The mosquito (Wyeomyia smithii) uses daylength as a guide to either continue development of

its larvae or to begin hibernation. This response to daylength is genetically controlled. Longer
daylengths maintain development whereas shorter daylengths induce hibernation. In the
northern regions of the northern hemisphere, even though daylengths are longer, winter arrives
earlier than in regions closer to the equator. The following data is from an experiment to
determine if W. smithii has adapted to later onsets of winter as a consequence of global
warming. In 1972 and 1996, larvae were collected at various locations in the United States at
latitudes 3050 North. The larvae were examined to determine what daylength induced
hibernation. Each circle on the following graph represents one larval population.
D a y le n g th to e n te r h ib e rn a tio n / h r

1.

E q u a to r

16
15
1972

14

1996
13
12
30

35

40
45
L a titu d e /

50

55
N o rth P o le

[Source: Bradshaw and Holzapfel, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of USA, (2001),
98 (25), pages 1450914511]

(a)

Outline the relationship between daylength and latitude for the larval populations
in 1972.
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(1)

(b)

Compare the data of 1972 with 1996.

.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)

(c)

Explain how the data illustrates an evolutionary response to a longer growing

season due to a later onset of winter.
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)
(Total 5 marks)

2.

Researchers carried out a study on 3760 children born in a London hospital over a
period of 12 years. Data was collected on the childrens mass at birth and their mortality
rate. The purpose of the study was to determine how natural selection acts on mass at birth. The
chart shows the frequency of babies of each mass at birth. The line superimposed on the bar
chart indicates the percentage mortality rate (the children that did not survive for more than 4
weeks).
800

100

700

M o rta lity /
% (lo g s c a le )

F re q u e n c y o f m a ss
a t b irth

600
500
10

400
300
200
100
0
0 .0 0

0 .5 0

1 .0 0

1 .5 0

2 .0 0

2 .5 0

3 .0 0

3 .5 0

4 .0 0

4 .5 0

5 .0 0

M a s s a t b irth / k g
[Source: W H Dowderswell, (1984) Evolution, A Modern Synthesis, Heinemann Educational Books, page 101]

(a)

Identify the mode value for mass at birth.

.................................................................................................................................
....
3

(1)

(b)

Identify the optimum mass at birth for survival.

.................................................................................................................................
....
(1)

(c)

Outline the relationship between mass at birth and mortality.

.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)

(d)

Explain how this data supports natural selection.

.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)

(e)

Suggest one environmental factor that could cause a low mass at birth.
.................................................................................................................................
....
(1)
(Total 7 marks)

3.

Molecular and radioactive dating of fossils are used to determine the phylogeny of
organisms. Turtles are organisms with a long evolutionary history, making them an
ideal group to study. Below is a phylogeny of some turtle genera developed using both
fossil and molecular dating.
C a re tto c h e ly s
A p a lo n e
L is s e m y s
C h e lo n ia
D e r m o c h e ly s
C h e ly d r a
D e r m a te m y s
S ta u ro ty p u s
S te r n o th e r u s
P la ty s te r n o n
E m ys
G r a p te m y s
Tra ch em ys
G e o c h e lo n e
M a u re m y s
H eosem ys
JU R A S S IC

2 0 6 .0

C R E TA C E O U S

1 4 4 .0

6 5 .0
A ge / m ya

C E N O Z O IC

M O D ER N

2 .5

[Source: Thomas J. Near, Peter A. Meylan, and H. Bradley Shaffer, Assessing Concordance of Fossil Calibration Points in
Molecular Clock Studies: An Example Using Turtles, The American Naturalist (Feb 2005), vol. 165, issue 2, pp. 137146.
Copyright 2008. University of Chicago Press.]

(a)

Identify the oldest turtle genus.

.................................................................................................................................
....
(1)

(b)

Compare the phylogeny of Chelonia with Graptemys.

.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)
6

(c)

Discuss which turtle genera are most closely related.

.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(3)
(Total 6 marks)

4.

About 2.5 million years ago, falling sea levels resulted in the joining together of North
America and South America through a narrow land bridge, the isthmus of Panama.
This event allowed two-way traffic of land mammals between the formerly isolated
continents. A redistribution of families and genera (plural form for genus) occurred. The
following graphs show the total number of known native and immigrant families and
genera in South America over a time span ranging from 9 million years ago to the
present.
S o u th A m e r ic a
10

N u m b e r o f fa m ilie s

20

30

40

20

50

N u m b e r o f g e n e ra

100

150

P re se n t

M illio n s o f
y e a rs a g o

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
S o u th A m e ric a n n a tiv e fa m ilie s
N o rth A m e ric a n im m ig ra n t fa m ilie s

[Source: Marshall, Science (1982), 215, pages 13511357]

(a)

Compare the changes in the number of South American native families and the
number of North American immigrant families in the 1 million years after the
formation of the land bridge.
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)

(b)

Suggest a reason for the decline in the number of South American native families
and the number of North American immigrant families within the last 1.5 million
years.
.................................................................................................................................
....
(1)

(c)

Using the data from 9 million years ago and the present, calculate the percentage
increase in the total number of genera found in South America.
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(1)

(d)

Discuss why the percentage increase in genera is much greater than the
apparent percentage increase in families.
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)

(e)

State a form of evidence on which the data in the graphs is based.

.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(1)
(Total 7 marks)

5.

Conservationists noticed that the number of red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) in Wales
was declining, and the number of a newly introduced species, the North American grey
squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), was increasing. In 1998, a project was started to reduce
the number of grey squirrels in 244 hectares of woodland in Wales. The graph below
shows the number of grey squirrels in 1998 and the number of red squirrels in 1999,
2000 and 2002. The data was collected at eight different sites (AH).

S q u irre l d e n s ity /
n u m b e r p e r h e c ta re

1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

.2
.1
.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
.0

K ey:
G re y 1 9 9 8
R ed 1999
R ed 2000
R ed 2002

S ite
[Source: Craig Shuttleworth, (2003), Biologist, 50, (5), page 231, Institute of Biologists]

(a)

Identify the year in which the greatest number of red squirrels was found in site E.
.................................................................................................................................
...
(1)

(b)

State the number of sites that had a greater density of red squirrels in 2002
compared with the density of grey squirrels in 1998.
.................................................................................................................................
...
(1)

10

(c)

Discuss the hypothesis that decreasing the density of grey squirrels after 1999
led to an increase in the density of red squirrels in the following years.
.................................................................................................................................
...
.................................................................................................................................
...
.................................................................................................................................
...
.................................................................................................................................
...
.................................................................................................................................
...
(3)

(d)

Outline the relationship between grey squirrels and red squirrels assuming that
they occupy the same niche.
.................................................................................................................................
...
.................................................................................................................................
...
.................................................................................................................................
...
.................................................................................................................................
...
.................................................................................................................................
...
(3)
(Total 8 marks)

6.

The mechanisms of speciation in ferns have been studied in temperate and tropical
habitats. One group of three species from the genus Polypodium lives in rocky areas in
temperate forests in North America. Members of this group have similar morphology
(form and structure). Another group of four species from the genus Pleopeltis live at
different altitudes in tropical mountains in Mexico and Central America. Members of this
group are morphologically distinct.
Data from the different species within each group was compared in order to study the
mechanisms of speciation.

11

Genetic identity was determined by comparing the similarities of certain proteins and
genes in each species. Values between 0 and 1 were assigned to pairs of species to
indicate the degree of similarity in genetic identity. A value of 1 would mean that all the
genetic factors studied were identical between the species being compared.

[Source: C Haufler, E Hooper and J Therrien, (2000), Plant Species Biology, 15, pages 223236]

(a)

Compare the geographic distributions of the two groups.

.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(1)

12

(b)

(i)

Identify, giving a reason, which group, Polypodium or Pleopeltis, is most

genetically diverse.
........................................................................................................................
...
........................................................................................................................
...
(1)

(ii)

Identify the two species that are most similar genetically.

........................................................................................................................
...
(1)

(c)

Suggest how the process of speciation could have occurred in Polypodium.

.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(1)

(d)

Explain which of the two groups has most probably been genetically isolated for
the longest period of time.
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

13

7.

Marine iguanas (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) are found on the Galapagos islands of

Genovesa and Santa Fe. Marine iguanas are unique among lizards in that they feed on
algae in the intertidal zone. Between feeding they lie in the sun to warm themselves.
Male iguanas establish territories on the rocks where females lie. Males provide no
parental care of offspring while females guard the nest for a few days. Females mate
once and use up 20% of their body mass in reproduction, while males try to mate more
than once and do not use up much of their body mass.
The graphs below show the lengths of males and females on the two different islands,
sample size (N) is indicated for each graph.

[Source: Freeman and Herron, Evolutionary Analysis, (2000), 2nd edition, page 296]

14

(a)

(i)

State the most frequent range of body sizes of males on Santa Fe and
males on Genovesa.
........................................................................................................................
...
........................................................................................................................
...
(1)

(ii)

Suggest one reason for the difference in size between male marine
iguanas on Santa Fe and Genovesa.
........................................................................................................................
...
........................................................................................................................
...
(1)

(b)

Compare the body size of males and females.

.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)

(c)

Explain, using the theory of natural selection, the significance of size in males
and females.
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....

15

.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

16

8.

Comparison of mammalian brain areas has often focused on the differences in

absolute size. However, in an experiment, scientists compared the sizes of 11 different
brain areas relative to the total brain size for various primate species. A cerebrotype
was then defined for each species, which reflected the relative sizes of different brain
areas. The diagram below shows the clustering of cerebrotypes within primates.
L e m u rs / L o ris e s

G re a t a p e s
Pongo

G o r illa
H om o
Pan

N e w W o rld M o n k e y s

O ld W o rld M o n k e y s

d is ta n c e b e tw e e n c e re b ro ty p e s / a rb ita ry u n its
[Source: Damon A Clark et al., Nature (2001), 411, pages 189193]

The relationship among hominoids was constructed using the cerebrotype data and is
shown below. The evolutionary trees derived from DNA sequence and bone and tooth
structure (morphology) are also shown.
C e re b ro ty p e

(a)

D N A

M o r p h o lo g y

O ra n g u ta n (P o n g o )

O ra n g u ta n (P o n g o )

O ra n g u ta n (P o n g o )

G o rilla

G o rilla

G o rilla

C h im p a n z e e (P a n )

C h im p a n z e e (P a n )

C h im p a n z e e (P a n )

H u m a n (H o m o )

H u m a n (H o m o )

H u m a n (H o m o )

Deduce, using the cluster diagram, which group of primates is the least related to
the Great apes.
.................................................................................................................................
....
(1)

17

(b)

Compare the cerebrotypes of the New World monkeys and the Old World
monkeys.
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)

(c)

Explain, using the data, which evolutionary tree the cerebrotypes support.
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)

(d)

In order to build the morphology tree, some of the fossilized bones and teeth had
to be dated. Outline a method for such dating.
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....

18

.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)
(Total 7 marks)

19

9.

The evolution of groups of living organisms can be studied by comparing the base
sequences of their DNA. If a species becomes separated into two groups, differences
in base sequence between the two species accumulate gradually over long periods of
time. The number of differences can be used as an evolutionary clock.
Samples of DNA were recently obtained from fossil bones of a Neanderthal (Homo
neanderthalensis). A section of the DNA from the mitochondrion was chosen for study,
as it shows a high level of variation in base sequence between different individuals. A
section of the Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA was sequenced and compared with
sequences from 994 humans and 16 chimpanzees. The bar chart below shows how
many base sequence differences were found among humans, between the humans
and the Neanderthal and between humans and chimpanzees.
25
H u m a n -N e a n d e rth a l
20
H u m an -H u m a n

15

H u m a n -C h im p

F re q u e n c y o f
10
num ber of
d iffe re n c e s / %
5
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

N u m b e r o f d iffe re n c e s in b a s e s e q u e n c e
[Source: Krings, et al., Cell, 1997, 90, pages 1930]

(a)

The number of differences in base sequence between pairs of humans varied

from 1 to 24. State the number of differences shown by the highest percentage of
pairs of humans.
.................................................................................................................................
....
(1)

20

(b)

Humans and Neanderthals are both classified in the genus Homo and
chimpanzees are classified in the genus Pan. Discuss whether this classification
is supported by the data in the bar chart.
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(3)

Data suggests that humans and Neanderthals diverged 550 000 to 700 000 years ago.
(c)

If a sample of mitochondrial DNA was obtained from a fossil bone of

Australopithecus, predict, with a reason, how many base sequence differences
there would be between it and human DNA.
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
.................................................................................................................................
....
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

21