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Chapter : Three
Short-term Financing
Prepared by: Anindita Tasneem
Department of Finance
University of Dhaka
1. Time:
Short-term funds are raised for one year or less than one year. The sources, from
which the funds are collected, are repaid within one year. Example: A firm can
purchase raw material by cash or on trade credit. In case of cash payment, firm
can borrow cash from bank for 6 months and pay with the cash. On the other hand,
it can purchase a portion of the raw material on trade credit of 3 month and pay
the credit amount after 3 months. Both are the types of short-term financing.
2. Purpose:
Short-term funds are generally raised to fulfill the need of working capital or to
meet the daily expenditures. Example: For purchasing raw materials, paying the
salaries of the workers or meeting other daily needs.
4. Security:
Short-term loans are generally small in amount. So, they can be easily repaid by
selling or producing goods. As a result, no security is demanded by the lender. But
in some cases, bank can demand security observing the solvency of the borrower.
5. Recycling:
A major advantage of short-term financing is that funds can be raised continuously
and regularly from these types of sources. If the loan is repaid regularly within the
credit period lender becomes satisfied and gets encourage to lend more.
6. Renewal:
If the borrower repays the loans accordingly and willingly within the time period,
he has chances to get loan easily in future. Lender can renew the loan agreement if
the borrower is trustworthy.
7. Size and Nature of the firm:
Generally every firm has to raise short-term funds. But traders need these types
of fund more than the manufacturers. On the other hand, small firms use shortterm funds more than the large firms.
1. Spontaneous Financing:
a. Trade Credit:
i. Open Account
ii. Notes Payable/ Promissory Notes
iii. Trade Acceptance
b. Advances from Customers and Deferred Income
c. Accrued Expenses
1. Trade Credit:
Trade credit is a loan advantage by which the seller sells products to his customer on
credit and allows them to pay the credit amount after a certain period. It is also
called accounts payable. Trade credit allows the buyer to pay the cost after a certain
period and use the payable money as a short-term source of financing.
This credit is a spontaneous source of financing in the sense that it arises
spontaneously from ordinary business transactions. For example, suppose a firm makes
a purchase of 1,000 on terms of net 30, meaning that it must pay for goods 30 days
after the invoice date. This instantly and spontaneously provides it with 1,000 of
credit for 30 days. If it purchases 1,000 of goods each day, then on average, it will
be receiving 30 times 1,000, or 30,000, of credit from its suppliers.
1,000 of goods each day, then on average, it will be receiving 30 times 1,000,
or 30,000, of credit from its suppliers. If sales, and consequently purchases,
double, then its accounts payable would also double, to 60,000. So, simply by
growing, the firm spontaneously generates another 30,000 of financing.
Similarly, if the terms under which it bought were extended from 30 to 40
days, its accounts payable would expand from 30,000 to 40,000. Thus, both
expanding sales and lengthening the credit period generate additional financing.
5. Cost
6.
Purpose and Nature: Trade credit is generally used to buy raw materials
previous loan the buyer can purchase more and more goods on credit from the
seller.
Terms of Sale:
Because the use of promissory notes and trade acceptances is rather limited, the
subsequent discussion will be confined to open-account trade credit. The terms of the
sale make a great deal of difference in this type of credit. These terms, specified in
the invoice, may be placed in several broad categories according to the net period
within which payment is expected and according to the terms of the cash discount, if
any.
1. COD and CBD: No Trade Credit. COD means cash on delivery of goods. The only
risk the seller undertakes is that the buyer may refuse the shipment. Under such
circumstances, the seller will be stuck with the shipping costs. Occasionally a seller
might ask for cash before delivery (CBD) to avoid all risk. Under either COD or CBD
terms, the seller does not extend credit.
2. Net Period-No Cash Discount: When credit is extended, the seller specifies the
period of time allowed for payment. For example, the terms net 30 indicate that the
invoice or bill must be paid within 30 days. If the seller bills on a monthly basis, it
might require such terms as net 15, EOM, which means that all goods shipped before
the end of the month must be paid for by the 15th of the following month.
3. Net Period Cash Discount: In addition to extending credit, the seller may offer
a cash discount if the bill is paid during the early part of the net period. The terms
2/10, net 30 indicate that the seller offers a 2 percent discount if the bill is paid
within 10 days; otherwise, the buyer must pay the full amount within 30 days. Usually,
a cash discount is offered as an incentive to the buyer to pay early. A cash discount
differs from a trade discount and from a quantity discount. A trade discount is
greater for one class of customers (wholesalers) than for others (retailers). A
quantity discount is offered on large shipments.
4. Seasonal Datings: In a seasonal business, sellers frequently use datings to
encourage customers to place their orders before a heavy selling period. A
manufacturer of lawn mowers, for example, may give seasonal datings specifying that
any shipment to a dealer in the winter or spring does not have to be paid for until
summer. Earlier orders benefit the seller, who can now estimate demand more
realistically and schedule production more efficiently. Also, the seller can reduce or
avoid the carrying costs associated with maintaining a finished goods inventory. The
buyer has the advantage of knowing that stock will be on hand when the selling season
begins, and of not having to pay for the goods until well into the selling period. Under
this arrangement, credit is extended for a longer than normal period of time.
So, if the seller offers cash discount the buyer can be benefitted in two ways:
1. Paying within the discount period, he can have a discount on the whole amount.
In this case, he doesnt have to pay the full credit amount.
2. Without paying within the discount period, he can ignore the discount amount
and pay the credit money after the net period. In this case, he can use the
credit amount as a source of financing from the date the discount period ends
to the date the net period ends.
360
Credit Period- Discount Period
100
Making use of equation we can see that the cost of not taking a discount declines as
the payment date becomes longer in relation to the discount period.
Had the terms in our example been 2/10, net 60, the approximate annual percentage
cost of not taking the discount, but rather paying at the end of the credit period,
would have been
(2/98) (360/50) = 14.69%
The approximate interest cost over a variety of payment decisions for 2/10, net __.
Payment Date
11
20
30
60
90
We see that the cost of trade credit decreases at a decreasing rate as the net period
increases. The point is that, if a firm does not take a cash discount, its cost of trade
credit declines with the length of time it is able to postpone payment.
3. Accrued Expenses:
Perhaps even more than accounts payable, accrued expenses represent a spontaneous
source of financing. The most common accrued expenses are for wages and taxes. For
both accounts, the expense is incurred, or accrued, but not yet paid. Usually a date is
specified when the accrued expense must be paid.
Generally, there is a certain amount of time gap between incomes is earned and is
actually received or expenditure becomes due and is actually paid. Salaries, wages and
taxes, for example, become due at the end of the month but are usually paid in the
first week of the next month. Thus, the outstanding salaries and wages as expenses
for a week help the enterprise in meeting their working capital requirements. This
source of raising funds does not involve any cost.
For example, a firm has 10,000 workers and their daily salary is 100 taka per person.
If the firm gives their payment after the end of 15 days payment period, they will
have this outstanding expense of (10,00010015) or 15,000,000 taka as an internal
spontaneous source of financing for these 15 days.
Like accounts payable, accrued expenses tend to rise and fall with the level of the
firms operations. For example, as sales increase, labor costs usually increase and, with
them, accrued wages also increase. In a sense, accrued expenses represent costless
financing. Services are rendered for wages, but employees are not paid and do not
expect to be paid until the end of the pay period. Thus accrued expenses represent an
interest-free source of financing.
market consists of financial institutions and dealers in money or credit who wish to
either borrow or lend. Participants borrow and lend for short periods, typically up to one
year.
Commercial Paper:
Commercial paper represents an unsecured, short-term, negotiable promissory note
sold in the money market. Because these notes are a money market instrument, only
the most creditworthy companies are able to use commercial paper as a source of
short-term financing. Besides, industrial firms, utilities, and medium-sized finance
companies sell commercial paper through dealers.
Generally commercial papers have a face value. But they are sold at a price which is 1
to 5 percent less than the face value. For example, Beximco Group wants to sell
commercial papers with a face value of 100 taka each. The sales value of each
commercial paper is 95 taka and the buyer of the commercial paper will be repaid
after 6 months. The floatation cost (selling cost) of each commercial paper is 4 taka.
It means, if a commercial paper is sold for 6 month (January 1 to June 30) on January
1, the buyer will give 95 taka (sell value) to the firm. In return, on June 30 the seller
will repay the buyer 100 taka (face value). Then the cost of commercial paper will be:
5 = (95-4) x%
Therefore, X% =
5
91
180
360
360
180 100 = 10.99%
360 days
Repayment Period in Days
100
Bankers Acceptances:
For a company engaged in foreign trade or the domestic shipment of certain
marketable goods, bankers acceptances can be a meaningful source of financing.
When a Bangladeshi company wishes to import 100,000 worth of electronic
components from a company in Japan, the two companies agree that a 90-day time
draft will be used in settlement of the trade. The Bangladeshi company arranges a
letter of credit with its bank, whereby the bank agrees to honor drafts drawn on the
company as presented through a Japanese bank. The Japanese company ships the
goods and at the same time draws a draft ordering the Bangladeshi company to pay in
90 days. It then takes the draft to its Japanese bank.
By prearrangement, the draft is sent to the Bangladeshi bank and is accepted by
that bank. At that time it becomes a bankers acceptance. In essence, the bank
accepts responsibility for payment, thereby substituting its creditworthiness for that
of the drawee, the Bangladeshi company.
If the bank is large and well known and most banks accepting drafts are the
instrument becomes highly marketable upon acceptance. As a result, the drawer (the
Japanese company) does not have to hold the draft until the final due date; it can sell
the draft in the market for less than its face value. The discount involved represents
the interest payment to the investor.
At the end of 90 days the investor presents the acceptance to the accepting bank for
payment and receives 100,000. At this time the Bangladeshi company is obligated to
have funds on deposit to cover the draft. Thus it has financed its import for a 90-day
period. Presumably, the Japanese exporter would have charged a lower price if
payment were to be made on shipment. In this sense the Bangladeshi company is the
borrower. The presence of an active and viable bankers acceptance market makes
possible the financing of foreign trade at interest rates approximating those on
commercial paper. Although the principles by which the acceptance is created are the
same for foreign and domestic trade, a smaller portion of the total bankers
acceptances outstanding is domestic. In addition to trade, domestic acceptance
financing is used in connection with the storage of such things as grain.
(1+
R M
) -1
M
} 100
formal commitment, the borrower is usually required to pay a commitment fee on the
unused portion of the revolving credit, in addition to interest on any loaned amount.
For example, if the revolving credit is for 1 million on 12% interest and borrowing for
the year averages 400,000, the borrower could be required to pay a commitment fee
on the 600,000 unused (but available) portion. If the commitment fee is 0.5 %, the
cost of this privilege (commitment fee) will be 3,000 (600,000.5%). In addition the
interest amount will be 48000 (400,000 12%) for the year. So the borrower must
keep total 51000 (48000+3000) in his bank account as security.
Revolving credit agreements frequently extend beyond one year. Because lending
agreements of more than a year must be regarded as intermediate-term credit.
3. Line of Credit:
A line of credit is an informal arrangement between a bank and its customer
specifying the maximum amount of credit the bank will permit the firm to owe at any
one time. Usually, credit lines are established for a one-year period and are set for
renewal after the bank receives the latest annual report and has had a chance to
review the progress of the borrower. If the borrowers year-end statement date is
December 31, a bank may set its line to expire sometime in March.
At that time, the bank and the company would meet to discuss the credit needs of the
firm for the coming year in light of its past years performance. The amount of the
line is based on the banks assessment of the creditworthiness and the credit needs of
the borrower. Depending on changes in these conditions, a line of credit may be
adjusted at the renewal date or before, if conditions necessitate a change.
Despite its many advantages to the borrower, it is important to note that a line of
credit does not constitute a legal commitment on the part of the bank to extend
credit. The borrower is usually informed of the line by means of a letter indicating
that the bank is willing to extend credit up to a certain amount.
Features
Line of Credit
Revolving Credit
.
1.
Installments
installments.
Any party just cannot cancel its
are strict.
2.
Legal Issue
Commitment
here.
As the loan amount is
Fee
4.
5.
Cost of
Credit
commitment fees
Obligation of
lending
1,200 in interest
10,000 in usable funds
100 = 12.00%
b. Discount Basis:
When paid on a discount basis, interest is deducted from the initial loan. On a discount
basis, however, the effective rate of interest is higher than 12 percent:
Effective Interest Rate (EIR) =
Total Interest
Loan Utilized
13.64%
1,200
8,800 in usable funds 100 =
10,000 at the end of that time. Thus the effective rate of interest is higher on a discount note than
on a collect note. We should point out that most bank loans are paid on a collect basis.]
c. Installment Basis:
When loans are repaid by installments then the interest is calculated by dividing the
whole year into a certain number of installments. The interest amount is added with
the loan amount and the total amount is repaid by installments.
For example, we have to calculate the effective interest rate of a loan of
200,000 + 24000
12
= 18,667
As the total loan amount with interest is to be repaid within 12 installments the
effective interest rate will be:
2PC
A (N+1)
100
2 12 24000
200,000 (12+1)
100
=22.15%
Compensating Balances:
In addition to charging interest on loans, commercial banks may require the borrower
to maintain demand deposit balances at the bank in direct proportion to either the
amount of funds borrowed or the amount of the commitment. These minimum balances
are known as compensating balances.
80,000 in interest
800,000 in usable funds
100 = 10%
With the rapid and significant fluctuations in the cost of funds to banks in recent
years, as well as the accelerated competition among financial institutions, banks are
increasingly making loans without compensating balance requirements. The interest
rate charged, however, is more in line with the banks incremental cost of obtaining
funds. The movement toward sophisticated profitability analyses has driven banks to
direct compensation for loans through interest rates and fees as opposed to indirect
compensation through deposit balances.
Ex: $1 million revolving credit at 10% stated interest rate for 1 year; borrowing for
the year was $600,000; a required 5% compensating balance on borrowed funds; and
a .5% commitment fee on $400,000 of unused credit. What is the cost of borrowing?
Interest:
Commitment Fee:
Compensating Balance:
Usable Funds:
($600,000) x (10%)
($400,000) x (0.5%)
($600,000) x (5%)
$600,000 - $30,000
= $ 60,000
= $ 2,000
= $ 30,000
= $570,000
= 10.88%
Two methods of using accounts receivables as short term loans security are:
a.
b.
ii.
i.
Continuous Basis: In this method, there is a contract between the bank and the
borrower by which the borrower can borrow loan by pledging one bill or more
than one bills. After the maturity of the bills, the borrower adjusts the bill
amount with the loan amount and again pledges other accounts receivables as
security against the loan. That means after the maturity of one account
receivable he can pledge another account receivable. Thus, by means of a longterm contract borrower can borrow a maximum fixed amount of loan. The lender
does not require a compensating balance against this type of loan. So, the
interest rate is generally 2-4% above the prime rate.
ii.
Seasonal Basis: In this method, there is a contract between the bank and the
borrower by which the borrower can borrow only one loan at a time by pledging
his bills receivables. After the maturity of the bills, the borrower has to sign a
new contract with the bank by pledging new bills as securities.
The risk against this type of loan is generally higher. So, the bank charges
interest at a high rate.
We can calculate the effective interest rate against loans by assigning or pledging
accounts receivables by the following formula:
1
1
1
R
N
While factoring, the borrower and the factor both inform the drawee in advance
and orders him to pay directly to the factor at maturity date. The factor retains
10% of the face value of the accounts receivables and gives the rest 90% as loan to
the seller (borrower). The factor also retains some additional amount as factoring
commission from the borrower.
Cost of factoring accounts receivables: As a factor the bank performs the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
For doing these tasks the collects fees from the borrower which is identified as the
cost of the borrowing. This cost includes:
a. The rate of factoring commission
b. The amount of cash given
c. Reserve for the bad debt loss etc.
Market Value
Marketability
Perishability
Market price stability
The difficulty and expense of selling the inventory to satisfy the loan. The cost
of selling some inventory may be very high. Lenders do not want to be in the
1. Floating lien:
Under the Uniform Commercial Code the borrower may pledge inventories in general
without specifying the specific property involved. Under this arrangement the lender
obtains a floating lien on the borrowers entire inventory. This lien allows for the legal
seizure of the pledged assets in the event of loan default. By its very nature, the
floating lien is a loose arrangement, and the lender may find it difficult to police.
Frequently, a floating lien is requested only as additional protection and does not play
a major role in determining whether or not the loan will be made. Even if the collateral
is valuable, the lender is usually willing to make only a moderate advance because of
the difficulty in exercising tight control over the collateral. The floating lien can be
made to cover receivables and inventories, as well as the collection of receivables. This
modification gives the lender a lien on a major portion of a firms current assets. In
addition, the lien can be made to encompass almost any length of time so that it
includes future as well as present inventory as security.
2. Chattel mortgage:
With a chattel mortgage, inventories are identified by serial number or some other
means. While the borrower holds title to the goods, the lender has a lien on inventory.
This inventory cannot be sold unless the lender consents. Because of the rigorous
identification requirements, chattel mortgages are ill-suited for inventory with rapid
turnover or inventory that is not easy to identify specifically. Chattel mortgages are
well suited, however, for certain finished-goods inventories of capital goods such as
machine tools.
3. Trust receipt:
Under a trust receipt arrangement, the borrower holds the inventory and the
proceeds from its sale in trust for the lender. This type of lending arrangement, also
known as floor planning, has been used extensively by automobile dealers, equipment
dealers, and consumer durable goods dealers. An automobile manufacturer will ship
cars to a dealer, who, in turn, may finance the payment for these cars through a
finance company. The finance company pays the manufacturer for the cars shipped.
The dealer signs a trust receipt security agreement, which specifies what can be done
with the inventory. The car dealer is allowed to sell the cars but must turn the
proceeds of the sale over to the lender in payment of the loan. Inventory in trust,
unlike inventory under a floating lien, is specifically identified by serial number or
other means. In our example, the finance company periodically audits the cars the
dealer has on hand. The serial numbers of these cars are checked against those shown
in the security agreement. The purpose of the audit is to see whether the dealer has
sold cars without remitting the proceeds of the sale to the finance company. As the
dealer buys new cars from the automobile manufacturer, a new trust receipt security
agreement is signed, reflecting the new inventory. The dealer then borrows against
this new collateral, holding it in trust. Although there is tighter control over collateral
with a trust receipt agreement than with a floating lien, there is still the risk of
inventory being sold without the proceeds being turned over to the lender.
Consequently, the lender must exercise judgment in deciding to lend under this
arrangement. A dishonest dealer can devise numerous ways to fool the lender.
Many durable goods manufacturers finance the inventories of their distributors or
dealers. Their purpose is to encourage dealers or distributors to carry reasonable
stocks of goods. It is reasoned that the greater the stock, the more likely the dealer
or distributor is to make a sale. Because the manufacturer is interested in selling its
product, financing terms are often more attractive than they would be with an
outside lender.
In these first three methods (floating lien, chattel mortgage, and trust receipt), the
inventory remains in the possession of the borrower.