Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

www.elsevier.com/locate/engfracmech

CDM based modelling of damage and fracture mechanisms

in concrete under tension and compression q
Halina Kuna-Ciska *, Jacek J. Skrzypek
Institute of Mechanics and Machine Design, Cracow University of Technology, 31-864 Krak

ow, Poland
Received 30 October 2002; accepted 4 November 2002

Abstract
Anisotropic damage evolution and crack propagation in the elasticbrittle materials is analysed by the concepts of
continuum damage mechanics (CDM) and nite element method (FEM). The modied MurakamiKamiya (MMK)
model of elastic-damage material is used to describe damage anisotropy in concrete. The Helmholtz free energy representation is discussed. The unilateral crack opening/closure eect is incorporated in such a way that the continuity
requirement during unloading holds. The incremental form of the stressstrain equations is developed. The general
failure criterion is proposed by checking the positive deniteness of the Hessian matrix of the free energy function. The
local approach to fracture (LAF) by FEM is applied to the pre-critical damage evolution that precedes the crack
initiation, and the post-critical damage/fracture interaction. Crack is modelled as the assembly of failed nite elements
in the mesh, the stiness of which is reduced to zero when the critical points at stressstrain curves are reached. A
concrete specimen with the pre-load, inclined crack is analysed in order to simulate dierent fracture mechanisms in
tension or compression. The constitutive model is capable of predicting the kinked-type crack under tension and the
wing-type crack under compression.
2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Anisotropic damage; Local approach to fracture; Unilateral response; Crack modelling

1. Introduction
The increasing demands for a high strength concrete require the adequate constitutive and damage
growth modelling, as well as the appropriate predictions of the overall failure mechanisms under monotonic
or cyclic loads. Concrete belongs to engineering materials commonly classied as brittle (polycrystalline
rocks, concrete, ceramics, and cast iron). The microstructure of concrete exhibits a large number of preload micro-cracks, voids, inclusions and other non-homogeneities. The nucleation, growth and interaction
of these micro-defects under external loads result in a deterioration process of the material on the microscale and, as a consequence, change of the constitutive properties of the material. This micro-scale damage

This paper is the extended version of [29].

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: listy@biblos.pk.edu.pl (H. Kuna-Ciska).

0013-7944/$ - see front matter 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/S0013-7944(03)00023-7

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H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

response causes a fracture process, which yields a structural failure of the element and loss of its carrying
capacity. Deformation process in the damaged material is characterised by a non-linear stressstrain curve
that precedes the local failure. Proper formulation of the local failure criterion is one of the goals of the
present study. The experimental evidence reveals that in brittle-damaged materials the stressstrain nonlinearity is mainly caused by a degradation of the elastic properties induced by a progressive deterioration
of the material with increasing loads. The strain softening eect on the energy dissipation due to inelastic
(visco-plastic) deformation may usually be considered as insignicant.
In general, the models used to describe a non-linear damage response of concrete and other brittle
materials have to be capable of capturing essential features of this class of materials. These are: a degradation of the elastic properties and the strain softening due to the development of micro-defects, an acquired anisotropy of the material even though in a virgin state it is considered as initially isotropic, and the
unilateral damage response of concrete in tension or compression. When subjected to the predominant axial
compression a concrete specimen fails by the axial splitting. In contrast, when subjected to the axial tension
it splits perpendicularly to the axial direction. Hence, ultimate failure mechanisms predicted by these
theories must also exhibit essential dierence in an overall structural failure in case of compression or
tension.
Depending on the scale, two dierent approaches may be used in order to describe an overall structural
response of a concrete structure on the macro-scale. In general, micro-mechanical damage (MD) models
relate the macro-properties and the macro-response of a structure to its microstructure. In such approach
the damage is a discrete and stochastic phenomenon induced by a number of weakly or strongly interacting
micro-defects that inuence the overall structural response (cf. [1]). The MD models have the advantage of
being able to sustain heterogeneous structural details on the micro-scale and meso-scale, and to allow a
micro-mechanical formulation of the damage evolution equations based on the accurate micro-crack
growth processes involved (cf. [2]). The simplied models of a kinked micro-crack under biaxial tension,
motivated by experimental evidence for concrete and rocks, were developed on the micro-mechanical basis
by Fanella and Krajcinovic [1], as well as Basista and Gross [24]. An attempt to the phenomenological
damage description in the framework of irreversible thermodynamics with internal variables, relating
random and heterogeneous microstructure of a material to the macro-response of a specimen, is due to
Basista [5]. At the present stage of development these models occur somewhat computationally inecient in
practical applications, and can be applied to the limited classes of materials and damage-to-failure
mechanisms (cf. also [6,7]).
Continuum damage mechanics (CDM) approach provides the constitutive and damage evolution
equations in the framework of thermodynamics of irreversible processes. When the CDM approach is used
a concept of the eective quasi-continuum is applied. The material heterogeneity (on the micro- and mesoscale) is smeared out over the representative volume element (RVE) of the piece-wise discontinuous material. The true state of damage within RVE, represented by the topology, size, orientation and number of
micro-defects, is mapped to a material point of the pseudo-undamaged quasi-continuum, Fig. 1. The true
distribution of micro-defects within the RVE, and the correlation between them are measured by the
e D or compliance K
e 1 D. The material deteriochange of the eective constitutive modules, stiness K
2
4
ration is dened by the set of internal state variables D fD; Da ; D ; D ; . . .g of the scalar, vectorial or
tensorial nature (cf. [812]). The constitutive tensors for the damaged material are dened by the use of
fourth-rank damage eect tensors MD that map state variables from the physical damaged r; ee to the
ctitious pseudo-undamaged ~
r; ~ee congurations. Representation of the damage eect tensors depend on
the equivalence principle between the damaged and pseudo-undamaged states of the material. Among them
we mention: the principle of strain equivalence [13], the principle of stress equivalence [14], the principle of
elastic energy equivalence [15], the principle of total energy equivalence [16,17].
The anisotropic CDM-based elastic damage model of the high strength concrete, capable of predicting the
fatigue life under compressive stress of the order up to 120 MPa, has recently been developed by Al-Gadhib

H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

683

Fig. 1. (a) Virgin-undamaged, (b) physical-damaged and (c) pseudo-undamaged continuum in CDM; the equivalence principles are
used in order to smear the true micro-defects distribution over the RVE to yield the eective constitutive module for damaged materials
(after [12]).

et al. [18]. The model is based on the concept of damage eect tensor M used to dene the eective compliance
e in the elastic damage constitutive law e C
e : r. Loading surface concept in the space of thermomatrix C
dynamic-force conjugates Ri is used to develop damage growth equations for principal damage components
xi . The critical energy release rate Rc is used for the bounding surface (limit fracture). A capability of the
model is limited to the proportional loading conditions and the special case of uniaxial compression.
In the present analysis a more general phenomenological model, based on the irreversible thermodynamics, originate from Murakami and Kamiya (MK) [19], is used to describe the elastic damage material
by the total stressstrain constitutive equation. The Helmholtz free energy is assumed as the state potential
where two internal variables D and b are used as arguments. They are responsible for the anisotropic
damage and the isotropic hardening of the damage threshold, respectively. The stressstrain elasticity law
e s : e is derived from the state potential. The eective secant stiness matrix K
e s changes following the
rK
damage evolution.
In what follows the extended incremental form of the elastic damage constitutive equation is developed,
e t is introduced. The dissipation potential is dened in the space
where the eective tangent stiness matrix K
_;
of thermodynamic-force conjugates Y; B of damage variables D; b, and the damage evolution of D
and b_ are established from the normality rule. The modied MurakamiKamiya (MMK) model is capable
of predicting a fully anisotropic damage growth in concrete with no limitation to the proportional loading
induced. Loss of the positive deniteness of the Hessian matrix of the free energy function is used as the
local failure criterion. Admitting for the consecutive macro-crack growth in a material when the failure
criterion is reached does an essential extension of the damage growth stage. Crack is modelled as the assembly of failed elements in the FE mesh, the stiness of which has been reduced to zero when the failure
criterion is reached. Local approach to fracture (LAF) is the framework of fracture analysis (cf. e.g. [20]).

2. Total formulation of the MurakamiKamiya MK model of the elastic damage material

The general thermodynamically based theory of the constitutive and evolution equations of elastic
brittle damaged materials in a total stressstrain formulation [19] is the key for a further extension. The

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H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

Helmholtz free energy is a function of the elastic strain tensor ee , the second-rank damage tensor D, and
another scalar damage variable b, D DD; b. The following Helmholtz free energy decomposition into
the elastic and the damage terms is postulated as the state potential:
qwee ; D; b qwe ee ; D qwd b

According to the representation theory of non-linear algebra, the most general form of a scalar function of
the second-rank tensors we ee ; D can be expressed as the combination of 10 basic invariants of the tensors
ee , D (cf. [2123]):
2

we we fTr ee ; Tree ; Tree ; Tr D; TrD ; TrD ; Tree D; Tree D ; Tree D ; Tree D g

2
However, at the initial elastic state, the elastic behaviour is isotropic linear, hence the Helmholtz free energy
qwe ee ; D is quadratic with respect to ee . Additionally, since qwe ee ; D will decrease with damage growth, it
is supposed to be linear in D (cf. [19,24]). Eventually, the simplied representation of the function qwe ee ; D
can be used, which depends on the ve basic invariants of ee and D, as a linear combination of the following
terms:
2

Tr ee ; Tree ; Tr ee Tr D; Tree Tr D; Tr ee Tree D; Tree D

In order to properly describe the unilateral damage response in tension or compression a modied elastic
strain tensor e
e in the principal strain co-ordinate system is dened
e
I heI i  fheI i keI eI ; f 2 h0; 1i;
keI kI H eI fH eI ; I 1; 2; 3

Symbol h i denotes the Macauley bracket, H is the Heaviside step function, eI I 1; 2; 3 are principal
values of ee , and f is an additional material constant responsible for the unilateral damage response eect
under tension or compression (cf. [25]). For f 1 the modied strain tensor e
e is identical to ee and the
unilateral damage (crack opening/closure) eect is not accounted for. In contrast, for f 0, the strain
tensor e
e is modied in such a way that negative principal strain components are replaced by zeros, whereas
positive ones remain unchanged.
In the general co-ordinate system the modied strain tensor is expressed as follows (cf. [24]):
e
ij

3
X

e
I QIi QIj

I1

3
X

keI eI QIi QIj Bijkl ekl

I1

where
Bijkl

3
X

keI QIi QIj QIk QIl

I1

is the fourth-rank tensor built of direction cosines between the principal strain axes and the current spatial
system.
Following Murakami and Kamiya [19] assumptions, both terms of the free energy (2) are represented as:
1
2
2
2
2
qwe ee ; D kTr ee lTree g1 Tr ee Tr D g2 Tree Tr D
2
1
g3 Tr ee Tree D g4 Tre
e 2 D ; qwd b Kd b2
2

H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

685

where k and l are Lame constants for undamaged materials, g1 , g2 , g3 , g4 , and Kd are material constants.
Note that the modied strain tensor e
e is applied in the last term of we exclusively, which ensures the
continuous transition of the stressstrain response from crack opening to closure (cf. [26,27]). In general, it
may be shown that the unilateral crack opening/closure eect can inuence only the diagonal components
of the stiness matrix Ksii , if the constitutive law is written in the principal damage directions (cf. [26]). The
unilateral damage takes place during unloading when e 0 or r 0. In compression the initial stiness is
partially recovered, depending on the parameter f (3). It may be shown that in the case considered, when
only the last term in (6) is aected by the unilateral damage, the non-diagonal terms Ksij i 6 j are not
modied by the active/passive unilateral condition (cf. [28]).
The following constitutive equation of anisotropic elasticity coupled with damage is furnished from (6)
according to the conventional procedure of the thermodynamic formalism
r

oqw
kTr ee 2g1 Tr ee Tr D g3 Tree D I 2l g2 Tr D ee
oee

e

oe
oe
e
g3 Tree D g4 e
e :
D

D
oee
oee

where oe
e =oee is the fourth-rank tensor derived from (4) and (5).
The thermodynamic-force conjugates of D and b are also derived from (6)
ow
2
2
g1 Tree g2 Tree I  g3 Tree ee  g4 e
e e
e ;
oD
owd
Bq
Kd b
ob

Y q

The damage dissipation potential in the space of force conjugates fY; Bg is assumed in the form
q
F Y; B Yeq  B0 B 0; Yeq 12Y : L : Y; Lijkl 12dik djl dil djk

where B0 and B stand for the initial damage threshold and the subsequent damage force conjugates of b,
respectively. Hence, experimentally motivated by Murakami and Kamiya [19] the isotropic hardening of
damage dissipation surface (9) in the fY; Bg space is introduced, as sketched in Fig. 2. Note that inside the
damage dissipation surface the damage evolution does not occur. A damage threshold hardening eect

Fig. 2. Initial and subsequent damage dissipation surfaces and illustration of the normality rule in the fY; Bg space of thermodynamicforce conjugates of fD; bg.

686

H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

results from the micro-mechanical response in concrete. The pre-load micro-cracks initially activated under
applied loading, might further be arrested when the obstacles are met.
The damage evolution equations are nally established from the normality rule
_ k_d oF ;
D
oY

oF
b_ k_d
k_d
oB

10

oF
and the consistency condition F_ 0 oY
B_ is used to eliminate k_d from (10)
: Y_ oF
oB

oF _
:Y
a
L:Y _
_kd oY
:Y
a
oB
2Kd Yeq
ob

11

A factor a 1 or a 0 is used for the active or passive damage growth, respectively.

When exposed to tension or compression, the MK constitutive phenomenological model is capable of
capturing unilateral damage response. Under the uniaxial tension condition the damage component D11 is
dominant, whereas the other two components D22 and D33 are negligible. By contrast, under the uniaxial
compression the transverse damage components D22 D33 become predominant, but a non-negligible axial
component D11 is also visible (cf. Fig. 3). In contrast to other models that are time-dependent (cf. e.g. [9]),
damage evolution described by the MK model results from the stress and strain growth, but it is timeindependent and does not occur under the constant stress condition. Note also that in the MK model below
the damage threshold A0 r0 ; e0 none damage nucleation or growth occurs. On the non-linear pre-peak
stressstrain curve the damage evolution cause the elastic modulus in the constitutive equation to drop,
until the critical point in a sense of the material instability in the re curve Af rf ; ef is met and, hence, the
local failure criterion is satised.
(a)

11 [MPa]

10

A0

(b)
-50

8
6
4
2
0

0
2

-40
-30

11

-4

10

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

10-4
11
x

0.24

0.20

0.20

0.15

0.16

D11
D22=D33

0.05

0
2

10

11

-4

D11

0.08
0.04

r
6

D22=D33

0.12

0.10

0
0

A0

-20
-10

0.25

Af

Af
11 [MPa]

0
-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

r x -4
10
11

Fig. 3. Stressstrain curves and damage growth in a concrete specimen under the uniaxial tension or the uniaxial compression tests,
after Murakami and Kamiya [19].

H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

687

Fig. 4. Stressstrain loops in the elastic damage material under cyclic uniaxial loading conditions; upper index i denotes the number
of loading cycle, i 1; 2; 3; . . ., lower index 0 corresponds to the damage threshold.

To illustrate this behaviour the numerical simulation of the damage response under the uniaxial tension
and compression was performed by Murakami and Kamiya [19]. The model was calibrated for a high
strength concrete to yield the following set of material constants
E 21:4 GPa ; v 0:2; g1 400 MPa ; g2 900 MPa ; g3 100 MPa ;
g4 23 500 MPa ; f 0:1; Kd 0:04 MPa ; B0 0:0026 MPa

12

Under the cyclic loading condition a cycle-by-cycle softening of the material follows the damage evolution. It is accompanied by the damage threshold increase from cycle to cycle ri0 , and a simultaneous
critical stresses rimax drop until, after a number of cycles, the failure criterion is met at the critical point
Af rf ; ef (Fig. 4). In the case of uniaxial stress state considered the critical point (failure) corresponds to the
maximum at the stressstrain curve.
In the original paper by Murakami and Kamiya [19] it is assumed that the failure criterion corresponds
to the critical eigenvalue of damage Di max Dcrit which has been established at the level of Dcrit 0:4.
However, in a general case, the critical damage value at the critical point changes with the loading trajectory and, hence, the concept of constant critical damage Dcrit cannot be used as the failure criterion. In a
multiaxial case the more general failure criterion has to be formulated that requires the Hessian matrix of
the function w is positive denite (see Section 3). To this end the incremental form of the constitutive
equation of the elastic damage material has to be developed.

3. Incremental formulation of the modied MurakamiKamiya MMK model and failure criterion
When the total formulation is used the constitutive equation (7) represents stressstrain relations by the
e s D that suers from damage evolution in a material
use of the secant elastic damage stiness K
e s : ee
rK

or

e s : ee
rij K
ijkl
kl

The incremental form of the stressstrain relations may be established from (13) as follows:
!
es
o
K
s
e
e
e : de e :
dr K
: dD
oD

13

14

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H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

The damage increment dD on dee is obtained from (10) and (11). Eventually, the following incremental
state equation is derived (cf. [28,29])
2
0
13
oY
s
YY
:
e
oK B
6es
7
oee C
dr 4 K
:@
aee :
15
A5 : dee
oD
4Kd Yeq2
e t ee ; D and factor a equal 0 or 1 is used
The square bracket in (15) represents the eective tangent stiness K
for passive or active damage process, respectively. By the use of Voigt notation the state equations, total
(13) and incremental (15), may easily be rewritten in a more convenient matrix forms:
e s D fee g or ri K
e s ee
frg K
16
ij j

e t ee ; D fdee g
fdrg K

e t dee
orri K
ij
j

17

Note that superscript lower case t is used for the tangent stiness matrix, and should not be confused
with the transposition operator T. In a general 3D case the following matrix representation of the total
constitutive equation holds
3
2
9
8
es
es
es
es
es
es 8 9
K
K
K
K
K
K
11
12
13
14
15
16
r
> 6
> 11 >
> e11 >
>
>
s
s
s
s
s 7>
>
>
>
e
e
e
e
e
>
>
7
>
> e22 >
6
K
K
K
K
K
r
>
>
22
23
24
25
26 7>
22 >
>
>
>
>
6
= 6
<
es
es
es
e s 7< e33 =
r33
K
K
K
K
33
34
35
36
7
6
6
18
es
es
es 7
r23 >
>
> c23 >
K
K
K
>
>
>
6
44
45
46 7>
>
>
>
>
> 6
>
> r31 >
>c >
>
>
es
es 7
>
>
sym:
K
K
; 4
;
:
: 31 >
55
56 5>
r12
c
s
e
12
K
66

The full 6  6 symmetric secant stiness matrix is furnished as follows:

e s k 2l 2g1 g2 Tr D 2g3 g4 D11
K
11
e s k 2l 2g1 g2 Tr D 2g3 g4 D22
K
22
e
K s k 2l 2g1 g2 Tr D 2g3 g4 D33
33

e s k 2g1 TrD g3 D11 D33

e s k 2g1 Tr D g3 D11 D22 ; K
K
12
13
e s k 2g1 Tr D g3 D22 D33
K
23
e s g4 D12
e s 0:52l 2g2 Tr D g4 D33 D22 ; K
K
44

45

19

e s g4 D13
e s 0:52l 2g2 Tr D g4 D11 D33 ; K
K
55
46
s
e
e
K 66 0:52l 2g2 Tr D g4 D11 D22 ; K s56 g4 D23
es K
e s g3 g4 D23
e s g3 D23 ; K
K
14

24

34

es K
e s g3 g4 D13
e s g3 D13 ; K
K
25
15
35
s
s
e
e
e
K 36 g3 D12 ; K 16 K s26 g3 g4 D12
Let us mention that the above general formulae are derived for a special case f 1, where ee  ee
(the
unilateral damage eect is ignored in (19)). Representation of the eective tangent stiness matrix in a
general 3D state is rather cumbersome hence, in what follows, we conne ourselves to the simpler plane
stress state.
In the case if incremental form of the constitutive law is used (17) the (6  6) matrix representation can
be written as follows:

H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

o2 w
6 oe2
6 11
6
6
6
9 6
8
6
dr11 >
6
>
>
>
>
6
>
>
dr22 >
>
>
6
>
>
= 6
<
dr33
6
6
dr23 >
>
6
>
>
>
> 6
> dr31 >
>
>
6
>
>
; 6
:
dr12
6
6
6
6
6
6
4

o2 w
oe11 oe22
2

ow
oe222

oe11 oe33

o2 w
oe11 oc23

o2 w
oe11 oc31

o2 w
oe22 oe33

o2 w
oe22 oc23

o2 w
oe22 oc31

o2 w
oe233

o2 w
oe33 oc23

o2 w
oe33 oc31

o2 w
oc223

o2 w
oc23 oc31

o2 w

sym:

o2 w
oc231

689

o2 w
oe11 oc12 7
7
7
o2 w 7
7
oe22 oc12 7
78 de 9
7>
11 >
>
>
>
>
o2 w 7
de22 >
>
>
7>
>
>
<
7
oe33 oc12 7 de33 =
7
> dc23 >
o2 w 7
>
>
7>
>
> dc >
>
31 >
>
>
oc23 oc12 7
;
7:
dc
7
12
2
ow 7
7
oc31 oc12 7
7
7
2
ow 5
oc212

20

The (6  6) matrix of the components of the fourth-rank tensor Hijkl o2 w=oeij oekl is known as the Hessian
matrix of the function w. In order to introduce the general failure criterion the Druckers material stability
postulate is adopted:
21

drij deij > 0

Substituting for drij formula (20) into the stability criterion (21) we obtain
o2 w
deij dekl Hijkl deij dekl > 0
oeij oekl

22

The quadratic form o2 w=oeij oekl deij dekl must be positive denite for arbitrary values of the components
deij , hence, eventually the condition (22) requires that Hessian matrix H be positive denite (cf. [30]).
According to the Sylvester criterion the symmetric matrix H of the nth order is positive denite if and only
if
detHk > 0

k 1; 2; . . . ; n

23

where Hk is the (k  k) minor of the matrix H (cf. [31]).

The local tangent stiness matrix is used for the quasi-Newton algorithm for rst iteration step of solving
the non-linear equation (17) as long as the local failure criterion (23) holds. The stiness of the element in
the FE mesh that has come to failure is next reduced to zero. As a consequence, the failed element is
completely released from stress and the appropriate stress redistribution occurs in the neighbouring elements to ensure the global equilibrium. Note that the above failure criterion (23) assumes the brittle failure
mechanism. However, when broader class of materials is considered, a post-peak softening regime can also
be admitted, that would result in strain localisation and a smooth stiness drop in elements that come to
failure. Neglecting the eect of visco-plastic deformation on the energy dissipation in the MMK model
considered might be inconsistent with the post-peak analysis and, hence, the additional brittle fracture
criterion is necessary to use.
By the use of local approach to fracture LAF, based on FEM and CDM, the crack is modelled as the
assembly of failed elements in the mesh. Subsequent elements in the FE mesh that have come to failure
(along the crack) are released from stresses and the appropriate redenition of the global stiness of the
structure occurs. The procedure is continued as long as the overall fracture mechanism of the structure is
reached. The described method of LAF is capable of predicting the fracture initiation and the ultimate
fracture pattern, as well as the limit load that corresponds to the considered fracture mechanism in a
structure. The crack growth stage and the ultimate crack pattern are, in general, mesh-dependent. To

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H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

mitigate the eect of element size and shape the additional regularisation procedures are required. To this
b by applying the
end, the thermodynamic-force conjugate Y can be subjected to a non-local treatment Y
formula analogous to that described in Skrzypek et al. [32] where the non-local and limited stress variable
was dened for the Litewka model. The regularisation applied in [32] allowed to avoid mesh eect and
obtain the convergent solution with respect to the element size and shape. In present case the following
b can be used:
formula for the non-local variable Y
" 
R
2 #
Ynux; n dXd
dx;
n
X
d
b x R
24
; ux; n exp 
Y
d

ux; n dXd
Xd
Additionally, to avoid the singularity of Y at the crack tip when the mesh size tends to zero, the cut-o
procedure should be used in the neighbourhood of a crack tip according to the scheme
Y kY;

1
Yu =Yeq

if Yeq 6 Yu
if Yeq > Yu

25

where the cut-o factor is determined from (9) as follows:

Yu
B0 B

k
Yeq
Yeq

26

In the examples presented below the regularisation has not been used. The results obtained for crack
prediction exhibit the mesh eect, so that a non-local treatment has to be involved in order to ensure
convergence.
4. Matrix constitutive equations in plane stress state
The eective application of (4) to the constitutive equation (7) requires the explicit formula for the
derivative oe
e =oee which accounts for the unilateral opening/closure eect. To this end the unilateral
transformation matrix Bijkl (5) must explicitly be expressed. In the case of plane stress considered the
transformation reduces to the plain rotation by the angle a
1
2e12
a arctg
2
e11  e22

27

such that the derivative oe

e =oee must be calculated according to the procedure for the complex function
oe
ij
oBijpq oa
Bijkl
epq
oekl
oa oekl

28

The above scheme is cumbersome in the numerical applications. In a particular case of plane stress state,
when the rotation angle a is small, Eq. (5) may be reduced to the simplied form
8
9 2
38 9
e11 >
a
0
b 0 >
>
>
>
>
> e11 >
<
= 6
7< e22 =
e22
0
c
b
0
6
7

29
4 0:5b 0:5b d 0 5> e12 >
e
>
>
>
>
>
>
;
;
: 12
:
e
33
0
0
0 1
e33
where
1
1
a k1 k2 k1  k2 cos 2a;
2
2
1
1
c k1 k2  k1  k2 cos 2a;
2
2

1
b k1  k2 sin 2a
2
1
d k1 k2
2

30

H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

691

When the assumption of plane stress is used r33 0 the total form of the matrix constitutive equations
(18) reduces to
3
9 2 es
9
8
es
es
es 8
K 11 K
K
K
e11 >
r
>
>
>
12
13
16
11
> 6 s
>
>
>
=
<
<
7
e
es
es
e s 7 e22 =
r22
K
K
K
6K
22
23
26
6 12
31
7
es
es
es
e s 5>
0 >
e33 >
>
4K
K
K
K
>
>
>
13
23
33
36 >
;
;
:
:
r12
c12
es
es
es
es
K
K
K
K
16

26

36

66

where the symmetric 4  4 eective secant stiness matrix, which depends on D, is furnished as follows:


!
e s k 2l 2g1 g2 Tr D 2g3 D11 g4 D11 2a2 1 b2 1 D22 b2 2abD12
K
11
2
2


!
e s k 2l 2g1 g2 Tr D 2g3 D22 g4 1 b2 D11 D22 2c2 1 b2 2bcD12
K
22
2
2
s
2
2
1
e
K 33 l g2 Tr D 2g4 fD11 D22 b d 4D12 bdg
#
"
e s k 2g1 Tr D g3 D11 D22 g4 1b2 D11 D22 D12 ba c
es K
K
12
21
2
32
es K
e s g3 D12 1g4 fD11 b2a d bdD22 2D12 b2 adg
K
13

31

e s g3 D12 1g4 fbdD11 D22 b2c d 2D12 b2 cdg

es K
K
23
32
2
e s g3 D12 1g4 D11 b2a d bdD22 2D12 b2 ad
es K
K
16
61
2
e s g3 D12 1g4 bdD11 D22 b2c d 2D12 b2 cd
es K
K
26
62
2
s
s
e
e
K K g3 D12
36

63

e s l g2 Tr D 1g4 D11 D22 b2 d 2 4D12 bd

K
66
2
Thermodynamic-force conjugates Y and B are dened by (8) as follows:
9 8
8
2
2
2
2 9
g1 Tr ee  g2 Tree  g3 Tr ee e11  g4 ae11 be12 0:5be11 e22 de12 >
Y11 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
Y22 >
>
>
>
> g1 Tr ee 2  g2 Tree 2  g3 Tr ee e22  g4 ce22 be12 2 0:5be11 e22 de12 2 >
>
>
>
= >
=
<
<
e 2
e 2
e
2 2
Y33
g
Tr
e


g
Tre


g
Tr
e
e

g
k
e
33
1
2
3
4 3 33

Y23 >
>
>
>
0
>
>
>
> >
>
>
>
>
>
>
Y31 >
>
>
>
>
0
>
>
>
>
; :
;
:
e
Y12
g3 Tr e e12  g4 0:5be11 e22 de12 ae11 2be12 ce22
33
B Kd b

34

where
Tr ee

e11 e22 2l 2g2 Tr D g3 2g4 k32 D33  g3 D11 e11 D22 e22 2D12 e12
k 2l 2g1 g2 Tr D 2g3 g4 k32 D33

35

e s D may further be reduced to 3  3 one by eliminating e33

Note that the 4  4 secant stiness matrix K
from (31).
When the general incremental form of the constitutive equations (17) is applied to plane stress dr33 0,
e t ee ; D is furnished in terms of the correthe following 4  4 tangent stiness matrix representation K
ij
sponding secant matrix components and the additional terms depending on damage and strain tensors (15)

692

H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

9
8
et
K
dr11 >
>
11
>
>
= 6 et
<
dr22
6 K 12
6 t
e
>
> 4K
> 0 >
13
;
:
dr12
et
K
16

et
K
12
et
K
22
et
K
23
et
K
26

et
K
13
et
K
23
et
K
33
et
K
36

3
9
et 8
K
de11 >
16 >
>
>
<
7
e t 7 de22 =
K
26
7
e t 5>
K
>
> de33 >
36 :
;
dc12
et
K

36

66

For instance, when the rst element of the matrix (36) is concerned, the following formula holds:


$
et K
e s e11 2g1 g2 oD11 oD22 oD33 2g3 oD11 g4 oD11 2a2 0:5b2
K
11
11
oe11
oe11
oe11
oe11
oe11
%!




oD
oD
oD
oD
oD
oD11 oD22
22
12
11
22
33
2ab

0:5b2
e22 2g1

g3

oe11
oe11
oe11
oe11
oe11
oe11
oe11
$


%!


oD
oD
oD
oD
oD
oD
11
22
12
11
22
33
2
g4 0:5b

ba c
e33 2g1

oe11
oe11
oe11
oe11
oe11
oe11
$

!
%!
oD11 oD33
oD11
oD11
oD22
oD12
2
g3
bd
2b ad

c12 g3
0:5g4 b2a d
oe11
oe11
oe11
oe11
oe11
oe11
37
Other elements of the matrix (36) can be established in a similar fashion, when the general equation (15) is
used. Also in this case de33 can be eliminated from (36) to reduce the tangent stiness matrix to the 3  3
one.

5. Numerical simulation of damage and fracture in concrete

5.1. Micro-mechanical observations
Concrete is a strongly heterogeneous engineering material where initial (pre-load) micro-cracks, which
are most frequently located at the cement matrixaggregate interfaces, are randomly oriented with respect
to the load direction (cf. e.g. [1]).
When the tensile load is applied to the concrete specimen the micro-cracks that are oriented perpendicularly to the load axis start to open and grow until the adjacent micro-cracks bridge is formed.
Eventually, when the fracture toughness of the matrix is exceeded, micro-cracks coalesce to form the
macro-crack (see also, [5]). Preferable orientation of the macro-crack is also, roughly speaking, perpendicular
to the tensile load axis. If the obstacle does not arrest it, a nal transverse splitting of the specimen is met.
Note, however, that not only perpendicular micro-cracks come to grow under tension. Also micro-cracks
that are inclined at a certain angle to the tensile direction may grow to form a kinked-type micro-crack as
shown in Fig. 5(a). Corresponding stressstrain curve in tension exhibits three stages that correspond to
linear elastic, hardening and softening regime.
Damage response of concrete under compression exhibits: the gradual degradation of elastic module
after the damage threshold from linear elastic behaviour is reached, the positive dilatancy due to consecutive opening of micro-cracks, the anisotropy of micro-crack evolution, and the existence of softening
regime. The nal failure that corresponds to macro-crack formation in compression occurs at the stress
much higher than that at which the individual micro-crack can be activated. Micro-mechanical mechanism
of damage and fracture in compression is much more complex than in tension, and the eect of microcracks interaction is much stronger. Sliding micro-crack mechanism plays here the essential role. Consider a
single pre-load micro-crack inclined to the compressive direction at a certain angle, Fig. 5(b) (cf. [4], also
[1]). During the rst phase a frictional sliding along the faces of the pre-load micro-crack occurs with no

H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

693

Fig. 5. (a) Simplied macro-crack growth under tension (after [3]) and (b) sliding crack mechanism with the actual and the simplied
geometry of tensile wing cracks (after [2]).

length change of it, when the actual shear stress at a point of micro-crack face exceeds the resistance of
friction. When the elastic energy release rate G at the crack tip reaches the critical value, the second phase
occurs when a secondary curvilinear tensile-type wing micro-crack starts to open at each crack-tip. Next,
following a path for which the stress intensity factor KI reaches a maximal value (or KII 0) the wing
micro-crack grows, gradually changing its initial direction, such that eventually it coincides with the
compressive load axis. Final failure mechanism in compression results from a coalescence and interaction
of the wing micro-cracks to nally form an axial splitting of the specimen or a shear fracture at small
connement or a pseudo-ductile failure at large connement (cf. Basista [5]). Motivated by the above
micro-mechanical evidence of damage in concrete, Basista and Gross [3] developed the simplied models of
the kinked micro-crack growth under biaxial tension as well as a simplied model of the sliding micro-crack
under compression [4]. Finally the non-linear macroscopic stressstrain relationships were obtained, where
the Rice internal variable theory, based on the micro-to-macro transition, was used as a constitutive
framework.
In what follows, damage and failure mechanisms in concrete are studied by the use of the continuum
damage mechanics (CDM), modied MurakamiKamiya (MMK) constitutive model, and the local approach to fracture (LAF). The material constants used to the model calibration for the high strength
concrete are given by (12). All the numerical calculations were performed by the use of the ABAQUS
system.
5.2. Failure mechanism in a 2D structure with the pre-load crack in tension
Consider the plane-stress concrete structure with the pre-load crack of the innitely small width, inclined
at the angle of 45 to the tension direction. Structure is subject to the uniform tension at top and bottom
edges, and is free to move at all sides, Fig. 6. The monotonically increasing tensile load q causes the pre-load
crack of the zero width in a pre-load state, to open. Stress concentration at the zones neighbouring crack
tips is accompanied by the cumulation of the D11 damage component in the element where the secondary
kinked crack starts to open when the failure criterion (23) is locally met. The magnitudes and directions of

694

H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

Fig. 6. A plane stress concrete structure with the pre-load inclined crack, subjected to tension in the direction (1): (a) the geometry and
mesh, (b) maximal principal stress distribution in the surrounding of the pre-load crack tip; the arrows represent the actual principal
stresses.

the principal stress components in elements neighbouring crack tip are sketched in Fig. 6 just before the
instant of the secondary kinked crack opening. The magnied square zone neighbouring the pre-load crack
tip is shown in Fig. 6(b), where the magnications factor for displacements equal 100 is used for gure
clarity.
With the increasing tensile load the consecutive elements come to failure, to ultimately form a kinked
crack that splits the concrete specimen approximately perpendicularly to the tension direction, as shown in
Fig. 7(a)(c). Note releasing the elements neighbouring the crack face from stresses following the kinked
crack growth. Anisotropic damage growth and fracture mechanism in a specimen causes on a nal stage the
overall stiness of the structure to drastically drop. The predicted critical load for crack initiation qf1 diers
from that of ultimate failure qfu by the amount of approximately 15%.
A qualitatively similar kinked crack in a brittle rock-like specimen was predicted by Basista [5], where
the micro-mechanical damage model (MD) was used on the micro-level.

Fig. 7. Formation of the kinked-type crack under tension; maximal principal stress distribution on dierent stages of crack
propagation.

H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

695

5.3. Failure mechanism in a 2D structure with the pre-load crack in compression

To illustrate the failure mechanism under compression, consider the plane concrete structure with the
pre-load crack inclined at the angle of about 70 to the compression direction. The uniform compression is
applied at top and bottom edges, and the structure is free to move at all sides. No connement is applied at
specimen sidewalls (Fig. 8) and the frictionless pre-load crack is assumed for simplicity.
Contact at the pre-load crack edges was dened by identifying and pairing potential contact surfaces. To
dene a sliding interface between two surfaces, one of the surfaces (the slave surface) is covered with 3node contact elements. The second surface (the master surface) is dened by a series of nodes ordered in
the segments of the slide line. For each node on the slave surface the closest point on the master surface is
looked for, where the master surfaces normal passes through the node on the slave surface. The interaction
is then discretized between the point on the master surface and the slave node (cf. [33]).
FEM analysis, performed at the end of rst phase when sliding occurs on pre-load crack faces with no
crack length change, shows the maximum tensile stress vectors at both crack tips. The maximum tensile
stress causes the secondary wing crack to open (Fig. 9(a)), when the failure criterion (23) is reached. Next
the stiness (and stress) in the failed element is reduced to zero. During next loading steps subsequent
elements in FE mesh come to failure to eventually form two straight wing cracks growing in the compressive load direction (Fig. 9(b)).
After a number of loading steps a slight change in the crack path was observed indicating a mixed type
tensile-shear mechanism of the crack growth (Fig. 9(c)). However, the mesh eect may also be more
signicant there. When the secondary crack splits the structure, the zones neighbouring the crack faces
are gradually released from stresses, whereas the front of the maximum tensile stress propagates outwards
with the wing crack length increase (Fig. 10(a)(c)). The predicted wing cracks in a concrete specimen
under compression do not exhibit curvilinear shape, as shown in Fig. 5, but they start from the preload crack tips in a straight line manner growing approximately in a direction parallel to the loading axis
(cf. [1]).

Fig. 8. A plane stress concrete structure with the pre-load inclined crack, subjected to compression in the direction (1): (a) the geometry
and mesh and (b) maximal principal stress distribution in the surrounding of the pre-load crack tip; frictionless sliding is assumed on
the pre-load crack surface, the maximum tensile stress initiates the tensile wing-type secondary crack starting from the pre-load
crack tip.

696

H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

Fig. 9. Formation of the wing-type crack under compression; subsequent stages of the macro-crack growth.

Fig. 10. Maximal principal stress distribution on several stages of the wing-type crack growth under compression.

6. Final remarks
1. Phenomenological CDM based MK model is capable of predicting anisotropic damage growth in a concrete specimen under monotonic or cyclic loading conditions.
2. When solving the non-linear elastic damage problem the incremental stressstrain matrix constitutive
equation of the modied MurakamiKamiya MMK model is necessary to use to ensure the convergence.
Loss of the positive deniteness of the tangent stiness matrix is used as the failure criterion. To this end,
the set of sub-determinants of the Hessian matrix of the free energy function is checked at every integration point, at each step of loading. This criterion is more general than the criterion proposed in [19].
3. By the use of local approach to fracture LAF and FEM the crack growth in a concrete specimen may
successfully be simulated until the ultimate fracture mechanism is achieved. Crack is modelled as the assembly of failed elements in the FE mesh the stiness of which and stress are reduced to zero.
4. Crack opening/closure eect is included in the model by introducing a modied strain tensor to the constitutive law. The modication of the diagonal components of the elastic stiness matrix by the activepassive unilateral damage satises the continuity requirement during unloading, when e 0 or r 0.

H. Kuna-Ciska, J.J. Skrzypek / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 681698

697

5. A concrete specimen with the pre-load crack fails in a dierent way under tension or compression. When
loaded by the axial tension, a kinked-type crack is formed in the direction perpendicular to the tension
axis. In contrast, when loaded by the axial compression, a slip on the primary crack faces results in a
wing-type crack which starts from the primary crack tips and grows in the direction of axial compression.
6. To properly model the sliding-type crack it is necessary to dene the contact on the sliding surfaces. To
this end, the appropriate value of the sliding friction coecient should be implemented. In the example
presented in this paper the frictionless sliding on the pre-load crack surfaces was assumed for simplicity.
7. The similarity between the fracture mechanisms in tension and compression on the micro-scale and the
corresponding fracture mechanisms on the macro-scale is shown. However, the mechanisms simulated
on the macro-scale are obtained for a single pre-load crack without the interaction eect between the
cracks considered. The procedure described in this paper may also be capable of predicting the nal fracture pattern in the case of larger number of pre-load cracks.
8. Simulation of the crack propagation in the plane stress under tension or compression by the use of local
approach to fracture is capable of predicting crack pattern in a qualitative sense. The solution is, in general, the mesh-dependent. In order to reduce mesh-dependence an additional regularisation treatment is
necessary. It may be done by the introduction of the non-local denition of the thermodynamic-force
conjugate Y and an additional cut-o procedure, in a similar fashion as it was done in [32].

Acknowledgements
The Grant 7T07A 03819 from the State Committee for Scientic Research KBN Poland is gratefully
acknowledged.

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