheMKregionofoperationtoincludetheentireareaoftheload/speedmap
wherethe1015modeJapaneseemissionstesttakesplace.The1015modetestisconsideredto
berepresentativeofurbandriving,anditcoversanoperatingrangefromidletoslightlylessthan
halfoftheratedloadandspeedoftheengine.
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20
Figure2.SideandFrontalviewsoftheNissanMK2.5LiterEngine
Figure3.CutawayoftheHondaActive
RadicalTwoStrokeCycleEngine(TheAR
controlisavalvethatmovestoretainresidual
exhaustgases;thePDIMechanismisthedirect
incylinderfuelinjectionsystem.)
TheMKengineiscommerciallyavailablein
Japan.A2.5literunitwentintoproductionin
1998withavolumeof2000unitspermonth
(seeFigure2).A3.0literenginewentinto
productionin1999withavolumeof500units
permonth,projectedtogrowto5000unitsper
monthinthefuture.
HondaARMotorcycleEngine
TheHondaActiveRadical(AR)engineisa
2strokecycle,singlecylinderenginethatisnow
commerciallyavailableformotorcycles(see
Figure3).TheARengineisalsoadualmode
engine.Itoperatesasasparkignitionengineat
highloads,atidle,andforcoldstarts.The
enginetransitionstoHCCIcombustionatlow
load.Theenginehasalow(6.1:1)trapped
compressionratio,andHCCIoperationis
obtainedbythrottlingtheexhaust.Withexhaust
throttling,theengineoperateswithahighfraction
Page 25
21
ofhotresidualgases,whichisenoughtoobtainHCCIcombustion,evenataverylowcompression
ratio.Exhaustthrottlingisdecreasedastheloadincreases,untilfinallytheresidualfractionistoo
lowtokeeptheengineoperatinginHCCImode.Atthispoint,theengineswitchestoa
conventionalsparkignitionoperationmode.Theperformancemaphasa"transitionregion"where
theenginecanoperateinbothHCCImodeandSImode.
TheARenginehasdemonstratedconsiderableadvantagesinfueleconomy,whichis27percent
betterthanaregular2strokecycleengineunder"reallife"ridingconditions[14].Drivabilityisalso
substantiallyimproved.Hydrocarbonemissionsarealsoreducedby50percentwithrespecttoa
regular2strokecycleengine.However,withoutemissioncontrols,hydrocarbonemissionsarestill
veryhighcomparedtothecurrentautomotiveemissionsstandards.
Page 26
22
SECTIONIV.RELATEDRESEARCHBEINGPERFORMEDWITH
FEDERALSUPPORT
EERE'sOfficeofTransportationTechnologies(OTT)iscurrentlysupportingHCCIresearch
activitiesattwonationallaboratories,aprojectatStanfordUniversity,andhasissuedasolicitation

foradditionaluniversityresearch.OTThasfundedHCCIR&Datatotalof$1.5millionoverthe
pasttwoyears.Theexistingactivitiesaredesignedtobecomplementaryandconsistofthe
following:1)anexperimentalprogramatSandiaNationalLaboratories'CombustionResearch
Facility(SNL/CRF)targetedatunderstandingthefundamentalcontrollingphysicsofHCCI,witha
focusonliquidfuels;2)afundamentalmodelingeffortatSNL/CRFfocusingontheapplicationof
advancednumericalmodelingtechniquestoHCCIcombustion;3)anappliedmodelingactivityat
LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory(LLNL)withexperimentalvalidationinallmetalengines
atUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley(UCB),focusingongaseousfuels;and4)researchat
StanfordUniversityaimedatinvestigatingthepotentialofvariablevalvetiming(VVT)toextend
sparkignitionenginesintoHCCIcombustionregimesundersomeoperatingconditions.Allfour
currentprojectsarebeingconductedinclosecooperationwiththeU.S.automotiveand
heavydutyenginemanufacturers,withtheresultspresentedatregularlyscheduledworkinggroup
meetings.Theseprogramsarediscussedindetailbelow,alongwithadescriptionofthesolicitation
fornewuniversityHCCIresearchprograms.
A.SandiaNationalLaboratoriesHCCIEngineLaboratory
SNLintendstodevelopthefundamentalunderstandingnecessarytoovercomeHCCItechnical
barriers(seeSectionsIIandV).Toachievethisobjective,anHCCIenginelaboratoryisbeing
equippedwithtwoenginesofthesamebasicdesign.One,anallmetalengine,willbeusedto
establishoperatingpoints,developcombustioncontrolstrategies,andinvestigateemissions.The
other,anopticallyaccessibleengine,willbeusedtoapplyadvancedlaserbasedandotheroptical
diagnosticstoinvestigateincylinderprocesses,suchasmixturepreparationusingvarious
fuelinjectionandresidualmixingtechniques,theeffectsofpartialstratificationofchargemixture
andtemperature,thenatureofHCCIcombustionwithvariousdegreesofstratification,andthe
source(s)ofunburnedHCemissions.Inaddition,thisprojectinvolvesamodestcomputational
effortusingtheCHEMKINchemicalkineticsratecodetoinvestigatetrendsinHCCIignitionand
toprovideguidanceforenginedesignandexperiments.
1.HCCIResearchEnginesandCapabilities.
SNLisconvertingtwoCumminsBseriesCIDIenginesintoHCCIresearchengines.Thissports
utilityvehiclesizeengine(0.98liters/cylinder)wasselectedbecauseitcanprovideanoperating
rangerelevanttobothautomotiveandheavydutymanufacturers.Thesixcylinderproduction
enginesaremountedoneitherendofadoubleendeddynamometerandarebeingconvertedfor
balanced,singlecylinderHCCIoperation.
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23
Figure4.SNLHCCILaboratorySchematic
Figure5.SNLHCCI
OpticalEngine
Theenginesandsupportfacilitywillprovidetheflexibilityneededtoinvestigateawidevarietyof
HCCIlikeoperatingmodesacrossawideload/speedrange.Thiscapabilityisnecessaryinorder
tounderstandthepotentialofvariousmethodsforcontrollingHCCIignition,combustionrate,and
otherHCCIissues,asdiscussedinSectionsIIandV.Themainfeaturesofthelaboratoryinclude:
Compressionratioeasilyadjustablefrom13:1to21:1
Multiplefuelingsystems(fullypremixed,portinjection,anddirectinjection)
Flexiblefuelcapability
Intakechargetailoring(temperature,pressure,andintakegascomposition)
EGR/residualgasmixing
Variableswirlcapabilitybycustomizedintakevalveporting
Opticallyaccessibleengine
Variablevalvetiming(VVT)
Figures4showsaschematicofthelaboratory,asitwilllookaftertheextendedcylinderofthe
opticallyaccessibleengineiscompleted.Installationofthebaseengines,dynamometer,and
laboratorysubsystems(e.g.,meteringandcontrolsystemsfortheintakeairandsimulatedEGR
gases,aswellastheoilandwatercirculationandheatingsystems)iscomplete.Figure5showsa
schematicoftheopticallyaccessibleengineshowingacutawayviewoftheextendedcylinderand
piston.
2.ChemicalKineticRateComputations

BecausetheHCCIprocessispredominantlycontrolledbychemicalkineticreactionrates,
kineticratecomputationsarebeingconductedtodevelopabetterunderstandingoftheignition
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Figure6.CHEMKINcalculationsshowing
theeffectofchangesinfuelloadonHCCI
ignitiontimingforthedieselfuelsurrogate
(nheptane)
Figure7.CHEMKINcalculationsshowing
theeffectofchangesinfuelloadonHCCI
ignitiontimingforthegasolinesurrogate
(isooctane)
behaviorofdifferentclassesoffuelsacrosstheexpectedoperatingrange.TheCHEMKINcode
wasmodifiedtoallowtimevaryingcompression,usingthefullchemistrymechanismsfornheptane
andisooctane(fromLLNL).Thesetwofuelswereselectedbecausetheirdetailedkinetic
mechanismsareknownandtheirignitionchemistryspanstherangeofoctaneandcetanenumbers
typicalofbothdieselfuelandgasoline.Thismodelingapproach,whichtreatsthechargeasasingle
lumpedvolume,hasbeenshowntoprovideagoodindicationofHCCIignitiontiming[4],although
itisnotaccurateforpredictingcombustionratesandpeaktemperatures.Thesecomputationshave
guidedtheenginedesignandwillbeusedtoguidefutureexperiments.
SometrendsinHCCIignitiontimingcomputedwiththeCHEMKINcodearepresentedinFigures
6and7fortwosurrogatefuels:1)nheptane,whichhaschemistryrepresentativeofdieselfueland
2)isooctane,whichisrepresentativeofgasoline.AsevidentinFigures6and7,ignitionchemistry
isquitedifferentforthesetwofuels.Forthedieselsurrogate(Figure6),ignitionoccursintwo
stagesbeginningatatemperatureofabout800K.Thisignitiontemperaturelimitsthecompression
ratioto13:1orlessandtheefficiencytolessthanaCIDIengine,inagreementwithenginetestsin
theliterature[15].Incontrast,thegasolinesurrogate(Figure7)allowscompressiontohigher
temperatureswithignitionoccurringinasinglestageatabout1100K.Thistemperaturepermits
highercompressionratiosand,therefore,higherefficiencies.Althoughthecompressionratioforthe
datainFigure7is21:1(abovetheoptimalrangeof15:118:1),thecompressionratiosinareal
enginewillbelowerduetoinhomogeneitiesinthecharge[6,16],particularlythehotresidualfrom
thepreviouscycle.Aloweroctanefuelsuchas87octanegasolinecouldalsobeusedtoreduce
the
compressionratiototheoptimalrange.HCCIenginetestshaveshownthatusinggasolinelike
fuels,suchasisooctane,andCIDIlikecompressionratios(17:119:1),HCCIenginescan
achieveCIDIlikeefficienciesandlowNOemissions[16,17].
x
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25
ThecurvesinFigures6and7showtheeffectofchangingthefuelloadingforthedieseland
gasolinesurrogates.Figure6showsthattwostageignitionofadiesellikefuelresultsinawide
variationinignitiontimingwithchangesinfuelload;however,withasinglestageignitionfuel,
ignitiontimingvariesonlyafewdegreesfromlowtohighload,asshowninFigure7.Thus,
gasolinelikefuelswillrequirelesscompensationtomaintainoptimalignitiontimingasspeedand
loadarevariedovertheoperatingmap.Acompletediscussionmaybefoundinreference[5].
3.ResearchDirections
Initialresearcheffortswillfocusongasolinelikefuelssuchasisooctane,indolene,andgasoline
(ratherthandieselfuels)forthefollowingreasons:(1)theCHEMKINcoderesultsandotherwork
intheliteratureshowthattheignitioncharacteristicsofhighoctane,singlestageignitionfuels(e.g.,
gasolineornaturalgas)havesignificantadvantagesforHCCIenginescomparedtofuelslike
traditionaldieselfuel;(2)morevolatileliquidfuelslikegasoline(orgasphasefuels)aresubstantially
easiertoformintothenearhomogeneousmixturesrequiredforHCCI;and(3)liquidfuelshave
significantadvantagesintermsofonvehiclestorage,vehiclerange,andrefuelinginfrastructure.
InitialexperimentswillinvolveestablishingbaselineHCCIoperationusingthefullypremixedfueling
systemwithisooctaneasthefuel.Thisoperatingconditioniswelldefined,easilyrepeated,and

closelymatchesconditionsoftheCHEMKINcalculations.Afteranalyzingtheignitiontimingand
combustionrateatthebasecondition,operatingparameterssuchasintaketemperature,engine
speed,andfuelloadwillbesystematicallyvariedtoestablishtheoperatinglimitsforthefully
premixedcase.ChangesinignitiontimingwillbecomparedwithCHEMKINcomputationsto
evaluatethepredictivecapabilityofthisrelativelysimplemodelandtodeterminehowthemodel
canbeusedasaguideinfutureexperiments.
AfterestablishinganunderstandingoffullypremixedHCCIoperation,SNLwillsystematically
investigatehowchangesinmixing,chargepreparation,andheattransferaffectHCCIignition,
combustionrate,andemissions.Manyofthesestudieswillfocusonunderstandingandusing
partialchargestratificationasacontrolmechanismforHCCIandwilladdresstechnicalbarriersto
implementingHCCI,asdiscussedinSectionsIIandV(e.g.,controllingignitiontimingoverthe
load/speedmap,controllingcombustionrateathigherloads,andcontrollinghydrocarbon
emissions).Researchwillincludetheuseofdirectinjectionfuelingtoproducepartialcharge
stratification,swirlvariationtoalterheattransferratesandincylindermixing,theeffectsof
exhaust/residualgases,andinvestigationsofvariousmechanismsforexhaust(orresidual)gas
introductionandmixingtoprovidecontrolledpartialchargestratification.SNLplanstoexamine
VVTtocontrolHCCIignitiontimingoverarangeofoperatingconditionsandtocontributeto
partialchargestratification.
Withthecompletionoftheopticalengine,SNLwillinvestigatetheincylinderprocessesusing
variousfuelingandmixingschemes.Thesestudieswilluseadvancedlaserimagingdiagnosticsto
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obtainspatiallyandtemporallyresolvedmeasurementsoftheincylinderfuel/air/residualmixture.
ThesedatawillshowhowthevariousmixturesaffectthenatureofHCCIcombustionandunburned
hydrocarbonemissions.Theresultsofthesedetailedopticalmeasurementswillbecorrelatedwith
measurementsofoverallperformancefromtheallmetalenginetoprovideanunderstandingof
causeandeffectrelationshipsandtosuggestalternativecontroltechniques.Thecombinedresults
ofthisprojectshouldprovideabroadunderstandingofHCCIandpartiallystratified,HCCIlike
combustion,andwillguideHCCIcombustionandcontrolstrategies.
4.IndustrialInteractions
ThisHCCIengineresearchprojectisbeingconductedinclosecooperationwithboththe
automotiveandheavydutydieselengineindustries.SNLconsultedindustryexpertsand
incorporatedtheirinputintotheselectionoftheHCCIresearchengine,thedesignofitsspecial
features,andtheselectionofresearchdirections.Theresultsofthisproject(andsomeofthe
fundamentalmodelingworkdiscussedinthenextsubsection)arepresentedatregularlyscheduled
crosscutCIDIcooperativeresearchanddevelopmentagreement(CRADA)meetings,which
includeindustrialparticipantsfromboththeCIDI(automotivesized)CRADAandtheHeavyDuty
CIDICRADA,aswellasparticipantsfromotherresearchorganizations.
AlthoughtheHCCIprojectisnotdirectlyapartofeitherCRADA,itisbeingconductedinasimilar
collaborativemanner.PresentationoftheworkatthecrosscutCRADAmeetingprovidesaforum
fordisseminatingtheresults,havingdiscussions,andgettingfeedbackfromrepresentativesofthe
majorU.S.manufacturersofautomotiveandheavydutyengines.Theindustrialpartnershave
reciprocatedbypresentingresultsfromtheirHCCIworkatthesemeetingsandbyproviding
equipmentandexpertiseforsettinguptheresearchengines.Threecompaniessuggestedtheuseof
theirenginesforthisproject,andtheCumminsBseriesenginewasselectedforthereasons
discussedabove.Aspartofitsparticipation,Cumminshasprovided,atnocharge,thetwo
engines,spareparts,andtechnicalassistanceonconvertingtheenginestosinglecylinderoperation.
Cumminsalsocustomizedtheintakeportsoftwocylinderheadstoprovidetherequired
variableswirlcharacteristics.
Asanoutgrowthofindustry'sstronginterestandparticipationinthisproject,stepsareunderwayto
establishanofficialmemorandumofunderstanding(MOU)toformalizethepartnershipbetween
thisprojectandtheU.S.enginemanufacturers.UnderthisMOU,theworkwillcontinuetobe
conductedinacollaborativeandinteractivemannersimilartothatoftheCRADAprojects
mentionedabove.
B.SandiaNationalLaboratoriesFundamentalModeling
InadditiontotheHCCIengineexperiment,afundamentalstudyisunderwayattheSNL/CRFto

elucidatethefundamentalphysicsunderlyingcombustioninHCCIengines.Thiseffortisfundedby
aLaboratoryDirectedResearchandDevelopment(LDRD)award,withsupportforthe
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27
developmentoftheadvancedmodeltoolsbeingprovidedbytheDOEOfficeofBasicEnergy
Sciences,ChemicalSciencesDivision(BES/CSD).Thestudywillspecificallyaddressanumberof
challengesfacedbyHCCIenginessuchasthecontrolofignitiontiming,heatreleaserate,and
emissionsoverawiderangeofloads,speeds,andfuels.
TheprojectwillapplyadvancedmodelingtoolsandisdesignedtocomplementworkintheHCCI
enginelaboratory.Thespecificgoalsareto:1)elucidatetheroleofturbulentmixinginmixture
preparation;2)studytheeffectsofchargeinletconditions,incylindermixing,andengineoperating
conditionsontheignitiondelayandheatreleaserate;and3)basedonthisfundamentalknowledge,
developmixturepreparationstrategiestooptimizeHCCIcombustionovertheloadspeedmap.
1.AdvancedModelingTools
ThisstudytakesadvantageofadvancedmodelingtoolsdevelopedattheSNL/CRFtoincorporate
moreoftheincylinderphysicsthanispossiblewithcurrentcodessuchasKiva,CHEMKINor
HCT(Hydrodynamics,Combustion,andTransport).Threenewmodelingtoolswillbeapplied:1)
anextensionofonedimensionalturbulence(ODT)modelingtoinvestigatemixingandcombustion
throughouttheenginecycle;2)adirectnumericalsimulation(DNS)toexaminemultidimensional
mixingeffectsatsmalllengthscales;and3)largeeddysimulation(LES)torelatetheODTand
DNSstudiestorealisticenginegeometriesandmixturepreparationstrategies.Incorporatingthe
detailedphysicsnecessarilyincreasesthecomputationaleffortrequired,andforsomemodelsideal
enginegeometrieswillbeused.Thus,itisimportantthatthesecomputationsbecloselyassociated
withtheexperimentalstudiesatSNL/CRF.Althoughtheaddedphysicswillincrease
computationalcosts,theknowledgegainedwilladvancethedevelopmentofmoresimplisticmodels
andguidehardwaredevelopmentefforts,ultimatelyleadingtosubstantialsavingsforthe
developmentofHCCIengines.
2.ResearchObjectivesofFundamentalModelingResearch
TheseadvancedmodelingtechniquesforHCCIwilloptimizestrategiesforcontrolofignitiontiming,
heatreleaserate,andemissions.Themodelsdescribedabovewillbeusedforparametricstudies
overarealisticloadspeedmapofthejointeffectsof(1)inletmixturecompositionandtemperature;
(2)incylindermixingstrategiesincludingfuelinjectionandswirltocreatepartialcharge
stratification;and(3)enginecontrolthroughVVTandVCR.Themodelingtoolstakeadvantageof
thedetailedchemicalkineticsmodelsandcanbeusedtostudyavarietyoffuels.Theseparametric
studies,inconjunctionwiththeoreticalanalysis,willhelpevaluateHCCIcontrolstrategiesthatcan
betestedontheSNLHCCIresearchengineoronotherprototypes.Thisdetailedmodelingwork
shouldbeparticularlyvaluableforinvestigatingtheeffectsofpartialchargestratificationincluding:
CEffectsofChargeMixtureInhomogeneities:Withinpracticalengines,completecharge
homogeneityisunattainable.R&Deffortsarebeingdirectedathowvariousmixingstrategies
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Figure8.ThetemperaturehistoryinKfora
representativeODTsimulation.Thevertical
axiscorrespondstoaslicethroughthe
cylinder.Ignitionoccursfollowing
compressionheatingandturbulentmixing.
Figure9.Thispressuretraceshowsthe
differencesbetweencompletely
homogeneousmixturesandmixtureswith
smallscaleinhomogeneities.
leadtovaryinginhomogeneitiesandathowthesealtercombustiontoextendtheoperating
rangeofHCCIengines.Thetoolsusedinthisstudyareuniquelycapableofconsideringthefull
rangeofeffectsarisingfrominhomogeneities,includingtheireffectsonemissions,ignitiontiming,
andheatreleaserate.Figure8showsthetemperaturehistoryforonerepresentativesimulation
demonstratinghowODTcanbeusedtomodeltheeffectsofmixtureinhomogeneitiesandcool

wallsonHCCIcombustion.Evenrelativelymildinhomogeneitiescansubstantiallyreducethe
heatreleaserate,asshownbythepressurehistorycurvesinFigure9.
CEffectsofWallHeatTransferandtheResultingThermalInhomogeneities:Thesemodelsare
alsocapableofresolvingthedetailsofthecoolwallboundarylayerand,hence,wall
heattransferrates.Thethermalchargestratificationresultingfromwallheattransferisthought
toplayanimportantroleincontrollingheatreleaserateinadditiontoHCandCOemissions.
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C.LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory(LLNL)AppliedModelingandValidation
TheLLNLactivitiesincludedetailedmodelingofHCCIcombustion,studyingthefundamentalsof
HCCIcombustion,andfindingoptimumoperatingconditionsforHCCIengineoperation.The
experimentalworktodateincludesasinglecylinderenginerepresentativeofheavytruckengines
andasmall,highspeedfourcylinderenginerepresentativeofautomotiveapplications.Current
researchisdirectedatsolvingthemostimportantproblemsassociatedwithHCCIengineoperation:
speedandloadcontrol,coldstart,emissionsofHCandCO,powerdensity,andtransitiontoother
modesofoperation.TheLLNLworkonHCCIisdoneincollaborationwithUCBerkeley.
1.AnalysisofHCCICombustion
LLNLhasdevelopedtwopowerfulHCCIanalysistools:asinglezonemodelandamultizone
model.Thesinglezonemodelhasprovensuccessfulinpredictingstartofcombustionand
providingreasonableestimatesforpeakcylinderpressure,indicatedefficiencyandNOemissions,
x
withverylittlecomputationalcost(5minutesonanengineeringworkstation)[18].Themultizone
modelcanmoreaccuratelypredictthecombustionprocess,includingHCandCOemissions,atthe
costoflongerrunningtimes(2hoursonanengineeringworkstation).
TheSingleZonemodelisbeingappliedtodevelopdetailedengineperformancemapsandcontrol
strategiesandtoanalyzetheproblemofenginestartability.Thismodelshowsthatanengine
operatinginHCCImodeismoreefficientatlowloadsatanyenginespeedthanthesameengine
operatinginCIDImode.TheenginehasahigherefficiencyinHCCImodeduetothefaster
combustionandtheneedtodelaycombustioninordertoreduceNOemissionsintheCIDI
x
engine.TheHCCIenginehas72percentofthemaximumtorqueobtainedbytheCIDIengineand
88percentofthepoweroftheCIDIengine,whileproducingpracticallyzeroparticulatematterand
lessthan100partspermillionofNOunderalloperatingconditions.Althoughthissimulationhas
x
notbeenvalidated,itshowsthepotentialofHCCIoperation.
TheMultiZoneModelcombinesadetailedfluidmechanicscodewithadetailedchemicalkinetics
codetostudyfundamentalsofHCCIcombustion.Figures10and11displayrecentresultsofthe
multizonemodel.Figure10comparesexperimentalandcalculatedpressuretracesforthreecases
ofpropaneHCCIcombustion.Figure10showsalmostperfectagreementbetweenexperimental
andnumericalpressuretracesforCases1and3.Theagreementholdsduringthecompression
strokeaswellasduringtheexpansionstroke.Themultizonemodelhasalsoresultedinexcellent
predictionsfortheapparentheatreleaseratesforthesecases[19].Turbulence,flamepropagation
andmixingmakeSIandCIcombustionmuchmoredifficulttoaccuratelypredictthanHCCI
combustion.ThemodelalsohasthecapabilityofmakingpredictionsofHCandCOemissionsand
tostudytheeffectofcylindergeometryonengineemissions.
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30
Figure10.Experimentalandnumerical
pressuretracesforthreecasesofpropane
HCCIcombustion.Dottedlinesrepresent
numericalresults,andsolidlinesshow
experimentalresults.
Figure11.ConcentrationofHOand
22
radicalsH,OH,andHOasafunctionof

2
crankangle[4].
ThemultizonemodelisalsovaluableforstudyingthechemicalandphysicalfundamentalsofHCCI
combustion.Figure11showstheconcentrationofHOandradicalsH,OHandHOasa
22
2
functionofcrankangleduringHCCIcombustion.Theseradicalsareselectedasthemost
importantfordrivingtheignitionprocess.Ingeneralterms,HCCIignitionoccurswhenHOthat
22
hasbeenaccumulatinginthereactivemixturebeginstodecomposeatasignificantrate,producing
twohydroxyl(OH)radicalsforeachHOthatdecomposes.Thisreactionreleasesanenormous
22
numberofOHradicals,mostofwhichthenreactwithfuelmolecules,producingwaterandheat,
increasingthetemperatureofthereactingmixture,andsettinginmotionachainbranching
sequence.TheimportanceofthisreactionisillustratedinFigure11,wheretheconcentrationof
HOdecreasesrapidlyasOHisbeingformed.
22
LLNLhasfutureplanstousethemultizonemodeltoperformdetailedanalysesofoperatingpoints
selectedasoptimumbythesinglezonemodel.Theresultswilldetermineanaccuratepictureofthe
importantoperatingparametersofHCCIcombustion(peakcylinderpressure,indicatedefficiency,
NO,COandHCemissions).LLNLwillusethemultizonemodel'sresultsforHCandCO
x
emissionstodeterminethesizeandpreciousmetalcompositionofthecatalyticconvertorrequired
tomeetemissionsstandards.Thedetailedmodelwillalsobeusedtostudytheeffectofcombustion
chamberdesignonHCCIengineefficiencyandemissions.Theanalysiswillevaluatetheeffectof
crevices,pistonbowls,swirl,andetc.onengineoperation.
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Figure12.LLNLExperimentalHCCI
Engine
Figure13.CylinderPressureTracesfrom
theLLNLExperimentalHCCIEngine
2.HCCIEngineExperiments
LLNLwillperformengineexperimentstovalidatetheapplicationofthemodelsandtoimplement
strategiesforHCCIenginestartabilityandcontrol.Currentworkfocusesona4cylinder
Volkswagenturbocharged,directinjection(TDI)compressionignitionengineoperatinginHCCI
mode.(SeeFigure12.)ThisenginehasoperatedinmulticylinderHCCImodesinceOctoberof
1999.(SeepressuretracesinFigure13.)TDIengineexperimentsareusedtoinvestigateand
validatecontrolstrategiesforstableHCCIoperationoverawiderangeofspeedandload
conditions.LLNLwilluseexperimentstoinvestigatecontrolofmulticylinderinteractionsand
cylindertocylindervariations.
InadditiontotheTDIengine,LLNLhasaCaterpillar3401CIDIenginethathasbeenconverted
toHCCImode.TheCaterpillar3401representsafamilyofenginesusedinheavydutytrucks.
TheconvertedCaterpillar3401enginewillruninHCCImodeoverawiderangeofoperating
conditionswithmultiplefuels(e.g.,naturalgasandpropane)toanalyzeengineperformanceandto
validatethemodels.Thisenginewillbeequippedtohandleintakeheating,EGR,andfueladditives.
LLNLwillperformexperimentstoanalyzethesecontroloptionsaswellasstrategiesforstartingthe
engine.Somepossibilitiesinclude:additives(DME,dieselfuel,etc.),intakepreheating,and
variablecompressionratio.
3.ChemicalKineticModelforHCCIGasolineCombustion
Gasolineconsistsofhundredsofhydrocarbons,manyofwhichcannotcurrentlybesimulatedin
kineticmodels.However,becausegasolineisanattractivefuelforHCCIengines,arealistic
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chemistrymodelforgasolineisneededthat:(1)canbeusedindetailedkineticmodelingtopredict

thebeginninganddurationofcombustionunderHCCIconditionsandtopredictHC,CO,and
NOemissions;and(2)canserveasabasisfordevelopmentofreducedchemicalkineticmodels
x
forinclusionofmultidimensionalcomputationalfluiddynamic(CFD)modelsandsimplified
engineeringmodelsofHCCIcombustion.
LLNLhasfoundthatitisnotpossibletousefamiliarfuelparameterssuchasoctaneorcetane
ratingstoguideinthedefinitionofperformanceratingsoffuelsforHCCIcombustion.Therefore,a
newapproachandanewsetofratingsforhydrocarbonstoidentifyattractivefuelsforHCCI
enginesareneeded.
Theworkrequiredtodevelopasynthetic(computationalsurrogate)gasolinesuitableforHCCI
applicationsinvolvescomputationaltestingofselectedmixturesofhydrocarbonstofindonethatis
abletosimulatetheperformanceofgasolineoverawiderangeofHCCIoperatingconditions.In
additiontofuelclassesalreadyquitefamiliartomodelingefforts,suchaslargeandintermediatesize
paraffinsandolefins,kineticmodelsforaromaticspeciessuchasbenzeneandtoluene,and
cycloparaffinspeciessuchascyclopentaneandmethylcyclohexanemustbedevelopedforinclusion
inthesurrogategasolinemodels.Theseadditionalfueltypesareimportantbecauseconventional
gasolinecontainssignificantfractionsofthesetypesofhydrocarbonspecies,andtheirignition
reactionkineticsarequitedifferentfromthoseofotherspeciespresentingasolinefuels.Thiswork
willuseexperimentalHCCIenginedataandrequireclosecooperationbetweenexperimental
effortsandkineticmodelingexperts.
D.StanfordUniversityVariableValveTiming
StanfordUniversity'sHCCIstudiesarefocusedonhowtouseVariableValveTiming(VVT)in
orderto:1)induceHCCIoverabroadrangeofoperatingconditionswithouttheneedtothrottle
and2)incorporateHCCIintoamulticombustionmodeenginecapableofmeetingconsumer
demandsforpower,PNGVtargetsforefficiency,andTier2standardsforemissions.Both
portfuelinjectionstrategies(minimalcost)andgasolinedirectinjectionstrategiesareenvisioned,
withcurrentemphasisondirectinjectionengines.Gasolineisthefuelofchoiceinthisapplication,
andachievingHCCIwithlowcompressionratioandwithhighoctanefuelsisacentralaspectof
thiseffort.KeyissuesthatmustbeaddressedincludethephasingoftheHCCIcombustionwith
pistonmotion,thedynamicrangeoverwhichHCCIoperationcanbeachieved,andthe
developmentofrobustcontrolstrategiestomanagetransitionsbetweenoptimalcombustionregimes
asspeed/loadrequirementsvary.
AchievingHCCIwithlowcompressionratio(10:1)andwithhighoctanefuels(propane,octane
number=104)viareinduction(i.e.,reintroducinghotcombustionproductsfromtheprevious
cycle)hasbeendemonstratedatStanford.Theseresultswereobtainedusinganelectrohydraulic
VVTsystemdevelopedatStanfordandshowninFigure14.Thissystemallowsarbitrarylift
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Key
CPU=centralprocessingunit
A/D=Analog/Digital
LVDT=linearvariable
differentialtransformer
PWM=pulsewidthmodulation
33
Figure14.Schematicofthe
StanfordVVTSystemusedto
induceHCCIbyexhaustproduct
reinduction
Figure15.Multicombustionmodeoperation
onacyclebycyclebasis;thethirdcycleis
HCCIinducedbylateexhaustvalveclosing.
profilestobeexecutedbyboththeintakeandexhaustvalves.Usingthissystem,asingleengine
canoperateasaconventional,sparkignition(SI)engineononeoperatingcycleandexecutea
completelydifferentmodeofcombustiononthenextcycle.Currentcapabilitiesincludeexecution
offourofthesixmajorcombustionstrategiesonacyclebycyclebasis:homogeneouschargeSI
combustion,leanburnSIcombustion,residualdilutedSIcombustion,andHCCI.Allofthese

modescanbeoperatedwithorwithoutthrottling.Whenthrottlingisdesired,itisprovidedbythe
intakevalve.Allmodescanalsobeoperatedwithadvancedbreathingstrategiesincludingoptimal
phasingatanyenginespeed,earlyandlateintakevalveclosing(Millercycle),and/ormodification
oftheeffectiveexpansionratiothroughmodificationofexhaustvalveclosing.
Figure15showshowthesystemcanbe
usedtoalternatebetweencombustionmodesona
cyclebycyclebasis.Inthisexample,late
exhaustvalveclosing(holdingthevalveopen
duringtheintakestroke)permitsenoughhot
exhausttobeinductedwiththefreshchargeto
causecompressionignition.Currentresearch
centersaroundexploringtheregimesinwhich
HCCIcanbeinducedbylateexhaustvalve
closingaswellaslateintakevalveopening.
ValuesofIntegratedMeanEffectivePressure
(IMEP,ameasureoftheworkproducedby
combustion)rangingfrom30to60percentof
wideopenthrottle,SIenginecombustionhave
beenachievedusingthisstrategy.Acomplete
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34
discussionofthisworkmaybefoundinReference[10].
Inthenextphaseofthiswork,advancedvalveactuationstrategieswillbeemployedtoexpandthe
operatingrangeofHCCI,andstudiesaimedatprovidingoptimalphasingofheatreleasewillbe
conducted.VVTwillalsobeusedinconjunctionwithdirectinjectioninordertodemonstrate
integrationofHCCIintoamultimodecombustionenginethatincludesstratifiedchargeandpossibly
dieseltypefuelinjectionandcombustion.Inadditiontomeasurementsinconventional(metal)
engines,anopticallyaccessibleenginetailoredforinvestigatingthekeyparametersofdirect
injectionHCCIwithexhaustreinductionisunderconstruction.Thedatafromthisexperimentwill
helpresearcherstodevelopaquantitative(computational)capabilitytopredicttheperformanceof
thesenewhybridengines,anditwillenabledesignerstobetterunderstandtheprocessesthatlead
tooptimalsystemperformance.
E.SolicitationforHCCIResearch
InadditiontothecurrentlyfundedworkonHCCI,DOEreleasedasolicitationforproposalsfor
HCCIresearchbyuniversitiesanduniversity/industryconsortia.Cooperativeagreementsare
expectedbeputinplaceattheendofFY2001,basedonavailabilityoffunding.Itisalso
anticipatedthatonerelativelysmallcooperativeagreementwillbeletlaterthisyearforfeasibility
demonstrationofnovelconceptsforHCCIbysmallbusinessesoruniversities.Thefollowing
describesthesenewinitiatives:
1.UniversityConsortiumtoConductHCCIR&D
OnNovember21,2000,DOEissuedasolicitationforR&DonfuelcellsandCIDIengine
projects.Asmalltopicwasincludeddirectedtouniversityresearchconsortiaforfundamental
HCCIR&Dusinggasoline.Thesolicitationwasdirectedtouniversitiesduetotheirstrong
modelingcapabilityandthehighrisk,precompetitivenatureoftheR&D.Thissolicitationrecently
closed,andtheDepartmentreceivedtenproposalsaddressingHCCI.
Thesolicitationsoughtproposalstodevelopanenginecontrolsystemthatwouldadjustparameters
suchasinletmixturetemperature,fuelinjectionandEGRtoallowtheHCCIenginetooperateover
awiderrangeofspeedsandloadsthanhasbeendemonstratedtodate.Enablingtechnologiessuch
asvariablecompressionratio,flexiblevalvetiming,variableboost,sensors,andemissioncontrol
devicesmaybethebasisofproposalsastheysupportHCCIconcepts.Inaddition,proposals
weresoughttodevelopcontrolstrategiestoenabletheeffectivetransitionfromHCCImodeto
otherpotentialmodesofoperation(e.g.,directinjectionstratifiedcharge).Proposalswerealso
soughttoproducemodelsthatwillestimatethefullcycleperformanceandpotentialfueleconomy
benefitsoftheHCCIengineconcept.
Inaddition,proposalsweresoughttoinvestigatechemicalkineticstomodelHCCIcombustion.
Improvedmodelingofthetemperatureandpressurehistoriesofthechemicalkineticreactingflow

Page 39
35
wouldgreatlyassistindevelopmentofHCCIcombustionsystems.Fundamentalchemicalkinetic
mechanismdevelopmentcombinedwithexperimentalverificationisdesired.
Thesolicitationalsorequesteddetailedmodelingofthefluiddynamicmixingofthefuel,airand
residualproductsforbothPortFuelInjection(PFI)andDirectInjection(DI)reactantmixingand
injectionschemes.Itisanticipatedthatcompletemodelingoftheflowforallfourstrokes(intake,
compression,expansionandexhaust)willbenecessarytoaccuratelypredictthefractionof
productsleftinthecylinderthatwillbemixedwiththefreshcharge.Modelsweresoughtto
provideadetailedunderstandingofinjectorbehavior,liquidsprayatomization,vaporization,and
fluiddynamicmixingthatisneededforbothPFIandDIinjectionschemes.Modelsalsowere
soughttocomputecyclesimulationsundervariousvalvetimingschemes.Totheextentpossible,
subscalehardwarewillbeusedtovalidatethemodelsandincreaseunderstandingofhowthese
technologiesfitintoatotalsystemdesign.
ThesemodelingactivitieswillbecoordinatedwithexistingDOEprogramsatnationallaboratories.
TheawardeewillbeaskedtoestablishquantifiabletechnicaltargetstomeasureR&Dprogress
againstthetechnicalbarriers.Thefundingtobeawardedforthistopicwillbeuptoseveralmillion
dollars(basedonavailablefunding)overmultipleyears.Theawardwillincludea20percentcost
share.Anindustrytechnicalpanelconsistingofengineexpertswillbeformedtoassistinguidingthe
universityresearch.
2.CARATTopicforHomogeneousChargeCompressionIgnitionEnablingTechnology
Inlate2001,DOEwillreleasearequestfornewPhase1ProposalsforitsCooperative
AutomotiveResearchforAdvancedTechnology(CARAT)program.TheCARATprogram
sponsorssmallbusinessesanduniversitiestodevelopadvanced,energyefficientautomotive
technologiesfrombenchscalemodelstoengineeringscaleprototypes.TheCARATprogram
consistsofthreephases.InPhase1,theobjectiveistoprovethefeasibilityofthetechnology
throughbuildingbenchscalemodels,analyzingperformancedata,andidentifyingcostand
manufacturingbarriers.InPhase1,DOEtypicallyprovides$150,000(representing80%ofthe
totalcost);theawardeeprovidestheremaining20%ofthecostshare.Phase2focuseson
prototypedevelopment,andPhase3culminateswithtechnologyvalidation.Attheendofeach
phase,DOEselectsafewprojectstocontinuetothenextphase.Ultimately,DOEmatchesthe
developersoftheseinnovativeconceptstomanufacturersandsuppliersforcommercialization.
Inthissolicitation,DOEisincludingatopiconHCCIR&Dtoexplorehardwarefeasibilityand
proofofconcept.DOEisseekingproposals(exclusivelyfromsmallbusinessesoruniversities)to
developnovelconceptsortechnologiesthatwillenabletheoperationofanHCCIengineovera
widerangeofenginespeedsandloadsrepresentativeofthoseencounteredduringlightdutyvehicle
operation,usinggasolineasfuel.DOEseekstodevelophardwareforenablingtechnologiessuch
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36
assensors,variablecompressionratio,flexiblevalvetiming,variableboost,andemissioncontrol
devices.
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37
SECTIONV.POTENTIALFUTUREDIRECTIONSFOR
RESEARCHANDDEVELOPMENT
AsdiscussedinSectionIII,recentresearchhasgreatlyexpandedourunderstandingofHCCI,the
controllingmechanisms,andHCCIengineoperationstrategies.However,substantiallymoreR&D
effortisrequiredbeforeheavyandlightdutyHCCIengineswillbereadyforproductionintheU.S.
ThemainareasrequiringR&Dareoutlinedbelow.Inaddition,enablingtechnologiessuchasVVT
areapplicabletoseveraloftheseareasasdiscussedbelow.
A.IgnitionTimingControl
R&DisneededtodevelopcontrolmethodsforHCCIenginesinordertoovercomethechallenge
ofmaintainingignitiontimingasloadandspeedarevaried.Maintainingoptimalignitiontimingis
morechallengingforHCCIenginesthanforconventionalenginesbecausenopositivemechanism,

suchassparkorfuelinjection,determinesignitiontiming.
InHCCIengines,ignitiontimingisdeterminedbythechemicalkineticreactionratesofthemixture,
whicharecontrolledbytime,temperature,andmixturecomposition.Oftheseparameters,ignition
timingismostsensitivetotemperature.Asenginespeedandload(timeandmixture)arevaried,the
ignitiontimingwillalsovary,unlessthechargetemperatureisadjustedtocompensate.Notethat
theamountofcompensationrequiredisastrongfunctionoffueltype,withonestageignitionfuels
(e.g.,gasoline)requiringmuchlesscompensationforchangesinspeedandloadthan
twostageignitionfuels(e.g.,dieselfuel).
VariousmethodsofcontrollingthechargetemperaturenearTDChavebeensuggestedandsome
havebeendemonstratedforlimitedconditions.Perhapsthemoststraightforwardwaytocontrol
chargetemperatureinanHCCIengineistoaddavariableamountofhotEGRtotheintake;
however,theresponseisslow,andtransientsarenothandledwell.Alternatively,varyingthe
temperaturebymechanicalvariationofthecompressionratio(VCR)hasrecentlybeen
demonstratedasanexcellentwayofcontrollingHCCIignitiontiming[6].Thistechniquecouldbe
adaptedtoautomaticcontrols.Forexample,SAABhasrecentlyannouncedplanstogointo
productionwithavariablecompressionratioSIengineusingaclevertiltingcylindermechanism,
thatcouldeasilybeadaptedtoHCCIengines[8].Finally,VVTmightbethemostversatilewayof
controllingthechargetemperature.VVTwouldallowthechargetemperaturetobevariedbothby
varyingtheeffectivecompressionratioandbyvaryingtheamountofhotresidualinthechamber(as
demonstratedbytherecentworkatStanfordUniversitydiscussedinSectionIVD),withthelatter
havingpotentialadvantagesforhighloadoperationandcoldstart.
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B.CombustionRateControlforHighLoadOperation
R&DisneededtodevelopmethodstoslowtherateofcombustioninHCCIenginesathighengine
loadstopreventexcessivenoiseandenginedamage.(Duetoacombinationofrelativelyslow
kineticsandsmallinhomogeneitiesinthecharge,theheatreleaserateinHCCIenginesisgenerally
slowenoughforsmoothoperationandacceptablenoiselevelsatlowandmoderateloads.
However,athighloads,thekineticratesarefaster,andtheheatreleaseratefromnear
homogeneousHCCIcanbecomeveryrapid,causingunacceptablenoiseandeventualengine
damage.)Atleasttwosolutionsappearfeasibleasdescribedinthefollowing.
First,onashortertimehorizon,athighloadstheenginecouldswitchoverandrunasaconventional
SIorCIDIengine.SIoperationhasadvantagesforcontrolofNOemissions,andgasolinelike
x
fuelsofferadditionaladvantages(asdiscussedinSectionIV).Ontheotherhand,CIDIoperation
hastheadvantageofhighefficiency.ConversiontoSIoperationmayrequirereducingthe
compressionratio,whichwouldbestraightforwardforanengineequippedwithaVVTorVCR
system.TherecentresultsfromtheStanfordVVTengine(SectionIVD)indicatethatthistypeof
conceptcanwork,butR&Deffortsareneededtoadvancetheconcepttoawiderrangeof
operationandtodevelopstrategiestosmoothlytransitionbetweenHCCIandSIorCIDIoperation
underloadandduringstrongtransients.
Second,thechargetemperatureand/ormixturecouldbepartiallystratifiedtosmoothouttheheat
releaserate.Becauseevensmallvariationsinintaketemperature(~10C)cansignificantlyalter
HCCIignitiontiming,thermalstratificationisafeasiblemeansofspreadingouttheheatrelease.
Thermalstratificationcouldbeaccomplishedbyvariableincylinderflowsthatproducenonuniform
heattransferratesorbyincompletemixingofthecool,freshfuel/airmixturewithhotresidual
combustionproducts.Inadditiontothermalstratification,partialmixturestratificationof
isothermalcomponents(eitherthefuel/airmixtureorthefreshcharge/residualmixture)canalso
producestagedHCCIcombustion.Thepotentialofpartialchargestratification(thermaland/or
species)islargelyunexplored.Theextenttowhichstratificationcanextendthesmoothoperating
rangeofanHCCIengineisunknown,butitishighlyprobablethattherangecouldbeextended
substantially.R&Disrequiredtodeterminethepotentialofthistechniqueandtodeveloppractical
methodsforachievingtherequiredstratificationandtoinvestigatewhetherthisstratifiedoperation
increasesNOandparticulatematteremissions.
x
C.ColdStart

R&DisneededtodevelopconceptstoovercomethechallengeofignitionincoldHCCIengines
withoutcompromisingthewarmengineperformance.Pastresearchhasfocusedonwarmengine
HCCIoperation,andlittle,ifany,researchhasbeenconductedtoaddresstheissueofcoldstart.
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39
HCCIcombustionisstronglydependentonthechargetemperature.Duringcoldstart,thefuel/air
chargereceivesnopreheatingfromtheintakemanifoldsandports,andheattransferfromthe
compressedchargetothecoldcombustionchamberwallsishigh.Thecombinationoftheseeffects
cansignificantlyreducethecompressedgastemperatureandpreventanHCCIenginefromfiring.
Threesolutionsappearpossible.First,theenginecouldbestartedasaconventionalsparkignition
(SI)engine,thenswitchedtoHCCImodeafterashortwarmup.Thisschemewouldlikelyrequire
thecompressionratiotobereducedduringtheSI,warmupoperation,whichcouldbereadily
accomplishedonanengineequippedwithaVVTorVCRsystemtohandletransients.VVThas
theaddedbenefitofallowingthehotresidualtoberetainedfromthepreviouscycle;thereby
allowingamorerapidtransitiontoHCCI.(TheenginecouldalsobestartedasaCIDIengine
withoutanycompressionratioadjustment,butgasolinelikefuelsoffermoreadvantages,as
discussedbelow.)Second,theenginecouldbestartedinHCCImodebyincreasingthe
compressionratioduringcoldstart,withaVVTorVCRsystem.Third,aglowplugcouldbeused
toassistHCCIignitionuntiltheenginewarmsup.Combinationsofthesesystemsmightalsobe
used.
D.EmissionControl
R&Disneededtodevelopemissioncontrolsystemsandcontrolstrategiestoovercomethe
challengeofmaintainingacceptablelevelsofemissions,particularlyatlowloads.Atlowand
moderateloads,HCCIenginesemitverylowlevelsofNO;consequently,noemissionscontrolis
x
requiredtoreduceNO.However,astheoperatingrangeisextendedtohighloads,NO
x
x
emissionscanbecomeexcessive,andthecombustionrateandcanbecometoorapid,asdiscussed
previously.
1.Hydrocarbon(HC)andCarbonMonoxide(CO)Emissions:HCCIengineshavegenerallybeen
foundtohavefairlyhighHCemissions.AthighloadstheHCengineoutemissionsaresimilarto
thoseofanSIengineandcanprobablybecontrolledwithanoxidationcatalyst.However,atlow
loads(e.g.,idle)HCemissionsbecomeworse,presumablybecausetemperaturesaresolowthat
fuelnearthewalldoesnotburn.Inaddition,atverylightloads,thetemperaturesbecometoolow
tocompletetheCOtoCOreactions.Apartiallystratifiedinjectionschemewouldlikelymitigate
2
thelowloadproblems.Ratherthanhavingahomogeneousmixturethatisveryleanthroughout,the
fuelcouldbeconcentratednearthecenterofthecylinder.Notonlywouldthesemixturesburnwell
inHCCImode,butfuelwouldnotbenearthewallsorcrevices;therefore,HCsfromthesesources
wouldalsobeeliminated.PartiallystratifiedfuelingcouldbeaccomplishedbyaDIfuelinjection
systemsimilartothosebeingexploredforgasolineSIDIenginesorbyaspecialintakeflow
arrangementsimilartothoseusedbyMitsubishiandToyotaontheirearly,stratifiedchargeSI
engines.ThesesystemscouldsubstantiallyreduceHCsatlowload,butanoxidationcatalystwill
stilllikelyberequired.Researchisneededtodeterminethepotentialofpartialchargestratification
techniquesorothermethodsforcontrollingHCandCOemissions.Inaddition,R&Deffortsare
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40
neededforthedevelopmentofalowtemperatureoxidationcatalystappropriateforHCCIengines
operatingatlightload.
2.NOEmissionsatHighLoads:HCCIenginesproduceverylowlevelsofNObecausethey
x
x
operatewithaverydilute,premixedcharge.Asthefueladditionisincreasedtoproducemore
power,thechargebecomeslessdiluteandcombustiontemperatureincreases,whichcaneventually

leadtosignificantNOemissions.FornearhomogeneousHCCIengines,therapidcombustion
x
rateathigherloadstypicallylimitsthepoweroutputbeforeNOemissionsbecomeexcessive.
x
Usingpartiallystratified(intemperatureorcomposition)chargecompressionignition(SCCI)as
describedpreviously,theoperatingrangecouldbeextendedtohigherloadsbutwithamore
distributedheatreleasethatminimizespeaktemperaturesandhenceNO.Researchwillbe
x
requiredtodeterminetheextenttowhichfuelloadcanbeincreasedwithSCCIbeforeNOx
emissionsbecomeaproblem.R&Deffortsarerequiredtoexploretheseoptionsandother
potentiallypromisingmethodstocontrolNOathighloadswhilemaintainingtheefficiency
x
advantagesofHCCI/SCCItypecombustion.
E.TransientOperation
R&Disneededtodevelopafastresponsecontrolsystemtoovercomethechallengeofmaintaining
properignitiontimingduringrapidvariationsinenginespeedandload.Rapidtransientspresent
difficultiesforcurrentHCCIresearchenginesmainlybecausethechargetemperatureisnot
correctlymatchedtotheoperatingconditionasthespeedandloadarechanging.Transientscould
beavoidedinanelectrichybridapplication,whichmayenableHCCItoenterthemarketplace
quickly.However,potentialHCCIcontrolsystemsbasedondevicessuchasVVTorVCRcould
bedesignedwithsufficientlyfastresponsetoprovidesmooth,continuousHCCIoperationthrough
transients.Forexample,StanfordUniversityrecentlydemonstratedthatasimilarVVTsystemcan
switchintoandoutofHCCIcombustionfromonecycletothenext,asdiscussedinSectionIVD
[10].However,evenalesssophisticatedVVTsystemoraVCRsystem,liketheonethatSAAB
hasrecentlyannounced,[8]mightbeadequate.Withsuchasystemandgoodcomputerized
controls,thecompressionratiocouldbevariedonacyclebycyclebasistomatchtheexactfueling
andspeedduringatransient.R&Deffortswillberequiredtodeterminetherequisitecharacteristics
ofaVVTorVCRsystem,todevelopandtestprototypesystems,andtodevelopthenecessary
controlalgorithms.
F.ControlSystems
R&Disnecessarytodevelopamethodologyforfeedbackandclosedloopcontrolofthefueland
airsystemstokeepthecombustionoptimizedoverthespeedandloadrangeoftheengineina
productionvehicle.Controlmechanisms,sensors,andappropriatecontrolalgorithmsarekey
enablingtechnologiesforpracticalHCCIengines.Asdiscussedabove,VVTand/orVCRsystems
haveastrongpotentialforcontrollingHCCIenginesandaddressingmanyoftheimportantissues
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41
suchasignitiontiming,coldstart,transients,fueltype,andswitchingintooroutofSImode.Other
controlmechanisms,suchastheuseofvariableDIfuelinjectiontiming,variousinjectortypes,and
variousschemesformixingchargecomponents(fuel,air,andresidualcombustionproducts),have
strongpotentialforcontrollingtherateofheatrelease,controllingemissions,andallowingtheuseof
differentfueltypes.Inaddition,morestraightforwardmethods,suchastheintroductionofhotEGR
intotheintakecharge,arealsoapplicable.
Inadditiontothecontrolmethodandhardware,controlalgorithmsandsensorsmustbedeveloped
toprovidefeedbackforclosedloopcontrol.Underclosedloopcontrol,theenginemanagement
systemvariesengineparameters,suchasfuelflowandEGR,inresponsetoinputsfromsensors.
Closedloopcontrolallowsengineperformanceandemissionstobecontinuouslyoptimizedduring
operation.Sensorsthatmightbeneededinclude(butarenotlimitedto)sensorstomonitorignition
timing,therateofcombustionheatrelease,EGRlevels,HCemissions,andNOemissions.Cost
x
effectivesensorsdurableforengineapplicationsdonotcurrentlyexist.
Quantificationofthepotentialofmanyofthesecontrolsystemsforovercomingthetechnical
barrierstoHCCIwouldbeconductedaspartoftheR&DthatisoutlinedinsubsectionsAE
above.ThecontrolsystemsusedonlaboratoryHCCIengineswouldinvolvecustomprototype
hardwarethatisnotpracticalformassproduction.Inadditiontodeterminingthepotentialofthese
variousmethodsofHCCIcontrol,R&Deffortsareneededtodeveloppractical,economical

systemsforproductionHCCIengines.TheseR&Deffortswouldincludedevelopingeconomically
feasiblesensorsandcontrolalgorithms.
G.FuelSystemDevelopment
R&Disnecessarytodevelopafueldeliverysystembecauseitisakeyenablingtechnologyto
overcomethechallengeofmaintainingproperignitiontiming,smoothcombustionrates,andlow
emissionsovertheoperatingrangeoftheengine.Varioustypesoffuelsystemshavebeen
proposedincludingportfuelinjectors,DIfuelinjectorssimilartothosedesignedforSIengines,DI
dieselengineinjectors,andcombinationsoftheseinjectors.Eachtypehasadvantagesfordifferent
operatingregimesandfueltypes.
Fordieselfuel,thetypeofinjectorrequireddependsonthestrategyselectedforfuelairmixingand
combustion.ThemostpromisingapproachappearstobeastrategysimilartotheMKprocess
describedinSectionIIID.Forthisapproach,aninjectorbasedonaDIdieselinjectorwouldbe
needed.However,modificationswouldlikelyberequiredtoachievetheveryhighmixingrates
necessaryforHCCIlikecombustion.
Forgasolinetypefuels,DIinjectorsforSIenginesappearattractive.However,asHCCIresearch
evolves(pertheworkdescribedinsubsectionsAEabove),itmayindicatethatchangesinthese
injectorsarerequiredtomeettheneedsofHCCIengines.Forexample,partialchargestratification
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42
appearstobeanattractivemethodforcontrollingthecombustionrateathighloads(SectionVB)
andforreducingtheHCandCOemissionsatlightloads(SectionVD).However,adifferenttype
ofstratificationwouldberequiredforeachofthesecases.Achievingthedesiredstratification
underalloperatingconditionswouldlikelyrequirespecializedHCCIinjectorswithspray
characteristicsdifferentfromthoseofcurrentDIgasolineinjectors.R&Dwillberequiredtoadapt
existinginjectorsortodevelopadvancedinjectorsthatprovidethespraycharacteristicsdesiredfor
HCCIasindicatedbythisresearch.
H.MultiCylinderEffects
R&Disneededtodevelopintakeandexhaustmanifolddesignsformulticylinderenginesto
overcomethechallengeofmaintainingstrictuniformityoftheinletandexhaustflowsofeach
cylindertoassuresmoothengineoperation.Inmulticylinderengines,manifoldwavedynamicscan
causesmalldifferencesintheamountofhotresidualcombustionproductsremainingandtheamount
offreshchargedeliveredtothevariouscylinders(seeSectionIVD).InconventionalSIorCIDI
engines,thesesmalldifferencesbetweencylindersdonotsignificantlyimpactthecombustion.
However,ignitioninHCCIenginesisverysensitivetosmallchangesincompressedcharge
temperature,andthesesmalldifferencescanleadtosignificantcylindertocylindervariationin
combustiontiming.R&Dwillberequiredtodevelopmanifolddesignsthatminimizethisproblem
overtheloadspeedmapandtodevelopsensorsandcontrolsystemstomaintainuniform
combustionbetweencylinders.
I.CombustionModeling
R&Disneededtodevelopcomputationalfluiddynamics(CFD)andcombustionmodelsforHCCI
enginestoovercomethechallengeofrapidlyandinexpensivelyevaluatingenginegeometryand
combustionsystemdesigns.CombustionmodelingiscentraltothedevelopmentofpracticalHCCI
enginecombustionsystemsandcontrolmethods.Chemicalkineticmodelingandkineticmodeling
combinedwithtraditionalengineCFDmodelssuchasKivahavealreadybeenusedwith
reasonablesuccesstoinvestigatesomeaspectsofHCCI[4,5,11,16].(AlsoseeSectionsIVA&
C.)Inaddition,initialeffortsareunderwaytoapplyadvancedturbulencemodelingtechniquesto
somedetailsofHCCIcombustion,asdiscussedinSectionIVB.However,considerablymore
developmentandtestingofpredictivenumericalmodelswillberequiredtoadvancetheHCCI
concept.Effortsareneededinthreemainareas:chemicalkineticmechanisms,CFDmodel
developmentandsubmodelsdevelopment(turbulence,spraysandvaporization).
ChemicalKinetics:Kineticsmodelsforprimary,surrogatefuelssuchasisooctane,nheptane,and
propanearewelldevelopedandhavealreadyprovenvaluableforHCCIinvestigations.However,
kineticmechanismsforsurrogatefuelsthatarecomputationallytractableyetaccuratelycapturethe
autoignitioncharacteristicsofrealfuels,suchasgasolineanddieselfuel,underHCCIconditions
needtobedeveloped.

Page 47
43
CFDModelImprovements:Understandingandcontrollingpartialchargestratification(both
mixtureandtemperature)willlikelyplayakeyroleinthedevelopmentofapracticalHCCIengine.
AccurateCFDmodelsarerequiredtocapturethemanifoldandincylindermixingprocessesused
toproducethesechargestratifications.Modelsmusthavesufficienttemporalandspatialresolution
toresolvethetransientmixingandboundarylayereffects.TheCFDmodelsmustalsobe
compatiblewithsimultaneoussolutionofreducedmechanism,chemicalkineticmodelsand
submodelsforsprays,andtheymustincorporateadequateturbulencesubmodels.
SubmodelDevelopment:Bothportfuelinjectionandvariousdirectinjectionschemesare
applicabletoHCCIengines.Sprayandothersubmodelsarerequiredthatreproducethefuel
dispersion,vaporization,andmixingproducedbytheseinjectors.Turbulentmixingiscentraltoall
aspectsofmixingandpartialchargestratification,andimprovedturbulencemodelsshouldbe
incorporatedintotheCFDmodels.Inaddition,theapplicationofadvancedturbulenceconcepts,
suchasOneDimensionalTurbulence(ODT)andLargeEddySimulation(LES),toincylinder
processesinHCCIenginesshouldbefurtherexplored.
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SECTIONVI.CONCLUDINGREMARKS
ThePNGVhasidentifiedHCCIasahighrisk,longtermalternativetechnologydeservingof
increasedR&Dsupport.Ahighefficiency,gasolinefueledHCCIenginerepresentsamajorstep
beyondSIDIenginesforlightdutyvehicles.HCCIengineshavethepotentialtomatchorexceed
theefficiencyofdieselfueledCIDIengineswithoutthemajorchallengeofNOandPMemission
x
controloramajorimpactonfuelrefiningcapability.Also,HCCIengineswouldprobablycostless
thanCIDIenginesbecauseHCCIengineswouldlikelyuselowerpressurefuelinjection
equipment,andthecombustioncharacteristicsofHCCIwouldpotentiallyenabletheuseof
emissioncontroldevicesthatdependlessonscarceandexpensivepreciousmetals.Inaddition,for
heavydutyvehicles,successfuldevelopmentofthedieselfueledHCCIengineisanimportant
alternativestrategyintheeventthatCIDIenginescannotachievefutureNOxandPMemissions
standards.
TheDOEbelievesthatuniversityandindustryinvolvementisessentialtocarryingoutfutureHCCI
R&Dactivities.TheDepartmentanticipatesthisinvolvementwillincludeindustryreviewof
governmentfundedprojectsandcostsharedfundingofnewprojects.DOEwillreduceitsroleas
thefundamentalsofHCCIbecomeclearandasindustrynearsthepointofcommercializingthis
promisingtechnology.Intheinterim,thefundingDOEhasrequestedforHCCIengineresearch
anddevelopmentwillassistinonlyresolvingthehighestrisktechnicalissues,andultimatelyR&D
willacceleratetheintroductionofHCCIenginesandrealizationoftheirpotentialtoreduce
petroleumuseinthetransportationsector.
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45
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ListofAcronyms
4SDI=FourStrokeDirectInjection
A/D=Analog/Digital
AR=ActiveRadical
BES/CSD=BasicEnergySciences/ChemicalSciencesDivision
CARAT=CooperativeAutomotiveResearchforAdvancedTechnology
CFD=ComputationalFluidDynamics
CHEMKIN=ChemicalKineticsratecode
CI=CompressionIgnition
CIDI=CompressionIgnition,DirectInjection(anadvancedversionofthecommonlyknowndieselengine.)
CO=CarbonMonoxide
CPU=CentralProcessingUnit
CRADA=CooperativeResearchandDevelopmentAgreement
DI=DirectInjection

DME=DimethylEther
DNS=DirectNumericalSimulation
EERE=DepartmentofEnergy'sOfficeofEnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy
EGR=ExhaustGasRecirculation
EPA=EnvironmentalProtectionAgency
HO=HydrogenPeroxide
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HC=Hydrocarbons
HCCI=HomogeneousChargeCompressionIgnition
HCT=Hydrodynamics,Combustion,andTransport(modelingcode)
IC=InternalCombustion
IMEP=IntegratedMeanEffectivePressure(ameasureoftheworkproducedbycombustion)
Kiva=(acomputationalfluiddynamicsmodelingcode)
LDRD=LaboratoryDirectedResearchandDevelopment
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LES=LargeEddySimulation
LLNL=LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory
LVDT=LinearVariableDifferentialTransformer
MK=ModulatedKinetics
NO=NitrogenOxides
X
NRC=NationalResearchCouncil
ODT=OneDimensionalTurbulence
OH=Hydroxyl
OTT=OfficeofTransportationTechnologies
PFI=PortFuelInjection
PM=ParticulateMatter
PNGV=PartnershipforaNewGenerationofVehicles
PWM=PulseWidthModulation
R&D=ResearchandDevelopment
SCCI=(partially)StratifiedChargeCompressionIgnition
SI=SparkIgnition
SNL/CRF=SandiaNationalLaboratories'CombustionResearchFacility
TDC=TopDeadCenter
TDI=TurbochargedDirectInjection
UCB=UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley
VCR=VariableCompressionRatio
VVT=VariableValveTiming